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GeorgeOrwell:LookingbackontheSpanishWar

GeorgeOrwell
LookingbackontheSpanishWar
1
Firstofallthephysicalmemories,thesounds,thesmellsandthesurfacesofthings.
It is curious that more vividly than anything that came afterwards in the Spanish war I remember the
week of socalled training that we received before being sent to the front the huge cavalry barracks in
Barcelonawithitsdraughtystablesandcobbledyards,theicycoldofthepumpwhereonewashed,thefilthy
mealsmadetolerablebypannikinsofwine,theTrouseredmilitiawomenchoppingfirewood,andtherollcall
intheearlymorningswheremyprosaicEnglishnamemadeasortofcomicinterludeamongtheresounding
Spanish ones, Manuel Gonzalez, Pedro Aguilar, Ramon Fenellosa, Roque Ballaster, Jaime Domenech,
Sebastian Viltron, Ramon Nuvo Bosch. I name those particular men because I remember the faces of all of
them. Except for two who were mere riffraff and have doubtless become good Falangists by this time, it is
probablethatallofthemaredead.TwoofthemIknowtobedead.Theeldestwouldhavebeenabouttwenty
five,theyoungestsixteen.
Oneoftheessentialexperiencesofwarisneverbeingabletoescapefromdisgustingsmellsofhuman
origin.Latrinesareanoverworkedsubjectinwarliterature,andIwouldnotmentionthemifitwerenotthat
thelatrineinourbarracksdiditsnecessarybittowardspuncturingmyownillusionsabouttheSpanishcivil
war.TheLatintypeoflatrine,atwhichyouhavetosquat,isbadenoughatitsbest,buttheseweremadeof
somekindofpolishedstonesoslipperythatitwasallyoucoulddotokeeponyourfeet.Inadditiontheywere
alwaysblocked.NowIhaveplentyofotherdisgustingthingsinmymemory,butIbelieveitwastheselatrines
that first brought home to me the thought, so often to recur: Here we are, soldiers of a revolutionary army,
defendingDemocracyagainstFascism,fightingawarwhichisaboutsomething,andthedetailofourlivesis
just as sordid and degrading as it could be in prison, let alone in a bourgeois army. Many other things
reinforced this impression later for instance, the boredom and animal hunger of trench life, the squalid
intriguesoverscrapsoffood,themean,naggingquarrelswhichpeopleexhaustedbylackofsleepindulgein.
Theessentialhorrorofarmylife(whoeverhasbeenasoldierwillknowwhatImeanbytheessential
horror of army life) is barely affected by the nature of the war you happen to be fighting in. Discipline, for
instance, is ultimately the same in all armies. Orders have to be obeyed and enforced by punishment if
necessary,therelationshipofofficerandmanhastobetherelationshipofsuperiorandinferior.Thepictureof
warsetforthinbookslikeAllQuietontheWesternFrontissubstantiallytrue.Bulletshurt,corpsesstink,men
underfireareoftensofrightenedthattheywettheirtrousers.Itistruethatthesocialbackgroundfromwhich
anarmyspringswillcolouritstraining,tacticsandgeneralefficiency,andalsothattheconsciousnessofbeing
in the right can bolster up morale, though this affects the civilian population more than the troops. (People
forgetthatasoldieranywherenearthefrontlineisusuallytoohungry,orfrightened,orcold,or,aboveall,too
tiredtobotheraboutthepoliticaloriginsofthewar.)Butthelawsofnaturearenotsuspendedforaredarmy
any more than for a white one. A louse is a louse and a bomb is a bomb, even though the cause you are
fightingforhappenstobejust.
Whyisitworthwhiletopointoutanythingsoobvious?BecausethebulkoftheBritishandAmerican
intelligentsia were manifestly unaware of it then, and are now. Our memories are short nowadays, but look
back a bit, dig out the files of New Masses or the Daily Worker, and just have a look at the romantic
warmongering muck that our leftwingers were spilling at that time. All the stale old phrases! And the
unimaginativecallousnessofit!ThesangfroidwithwhichLondonfacedthebombingofMadrid!HereIam
notbotheringaboutthecounterpropagandistsoftheRight,theLunns,Garvinsethocgenustheygowithout
saying. But here were the very people who for twenty years had hooted and jeered at the glory of war, at
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atrocitystories,atpatriotism,evenatphysicalcourage,comingoutwithstuffthatwiththealterationofafew
nameswouldhavefittedintotheDailyMailof1918.IftherewasonethingthattheBritishintelligentsiawere
committed to, it was the debunking version of war, the theory that war is all corpses and latrines and never
leads to any good result. Well, the same people who in 1933 sniggered pityingly if you said that in certain
circumstances you would fight for your country, in 1937 were denouncing you as a TrotskyFascist if you
suggestedthatthestoriesinNewMassesaboutfreshlywoundedmenclamouringtogetbackintothefighting
mightbeexaggerated.AndtheLeftintelligentsiamadetheirswingoverfromWarishelltoWarisglorious
notonlywithnosenseofincongruitybutalmostwithoutanyinterveningstage.Laterthebulkofthemwereto
makeothertransitionsequallyviolent.Theremustbeaquitelargenumberofpeople,asortofcentralcoreof
theintelligentsia,whoapprovedtheKingandCountrydeclarationin1935,shoutedforafirmlineagainst
Germanyin1937,supportedthePeople'sConventionin1940,andaredemandingaSecondFrontnow.
As far as the mass of the people go, the extraordinary swings of opinion which occur nowadays, the
emotions which can be turned on and off like a tap, are the result of newspaper and radio hypnosis. In the
intelligentsiaIshouldsaytheyresultratherfrommoneyandmerephysicalsafety.Atagivenmomenttheymay
beprowarorantiwar,butineithercasetheyhavenorealisticpictureofwarintheirminds.Whenthey
enthused over the Spanish war they knew, of course, that people were being killed and that to be killed is
unpleasant, but they did feel that for a soldier in the Spanish Republican army the experience of war was
somehownotdegrading.Somehowthelatrinesstankless,disciplinewaslessirksome.Youhaveonlytoglance
attheNewStatesmantoseethattheybelievedthatexactlysimilarblahisbeingwrittenabouttheRedArmyat
thismoment.Wehavebecometoocivilizedtograsptheobvious.Forthetruthisverysimple.Tosurviveyou
oftenhavetofight,andtofightyouhavetodirtyyourself.Warisevil,anditisoftenthelesserevil.Thosewho
taketheswordperishbythesword,andthosewhodon'ttaketheswordperishbysmellydiseases.Thefactthat
suchaplatitudeisworthwritingdownshowswhattheyearsofrentiercapitalismhavedonetous.

2
InconnexionwithwhatIhavejustsaid,afootnote,onatrocities.
I have little direct evidence about the atrocities in the Spanish civil war. I know that some were
committedbytheRepublicans,andfarmore(theyarestillcontinuing)bytheFascists.Butwhatimpressedme
then,andhasimpressedmeeversince,isthatatrocitiesarebelievedinordisbelievedinsolelyongroundsof
politicalpredilection.Everyonebelievesintheatrocitiesoftheenemyanddisbelievesinthoseofhisownside,
without ever bothering to examine the evidence. Recently I drew up a table of atrocities during the period
between1918andthepresenttherewasneverayearwhenatrocitieswerenotoccurringsomewhereorother,
and there was hardly a single case when the Left and the Right believed in the same stories simultaneously.
And stranger yet, at any moment the situation can suddenly reverse itself and yesterday's provedtothehilt
atrocitystorycanbecomearidiculouslie,merelybecausethepoliticallandscapehaschanged.
Inthepresentwarweareinthecurioussituationthatouratrocitycampaignwasdonelargelybefore
thewarstarted,anddonemostlybytheLeft,thepeoplewhonormallypridethemselvesontheirincredulity.In
thesameperiodtheRight,theatrocitymongersof191418,weregazingatNaziGermanyandflatlyrefusing
toseeanyevilinit.ThenassoonaswarbrokeoutitwastheproNazisofyesterdaywhowererepeatinghorror
stories,whiletheantiNazissuddenlyfoundthemselvesdoubtingwhethertheGestaporeallyexisted.Norwas
this solely the result of the RussoGerman Pact. It was partly because before the war the Left had wrongly
believed that Britain and Germany would never fight and were therefore able to be antiGerman and anti
British simultaneously partly also because official warpropaganda, with its disgusting hypocrisy and self
righteousness,alwaystendstomakethinkingpeoplesympathizewiththeenemy.Partofthepricewepaidfor
thesystematiclyingof191417wastheexaggeratedproGermanreactionwhichfollowed.Duringtheyears
191833 you were hooted at in leftwing circles if you suggested that Germany bore even a fraction of
responsibilityforthewar.InallthedenunciationsofVersaillesIlistenedtoduringthoseyearsIdon'tthinkI
everonceheardthequestion,WhatwouldhavehappenedifGermanyhadwon?evenmentioned,letalone
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discussed.Soalsowithatrocities.Thetruth,itisfelt,becomesuntruthwhenyourenemyuttersit.RecentlyI
noticedthattheverypeoplewhoswallowedanyandeveryhorrorstoryabouttheJapaneseinNankingin1937
refusedtobelieveexactlythesamestoriesaboutHongKongin1942.Therewasevenatendencytofeelthat
the Nanking atrocities had become, as it were, retrospectively untrue because the British Government now
drewattentiontothem.
But unfortunately the truth about atrocities is far worse than that they are lied about and made into
propaganda.Thetruthisthattheyhappen.Thefactoftenadducedasareasonforscepticismthatthesame
horror stories come up in war after war merely makes it rather more likely that these stories are true.
Evidentlytheyarewidespreadfantasies,andwarprovidesanopportunityofputtingthemintopractice.Also,
althoughithasceasedtobefashionabletosayso,thereislittlequestionthatwhatonemayroughlycallthe
whites commit far more and worse atrocities than the reds. There is not the slightest doubt, for instance,
aboutthebehaviouroftheJapaneseinChina.NoristheremuchdoubtaboutthelongtaleofFascistoutrages
duringthelasttenyearsinEurope.Thevolumeoftestimonyisenormous,andarespectableproportionofit
comesfromtheGermanpressandradio.Thesethingsreallyhappened,thatisthethingtokeepone'seyeon.
TheyhappenedeventhoughLordHalifaxsaidtheyhappened.TherapingandbutcheringinChinesecities,the
torturesinthecellarsoftheGestapo,theelderlyJewishprofessorsflungintocesspools,themachinegunning
of refugees along the Spanish roads they all happened, and they did not happen any the less because the
DailyTelegraphhassuddenlyfoundoutaboutthemwhenitisfiveyearstoolate.

3
Twomemories,thefirstnotprovinganythinginparticular,thesecond,Ithink,givingoneacertaininsightinto
theatmosphereofarevolutionaryperiod:
Early one morning another man and I had gone out to snipe at the Fascists in the trenches outside
Huesca.Theirlineandoursherelaythreehundredyardsapart,atwhichrangeouragedrifleswouldnotshoot
accurately,butbysneakingouttoaspotaboutahundredyardsfromtheFascisttrenchyoumight,ifyouwere
lucky,getashotatsomeonethroughagapintheparapet.Unfortunatelythegroundbetweenwasaflatbeet
fieldwithnocoverexceptafewditches,anditwasnecessarytogooutwhileitwasstilldarkandreturnsoon
afterdawn,beforethelightbecametoogood.ThistimenoFascistsappeared,andwestayedtoolongandwere
caught by the dawn. We were in a ditch, but behind us were two hundred yards of flat ground with hardly
enough cover for a rabbit. We were still trying to nerve ourselves to make a dash for it when there was an
uproar and a blowing of whistles in the Fascist trench. Some of our aeroplanes were coming over. At this
moment,amanpresumablycarryingamessagetoanofficer,jumpedoutofthetrenchandranalongthetopof
the parapet in full view. He was halfdressed and was holding up his trousers with both hands as he ran. I
refrainedfromshootingathim.ItistruethatIamapoorshotandunlikelytohitarunningmanatahundred
yards,andalsothatIwasthinkingchieflyaboutgettingbacktoourtrenchwhiletheFascistshadtheirattention
fixedontheaeroplanes.Still,Ididnotshootpartlybecauseofthatdetailaboutthetrousers.Ihadcomehereto
shootatFascistsbutamanwhoisholdinguphistrousersisn'taFascist,heisvisiblyafellowcreature,
similartoyourself,andyoudon'tfeellikeshootingathim.
Whatdoesthisincidentdemonstrate?Nothingverymuch,becauseitisthekindofthingthathappensall
thetimeinallwars.Theotherisdifferent.Idon'tsupposethatintellingitIcanmakeitmovingtoyouwho
readit,butIaskyoutobelievethatitismovingtome,asanincidentcharacteristicofthemoralatmosphereof
aparticularmomentintime.
One of the recruits who joined us while I was at the barracks was a wildlooking boy from the back
streetsofBarcelona.Hewasraggedandbarefooted.Hewasalsoextremelydark(Arabblood,Idaresay),and
made gestures you do not usually see a European make one in particular the arm outstretched, the palm
verticalwasagesturecharacteristicofIndians.Onedayabundleofcigars,whichyoucouldstillbuydirt
cheap at that time, was stolen out of my bunk. Rather foolishly I reported this to the officer, and one of the
scallywags I have already mentioned promptly came forward and said quite untruly that twentyfive pesetas
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hadbeenstolenfromhisbunk.Forsomereasontheofficerinstantlydecidedthatthebrownfacedboymustbe
thethief.Theywereveryhardonstealinginthemilitia,andintheorypeoplecouldbeshotforit.Thewretched
boyallowedhimselftobeledofftotheguardroomtobesearched.Whatmoststruckmewasthathebarely
attemptedtoprotesthisinnocence.Inthefatalismofhisattitudeyoucouldseethedesperatepovertyinwhich
hehadbeenbred.Theofficerorderedhimtotakehisclothesoff.Withahumilitywhichwashorribletomehe
strippedhimselfnaked,andhisclothesweresearched.Ofcourseneitherthecigarsnorthemoneywerethere
in fact he had not stolen them. What was most painful of all was that he seemed no less ashamed after his
innocencehadbeenestablished.ThatnightItookhimtothepicturesandgavehimbrandyandchocolate.But
thattoowashorribleImeantheattempttowipeoutaninjurywithmoney.ForafewminutesIhadhalf
believedhimtobeathief,andthatcouldnotbewipedout.
Well,afewweekslateratthefrontIhadtroublewithoneofthemeninmysection.BythistimeIwasa
cabo, or corporal, in command of twelve men. It was static warfare, horribly cold, and the chief job was
gettingsentriestostayawakeattheirposts.Onedayamansuddenlyrefusedtogotoacertainpost,whichhe
saidquitetrulywasexposedtoenemyfire.Hewasafeeblecreature,andIseizedholdofhimandbeganto
draghimtowardshispost.Thisrousedthefeelingsoftheothersagainstme,forSpaniards,Ithink,resentbeing
touchedmorethanwedo.InstantlyIwassurroundedbyaringofshoutingmen:Fascist!Fascist!Letthatman
go!Thisisn'tabourgeoisarmy.Fascist!etc.,etc.AsbestIcouldinmybadSpanishIshoutedbackthatorders
had got to be obeyed, and the row developed into one of those enormous arguments by means of which
disciplineisgraduallyhammeredoutinrevolutionaryarmies.SomesaidIwasright,otherssaidIwaswrong.
Butthepointisthattheonewhotookmysidethemostwarmlyofallwasthebrownfacedboy.Assoonashe
sawwhatwashappeninghesprangintotheringandbeganpassionatelydefendingme.Withhisstrange,wild,
Indian gesture he kept exclaiming, He's the best corporal we've got! (No hay cabo como el.) Later on he
appliedforleavetoexchangeintomysection.
Why is this incident touching to me? Because in any normal circumstances it would have been
impossibleforgoodfeelingsevertobereestablishedbetweenthisboyandmyself.Theimpliedaccusationof
theftwouldnothavebeenmadeanybetter,probablysomewhatworse,bymyeffortstomakeamends.Oneof
the effects of safe and civilized life is an immense oversensitiveness which makes all the primary emotions
seem somewhat disgusting. Generosity is as painful as meanness, gratitude as hateful as ingratitude. But in
Spainin1936wewerenotlivinginanormaltime.Itwasatimewhengenerousfeelingsandgestureswere
easierthantheyordinarilyare.Icouldrelateadozensimilarincidents,notreallycommunicablebutboundup
in my own mind with the special atmosphere of the time, the shabby clothes and the gaycoloured
revolutionaryposters,theuniversaluseofthewordcomrade,theantiFascistballadsprintedonflimsypaper
and sold for a penny, the phrases like international proletarian solidarty, pathetically repeated by ignorant
menwhobelievedthemtomeansomething.Couldyoufeelfriendlytowardssomebody,andstickupforhimin
aquarrel,afteryouhadbeenignominiouslysearchedinhispresenceforpropertyyouweresupposedtohave
stolenfromhim?No,youcouldn'tbutyoumightifyouhadbothbeenthroughsomeemotionallywidening
experience.Thatisoneofthebyproductsofrevolution,thoughinthiscaseitwasonlythebeginningsofa
revolution,andobviouslyforedoomedtofailure.

4
ThestruggleforpowerbetweentheSpanishRepublicanpartiesisanunhappy,faroffthingwhichIhaveno
wishtoreviveatthisdate.Ionlymentionitinordertosay:believenothing,ornexttonothing,ofwhatyou
readaboutinternalaffairsontheGovernmentside.Itisall,fromwhateversource,partypropagandathatis
to say, lies. The broad truth about the war is simple enough. The Spanish bourgeoisie saw their chance of
crushingthelabourmovement,andtookit,aidedbytheNazisandbytheforcesofreactionallovertheworld.
Itisdoubtfulwhethermorethanthatwilleverbeestablished.
IremembersayingoncetoArthurKoestler,Historystoppedin1936,atwhichhenoddedinimmediate
understanding.Wewereboththinkingoftotalitarianismingeneral,butmoreparticularlyoftheSpanishcivil
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war.EarlyinlifeIhavenoticedthatnoeventisevercorrectlyreportedinanewspaper,butinSpain,forthe
firsttime,Isawnewspaperreportswhichdidnotbearanyrelationtothefacts,noteventherelationshipwhich
is implied in an ordinary lie. I saw great battles reported where there had been no fighting, and complete
silencewherehundredsofmenhadbeenkilled.Isawtroopswhohadfoughtbravelydenouncedascowards
andtraitors,andotherswhohadneverseenashotfiredhailedastheheroesofimaginaryvictoriesandIsaw
newspapers in London retailing these lies and eager intellectuals building emotional superstructures over
eventsthathadneverhappened.Isaw,infact,historybeingwrittennotintermsofwhathappenedbutofwhat
ought to have happened according to various party lines. Yet in a way, horrible as all this was, it was
unimportant.Itconcernedsecondaryissuesnamely,thestruggleforpowerbetweentheCominternandthe
Spanishleftwingparties,andtheeffortsoftheRussianGovernmenttopreventrevolutioninSpain.Butthe
broadpictureofthewarwhichtheSpanishGovernmentpresentedtotheworldwasnotuntruthful.Themain
issueswerewhatitsaidtheywere.ButasfortheFascistsandtheirbackers,howcouldtheycomeevenasnear
to the truth as that? How could they possibly mention their real aims? Their version of the war was pure
fantasy,andinthecircumstancesitcouldnothavebeenotherwise.
The only propaganda line open to the Nazis and Fascists was to represent themselves as Christian
patriotssavingSpainfromaRussiandictatorship.ThisinvolvedpretendingthatlifeinGovernmentSpainwas
justonelongmassacre(videtheCatholicHeraldortheDailyMail but these were child's play compared
withtheContinentalFascistpress),anditinvolvedimmenselyexaggeratingthescaleofRussianintervention.
OutofthehugepyramidoflieswhichtheCatholicandreactionarypressallovertheworldbuiltup,letmetake
just one point the presence in Spain of a Russian army. Devout Franco partisans all believed in this
estimatesofitsstrengthwentashighashalfamillion.Now,therewasnoRussianarmyinSpain.Theremay
havebeenahandfulofairmenandothertechnicians,afewhundredatthemost,butanarmytherewasnot.
Some thousands of foreigners who fought in Spain, not to mention millions of Spaniards, were witnesses of
this.Well,theirtestimonymadenoimpressionatallupontheFrancopropagandists,notoneofwhomhadset
footinGovernmentSpain.SimultaneouslythesepeoplerefusedutterlytoadmitthefactofGermanorItalian
interventionatthesametimeastheGermanyandItalianpresswereopenlyboastingabouttheexploitsoftheir
legionaries.Ihavechosentomentiononlyonepoint,butinfactthewholeofFascistpropagandaaboutthe
warwasonthislevel.
Thiskindofthingisfrighteningtome,becauseitoftengivesmethefeelingthattheveryconceptof
objectivetruthisfadingoutoftheworld.Afterall,thechancesarethatthoselies,oratanyratesimilarlies,
will pass into history. How will the history of the Spanish war be written? If Franco remains in power his
nomineeswillwritethehistorybooks,and(tosticktomychosenpoint)thatRussianarmywhichneverexisted
willbecomehistoricalfact,andschoolchildrenwilllearnaboutitgenerationshence.ButsupposeFascismis
finallydefeatedandsomekindofdemocraticgovernmentrestoredinSpaininthefairlynearfutureeventhen,
howisthehistoryofthewartobewritten?WhatkindofrecordswillFrancohaveleftbehindhim?Suppose
eventhattherecordskeptontheGovernmentsidearerecoverableevenso,howisatruehistoryofthewar
tobewritten?For,asIhavepointedoutalready,theGovernment,alsodealtextensivelyinlies.Fromtheanti
Fascistangleonecouldwriteabroadlytruthfulhistoryofthewar,butitwouldbeapartisanhistory,unreliable
on every minor point. Yet, after all, some kind of history will be written, and after those who actually
remember the war are dead, it will be universally accepted. So for all practical purposes the lie will have
becometruth.
Iknowitisthefashiontosaythatmostofrecordedhistoryisliesanyway.Iamwillingtobelievethat
historyisforthemostpartinaccurateandbiased,butwhatispeculiartoourownageistheabandonmentofthe
ideathathistorycouldbetruthfullywritten.Inthepastpeopledeliberatelylied,ortheyunconsciouslycoloured
what they wrote, or they struggled after the truth, well knowing that they must make many mistakes but in
each case they believed that facts existed and were more or less discoverable. And in practice there was
alwaysaconsiderablebodyoffactwhichwouldhavebeenagreedtobyalmosteveryone.Ifyoulookupthe
historyofthelastwarin,forinstance,theEncyclopaediaBritannica,youwillfindthatarespectableamountof
thematerialisdrawnfromGermansources.ABritishandaGermanhistorianwoulddisagreedeeplyonmany
things,evenonfundamentals,buttherewouldstillbethatbodyof,asitwere,neutralfactonwhichneither
wouldseriouslychallengetheother.Itisjustthiscommonbasisofagreement,withitsimplicationthathuman
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beingsareallonespeciesofanimal,thattotalitarianismdestroys.Nazitheoryindeedspecificallydeniesthat
such a thing as the truth exists. There is, for instance, no such thing as Science. There is only German
Science,JewishScience,etc.Theimpliedobjectiveofthislineofthoughtisanightmareworldinwhichthe
Leader,orsomerulingclique,controlsnotonlythefuturebutthepast.IftheLeadersaysofsuchandsuchan
event,Itneverhappenedwell,itneverhappened.Ifhesaysthattwoandtwoarefivewell,twoandtwo
arefive.Thisprospectfrightensmemuchmorethanbombsandafterourexperiencesofthelastfewyears
thatisnotafrivolousstatement.
Butisitperhapschildishormorbidtoterrifyoneselfwithvisionsofatotalitarianfuture?Beforewriting
offthetotalitarianworldasanightmarethatcan'tcometrue,justrememberthatin1925theworldoftoday
wouldhaveseemedanightmarethatcouldn'tcometrue.Againstthatshiftingphantasmagoricworldinwhich
blackmaybewhitetomorrowandyesterday'sweathercanbechangedbydecree,thereareinrealityonlytwo
safeguards.Oneisthathowevermuchyoudenythetruth,thetruthgoesonexisting,asitwere,behindyour
back,andyouconsequentlycan'tviolateitinwaysthatimpairmilitaryefficiency.Theotheristhatsolongas
somepartsoftheearthremainunconquered,theliberaltraditioncanbekeptalive.LetFascism,orpossibly
evenacombinationofseveralFascisms,conquerthewholeworld,andthosetwoconditionsnolongerexist.
We in England underrate the danger of this kind of thing, because our traditions and our past security have
givenusasentimentalbeliefthatitallcomesrightintheendandthethingyoumostfearneverreallyhappens.
Nourished for hundreds of years on a literature in which Right invariably triumphs in the last chapter, we
believe halfinstinctively that evil always defeats itself in the long run. Pacifism, for instance, is founded
largelyonthisbelief.Don'tresistevil,anditwillsomehowdestroyitself.Butwhyshouldit?Whatevidenceis
therethatitdoes?Andwhatinstanceisthereofamodernindustrializedstatecollapsingunlessconqueredfrom
theoutsidebymilitaryforce?
Consider for instance the reinstitution of slavery. Who could have imagined twenty years ago that
slaverywouldreturntoEurope?Well,slaveryhasbeenrestoredunderournoses.Theforcedlabourcampsall
overEuropeandNorthAfricawherePoles,Russians,Jewsandpoliticalprisonersofeveryracetoilatroad
makingorswampdrainingfortheirbarerations,aresimplechattleslavery.Themostonecansayisthatthe
buyingandsellingofslavesbyindividualsisnotyetpermitted.Inotherwaysthebreakingupoffamilies,
forinstancetheconditionsareprobablyworsethantheywereontheAmericancottonplantations.Thereis
noreasonforthinkingthatthisstateofaffairswillchangewhileanytotalitariandominationendures.Wedon't
graspitsfullimplications,becauseinourmysticalwaywefeelthataregimefoundedonslaverymustcollapse.
But it is worth comparing the duration of the slave empires of antiquity with that of any modern state.
Civilizationsfoundedonslaveryhavelastedforsuchperiodsasfourthousandyears.
When I think of antiquity, the detail that frightens me is that those hundreds of millions of slaves on
whosebackscivilizationrestedgenerationaftergenerationhaveleftbehindthemnorecordwhatever.Wedo
notevenknowtheirnames.InthewholeofGreekandRomanhistory,howmanyslavesnamesareknownto
you?Icanthinkoftwo,orpossiblythree.OneisSpartacusandtheotherisEpictetus.Also,intheRomanroom
attheBritishMuseumthereisaglassjarwiththemaker'snameinscribedonthebottom,Felixfecit.Ihavea
mentalpictureofpoorFelix(aGaulwithredhairandametalcollarroundhisneck),butinfacthemaynot
havebeenaslavesothereareonlytwoslaveswhosenamesIdefinitelyknow,andprobablyfewpeoplecan
remembermore.Theresthavegonedownintouttersilence.

5
ThebackboneoftheresistanceagainstFrancowastheSpanishworkingclass,especiallytheurbantradeunion
members.Inthelongrunitisimportanttorememberthatitisonlyinthelongruntheworkingclass
remainsthemostreliableenemyofFascism,simplybecausetheworkingclassstandstogainmostbyadecent
reconstructionofsociety.Unlikeotherclassesorcategories,itcan'tbepermanentlybribed.
To say this is not to idealize the working class. In the long struggle that has followed the Russian
Revolutionitisthemanualworkerswhohavebeendefeated,anditisimpossiblenottofeelthatitwastheir
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ownfault.Timeaftertime,incountryaftercountry,theorganizedworkingclassmovementshavebeencrushed
by open, illegal violence, and their comrades abroad, linked to themin theoretical solidarity, have simply
lookedonanddonenothingandunderneaththis,secretcauseofmanybetrayals,haslainthefactthatbetween
whiteandcolouredworkersthereisnotevenlipservicetosolidarity.Whocanbelieveintheclassconscious
internationalproletariataftertheeventsofthepasttenyears?TotheBritishworkingclassthemassacreoftheir
comradesinVienna,Berlin,Madrid,orwhereveritmightbeseemedlessinterestingandlessimportantthan
yesterday'sfootballmatch.Yetthisdoesnotalterthefactthattheworkingclasswillgoonstrugglingagainst
Fascism after the others have caved in. One feature of the Nazi conquest of France was the astonishing
defectionsamongtheintelligentsia,includingsomeoftheleftwingpoliticalintelligentsia.Theintelligentsia
are the people who squeal loudest against Fascism, and yet a respectable proportion of them collapse into
defeatism when the pinch comes. They are farsighted enough to see the odds against them, and moreoever
they can be bribed for it is evident that the Nazis think it worth while to bribe intellectuals. With the
workingclassitistheotherwayabout.Tooignoranttoseethroughthetrickthatisbeingplayedonthem,they
easilyswallowthepromisesofFascism,yetsoonerorlatertheyalwaystakeupthestruggleagain.Theymust
doso,becauseintheirownbodiestheyalwaysdiscoverthatthepromisesofFascismcannotbefulfilled.To
winovertheworkingclasspermanently,theFascistswouldhavetoraisethegeneralstandardofliving,which
theyareunableandprobablyunwillingtodo.Thestruggleoftheworkingclassislikethegrowthofaplant.
Theplantisblindandstupid,butitknowsenoughtokeeppushingupwardstowardsthelight,anditwilldo
this in the face of endless discouragements. What are the workers struggling for? Simply for the decent life
which they are more and more aware is now technically possible. Their consciousness of this aim ebbs and
flows. In Spain, for a while, people were acting consciously, moving towards a goal which they wanted to
reach and believed they could reach. It accounted for the curiously buoyant feeling that life in Government
Spainhadduringtheearlymonthsofthewar.ThecommonpeopleknewintheirbonesthattheRepublicwas
theirfriendandFrancowastheirenemy.Theyknewthattheywereintheright,becausetheywerefightingfor
somethingwhichtheworldowedthemandwasabletogivethem.
OnehastorememberthistoseetheSpanishwarinitstrueperspective.Whenonethinksofthecruelty,
squalor, and futility of War and in this particular case of the intrigues, the persecutions, the lies and the
misunderstandingsthereisalwaysthetemptationtosay:Onesideisasbadastheother.Iamneutral.In
practice, however, one cannot be neutral, and there is hardly such a thing as a war in which it makes no
difference who wins. Nearly always one stands more or less for progress, the other side more or less for
reaction.ThehatredwhichtheSpanishRepublicexcitedinmillionaires,dukes,cardinals,playboys,Blimps,
andwhatnotwouldinitselfbeenoughtoshowonehowthelandlay.Inessenceitwasaclasswar.Ifithad
been won, the cause of the common people everywhere would have been strengthened. It was lost, and the
dividenddrawers all over the world rubbed their hands. That was the real issue all else was froth on its
surface.

6
TheoutcomeoftheSpanishwarwassettledinLondon,Paris,Rome,BerlinatanyratenotinSpain.After
thesummerof1937thosewitheyesintheirheadsrealizedthattheGovernmentcouldnotwinthewarunless
thereweresomeprofoundchangeintheinternationalsetup,andindecidingtofightonNegrinandtheothers
mayhavebeenpartlyinfluencedbytheexpectationthattheworldwarwhichactuallybrokeoutin1939was
comingin1938.ThemuchpublicizeddisunityontheGovernmentsidewasnotamaincauseofdefeat.The
Government militias were hurriedly raised, illarmed and unimaginative in their military outlook, but they
wouldhavebeenthesameifcompletepoliticalagreementhadexistedfromthestart.Attheoutbreakofwar
the average Spanish factoryworker did not even know how to fire a rifle (there had never been universal
conscription in Spain), and the traditional pacifism of the Left was a great handicap. The thousands of
foreignerswhoservedinSpainmadegoodinfantry,buttherewereveryfewexpertsofanykindamongthem.
TheTrotskyistthesisthatthewarcouldhavebeenwoniftherevolutionhadnotbeensabotagedwasprobably
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false.Tonationalizefactories,demolishchurches,andissuerevolutionarymanifestoeswouldnothavemade
the armies more efficient. The Fascists won because they were the stronger they had modern arms and the
othershadn't.Nopoliticalstrategycouldoffsetthat.
ThemostbafflingthingintheSpanishwarwasthebehaviourofthegreatpowers.Thewarwasactually
wonforFrancobytheGermansandItalians,whosemotiveswereobviousenough.ThemotivesofFranceand
Britainarelesseasytounderstand.In1936itwascleartoeveryonethatifBritainwouldonlyhelptheSpanish
Government,eventotheextentofafewmillionpoundsworthofarms,FrancowouldcollapseandGerman
strategy would be severely dislocated. By that time one did not need to be a clairvoyant to foresee that war
betweenBritainandGermanywascomingonecouldevenforetellwithinayearortwowhenitwouldcome.
Yetinthemostmean,cowardly,hypocriticalwaytheBritishrulingclassdidalltheycouldtohandSpainover
to Franco and the Nazis. Why? Because they were proFascist, was the obvious answer. Undoubtedly they
were,andyetwhenitcametothefinalshowdowntheychosetoStanduptoGermany.Itisstillveryuncertain
whatplantheyactedoninbackingFranco,andtheymayhavehadnoclearplanatall.WhethertheBritish
ruling class are wicked or merely stupid is one of the most difficult questions of our time, and at certain
moments a very important question. As to the Russians, their motives in the Spanish war are completely
inscrutable.Didthey,asthepinksbelieved,interveneinSpaininordertodefendDemocracyandthwartthe
Nazis?ThenwhydidtheyinterveneonsuchaniggardlyscaleandfinallyleaveSpaininthelurch?Ordidthey,
astheCatholicsmaintained,interveneinordertofosterrevolutioninSpain?Thenwhydidtheydoallintheir
powertocrushtheSpanishrevolutionarymovements,defendprivatepropertyandhandpowertothemiddle
class as against the working class? Or did they, as the Trotskyists suggested, intervene simply in order to
prevent a Spanish revolution? Then why not have backed Franco? Indeed, their actions are most easily
explainedifoneassumesthattheywereactingonseveralcontradictorymotives.Ibelievethatinthefuturewe
shallcometofeelthatStalin'sforeignpolicy,insteadofbeingsodiabolicallycleverasitisclaimedtobe,has
beenmerelyopportunisticandstupid.Butatanyrate,theSpanishcivilwardemonstratedthattheNazisknew
whattheyweredoingandtheiropponentsdidnot.Thewarwasfoughtatalowtechnicallevelanditsmajor
strategywasverysimple.Thatsidewhichhadarmswouldwin.TheNazisandtheItaliansgavearmstothe
SpanishFascistfriends,andthewesterndemocraciesandtheRussiansdidn'tgivearmstothosewhoshould
havebeentheirfriends.SotheSpanishRepublicperished,havinggainedwhatnorepublicmissed.
Whetheritwasright,asallleftwingersinothercountriesundoubtedlydid,toencouragetheSpaniards
togoonfightingwhentheycouldnotwinisaquestionhardtoanswer.Imyselfthinkitwasright,becauseI
believe that it is better even from the point of view of survival to fight and be conquered than to surrender
withoutfighting.TheeffectsonthegrandstrategyofthestruggleagainstFascismcannotbeassessedyet.The
ragged,weaponlessarmiesoftheRepublicheldoutfortwoandahalfyears,whichwasundoubtedlylonger
thantheirenemiesexpected.ButwhetherthatdislocatedtheFascisttimetable,orwhether,ontheotherhand,it
merely postponed the major war and gave the Nazis extra time to get their war machine into trim, is still
uncertain.

7
IneverthinkoftheSpanishwarwithouttwomemoriescomingintomymind.Oneisofthehospitalwardat
Leridaandtherathersadvoicesofthewoundedmilitiamensingingsomesongwitharefrainthatended
Unaresolucion,
Lucharhast'alfin!
Well, they fought to the end all right. For the last eighteen months of the war the Republican armies
musthavebeenfightingalmostwithoutcigarettes,andwithpreciouslittlefood.EvenwhenIleftSpaininthe
middleof1937,meatandbreadwerescarce,tobaccoararity,coffeeandsugaralmostunobtainable.
TheothermemoryisoftheItalianmilitiamanwhoshookmyhandintheguardroom,thedayIjoinedthe
militia.IwroteaboutthismanatthebeginningofmybookontheSpanishwar(1),anddonotwanttorepeat
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whatIsaidthere.WhenIrememberoh,howvividly!hisshabbyuniformandfierce,pathetic,innocent
face,thecomplexsideissuesofthewarseemtofadeawayandIseeclearlythattherewasatanyratenodoubt
astowhowasintheright.Inspiteofpowerpoliticsandjournalisticlying,thecentralissueofthewarwasthe
attemptofpeoplelikethistowinthedecentlifewhichtheyknewtobetheirbirthright.Itisdifficulttothinkof
thisparticularman'sprobableendwithoutseveralkindsofbitterness.SinceImethimintheLeninBarrackshe
wasprobablyaTrotskyistoranAnarchist,andinthepeculiarconditionsofourtime,whenpeopleofthatsort
arenotkilledbytheGestapotheyareusuallykilledbytheG.P.U.Butthatdoesnotaffectthelongtermissues.
Thisman'sface,whichIsawonlyforaminuteortwo,remainswithmeasasortofvisualreminderofwhatthe
warwasreallyabout.HesymbolizesformethefloweroftheEuropeanworkingclass,harriedbythepoliceof
allcountries,thepeoplewhofillthemassgravesoftheSpanishbattlefieldsandarenow,tothetuneofseveral
millions,rottinginforcedlabourcamps.
WhenonethinksofallthepeoplewhosupportorhavesupportedFascism,onestandsamazedattheir
diversity. What a crew! Think of a programme which at any rate for a while could bring Hitler, Petain,
Montagu Norman, Pavelitch, William Randolph Hearst, Streicher, Buchman, Ezra Pound, Juan March,
Cocteau, Thyssen, Father Coughlin, the Mufti of Jerusalem, Arnold Lunn, Antonescu, Spengler, Beverley
Nichols,LadyHouston,andMarinettiallintothesameboat!Buttheclueisreallyverysimple.Theyareall
peoplewithsomethingtolose,orpeoplewholongforahierarchicalsocietyanddreadtheprospectofaworld
of free and equal human beings. Behind all the ballyhoo that is talked about godless Russia and the
materialismoftheworkingclassliesthesimpleintentionofthosewithmoneyorprivilegestoclingtothem.
Ditto,thoughitcontainsapartialtruth,withallthetalkabouttheworthlessnessofsocialreconstructionnot
accompaniedbyachangeofheart.Thepiousones,fromthePopetotheyogisofCalifornia,aregreatonthe
changeofheart,muchmorereassuringfromtheirpointofviewthanachangeintheeconomicsystem.Petain
attributesthefallofFrancetothecommonpeople'sloveofpleasure.Oneseesthisinitsrightperspectiveif
one stops to wonder how much pleasure the ordinary French peasant's or workingman's life would contain
comparedwithPetain'sown.Thedamnedimpertinenceofthesepoliticians,priests,literarymen,andwhatnot
wholecturetheworkingclasssocialistforhismaterialism!Allthattheworkingmandemandsiswhatthese
otherswouldconsidertheindispensableminimumwithoutwhichhumanlifecannotbelivedatall.Enoughto
eat, freedom from the haunting terror of unemployment, the knowledge that your children will get a fair
chance, a bath once a day, clean linen reasonably often, a roof that doesn't leak, and short enough working
hourstoleaveyouwithalittleenergywhenthedayisdone.Notoneofthosewhopreachagainstmaterialism
wouldconsiderlifelivablewithoutthesethings.Andhoweasilythatminimumcouldbeattainedifwechoseto
setourmindstoitforonlytwentyyears!ToraisethestandardoflivingofthewholeworldtothatofBritain
wouldnotbeagreaterundertakingthanthewarwehavejustfought.Idon'tclaim,andIdon'tknowwhodoes,
that that wouldn't solve anything in itself. It is merely that privation and brute labour have to be abolished
beforetherealproblemsofhumanitycanbetackled.Themajorproblemofourtimeisthedecayofthebelief
inpersonalimmortality,anditcannotbedealtwithwhiletheaveragehumanbeingiseitherdrudginglikeanox
orshiveringinfearofthesecretpolice.Howrighttheworkingclassesareintheirmaterialism!Howright
they are to realize that the belly comes before the soul, not in the scale of values but in point of time!
Understandthat,andthelonghorrorthatweareenduringbecomesatleastintelligible.Alltheconsiderations
arelikelytomakeonefalterthesirenvoicesofaPetainorofaGandhi,theinescapablefactthatinorderto
fightonehastodegradeoneself,theequivocalmoralpositionofBritain,withitsdemocraticphrasesandits
coolieempire,thesinisterdevelopmentofSovietRussia,thesqualidfarceofleftwingpoliticsallthisfades
awayandoneseesonlythestruggleofthegraduallyawakeningcommonpeopleagainstthelordsofproperty
and their hired liars and bumsuckers. The question is very simple. Shall people like that Italian soldier be
allowed to live the decent, fully human life which is now technically achievable, or shan't they? Shall the
commonmanbepushedbackintothemud,orshallhenot?Imyselfbelieve,perhapsoninsufficientgrounds,
thatthecommonmanwillwinhisfightsoonerorlater,butIwantittobesoonerandnotlatersometime
withinthenexthundredyears,say,andnotsometimewithinthenexttenthousandyears.Thatwasthereal
issueoftheSpanishwar,andofthelastwar,andperhapsofotherwarsyettocome.
IneversawtheItalianmilitiamanagain,nordidIeverlearnhisname.Itcanbetakenasquitecertain
thatheisdead.Nearlytwoyearslater,whenthewarwasvisiblylost,Iwrotetheseversesinhismemory:
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TheItaliansoldiershookmyhand
Besidetheguardroomtable
Thestronghandandthesubtlehand
Whosepalmsareonlyable
Tomeetwithinthesoundofguns,
Butoh!whatpeaceIknewthen
Ingazingonhisbatteredface
Purerthananywoman's!
Fortheflyblownwordsthatmakemespew
Stillinhisearswereholy,
AndhewasbornknowingwhatIhadlearned
Outofbooksandslowly.
Thetreacherousgunshadtoldtheirtale
Andwebothhadboughtit,
Butmygoldbrickwasmadeofgold
Oh!whoeverwouldhavethoughtit?
Goodluckgowithyou,Italiansoldier!
Butluckisnotforthebrave
Whatwouldtheworldgivebacktoyou?
Alwayslessthanyougave.
Betweentheshadowandtheghost,
Betweenthewhiteandthered,
Betweenthebulletandthelie,
Wherewouldyouhideyourhead?
ForwhereisManuelGonzalez,
AndwhereisPedroAguilar,
AndwhereisRamonFenellosa?
Theearthwormsknowwheretheyare.
Yournameandyourdeedswereforgotten
Beforeyourbonesweredry,
Andtheliethatslewyouisburied
Underadeeperlie
ButthethingthatIsawinyourface
Nopowercandisinherit:
Nobombthateverburst
Shattersthecrystalspirit.
1943
_____
1)HomagetoCatalonia[back]

THEEND

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____BD____
GeorgeOrwell:LookingbackontheSpanishWar
Firstpublished:NewRoad.GB,London.1943.
Reprinted:
EnglandYourEnglandandOtherEssays.1953.
Such,SuchWeretheJoys.1953.
CollectedEssays.1961.
TheCollectedEssays,JournalismandLettersofGeorgeOrwell.1968.

(Textsource:OrwellProjectbyO.Dag.19992004www.orwell.ru)

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