BRAHMI SCRIPT IN RELATION TO MESOPOTAMIAN

CUNEIFORM
By

Malini Dias

and Das

Miriyagalla

Introduction
Sri Lankan and Indian written languages are accepted to have
evolved from Brahmi Script ofwhichAsokan Brahmi is considered

to be the earliest form. The purpose of this paper is to show the

process of linkage of the earliest form of writing in the world
which was Cuneiform (originated in Mesopotamia) to Brahmi thus
linking Sri Lanka to Mesopotamia through written language. Even
though the civilization of indus Valley (cunently North West Indian
sub-continent ) developed an independent script in the third
millennium BC, this paper shows that there is no evidence of any
linkage of Brahmi script to the Indus Valley script, despite its
relative geographical proximity. The chronological pattern of
evolution of the Mesopotamian script from WestAsia to the South
Asian region is presented in this paper.
Beginning of Writing
Over the last six millennia, the process of writing has been
an important feature of human civilization. Even though man
invented writing in several regions at different times independent
of each other, it is now established that the first steps in formal
writing began around 3500 BC in the valleys of Tigris and
Euphrates in the region of Mesopotamia referred to as Syria, Iraq
and neighboring countries today.

Initially, signs were made on clay formed into damp tablets.

Physical activity of writing was by scratching signs on damp clay
with a pointed stick or reed. The raw materials were readilv availabre

92

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

in the river valleys and cost little in preparation. It was possible to

shape the clay into flat tablets for writing while it was moist. once
it was dried it could be hard enough to stand wear and tear. The
script took the form of pictures called pictographs which gradually
evolved into stylized representations called cuneiform by marking
a few signs for each letter instead of artistic impressions drawn

Malini Dias and Das Miriyagalla

New Series Lbl.

UII

93

occupied the Mesopotamian region. Writing then spread to other

cultural groups such as Persians, Greeks and Trirks resulting in
the spread of writing to other nearby regions. In the entire Middle
East, Cuneiform with its modifications became the standard form
ofrvriting for the succeeding 2500 years.

Illustration

earlier.

Illustration

Map of Mesopotamia

Development of Akkadian Language

Cuneiform Signs

As a form of writing Cuneiform further developed after the

The writers were generally not good artists and the

instruments were not pointed but flat or blunt. The end of the
wooden or reed sfylus, which struck the clay first, made a wider
mark than the shaft and so came into being the typical wedge shaped

impression after which this writing system became known

Cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning wedgel

as

The Cuneiform technique was developed by Sumerians

around 3500 BC and thereafter by a series of several other
descendant groups such as Assyrians and Babylonians, who

early Sumerian period around 2300 BC, progressing into the beginning
of the dynasty ofAkkad through its basic language Akkadian having
a strong influence on politics and language. Hence Cuneiform script
was usedto writeAkkadian language as well as the Eblaite, the language
used in the ancient city of Ebla in Syria.2 After Sumerian, Akkadian
was the other important language that played a great part in religion
and literature of this region.3 It may be noted thatAkkadian language

is one of the Semitic languages followed by other subsequent

languages such as Aramaic

, Arabic and Hebrew.

94

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

Different dialects in the region used differing forms of

Cuneiform script although they can all be considered as variations
of one script. The emergence of differences in the shapes of
characters related more or less to different ways of supplementing
the phonetic symbols , the representation of vowels and different
ways of delimiting words.
Development of Alphabet
The early writers found that a large number of signs had to
be drawn to convey names of objects, ideas, events and also to
transfer information. However most of the earliest writings were
based on economic matters and were concerned with income and

outgoings of the city temples in terms of food , textiles and

livestock.a The total number of distinctive Cuneiform signs in use
during the third millennium BC onwards was about 600. The
significant increase in the number of Cuneiform signs gave rise to
the need for standardization ofthe signs in some form of an alphabet.
Hence, after a process ofgradual changes that took place over 1 500
years, thq writers realized that all signs used for writing could be
limited to a few signs, thus achieving a major breakthrough in
developing an alphabet.
The history of the alphabet is complex involving expansion
in different geographical directions as affected by social events. It
is now considered that the alphabet found at Ugarit (Ras Shamra)

Illustration

lllulini Dias and Das Miriyagalla

New Series Vol.

UII

95

in Syria (not too far from Euphrates) is the earliest form o&lphabet.
In 1929, French excavations at Ugarit in the Mediterranean coast
ofSyria produced this unexpected variety ofCuneiform dated to
14th century BC. This had only 30 signs and avertical word divider
and was plainly alphabetic.(Illustration 3) This is considered the
first definite case of the use of alphabet as found on tablets from
the Ugarit library bearing Cuneiform characters. The language
used was a form of Westem Semitic closely linked to Aramaics.
Thus the characters which were to develop into the present alphabets
made their appearance in Syria known as Phoenicia in 14th century
BC. In the neighboring regions two other languages viz. Canaanite
andAramaic appeared around 1300- 1000 BC. Ofthe two, Aramaic
a rvestern Semitic language had almost the same shaped characters
as Ugaritic Cuneiform. The adoption of Semitic alphabet by the

Greeks , possibly around 1000 BC had very significant

consequences including modifications with some of the vowels
with suitable signs.6
Following the process of changes during the history of the
alphabet in different parts of the world, one can see that writing
has penetrated in varying degrees for diverse uses along trade routes
and through routes used for spread ofreligion. The changes in the
forms of letters depended on the materials employed and also on
the relationship bet'ween calligraphy and other arts ofthe particular
region. The variations also depended on the extent to which a
given alphabet was suited to the spelling of a particular language.

Sprcad ofAramaic and Greek as Link Languages

Ugaritic Alphabet

Outside the Semitic area Aramaic alphabet derived from

Cuneiform, developed among people speaking a number of other
languages such as Persian and Turkish. Indeed, after its origin in
Mesopotamia, no less than 15 different language groups have used
the Cuneiform technique, during a period spanning three millennia.
In this respect the domination of Hellenistic ( Greek) Empire in the
4th century BC gave rise to the use of Greek and Aramaic as the
two most commonly used forms of writing in the region.

96

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

The spread of alphabet script of Aramaic not only covered

Greece, but spread to the East and thereafter covered the region up

to India around 800-600 BC. By this time Aramaic writing had

established itself as the medium for trade , commerce and
diplomacy. Furthetmore, the Aramaic alphabet became the basis
for several scripts such as Arabic, Hebrew and Persian. It was
convenient for these language groups to follow a system of
writing, which had already developed up to the stage of an
alphabet. They adopted the method of using the Aramaic alphabet,
and created their own signs.

Illustration 4

Malini Dias and Das l,Iiriyagalla

New Series tr'ol.

UII

97

with widespread trade and commercial contacts. Out of 10000

tablets found at Ebla, the majority are for administration, textile

industry, trade in metals and agriculture. (Illustration 4) Hittites

who ruled much of the present day Turkey from 17-13 c. BC in
their capital city of Hattusas had 10,000 tablets on politics, history,
international treaties, law codes and religious rituals. The city of
Palmyra situated at a very fertile oasis in the middle of the Syrian
desert later became prosperous due to the caravan trade on the

Silk

Route linking Roman empire with the Far East including China.
Today in Palmyra which is one of the largest and picturesque ruined
cities in the whole region, the modern day traveler can see many
inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic Cuneiform. With the expansion
of Persian Empire in the region, Cuneiform writing became a
standard form used by the Persians and this script is norv called
Old Persian.
The empire was expanded by Cyrus the Great who enlarged
itin546 BC to make it one of the largest empires yet seen by the

world extending from Indus Valley in the east to Aegean sea in

the West, covering the entire Mesopotamian region. The
geographical centre of the former Persian empire is present Iran.

Cyrus the Great called his vast kingdom the 'Archaemenid

empire', named after his ancestor Archaemenis. After the death
of Cyrus the Great, Archaemenid empire was led by Emperor
Darius I (52I-486 BC) who used Cuneiform in order to give
him a distinctive script comparable to those used by kings of
Babylon and Assyria for the purpose of inscribing his royal
monuments with details of his achievements. In fact, the writings
on the door ways of Emperor Darius in the city of Persepolis which
rvere both in Old Persian Cuneiform and Greek, helped in

Trade Routes in the Mesopotamian Region

deciphering Cuneiform.

Writing Originating in Other Parts of the World

lmportant Trade Exchange and Transit Zone

In the 1* & 2'd millennia BC, the region between

East

Mediterranean sea and river Euphrates became the most important

trade exchange and transit zone of the ancient world. Discoveries
made in Syria in 1964 have revealed a major urban civilization

It may be noted that there were early forms of writing which

developed independently in other regions of the world such as
Egypt, China, Indus Valley and Mexico. In discussing the subject

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

Illustration

Malini Dias and Das Miriyagalla

New Series rbl.

LIII

99

and Harappa. The identity of the exact builders of the monuments

is still to be discovered. However, it is significant that Indus Valley

writing completely declined along with the Indus Valley

civilization after 20008C. The fact that it did not get linked
with any other form of writing is further confirmed by the
inability of the historians and archaeologists to decipher the
writing up to the present day, even though a number of scholars
have made attempts in this regard. There is evidence to support
the belief that Harappan people were in contact with
Mesopotamia. It is possible that the idea of writing was bcrrowed
by Harappans but not the form of script.

Doorway

of

Similarly the Egyptian writing referred to as Hieroglyphics

and the writing of Maya people of Mexico did not progress beyond
their territories and declined without making any significant
influence on the neighboring regions.

Emperor Darius at Persepolis

of ancient writing, it is necessary to evaluate the contributions made

by people belonging to other early civilizations in regions such as
Nile Valley in Egypt, Hwang Ho andYangzi Valleys in China, the
Indus valley in the North Western part of Indian sub-continent and

the Maya people of Mexico. The chronological order in which

they commenced their writing in relation to the cuneiform writing
in Mesopotamia was as follows:-

Cuneiform
Hieroglyphics
Indus valley script
Chinese script
Maya script

Mesopotamia

Egypt
N W India
China
Mexico

3500
3100
2500
2500
2000

BC
BC
BC
BC
BC

However, no significant contribution by groups other than

Cuneiform to the spread of writing has been observed, the only
exception being Chinese which spread in the Far East. The other
three early forms of writing had their geographical boundaries
limited to Egypt, N.W. India, and Mexico region.
The Indus Valley civilization which evolved systematically
had impressive archaeological monuments such as Mohenjo-daro

Spread of Writing to India

The relationship of Indian rulers with the Mesopotamian

kings had gradually developed long before the reign of Emperor
Asoka. In this respect Sinha and Banerjee refer to such links which
Emperor Asoka's father King Bindusara had as follows:-

"

Bindusara maintained friendly relations on a footing of

equality with the Hellenistic powers. The King of Syria dispatched

to his court an ambassador named Deimachos. Ptolemy

Philadelphos of Egypt also sent an ambassador named Dionysius
who presented his credentials either to Bindusara or to Asoka. A
Greek officer of the Seleukidan Empire sailed in the Indian seas to

collect geographical information. Political relations probably

brought about cultural contact. Bindusara is said to have requested
King Antiochos I of Syria to send him a sophist"T
As regards the spread ofAramaic alphabet into the Indian
sub continent, the most important evidence is available through
the inscriptions of Emperor Asoka which have been studied in

great detail by a number of historians and archaeologists for

several decades. His inscriptions rvhich are refered to as Rock

100

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

Ilalini

Dias and Das Miriyagalla

Nm Series

Vol.

UII

l0l

Edicts and Pillar Edicts consist of a large number of writings in the

Brahmi script. But there are two inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and

monumental Cuneiform in which the Great King recorded

Mansehra in North West India written in Kharoshti, which is a

script having a Semitic origin.

Behistun.s

Illustration

Rock Edict at Mansehra

Kharoshti used by EmperorAsoka

Regarding the two Kharoshti inscriptionsAlfied C Woolner
states as follows:-

" As recorded above the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra

inscriptions, and a note by the scribe Pada on the Mysore
inscriptions are in Kharoshti. The cursive script written from
right to left is certainly Semitic in origin, being derived
from the Aramaic script which was used by the clerks of
Darius the Great for ordinary work as distinct from the

the achievements of his reign, high up on the rock at

All the other inscriptions of Asoka are in Old Brahmi, the

parent of the Indian scripts, including Sinhala. Tamil and
M1'anmar script. The Brahmi script like all its descendants is
written from left to right, like Greek and Latin. Buhler states
that Kharoshti derived itself from a Semitic source and believes
that it was introduced from Mesopotamia by traders somewhere
around 800 BC. The modifications assumed to have been made
in adopting the script to Indian purposes are considerable. The
connection of Brahmi with the Semitic scripts like Aramaic is
not as obvious as the connection of Kharoshti and Aramaic.
However, there is not enough evidence to demonstrate an Indian
source of Brahmi. Buhler who has done a very comprehensive
and a detailed study of the origin of Brahmi states categorically
that there is a direct derivation of the Brahmi from the oldest
Semitic Phoenician characters and describes in detail the
methods used by Indian writers in converting Semitic signs to
Indian Brahmi. In concluding his chapter under the title " The
Antiquity of Writing in India and the Origin of the Oldest Indian
Alphabet" in his publication Indian Paleography, Buhler states
as follows;"As, according to the results of the preceding inquiry the
elaboration of the Brahmi was completed about B C 500, or perhaps
even earlier, the terminus a quo, about B C 800, may be considered
as the actual date of the introduction of the Semitic alphabet into
India. This estimate is, however, merely a provisional one, which
may be modified by the discovery of new epigraphic documents in
India or in the Semitic countries.."e
Establishment of Brahmi in India
The spread of written script to India after a period of over
2000 years, had to meet the needs of people at that time. Hence
despite the spread of written language to India, there was an unusual

102

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

delay in its establishment when compared to the Mesopotamian

region. Tl-ris was due to the fact that even after writing had been

Malini Dias and Das Miriyagcllla

Netr Series

Illustration

lbl.

Uii

introduced into India, oral tradition of communication was

highly rated as against written word. But, by a gradual process,
writing established itself in India, presently referred to as
Brahmi. The fact that the earliest forms of Brahmi consists of
consonants and basic vowels just like in the Ugaritic Cuneiform
and Aramaic alphabets, shows that Brahmi was not developing
over long periods but had been strongly influenced by an already
developed alphabet like Ugartic Cuneiform. There is general
consensus that the alphabet was not invented during Asoka's
time, but must have been developing for some centuries before
his time.

The Kharoshti script ceased to be used even in the North

after the second and third century AD. A cursive script of this kind
so very different from the dominant Brahmi was probably forgotten
in a single generation. The Brahmi continued in use and gradually
developed into the forms found in the Gupta inscriptions and thence,
into the more modern scripts. Hence the Brahmi inscriptions may
have remained legible at any rate to the intelligent reader down to
Gupta times. Though that may be, all knowledge of both scripts
had been completely lost long before the inscriptions aroused the
curiosity of James Prinsep and others in the first half of the
nineteenth century.
The key to both scripts was found in bilingual coins from
Bactria giving the names of Kings in Greek and Indian letters. The
coins furnished the enquirers with a knowledge necessarily
imperfect of the two scripts , they called "Bactrian " and "Pali "
which are now known as Kharoshti and Brahmi. It was then found
that the conspicuous Pillars of Delhi and Allahabad were inscribed
in "Pali" i.e. Brahmi characters. In 1837 and 1838 it was realized
that the Girnar and Dhauli edicts were in the same character and
largely the same in contents."ro
Ganegama Sarnankara Thero in his analysis on Asoka 's
Inscriptions, states that Kharosti used in Shabaz ghari and Mahnsera

#H::;":*

is a script modined
used by King Darius
for administrative purposes in Persia. This can be clearly accepted
by the fact that Persia and North West India had a very close
relationship in 6tr'century BC during the period of King Cyrus the
Great when the western region of Indus river was under the rule of
Archimanians. It is also seen that the word Kharhosti was derived
from the Hebrew word for writing called "Kharosheth" which is a

Semitic word.rr Before the discovery of the two inscriptions

of

Asoka written in Kharoshti, coins with bilingual writing in Greek

and Kharhosti had been read. The style used by Emperor Asoka in
starting an inscription with the words" Devanam Piya Piyadasi
Laja evamAha ......" ( meaning EmperorAsoka says as follows...)

104

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

is very similar to the style used in Archemanian inscriptions with

the words" Thatiy Darayavaush Ksha yathiya...." which means

"Emperor Darius says as follows...."

There are many other features of similarities between

Asoka inscriptions and Archaemenian inscriptions of King
Darius.. The influence of Greeks is seen in sculpture and
architecture as well. The names of five western kings are
mentioned in rock edict no. 13 of EmperorAsoka. The following
are the names as mentioned:-

New Series Vol.

Malini Dia.s and Das Mit'iYagalla

UII

105

S.Paranavitana in his Inscriptions of Ceylon states that the

earliest type of script found in the Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka,
is on the whole, the same as that of the edicts of Asoka, of the
records found in the railings andtoranas at Bharhut and Sanci, and
of some early Prakrit inscriptions discovered in india.

Illustration

Antiochos the II of Syria.- Grand son of Seleucos Nikotor.

Ptolemy Phioladelpus the second of Egypt
Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia
Magus of Syrania
Alexander of Epirusr2
The development of Kharoshti from Aramaic which was a
script within the Cuneiform family has thus been very clearly
established.

Progress of Brahmi in South Asian Region including

Sri Lanka
The Brahmi script in Sri Lanka can be traced back to the
time of Emperor Asoka who ruled India in the third century
BC. At least for seventeen years of his reign the implementation
of his policy of Dharmavijaya has been made through these
Dharma documents. These documents were issued by Emperor
Asoka twelve years after his coronation. The well established
script used for writing these Dharmalipi suggests that Asoka
used Brahmi, a type of writing, developed by a gradual process
in India for centuries. It is an admitted fact that the Brahmi script
had several centuries of development behind it in the time of
Asoka.
The script used to write the earliest epigraphs found under
the drip-ledges of caves in Sri Lanka is the same as that of the
Dharmalipi ofAsoka.

Sri Lankan Cave Inscription of

3'd

The Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka coming from the time

of introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third century BC
are found mostly on the brow of the caves located in most parts of
the island. Presumably it had been the religious enthusiasm of the
ancient people towards the new religion that made them inscribe
these dedications.la The donation of caves were made to the monks

to reside during the rainy Season

for

some centuries as witnessed

106

Br.ahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

by the inscriptions. These caves were granted by the kings, nobles,

ordinary men and women. The kings, names appeared with

Devanapiya similar to the title Devanampiya used by Emperor
Asoka in his inscriptions.

It is an accepted fact that the Brahmi script in Sri Lanka

evolved into the present day Sinhala script. The excavations

done at the citadel ofAnuradhapura in 1969 and 19g4 by the

Department of Archaeology have revealed that writing was
available as far back as 600-500BC in Sri Lanka. The discovery
offive potsherds belonging to separate vessels bearing parts of
inscriptions in Early Brahmi script from very deep levels of
these excavations has affirmed with radiocarbon dating and
thermo luminescence dating of the occurrence of writing a few
centuries antecedent to 300 BC. " The present evidence does
ll seem to indicate that Brahmi was current in Sri Lanka as

Illustration

Malini Dias and Das ll[iriyagalla

New Series l/ol.

UII

lA7

well as in the Pandyan sphere of influence at ca. 600-500 c..r5

The language in these inscriptions is traceable to the Prakrit
language used during the Buddha's time.

Brahmi which developed in the Indian sub-continent, is the

common root of all South Asian scripts including Devanagari,
Sinhala, Tamil and the Pyu script of Myanmar. An important factor
which emerges from a survey of all these scripts is that only the
modern Myanmar script continues to have the vestiges of the
Brahmi script.
e

onclusion

The chronological and geographical evolution of writing

formally commenced from Mesopotamia in West Asia in the
middle of the fourth millennium BC. For over three millennia,
the region between East Mediterranean sea and river Euphrates
became the most important trade exchange and transit zone of

the ancient world. As a result writing spread throughout the

vast region up to South Asia including India. In addition, the
region was also dominated at different times by many ethnic

and cultural groups including Akkadians, Aramaics,

Archaemenians (Persians) and Greeks who greatly influenced

the spread of writing up to India giving rise to the development
of Brahmi in India and the neighboring South Asian region
including Sri Lanka. The scripts Sinhalao Tamit and other
Indian written languages including the Myanmar script are
therefore originated from the Mesopotamian atphabet first
written using Cuneiform.
References

1.

Potsherds of Anuradhapura Showing Early Brahmi

Walker, C. B. F.

1987 ,

Readina the Past, Cuneiform, p.7.

2. Ibid. p. 16.
3. LNESCO, 1965, The Art of Writing, p.10.
4. Walker, C. B. F. 1987, p. 11.
5. LTNESCO, 1965,p.9.

108

6.
7.
8.
9.

Brahmi Script in relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform

rbid.
Sinha

& Banerjee,

1944, History of India,

p.78.

xviii.
Buhler, G. 1959, Indian Paleography, Indian Studies, p.39.
10. Woolner, 1924, p. xvlii.
Woolner, Alfred C. 1924, Asoka Text and Glossary, p.

11. Ganegama Saranankara Thero, 1963, Asoka's Inscriptions, p. 14.

t2.Ibid.p.77.
13. Paranavithana, S. lg63,Inscriptions of Ceylorz, p. xvii.
14. Dias Malini, 2001, Epigraphia Zeylanika, Vol. vii, pp.l-2.
15. Deraniyagala, S. U, The Prehistory of Sri Lanka, p.745.