Data storage device

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Electronic storage)

Many different consumer electronic devices can store data.

Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The phonograph cylinder is a storage medium. The phonograph may be
considered a storage device.

On a reel-to-reel tape recorder (Sony TC-630), the recorder is data storage equipment and the magnetic tape is
a data storage medium.

RNA might be the oldest data storage medium.[1]

A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done
using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic
vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic
tape and optical discs.
A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds
information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may
either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to
store and retrieve data.
Electronic data storage requires electrical power to store and retrieve that data. Most storage
devices that do not require vision and a brain to read data fall into this category. Electromagnetic
data may be stored in either an analog data or digital data format on a variety of media. This type of
data is considered to be electronically encoded data, whether it is electronically stored in
a semiconductor device, for it is certain that a semiconductor device was used to record it on its
medium. Most electronically processed data storage media (including some forms of computer data
storage) are considered permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored when
power is removed from the device. In contrast, most electronically stored information within most
types of semiconductor (computer chips) microcircuits are volatile memory, for it vanishes if power is
removed.
Except for barcodes, optical character recognition (OCR), and magnetic ink character
recognition (MICR) data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective
than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing
(rewriting) data on the same medium.[2]
Contents
[hide]

1Global capacity, digitization, and trends

2See also

3References

4Further reading

5External links

Electronic design automation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from ECAD)

"ECAD" redirects here. For the Brazilian music licensing organization, see Escritrio Central de
Arrecadao e Distribuio. For other uses, see ECAD (disambiguation).
Electronic design automation (EDA), also referred to as electronic computer-aided
design (ECAD),[1] is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as integrated
circuits and printed circuit boards. The tools work together in a design flow that chip designers use to
design and analyze entire semiconductor chips. Since a modern semiconductor chip can have
billions of components, EDA tools are essential for their design.
This article describes EDA specifically with respect to integrated circuits.
Contents
[hide]

1History
o

1.1Early days

1.2Birth of commercial EDA

2Current status

3Software focuses
o

3.1Design

3.2Simulation

3.3Analysis and verification

3.4Manufacturing preparation

4Companies
o

4.1Old companies

4.2Acquisitions

5Table of quarterly EDA industry worldwide revenue

6See also

7References

History[edit]
Early days[edit]

Before EDA, integrated circuits were designed by hand, and manually laid out. Some advanced
shops used geometric software to generate the tapes for the Gerber photoplotter, but even those
copied digital recordings of mechanically drawn components. The process was fundamentally
graphic, with the translation from electronics to graphics done manually. The best known company
from this era was Calma, whose GDSII format survives.
By the mid-1970s, developers started to automate the design along with the drafting. The first
placement and routing (Place and route) tools were developed. The proceedings of the Design
Automation Conference cover much of this era.
The next era began about the time of the publication of "Introduction to VLSI Systems" by Carver
Mead and Lynn Conway in 1980. This ground breaking text advocated chip design with
programming languages that compiled to silicon. The immediate result was a considerable increase
in the complexity of the chips that could be designed, with improved access to design
verification tools that used logic simulation. Often the chips were easier to lay out and more likely to
function correctly, since their designs could be simulated more thoroughly prior to construction.
Although the languages and tools have evolved, this general approach of specifying the desired
behavior in a textual programming language and letting the tools derive the detailed physical design
remains the basis of digital IC design today.
The earliest EDA tools were produced academically. One of the most famous was the "Berkeley
VLSI Tools Tarball", a set of UNIX utilities used to design early VLSI systems. Still widely used are
the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer and Magic.
Another crucial development was the formation of MOSIS, a consortium of universities and
fabricators that developed an inexpensive way to train student chip designers by producing real
integrated circuits. The basic concept was to use reliable, low-cost, relatively low-technology IC
processes, and pack a large number of projects per wafer, with just a few copies of each projects'
chips. Cooperating fabricators either donated the processed wafers, or sold them at cost, seeing the
program as helpful to their own long-term growth.

Birth of commercial EDA[edit]

1981 marks the beginning of EDA as an industry. For many years, the larger electronic companies,
such as Hewlett Packard, Tektronix, and Intel, had pursued EDA internally. In 1981, managers and
developers spun out of these companies to concentrate on EDA as a business. Daisy
Systems, Mentor Graphics, and Valid Logic Systems were all founded around this time, and
collectively referred to as DMV. Within a few years there were many companies specializing in EDA,
each with a slightly different emphasis. The first trade show for EDA was held at the Design
Automation Conference in 1984.
In 1981, the U.S. Department of Defense began funding of VHDL as a hardware description
language. In 1986, Verilog, another popular high-level design language, was first introduced as a
hardware description language by Gateway Design Automation. Simulators quickly followed these
introductions, permitting direct simulation of chip designs: executable specifications. In a few more
years, back-ends were developed to perform logic synthesis.

3D PCB layout

Current status[edit]
Current digital flows are extremely modular (see Integrated circuit design, Design closure,
and Design flow (EDA)). The front ends produce standardized design descriptions that compile into
invocations of "cells,", without regard to the cell technology. Cells implement logic or other electronic
functions using a particular integrated circuit technology. Fabricators generally provide libraries of
components for their production processes, with simulation models that fit standard simulation tools.
Analog EDA tools are far less modular, since many more functions are required, they interact more
strongly, and the components are (in general) less ideal.
EDA for electronics has rapidly increased in importance with the continuous scaling
of semiconductor technology.[2] Some users are foundry operators, who operate the semiconductor
fabrication facilities, or "fabs", and design-service companies who use EDA software to evaluate an
incoming design for manufacturing readiness. EDA tools are also used for programming design
functionality into FPGAs.

Software focuses[edit]
Design[edit]
Main article: Design flow (EDA)

High-level synthesis (or behavioural synthesis, algorithmic synthesis) high-level design

description (e.g. in C/C++) is converted into RTL.

Logic synthesis translation of RTL design description (e.g. written in Verilog or VHDL) into
a discrete netlist of logic gates.

Schematic capture For standard cell digital, analog, RF-like Capture CIS in Orcad by
Cadence and ISIS in Proteus

Layout usually schematic-driven layout, like Layout in Orcad by Cadence, ARES in Proteus

Simulation[edit]
Main article: Electronic circuit simulation

Transistor simulation low-level transistor-simulation of a schematic/layout's behavior,

accurate at device-level.

Logic simulation digital-simulation of an RTL or gate-netlist's digital (boolean 0/1) behavior,

accurate at boolean-level.

Behavioral Simulation high-level simulation of a design's architectural operation, accurate

at cycle-level or interface-level.

Hardware emulation Use of special purpose hardware to emulate the logic of a proposed
design. Can sometimes be plugged into a system in place of a yet-to-be-built chip; this is
called in-circuit emulation.

Technology CAD simulate and analyze the underlying process technology. Electrical
properties of devices are derived directly from device physics.

Electromagnetic field solvers, or just field solvers, solve Maxwell's equations directly for
cases of interest in IC and PCB design. They are known for being slower but more accurate than
the layout extraction above.[where?]

Schematic capture program

Analysis and verification[edit]

Functional verification

Clock Domain Crossing Verification (CDC check): Similar to linting, but these checks/tools
specialize in detecting and reporting potential issues like data loss, meta-stability due to use of
multiple clock domains in the design.

Formal verification, also model checking: Attempts to prove, by mathematical methods, that
the system has certain desired properties, and that certain undesired effects (such as deadlock)
cannot occur.

Equivalence checking: algorithmic comparison between a chip's RTL-description and

synthesized gate-netlist, to ensure functional equivalence at the logical level.

Static timing analysis: Analysis of the timing of a circuit in an input-independent manner,

hence finding a worst case over all possible inputs.

Physical verification, PV: checking if a design is physically manufacturable, and that the
resulting chips will not have any function-preventing physical defects, and will meet original
specifications.

Hybrid vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other types of hybrid transportation, see Hybrid vehicle (disambiguation).

"Hybrid technology" redirects here. For the company formerly known as Hybrid Technologies, see Liion Motors.
Part of a series about

Sustainable energy

Energy conservation

Cogeneration

Efficient energy use

Green building

Heat pump

Low-carbon power

Microgeneration

Passive solar building design

Renewable energy

Anaerobic digestion

Geothermal

Hydroelectricity

Solar

Tidal

Wind
Sustainable transport

Carbon-neutral fuel

Electric vehicle
Fossil fuel phase-out

Green vehicle

Plug-in hybrid

Sustainable development portal

Renewable energy portal

Environment portal

A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion
engine+electric motor,[1] e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines and electricity from

overhead lines, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged.
Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid, in hydraulic hybrids.
Contents
[hide]

1Power

2Vehicle type
o

2.1Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles

2.2Heavy vehicles

3Engine type
o

3.1Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

3.2Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)

3.3Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

3.4Fluid power hybrid

3.5Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

4Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

o

4.1Parallel hybrid

4.2Mild parallel hybrid

4.3Power-split or series-parallel hybrid

4.4Series hybrid

4.5Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)

4.6Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

5Environmental issues
o

5.1Fuel consumption and emissions reductions

5.2Hybrid vehicle emissions

5.3Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

5.4Charging

5.5Raw materials increasing costs

6How hybrid-electric vehicles work

7Alternative green vehicles

8Peugeot/Citron Hybrid Vehicle

9Marketing

10Adoption rate

11European Union 2020 Regulation Standards

12See also

13References

14External links

Power[edit]
Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:

Coal, wood or other solid combustibles

Compressed or liquefied natural gas

Petrol (gasoline) or Diesel fuel

Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing

Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

Electric batteries/capacitors

Overhead electricity

Hydraulic accumulator

Hydrogen

Flywheel

Solar

Wind

Vehicle type[edit]

A biodiesel hybrid bus in Montreal

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles[edit]

Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, powered by
an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles
in the late 19th century used the same principle.

In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor torques are mechanically coupled at the
pedal or one of the wheels, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection
to a wheel using a transmission element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.[2]

In a series hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user pedals a generator,
charging a battery or feeding the motor, which delivers all of the torque required. They are
commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing. [3]

The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In
1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative
braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a "Fahrrad mit
elektromagnetischem Antrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 Jrg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs
of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle
(European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several prototype
SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5] In 1999 Harald Kutzke described an "active bicycle": the aim is to
approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.

A series hybrid electric-petroleum bicycle (SHEPB) is powered by pedals, batteries, a

petrol generator, or plug-in charger - providing flexibility and range enhancements over electriconly bicycles.

A SHEPB prototype made by David Kitson in Australia[6] in 2014 used a lightweight brushless DC
electric motor from an aerial drone and small hand-tool sized internal combustion engine, and a 3D
printed drive system an