Kinetic Quantum Theory of Gravity

Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright 2002-2005 by Fran De Aquino
All Rights Reserved
Starting from the action function we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and
inertial masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that there
is a reaffirmation of the strong equivalence principle and consequently the Einstein's
equations are preserved. In fact such equations are deduced here directly from this kinetic
approach to Gravity. Moreover, we have obtained a generalized equation for inertial forces,
which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation. Also, we have deduced the equation
of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic field and the reciprocal fine
structure constant. It is possible to deduce the expression of the Casimir force and also to
explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter without assuming the existence of
vacuum fluctuations. This new approach for Gravity will allow us to understand some crucial
matters in Cosmology.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THEORY

Quantum Gravity was originally

studied, by Dirac and others, as the
problem of quantizing General Relativity.
This approach has many difficulties,
detailed by Isham [1]. In the 1970's
physicists tried an even more conventional
approach: simplify the Einstein's equations
by pretending that they are almost linear,
and then apply the standard methods of
quantum field theory to the thusoversimplified equations. But this method,
too, failed. In the 1980's a very different
approach, known as string theory, became
popular. For a while there are many
enthusiasts of string theory. But the
mathematical difficulties
in
string
theory are formidable, and it is far from
clear that they will be resolved any time
soon. At the end of 1997 Isham [2] pointed
out several "Structural Problems Facing
Quantum Gravity Theory".
At
the
beginning of this new century,
the
problem
of quantizing the gravitational
field was still open.
In this work we propose a new
approach to Quantum Gravity where
gravity is quantized starting from the
generalization of the action function for a
particle. The Einstein's equations of the
General Relativity are deduced directly
from this theory of Quantum Gravity. Also,
it leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field,
providing a
consistent unification of gravity with
electromagnetism.

We start with the action for a freeparticle that, as we know, is given by:
b

S = ds
a

where

is a quantity
which
characterize the particle.
In Relativistic Mechanics, the action
can be written in the following form [3]:
t2

t2

t1

t1

S = Ldt = c 1 V 2 c 2 dt
where

L = c 1 V 2 c 2
is the Lagrange's function.
In Classical Mechanics the Lagrange's
function for a free-particle is, as we know,
2
given by: L = aV where V is the speed
of the particle and
a a quantity
hypothetically [4] given by :

a=m 2
where m is the mass of the particle.
However, there is no distinction about the
kind of mass (if gravitational mass, m g , or
inertial mass mi ) neither about its sign () .
The correlation between a and
can be established based on the fact that
on the limit
c the relativistic
expression for L must be reduced to the
2
classic expression L = aV . The result [5]
is
:
L = V 2 2c .
Therefore,
if

= 2 ac = mc
Now, we must

we obtain L = aV .
decide if
m = mg or
2

m = mi . We will see in this work that the

definition of

mg includes mi . Thus the

(4)

= M gV .

1 V 2 c2

The sign (+ ) in the equation above will be

right option is mg , i.e.,

a = mg 2 .

= mg c

mgV

p =

sign ( ) if

used when m g > 0 and the

the

m g < 0 . Henceforth, by simplicity the

generalized expression for the action for a

free-particle will have the following form:

signs ( ) before 1 V 2 c2 will be omitted.

Consequently,

and

S = m g c ds
a

(1)

or

S = mg c 2 1 V 2 c 2 dt
t2

t1

where the Lagrange's function is

L = mg c 2 1 V 2 c 2 .
The

(2)

(3)

S = mg c 2 1 V 2 c 2 dt
t2

integral

then t < 0 . The possibility of t < 0 is

based on
the well-known equation

1V

of Einstein's Theory.
Thus if the gravitational mass of a
particle is positive then t is also positive

and therefore given by t = +t0 1V 2 c2 .

This leads to the well-known relativistic
prediction that the particle goes to the
future
if V c . However, if the
gravitational mass of the particle is
negative then t is negative and given by

t = t0

1 V 2 c2 .

In this case the

prediction is that the particle goes to the
past if V c . Consequently, m g < 0 is
the necessary condition for the particle to
go to the past. Further on it will be derived
a correlation between gravitational and
inertial masses, which contains the
possibility of m g < 0 .
The Lorentz's transforms follow the
same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 , i.e., the

1 V 2 c 2 will be (+ ) when
m g > 0 and ( ) if m g < 0 .

sign before

The momentum, as we know, is the

vector
obtain

p = L V .Thus from Eq.(3) we

dt is the inertial force

Fi which acts on the particle. If the force is

perpendicular to the speed we have

mg

(5)

dV
.
1 V c dt

Fi =

However, if the force and the speed have

the same direction, we find that

t1

preceded by the plus sign cannot have a

minimum. Thus, the integrand of Eq.(2)
must be always positive. Therefore, if
m g > 0 then necessarily t > 0 ; if m g < 0

t = t0

The derivate dp

Fi =

mg

(1 V

(6)

dV
.
dt

From

Mechanics [6] we know that

p V L denotes the energy of the
particle, thus we can write

Eg = p V L =

mg c 2
1 V 2 c2

(7)

= M gc2 .

This fundamental equation presents the

concept of Gravitational Energy, E g , in
addition to the well-known concept of
Inertial Energy, Ei , and shows that E g is
not null for V=0, but it has the finite value

(8)

Eg0 = mg c2

This is the particle's gravitational energy

at rest.
The Eq.(7) can be rewritten in the
following form:

E g = mg c 2

mg c 2
1V

mg c 2 =

mg
mi c
2
2

=
mi c +
mi c
=
1V 2 c2

mi

E Ki

mg
m
(Ei 0 + E Ki ) = g Ei
(9)
=
mi
mi


By analogy to the Eq.(8), E i 0 = m i c 2 into

the equation above, is the inertial
energy at rest. Thus, Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the

total inertial energy, where E Ki is the

kinetic inertial energy. From the Eqs.(7)
and (9) we thus obtain

mi c 2

Ei =

(10)

= M ic .
2

1 V 2 c2

For small velocities (V << c ), we obtain

(11)

Ei mi c 2 + 12 miV 2

where we recognize the classical

expression for the kinetic inertial energy of
the particle.
The expression for the kinetic
gravitational energy, E Kg ,
is easily
deduced by comparing of the Eqs.(7) and
(9). The result is

mg

EKg =

mi

(12)

EKi .

In the presented picture, we can say

that the gravity , g , into a gravitational field
produced by a particle of gravitational
mass m g depends on the particle's

Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0

(16)

However, Ei = Ei0 + EKi .Thus (16) becomes

Eg = Ei 0 EKi .

(17 )

Note the symmetry in the equations of

Ei and E g .Substitution of Ei 0 = Ei EKi
into (17) yields

Ei E g = 2 E Ki

(18)

Squaring the Eqs.(4) and (7) and

comparing the result, we find the following
correlation between gravitational energy
and momentum :

E g2
c

= p 2 + mg c 2 .
2

(19)

The energy expressed as a function of the

momentum is, as we know, called
Hamiltonian or Hamilton's function:

H g = c p 2 + mg c 2 .
2

(20 )

gravitational energy, E g ( given by Eq.(7)),

because we can write

g = G
where

Eg
r 2c2

= G

M g c2

= G

Mg

r 2c2
r2
1
M g = m g (1 V 2 c 2 ) 2

It is known that starting from the

Schrdinger equation we may obtain the
well-known expression for energy of a
particle in periodic motion inside a cubical
box of edge length L [ 7 ]. The result
now is

(13)
is

En =

n2h2
8m g L2

n = 1,2,3,...

(21)

the

Note that the term h 2 8m g L2 (energy) will

relativistic gravitational mass defined in

the Eqs.(4)and (7).
On the other hand, as we know, the
gravitational force is conservative. Thus,
gravitational energy, in agreement with the
energy conservation law, can be
expressed by the decrease of the inertial
energy, i.e.,

be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax is

the maximum edge length of a cubical box
whose maximum diameter

E g = Ei

(14)

This equation expresses the fact that the

decrease
of
gravitational
energy
corresponds to an increase of the inertial
energy.
Therefore a variation E i in E i

d max = Lmax 3

is equal to the maximum "diameter" of the

Universe.
The minimum energy of a particle is
obviously its inertial energy at rest
m g c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we can write

n2h2
= mg c 2
8m g L2max
Then from the equation above follows that

yields a variation Eg = Ei in E g . Thus

Ei = Ei0 + Ei ; Eg = Eg0 + Eg = Eg0 Ei

E g + E i = E g 0 + Ei 0

mg =

and

(15)

Comparison between (7)and(10) shows

that Eg 0 = Ei0 . Consequently we have

(22 )

nh
cLmax 8

(23)

whence we see that there is a minimum

value for m g given by

m g (min ) =
The

relativistic

h
cLmax 8

gravitational

(24)
mass

M g = m g (1 V

1
2 2

, defined in the

Eqs.(4) and (7), shows that

(25)

M g (min ) = m g (min )

The box normalization leads to

conclusion that the propagation number

k = k = 2 is restricted to the values

(33)

M g = n m g (min )
2

This equation shows that the gravitational

mass is quantized.
Substitution of (33) into (13) leads to
quantization of gravity, i.e.,

k = 2 n L . This is deduced assuming

an arbitrarily large but finite cubical box of
volume L3 [8]. Thus we have

L = n

GM

g=

and

Lmax
min

whence

Vmax
Vmin

(26)

Lmax = nmax Lmin

From this equation we thus conclude that

(27 )

L = nLmin

Equations

d max d min

Lmax
n

(28)

Multiplying (27) and (28) by

d max
n

d=

(29)

Equations above show that the length

(and therefore the space) is quantized.
By analogy to (23) we can also
conclude that

M g (max ) =

nmax h
cLmin 8

(30)

since the relativistic gravitational mass,

M g = m g (1 V 2 c

1
2 2

is just

multiple of m g .
Equation

(26) tells us that

Lmin = Lmax n max . Thus Eq.(30) can be
written as follows

M g (max ) =

2
nmax
h

cLmax 8

(31)

Comparison of (31) with (24) shows that

2
M g (max ) = n max
m g (min )

(32 )

which leads to following conclusion that

d max
d min

gives

V min =

V max
n max

(35 )

which leads to following conclusion

V =

3 and

reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain

(29)
tell
us
that
= nmax . Thus the equation above

or

or

(34 )

~
~
Vmax = Hl max = H (d max 2)
~
~
Vmin = Hlmin = H (d min 2)

Since nmin = 1. Therefore we can write that

d = nd min

From the Hubble's law follows that

Lmin = n min min = min

L=

Gm g (min )
= n2
2
(r
max n )

= n 4 g min

From this equation we conclude that

nmax =

V max
n

(36 )

this equation shows that velocity is also

quantized.
From this equation one concludes
that we can have V = Vmax or V = V max 2 ,
but nothing in between. This shows clearly
that Vmax cannot be equal to c (speed of
light in vacuum). Thus follows that

n =1

V = Vmax

n=2

V = Vmax 2

n=3

V = Vmax 3

Tachyons

........
..................
n = n x 1 V = Vmax (n x 1)

n = nx
V = Vmax n x = c
n = nx + 1
n = nx + 2

V = Vmax (n x + 1)

V = Vmax (n x + 2 )

Tardions

............... ...........................
where n x is a very big number .
Then c is the upper limit of speed
of the Tardions and also the lower limit of

speed of the Tachyons. Obviously that

limit is always the same in all inertial
frames. Therefore c can be used like a
reference speed, which we may compare
any speed V , as occurs in the relativistic
factor 1 V 2 c2 . Thus in this factor c not
refers to maximum propagation speed of
the interactions such as suggest some
authors; c is just a speed limit which is
the same in any inertial frame.
The temporal coordinate x 0 of the
space-time is now x 0 = Vmax t ( x 0 = ct is
then

obtained

when

Vmax c ).

( ~ ) into this
~
= (1 nH )(x l ) .

Substitution of Vmax = nV = n Hl
equation yields t = x Vmax
0

~
On the other hand, since V = H l and
V = Vmax n then we can write that
~
~
~
l = Vmax H 1 n . Thus x 0 l = H (nt) = Ht max .

( )

Therefore we can finally write

)( )

(37)

~
t = 1 nH x0 l = t max n

which shows the quantization of time.

Now let us go back to Eq. (20)
which will be called the
gravitational
Hamiltonian to distinguish it from the
inertial Hamiltonian H i :

(38 )

H i = c p 2 + mi 2 c 2 .
Consequently, the Eq. (18)
rewritten in the following form:

H i H g = 2H i

can

be

(39)

where H i is the variation on the inertial

Hamiltonian or inertial kinetic energy. A
momentum variation p yields a variation

H i given by:

Hi = ( p + p)2 c2 + mi 2c4 p2c2 + mi 2c4 (40)

Substituting Eqs.(20), (38) and (40) into
(39) and making p = 0 , we obtain
2
mg c mi c = 2 p2c 2 + mi c 4 mi c2 . Fro

m this equation we derive the general

expression of correlation between the
gravitational
and
inertial
mass,
i.e.,
2

1mi .
mg = mi 2 1 +

m
c
i

Note that for p > m i c

5 2 the value

of mg becomes negative.
Equation (41) can also be
expressed in terms of velocity V of the
particle. Starting from (4) we can write

( p + p ) =

(m

m g )(V + V )

1 (V + V ) c 2
For V = 0 ; p = 0 . Thus the equation
2

above reduces to:

p = (m

From

the

) V

1 ( V c )

Eq.(16)

we obtain:

Eg = 2Ei 0 Ei = 2Ei 0 (Ei0 + Ei ) = Ei 0 Ei

However, Eq.(14) tells us that Ei = Eg ; it

leads to Eg = Ei0 + Eg or mg = mi + mg . Thus,
in the expression of

replace m g m g

p we
by m i , i.e.,

can

1 ( V c )

p = m i V

We can therefore write

p
V c
=
2
mi c
1 (V c )

(42 )

By substitution of the expression above

into Eq.(41) we thus obtain:

1
m g = mi 2 (1 V 2 c 2 ) 2 1 mi
(43)

For
the Eq.(43) gives
V =0
mg = mi

Therefore, in this case, the previously

obtained
quantized
relation
(33),
2
=
,
becomes
M g n mg (min)

(44 )

mi = n 2 mi (min )

which shows the quantization of inertial

mass.
Finally, by dividing both members of
Eq.(43)by 1 V 2 c2 we readily obtain

M g = M i 2 1 V 2 c 2

1 M i

1
2

(45)

The Lorentz's force is usually written

in the following form:

dP dt = qE + qV B


where P = m i V


1V

Eq.(4) tell us that p = mgV



(41)

c 2 . However,
1 V 2 c2 .

6
Therefore, the expressions above must
be corrected by multiplying its members
by m g mi ,i.e.,

dVdD
dU = dPdV =
v
Substitution into (50) yields

mg

mi

mg

miV

mi

1V c

mgV

dp =

= p

1V c
2

dp d m g
= P
dt dt m i

= qE + qV B g
mi

(46 )

That is now the general expression for

Lorentz's force.
When the force is perpendicular to
the
speed,
the
Eq.(5) gives

dp dt = mg dV dt


1V 2 c2 . By comparing

with Eq.(46) we thus obtain

(m

)(

1 V 2 c 2 dV dt = qE + qV B


Starting from this equation, well-known

experiments have been carried out in
order
to
verify
the
relativistic
expression: m i 1 V 2 c 2 .
In particular, we can look on the
momentum variation ( p ) as due to
absorption or emission of electromagnetic
energy by the particle ( by means of
radiation and/or by means of Lorentz's
force upon the charge of the particle).
In the case of radiation (any type),
p can be obtained as follows. It is known
that the radiation pressure , dP , upon an
area
of
a
volume
dA = dxdy
dV = dxdydz of a particle ( the incident
radiation normal to the surface dA ) is
equal to the energy dU absorbed per
unit
volume
.i.e.,
(dU dV )

dU
dU
dU
=
=
(47)
dV dxdydz dAdz
Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed
dP =

of radiation) into the equation above gives

dU (dU dAdt ) dD
(48)
=
=
dV
v
v
Since dPdA = dF we can write:
dU
dFdt =
(49)
v
However we know that dF = dp dt , then
dU
dp =
(50)
v
dP =

From Eq.(48) follows that

(52 )

dVdD
v2

or

and

(51)

dp =

1
v2

D V

dVdD

whence

p =

VD
v2

(53)

This expression is general for all types of

waves.
Including
no-electromagnetic
waves like sound waves. In this case, v in
Eq.(53), will be the speed of sound in the
medium and D the intensity of the sound
radiation.
In the case of electromagnetic
waves, the Electrodynamics tells us that v
will be given by

dz
c
= =
dt r
r r
2
1 + ( ) + 1

2
Where kr is
the
real part of the
v=

propagation vector k ; k = k = k r + iki ; ,



are the electromagnetic

and ,
characteristics of the medium in which the
incident
(or
emitted)
radiation
is
propagating ( = r 0 where r is the
relative
dielectric
permittivity
and
12
0 = 8.854 10 F / m ; = r 0 where

r is the relative magnetic permeability

and 0 = 4 10 7 H / m ; is the
electrical conductivity). For an atom
inside a body , the incident(or emitted)
radiation on this
atom will be
propagating inside the body , and
consequently , =body , =body, =body.
It is then evident that the index
of refraction nr = c v will be given by
c

2
= r r 1 + ( ) + 1
(54)

v
2
On the other hand, from Eq.(50)
follows that
U c U
p = = n r
v c c
Substitution into Eq.(41) yields
nr =

(55)
mg = 1 2 1+
nr 1mi
2

mi c

For >> , the expression (54) gives

2

c 2
c
=
(56 )
4f
v
Substitution of (56) into (55) leads to
2

1mi
mg = 1 2 1 +

4f mi c

This equation shows that atoms of

ferromagnetic materials with very-high
can have its gravitational masses
strongly reduced by means of
Extremely
Low Frequency (ELF)
electromagnetic radiation. It also
shows that atoms of superconducting
materials (due to very-high ) can
also have its gravitational masses
strongly reduced by means of ELF
electromagnetic radiation.
Alternatively, we may put
Eq.(55) as a function of the power
density ( or intensity ), D , of the
radiation. The integration of (51) gives
U = VD v . Thus we can write (55) in
the following form:
2

n
D

(57)
mg 1 2 1 3 1mi

where = mi V .
For >> , nr will be given by
(56) and consequently (57) becomes
2

1 m i (58 )
m g = 1 2 1 +

4fc

The vector D = (U V )v , which we may

define from (48), has the same
direction of the propagation vector k
and evidently
corresponds to the
Poynting vector. Then D can be
replaced by E H .Thus we can write
D = EH = E(B ) = E[(E v) ] = (1 v )E 2 .
For >> the Eq.(54) tells us that
v = 4f consequently we obtain
nr =

4f
This expression refers to the
instantaneous values of D and E .
The average value for E 2 is equal to
1 E2
because E varies sinusoidaly
2 m
( E m is the maximum value for E ).
Consequently equation above tells us
that the average density D is given by

D = 1 2 E m2
4f
Substitution of this expression into (58)
yields the expression for
mg .
Substitution of the expression of D
into (58) gives
D = E2

3
2

mg = 1 2 1 + (E c) ( 4f ) 1mi (59)

Note that for extremely-low frequencies

the value of f 3 in this equation
becomes highly expressive.
Now consider an electric current
i = i0 sin 2ft through a conductor. Since


the current density, J , is expressed by

J = di dS = E , then we can write that
E = i S = (i0 S )sin 2ft . Substitution
of this equation into (59) gives


{ [

]}

mg = 1 2 1 + i04 64 3c2 2S4 f 3 sin4 2ft 1 mi

If the conductor is a supermalloy rod
then
(1 1 400mm )
r = 100,000
3
(initial); = 8770kg / m ; = 1.6 106 S / m
and S = 1 10 6 m 2 . Substitution of
these value into equation above yields
the following expression for the
gravitational mass of the supermalloy
rod:

{ [

]}

mg(sm) = 1 2 1 + 5.7110 12i04 f 3 sin4 2ft 1 mi(sm)

Some oscillators like the HP3325A

( Op.002 High Voltage Output ) can
generate sinusoidal voltages with

8
new expression for the inertial forces
incorporates the Machs principle into
Gravitation Theory, and furthermore
reveals that the inertial effects upon a
particle can be reduced because, as we
have seen, the gravitational mass may be
When
m g = mi
the
reduced.

extremely-low frequencies down to

f = 1 10 6 Hz and amplitude up to 20V
( into 50 load). The maximum output
current is 0.08 App .
Thus,

i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 App )

for
6

and f < 2.25 10 Hz the equation

above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at
f 1.7 10 6 Hz at
2ft = 2 ; for
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 105 s 40.8h it shows
that m g (sm ) mi (sm ) .

nonrelativistic
equation for inertial
forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to Fi = mi a .


which also describes the motion of the

particle inside the gravitational field.
Thus, the Einstein's equations from the
General Relativity can be derived
starting from (S m + S g ) = 0 , where

was given by Fi = mi a , while the

equivalent
gravitational
forces,
by Fg = mg g . Thus, to satisfy the


and Fi Fg ) it


was

S g and S m refer to action of the

gravitational field and the action of the
matter, respectively [10].
The variations S g and S m can

necessary that m g mi . Now, the inertial



force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from the

Eq.(13) we can obtain the gravitational
force, Fg . Thus, Fi Fg leads to


mg

(1V

a G


c2 ) 2
3

mg

(r 1V c )
2

mg
1 V 2 c 2

mg
mg
mg
g
G 2

3
2
2 2
(1V 2 c 2 )32
r (1V c )


whence results

ag
Consequently, the equivalence is
evident, and therefore the Einstein's
equations from the General Relativity
continue obviously valid.
The new expression for Fi
(Eqs.(5) and (6)) shows that the inertial
forces are proportional to the
gravitational mass, m g . This means


This is the well-known Newton's

second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
Theory the motion of a free-particle is
described by means of S = 0 [9]. Now
based on Eq.(1), S = 0 will be given
by the following expression
S = m g c ds = 0.

Let us now return to the theory.

The
equivalence
between
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational
fields
presupposed
m g mi because the inertial forces

equivalence ( a g

that these forces result from the

gravitational interaction between the
particle and the other gravitational
masses of the Universe, just as
Machs principle predicts. Therefore the

be written as follows[11]:
c3
Rik 12 gik R)g ik gd
Sg =
(60)
(

16G
1
ik
(61)
Sm = Tikg g d
2c
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the
metric tensor and Tik the matter's
energy-momentum tensor:
Tik = (P + g ) i k + Pg ik
(62 )
where P is the pressure and g = g c2
is now, the density of gravitational
energy, E g , of the particle; g is then
the density of gravitational mass of the
particle, i.e., m g at the volume unit.
Substitution of (60) and (61) into
S m + S g = 0 yields

c3
Rik 12 g ik R 8c4G Tik g ik g d = 0
16G
whence,

(R

ik

g ik R
1
2

8G
c4

Tik = 0

(63)

because the g ik are arbitrary.

The Eqs.(63) in the following forms;
(64)
Rik 12 g ik R = 8c4G Tik
or

(65)

Rik 12 g ik R = 8c4G Ti k .

are the Einstein's equations from the

General Relativity.
Making
on
the
obtained
equations for the gravitational field, the
transition to the Classical Mechanics,
we obtain:
g
= 4G 2 = 4G g
(66)
c
This is the nonrelativistic equation for
the gravitational field, whose general
solution is
g dV
(67 )
= G
rc 2
This
equation
express
the
nonrelativistic
potential
of
the
gravitational field for any distribution of
mass. In particular, for only one
particle
with gravitational energy
2
E g = m g c , the result is

(68)
= GE g rc 2
Thus, the gravity g
into the
gravitational field created by the
particle is
Eg
mg

= G 2 2 = G 2 .
(69)
g=
r
r c
r
Therefore, the gravitational force Fg
which acts on that field, upon another
particle of gravitational mass mg is
then given by:
m g m g
(70 )
F g = m g g = G
r2
If m g > 0 and mg < 0 , or m g < 0 and
mg > 0 the force will be repulsive; the

m g = mi and mg = mi we obtain the

Newton's attraction law.
Since the gravitational interaction
can be repulsive, besides attractive,
such
as
the
electromagnetic
interaction, then the graviton must
have spin 1 and not 2. Consequently,
the gravitational forces are also gauge
forces because they are yield by the
exchange of so-called "virtual" quanta
of spin 1, such as the electromagnetic
forces and the weak and strong
nuclear forces.
Let us now deduce the Entropy
Differential Equation starting from the
Eq.(55). Comparison of the Eqs.(55)
and (41) shows that Unr = pc . For
small velocities (V << c ), p << mi c , so
that
Under
these
Unr << mi c 2 .
circumstances, the development of the
Eq.(55) in power of (Unr mi c 2 ), gives
2

Un r
mi
(71)
m g = mi
2
mi c
In the particular case of thermal
radiation, it is usual to relate the
energy of the photons to temperature,
through the relationship
h kT

force will never be null due to the

existence of a minimum value for m g
(see Eq. (24)). However, if m g < 0 and
mg < 0 , or m g > 0 and mg > 0 the
force will be attractive. Just for

where
is
the
k = 1.381023 J K
Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in that
case, the energy absorbed by the
particle will be U = h kT ,
where is a particle-dependent
absorption/emission coefficient.
Therefore, Eq.(71) may be rewritten in
the following form:
nrk 2 T 2
(72)
mg = mi 2
mi
2
c mi
For electrons at T=300K, we have
2
2
n r k T
10 17
2
2
c me
Comparing Eq.(72) with Eq.(18), we
obtain
2
1 nrk T 2
(73 )
E Ki =
.

2 c mi

10
The derivative of E Ki with respect to
temperature T is
E Ki
= (nr k c )2 (T mi )
(74 )
T
Thus,
E
(n kT )2
(75)
T Ki = r 2
T
mi c
Substitution of E Ki = E i E i 0 into
Eq.(75) gives
2
E (n kT )
E
(76 )
T i + i0 = r 2
T
mi c
T
By comparing the Eqs.(76) and (73)
and considering that E i 0 T = 0
because E i 0 does not depends on T ,
the Eq.(76) reduces to
(77)
T (Ei T ) = 2EKi
However,
Eq.(18)
shows
that
2EKi = Ei Eg therefore Eq.(77) becomes

E g = Ei T (Ei T )

(78 )

Here, we can identify the energy Ei

with the free-energy of the system-F
and E g with the internal energy of the
system-U, thus we can write the
Eq.(78) in the following form:
(79 )
U = F T (F T )
This is the well-known equation of
Thermodynamics. On the other hand,
remembering Q = + U (1st principle
of Thermodynamics) and
(80)
F = U TS
(Helmholtz's function), we can easily
obtain from (79), the following
equation:
Q = + TS .
(81)
For isolated systems, = 0 , we thus
have
Q = TS
(82)
which is the well-know Entropy
Differential Equation.
Let us now consider the Eq.(55)
in the ultra-relativistic case where the
inertial energy of the particle Ei = M i c 2
is very greater than its inertial energy
at rest mi c 2 . Comparison between

(4) and (10) leads to p = EiV c

which, in the ultra-relativistic case,
gives p = EiV c 2 Ei c M i c . On the
other hand, comparison between (55)
and (41) shows that Unr = pc . Thus
2

Consequently,
Unr = pc Mic2 >>mic2 .
Eq.(55) reduces to
2
(83 )
m g = m i 2 Un r c
Therefore, the action for such particle,
in agreement with the Eq.(2), is
t2

S = t mg c 2 1V 2 c 2 dt =
1

t2

= mi + 2Unr c 2 c 2 1V 2 c2 dt =
t
1

= mi c2 1V 2 c 2 + 2Unr 1V 2 c 2 dt. (84)

t
t2
1

The
integrant
Lagrangean, i.e.,

function

is

the

(85)
L = mi c 2 1V 2 c 2 + 2Unr 1V 2 c 2
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by
means of the well-known general
formula:
H = V (L V ) L.
The result is:
(4V 2 c 2 2)
mi c 2
.
+ Unr
(86)
H=
2
2
2
2

1V c
1
V
c

The second term on the right hand side

of the Eq.(86) results from the
particle's
interaction
with
the
electromagnetic
field.
Note
the
similarity between
the obtained
Hamiltonian and the well-known
Hamiltonian for the particle in a
electromagnetic field[12]:
H = mi c 2

1 V 2 c 2 + Q .

(87)

in which Q is the electric charge and

, the field's scalar potential. The
quantity Q expresses, as we know,
the particle's interaction with the
electromagnetic field. Such as the
second term on the right hand side of the
Eq.(86).
It is therefore evident that it is the
same quantity, expresses by means of
different variables.

11
Thus, we can conclude that, in
ultra-high
energy
conditions
2
2
Un r M i c > mi c , the gravitational
and
electromagnetic fields
can be
described by the same Hamiltonian, i.e.,
in these circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from that
Hamiltonian we may obtain a complete
description of the electromagnetic field.
This means that from the present theory
for gravity we can also derive the
equations of the electromagnetic field.
Due to Un r = pc M i c 2 the
second term on the right hand side of the
Eq.(86) can be written as follows

4V 2 c 2 2
=
pc
1 V 2 c 2

4V 2 c 2 2
M i c 2 =
=
2
2
1 V c
QQ
QQ
= Q =
=
4 0 R 40 r 1 V 2 c 2
whence

(4V

c 2 2 )M i c 2 =

QQ
4 0 r

The factor 4V 2 c 2 2 becomes equal to

2 in the ultra-relativistic case, then follows
that

2M i c 2 =

QQ
4 0 r

(88 )

From (44) we know that there is a

minimum value for M i given by

M i (min) = mi (min) . The Eq.(43) shows that

mg (min) = mi(min)

and

Eq.(23)

gives

mg (min) = h cLmax 8 = h 3 8 cdmax . Thus

we can write

( dc

visible Universe

= 2lc

where l c is

obtained from the Hubble's law for V = c

, i.e., l c = cH 1 ). Thus from (90) we

readily obtain

Qmin = 0 hc 24 (d c d max ) =
~
= 0 hc 2 96 H 1 d max =

= 13 e

(91)

whence we find

d max = 3 .4 10 30 m
This will be the maximum "diameter" that
the Universe will reach. Consequently,
Eq.(89) tells us that the elementary
quantum of matter is

mi(min) = h 3 8 cdmax = 3.9 1073 kg

Now by combination of gravity and
the uncertainty principle we will derive the
expression of the Casimir force.
An uncertainty
mi in
mi

p in p and
therefore an uncertainty mg
in m g ,
produces an uncertainty

which according to Eq.(41) , is given by

2

1 mi
mg = mi 2 1 +

m
c
i

(92)

From the uncertainty principle for position

and momentum, we know that the product
of the uncertainties of the simultaneously
measurable values of corresponding
position and momentum components is at
least of the order of magnitude of
, i.e.,


pr ~
Substitution of p ~ r into (92) yields


M i (min) = mi(min) = h 3 8 cdmax

(89)

According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2 is

correlated to
i.e.,

1
3

e ); rmax is the maximum distance

between Q and Q , which should be
equal to the so-called "diameter", d c , of the
i.e.,

2
(QQ 40r)min = Qmin
40 rmax,

2
Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2
4 0 rmax

(90 )

where Qmin is the minimum electric charge

in the Universe ( therefore equal to
minimum electric charge of the quarks,

m g = mi 2 1 +

mi c
mi

(93)

Therefore if


r <<

mi c

then the expression (93) reduces to:

(94 )

Amax = d

2
m g
(95 )
rc
Note that mg does not depend on m g .
Consequently, the uncertainty F
in the gravitational force F = Gmg mg r 2 ,
will be given by

F = G

mg mg

(r )

(96)

= 1.61 10 35 m is
called the Planck length, l planck ,( the length
c3

scale on which quantum fluctuations of the

metric of the space time are expected to
be of order unity). Thus, we can write the
expression of F as follows

2 hc 2
F =
l
=
4 planck
(r )
hc
=

4
480 (r )
A hc
= 0
4
480 (r )
or

(97 )
(98 )

which is the expression of the Casimir

2
force for A = A0 = 960 2 l planck
.

This suggests
that A0 is an
elementary area related to existence of a

minimum length d min = k l planck . What is in

accordance with the quantization of space
(29) which point out the existence of
d min .
One can be easily shown that the
minimum area related to d min is the area
of an equilateral triangle of side length
d min ,i.e.,

( )d
3
4

12
area
(99)

must have a value between Amin and

Amax , i.e.,
<A <
The
previous
assumption
2
2
shows
A 0 = 960 l planck
~2
A k = 960 2 what means that
~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
Therefore
we
conclude
~
d min = k l planck 10 34 m .

2
min

( )k~ l
3
4

2 2
planck

On the other hand, the maximum area

related to d min is the area of an sphere
of radius d min ,i.e.,

that
that

that
(100 )

The n esimal area after A0 is

A = A (nd min ) = n 2 A0
(101)
One can also be easily shown
that the minimum volume related to
d min is the volume of an regular
tetrahedron of edge length d min , i.e.,
~
3
min = 122 d min
= 122 k 3 l 3planck
The maximum volume is the volume of
a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
~
3
max = (43 )d min
= (43 )k 3l 3planck
2

( )

960 2
2 l planck =

A hc
F0 = 0 4
480 r

Amin =

the
elementary
~ 2
2
A0 = A d min = A k 2l planck

=


(G

~ 2
= k 2 l planck

3
4

2 hc G
=
2
2 3
(r ) (r ) c
The amount

Thus,

2
min

( )

Thus,
the
elementary
volume
~3 3
3
0 = V d min = V k l planck must have a
value between min and max , i.e.,

( )<
2
12

<

4
3

On the other hand, the n esimal

volume after 0 is

= V (ndmin )3 = n3 0
n = 1,2,3,...,nmax .
The existence of nmax given by (26),
i.e.,
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min =
~
= (3.4 1030 ) k l planck 1064
shows that the Universe must have a
finite volume whose value at the
present stage is
3
3
3
Up = nUp
0 = (d p d min ) V d min
= V d 3p
where d p is the present length scale of
the
Universe.
In
addition
as
2
4
< V < 3 we conclude that the
12

( )

Universe must have a polyhedral

space topology with volume between
the volume of a regular tetrahedron of
edge length d p and the volume of the
sphere of diameter d p .
A
recent
analysis
of
astronomical data suggests not only
that the Universe is finite, but also that
it has a dodecahedral space topology
[13,14], what is in strong accordance
with the theoretical predictions above.
From (22) and (26) we have that
Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since (100)
gives dmin 1034 m and

nmax 1064

we

conclude that Lmax 10 m . From the

Hubble's law and (22) we have that
~
~
~
Vmax = Hlmax = H (dmax 2) = 3 2 HLmaxwhere
~
H = 1.7 10 18 s 1 . Therefore we obtain
Vmax 1012 m / s .
30

Now multiplying (98) by n

expression of F 0 we obtain

hc G 1
F =

=
(r )3 c 3 t c


hc 2 1
(105)
l

(r )3 planck t c
From the General Relativity Theory we
know that dr = cdt g 00 . If the field is
=

weak

then

g 00 = 1 2 c 2 and

dr = cdt (1 + c 2 ) = cdt (1 Gm r 2c 2 ) .
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr cdt .
Thus, if dr = dr then dt = dt . This
means that we may change (t c ) by
(r ) into (105). The result is
hc 1 2

F =
l planck =
4
( r )

hc 480 2

=
l planck =

4
2
480 ( r )

1
2

hc GE

(r )3 c 4

13

(104)

Therefore we can write the expression

(103) in the following form:

the

n2 A0 hc
A hc
2

4 =
=
=

F n F0
4 (102)
480
480
r

which is the general expression of the

Casimir force.
Thus we conclude that
the
Casimir effect is just a gravitational
effect
related to the uncertainty
principle.
Note that the Eq.(102) arises
only when mi and mi satisfy
Eq.(94). If only m i satisfies Eq.(94),
i.e., mi << rc but mi >> rc then
m g and mg will be respectively
given by
m g 2 rc and m g mi
Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
hc Gmi
hc Gmic 2

=
F =
=

(r )3 c 2 (r )3 c 4


E ~

(103 )

However, from the uncertainty principle for

energy and time we know that

A0

A 0 hc
=

4
960 ( r )
or

A hc
F0 = 0 4
960 r

whence

A hc
4
F =

960 r

(106)

Now the Casimir force is repulsive, and

its intensity is the half of the intensity
previously obtained (102).
Consider the case when both
mi and mi do not satisfy Eq.(94),
and
mi >> rc
mi >> rc
In this case, mg mi and m g mi .


Thus,

(E c )(E c ) =
mi mi
= G
2
(r )
(r )2

F = G

G ( t )
G hc 1
= 4
= 3
=
2
2 2
2
c (r )
c (r ) c t
1 hc 2
=
=
l
4 planck
2 (r )


14
region, in accordance with Eq.(45), will
be given by

M g1 M i1 =

hc 960 2 A0 hc
=
l

4
4
2 planck
1920 (r )
1920 (r )
whence

A hc

F =
r4
1920

(107)

mi1
1 V1 2 c 2

mi1

where mi1 is the total inertial mass of

the bodies of the mentioned region;
V1 << c is the average velocity of the
bodies at region 1. The total
gravitational mass of the second region
is

1
M g 2 = M i 2 2
1 M i 2
1V 2 c2

where V2 is the average velocity of

The force will be attractive and its

intensity will be the fourth part of the
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
There is a crucial cosmological
problem to be solved: the problem of
the hidden mass. Most theories predict
that the amount of known matter,
detectable and available in the
universe, is only about 1/10 to 1/100 of
the amount needed to close the
universe. That is, to achieve the
density sufficient
to close-up the
universe
by
maintaining
the
gravitational curvature (escape velocity
equal to the speed of light) at the outer
boundary.
The Eq.(45)
may solve this
problem. We will start by substituting
the well-known expression of Hubble's
~
law for velocity, V = Hl , into Eq.(45).
~
( H = 1.7 10 18 s 1
is the Hubble
constant). The expression obtained
shows
that
particles which are at
~
l = l0 = 5 3 c H = 1.31026 m
distances
have quasi null gravitational mass
m g = m g (min ) ; beyond this distance, the

the bodies ; M i 2 = mi 2 1 V22 c 2 and

mi 2 is the total inertial mass of the
bodies of region 2.
Now consider that from Eq.(7),
we can write
Eg
M gc2
=
=
= gc2
V
V
where is the energy density of matter.
Note that the expression of
only reduces to the well-known
expression c 2 , where is the sum of
the inertial masses per volume unit,
when m g = mi . Therefore, in the

particles have negative gravitational

mass. Therefore, there are two welldefined regions in the Universe; the
region of the bodies with positive

M gU

( )( )

gravitational masses and the region of the

bodies with negative gravitational mass.
The total gravitational mass of the first

derivation of the well-known difference

8GU ~ 2
H
(108)
3
which gives the sign of the curvature
of the Universe [15], we must use
= gU c 2 instead of = U c 2 .The

result obviously is
8G gU
3
where
M gU

~
H2

(109)

M g1 + M g 2

(110 )
VU
VU
and VU are respectively the total

gU =

gravitational mass and the volume of

the Universe.
Substitution of M g 1 and M g 2 into
expression (110) gives

15

gU

3
2
m m
miU +

i
i
2
2
1V 2 c 2 1 V22 c 2

=
VU

where miU = mi1 + mi 2 is the total

inertial mass of the Universe.
The volume V1 of the region 1
and the volume V 2 of the region 2, are
respectively given by
V1 = 2 2 l 03
and
V 2 = 2 2 l c3 V1
~
where l c = c H = 1.8 10 26 m is the
so-called
"radius" of the visible
Universe. Moreover, i1 = mi1 V1 and
i 2 = mi 2 V2 . Due to the hypothesis of
the uniform distribution of matter in the
space, follows that i1 = i2 .Thus, we
can write
3

mi1 V1 l 0
=
= = 0.38
mi 2 V 2 l c
Similarly,
m iU m i 2 m i1
=
=
VU
V2
V1
Therefore,
l 3
V2
mi 2 =
m iU = 1 0 m iU = 0 .62 m iU
VU
l c
and mi1 = 0.38miU .
Substitution of mi 2 into the expression
of gU yields
1.86

1.24
m
miU +
.
0
62

2 2
2 2

iU
V
c
1

1V2 c
2

gU =
VU
Due to V2 c , we conclude that the
term between bracket (hidden mass) is
very greater than 10miU . The amount
miU is the mass of known matter in the
universe (1/10 to 1/100 of the amount
needed to close the Universe).
Consequently, the total mass
1.86

1.24
m
miU +
.
0
62

2
2
2
2

iU
1 V2 c 1 V2 c

must be sufficient to close the

Universe. This solves therefore the

problem of the hidden mass.
There is another cosmological
problem to be solved: the problem of
the anomalies in the spectral red-shift
of certain galaxies and stars.
Several observers have noticed
red-shift values that
cannot be
explained
by the Doppler-Fizeau
effect or by the Einstein effect (the
gravitational spectrum shift, supplied
by Einstein's theory).
This is the case of the so-called
Stefan's quintet (a set of five galaxies
which were discovered in 1877),
whose galaxies are located at
approximately the same distance from
the Earth, according to very reliable
and precise measuring methods. But,
when the velocities of the galaxies are
measured by its red-shifts , the velocity of
one of them is much greater than the
velocity of the others.

Similar observations have been

made on the Virgo constellation and
spiral galaxies. Also the Sun presents
a red-shift greater than the predicted
value by the Einstein effect.
It seems that some of these
anomalies can be explained if we
consider the Eq.(45) in the calculation
of the gravitational mass of the point
of emission.
The
expression
of
the
gravitational spectrum shift, supplied
by Einstein's theory [16] is given by

2 1
1 =
c2
Gmg 2 r2 + Gmg1 r1
=
1
c2

=1 2 =

(111)

where 1 is the frequency of the light

at the point of emission ; 2 is the
frequency at the point of observation;
1 and 2 are respectively, the
Newtonian gravitational potentials at
the point of emission and at the point
of observation.
This expression has been
deduced from t = t 0 g 00 [17] which

16
8

correlates own time (real time), t , with

the temporal coordinate x0 of the
space-time ( t 0 = x 0 c ).
When the gravitational field is
weak , the temporal component g 00
of the metric tensor is given by
goo = 1 2 / c2 [18]. Thus we readily obtain

less than
c 4G = 1.1 10 kg . This
means that the neutrons cluster
becomes a cluster of superparticles
where the minimal inertial mass of the
superparticle is

(112)

Symmetry is a fundamental attribute

of the Universe that enables an
investigator to study particular aspects
of physical systems by themselves. For
example, the assumption that space is
homogeneous and isotropic is based
on Symmetry Principle. Also here, by
symmetry, we can assume that there
are only superparticles with mass
mi (sp) = 1.1 108 kg in the cluster of
superparticles.
Let us now imagine the Universe
coming back for the past. There will be
an instant in which it will be similar to a
neutrons cluster, such as the stars at
the final state of gravitational
contraction. Thus, with the progressing
of the compression, the neutrons
cluster becomes a
cluster of
superparticles. Obviously, this only can
occur before 10-23s(after the Big-Bang).
The
temperature T of the
Universe at the 10-43s< t < 10-23s
period can be calculated by means of
the well-known expression[20]:

t = t 0 1 2Gm g rc 2

Curiously, this equation tell us

that we can have t < t 0 when m g > 0 ;
and t > t 0 for

m g < 0 . In addition, if

m g = c 2 r 2G , i.e., if r = 2Gm g c 2
( Schwarzschild radius ) we obtain t = 0 .
Let us now consider the wellknown process of stars' gravitational
contraction. It is
known that the
destination of the star is directly
correlated to its mass. If the star's
mass
is
less
than
1.4M
( Schemberg-Chandrasekhar's limit), it
becomes a white dwarf. If its mass
exceeds that limit, the pressure
produced by the degenerate state of
the matter no longer counterbalances
the gravitational pressure, and the
star's
contraction
continues.
Afterwards
occur the
reactions
between
protons and
electrons
( capture of electrons ), where
neutrons and anti-neutrinos are
produced.
The contraction continues until
the system regains stability ( when the
pressure produced by the neutrons is
sufficient to stop the gravitational
collapse). Such systems are called
neutron stars.
There is also a critical mass for
the stable configuration of neutron
stars. This limit has not been fully
defined as yet, but it is known that it is
located between 1.8M and 2.4M . Thus,
if the mass of the star exceeds 2.4M ,
the contraction will continue.
According
to
Hawking[19]
collapsed objects cannot have mass


mi (sp) = 1.1108 kg.

T 10 22 t 10 23

12

(113)

(114 )

Thus at t 10 43 s ( at the first

spontaneous breaking of symmetry )
the temperature was
T 10 32 K
(1019GeV).Therefore, we can assume
that the absorbed electromagnetic
energy by each superparticle, before
t 10 43 s , was U = kT > 1 109 J ( see
Eqs.(71) and (72) ). By comparing with
m i (sp )c 2 9 10 8 J , we conclude that
U > m i (sp )c . Therefore, the unification

condition

(Un

Mi c 2 > mi c 2 )

is

17
satisfied. This means that, before
t 10 43 s , the gravitational and
electromagnetic
interactions
were
unified.
From the unification condition
Unr Mi c 2 , we may conclude that the
superparticles' relativistic inertial mass
M i (sp ) is

nr kT
(115)
10 8 kg
2
c
c
Comparing with the superparticles'
inertial
mass at rest (113), we
conclude that
M i (sp )

Unr
2

Mi (sp) mi(sp) = 1.1 108 kg

(116)

From Eqs.(83) and (115), we obtain

the superparticle's gravitational mass
at rest, i.e.,
m g (sp ) = m i (sp ) 2 M i (sp )

n r kT
(117 )
c2
and consequently, the superparticle's
relativistic gravitational mass, is
M i (sp )

M g (sp ) =

n r kT

(118 )

c2 1V 2 c2
Thus, the gravitational forces between
two superparticles , according to (13),
is given by:
F12 = F21 = G
!

M g (sp) M 'g (sp)

r2

21 =

M 2 G
c

i (sp)
2

(nr T ) 2 21
mi(sp) c 5
r

(119)

Due to the unification of the

gravitational
and
electromagnetic
interactions at that period, we have
F12 = F21 = G
#

M g (sp ) M 'g (sp )

r2

21 =

2
M
c
i (sp ) G
2

(
)
=

T 2 21 =
mi (sp ) c 5
r

"

"

e2
(120)
4 0 r 2
From the equation above we can write
=

M G
e2

2
i (sp)
=
(

)
(121)
T
c

mi (sp) c5
40

Now assuming that

2
M i (sp ) G

( T )2 =
(122 )
m
c 5
i (sp )
the Eq.(121) can be rewritten in the
following form:
e2
1
(123)
=
=
4 0 c 137
which is the well-known reciprocal fine
structure constant .
For T = 10 32 K the Eq.(122) gives
2

M i (sp ) G

=
( n r T )2 1
5

100
m i (sp ) c
&

(124 )

This value has the same order of

magnitude that the exact value(1/137)
of the reciprocal fine structure
constant.
From equation (120) we can write:
M g (sp ) M 'g (sp )
G
r =

c
r

'

(125 )

The term between parenthesis has the

same dimensions that the linear
momentum p . Thus Eq.(125) tells us
that
pr = .
(126)
A component of the momentum of a
particle cannot be precisely specified
without loss of all knowledge of the
corresponding component of its
position at that time ,i.e., a particle
cannot precisely localized in a
particular direction without loss of all
knowledge
of
its
momentum
component in that direction . This
means that in intermediate cases the
product of the uncertainties of the
simultaneously measurable values of
corresponding position and momentum
components is at least of the order of
magnitude of ,i.e.,
)

p.r

(127)

This relation, directly obtained here

from the Unified Theory, is the well-

known relation of the Uncertainty

Principle for position and momentum.
According to Eq.(83),
the
gravitational mass of the superparticles
at the center of the cluster becomes
negative when 2 n r kT c 2 > m i (sp ) , i.e.,
when
T > T critical =

m i (sp )
2 n r k

10 32 K .

According to Eq.(114) this temperature

corresponds to t c 10 43 s .
With the progressing of the
compression, more superparticles into
the center will have negative
gravitational mass. Consequently,
there will have a critical point in which
the repulsive
gravitational forces
between the superparticles with
negative gravitational masses and the
superparticles
with
positive
gravitational masses will be so strong
that an explosion will occur. This is the
experiment that we call the Big Bang.
Now, starting from the Big Bang to
the present time. Immediately after the Big
Bang, the superparticles' decompressing
begins. The gravitational mass of the most
central superparticle will only be positive
when the temperature becomes smaller
than
the
critical
temperature,
32
Tcritical 10 K . At the maximum state

of compression ( exactly at
Bang ) the volumes
superparticles was equal
elementary volume 0 = V d min
volume

of

the

the Big
of the
to the

and the
Universe
was

3
= V (nd min ) = V d initial
where d initial was
3

the initial length scale of the Universe. At

this very moment the average density of
the Universe was equal to the average
density of the superparticles, thus we can
write
3

M
dinitial

= i (U )
mi ( sp)
d min

where

M i (U ) 10 53 kg

(128)

is the inertial

mass of the Universe. It has already been

~
shown that d min = k l planck 1034 m. Then,
from the Eq.(128), we obtain:

18

(129)

d initial 1014 m

After the Big Bang the Universe

expands itself from d initial up to d cr
( when the temperature decreasing
reaches
the
critical
temperature
32
Tcritical 10 K , and the gravity becomes
attractive). Thus, it expands
by
d cr d initial , under effect of the repulsive
gravity
g = gmaxgmin =

= G(12 M g (U ) )
=
=

(12 dinitial)2 ]

2G M g (U )Mi (U )
dcrdinitial

2G

1
2

Mi (U )

m (

g sp)

during to a time t c 10

(12 dcr )2 ]

Mi (U )

dcrdinitial

2G mi (sp)Mi (U )
dcrdinitial

[G

2GMi(U )
dcrdinitial

43

s .Thus,
GMi(U )
2
(t c )2 (130)
dcr dinitial = 12 g(tc ) =
dcr dinitial
The Eq.(83), gives
mg (sp)
2Unr
2nr kT
=
= 1
= 1
1032 T
2
2
mi (sp)
mi (sp)c
mi(sp)c

( )

The temperature at the beginning of

the Big Bang (t=0) should have been
very greater than Tcritical 10 32 K .
Thus, must be a very big number.
Then it is easily seen that during this
period, the Universe expanded at an
astonishing rate. Thus, there is an
evident inflation period, which ends at

t c 10 43 s .
With the progressing of the
decompression, the superparticles
cluster becomes a neutrons cluster.
This means that the neutrons are
created without its antiparticle, the
antineutron. Thus it solves the
matter/antimatter dilemma that is
unresolved in many cosmologies.
Now a question: How did the
primordial superparticles appear at the
beginning of the Universe?

19
It is a proven quantum fact that a
wave function may collapse and
that at this moment all the possibilities
that it describes are suddenly
expressed in reality. This means that,
through this process, particles can be
suddenly materialized.
The materialization of the
primordial superparticles into a critical
volume denotes knowledge of what
would happen starting from that initial
condition, fact that points towards the
existence of a Creator.

CONCLUSION
We have described a
coherent way for the quantization of
gravity, which provides a consistent
unification
of
gravity
with
electromagnetism. As we have seen,
this new approach will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in
Quantum Cosmology.
The equation of correlation
between gravitational
and inertial
masses, which has been
derived
directly from the theory of gravity, has
relevant technological consequences.
We have seen that gravitational mass
can be negative at specific conditions.
This means that it will be possible to
build
gravitational
binaries
(gravitational motors), and to extract
energy from any site of a gravitational
field. Obviously, the Gravity Control will
be
also
very
important
to
Transportation Systems. On the other
hand, negative gravitational mass
suggests the possibility of dipole
gravitational radiation. This fact is
highly relevant because now we may
build transceivers to operate with
gravitational waves. Furthermore, the
receiver would allow us to directly
observe for the first time the Cosmic
Microwave Background in Gravitational
Radiation, which would picture the
Universe at the beginning of the BigBang.

APPENDIX A
It is known that the orbital
angular momentum L and the intrinsic
spin angular momentum S interact
magnetically between themselves to
produce a total angular momentum J .
We then have
(A1)
L=
l (l + 1)
L z = ml
( A2 )
.

S=

s (s + 1)

S z = ms

(A3)
( A4 )
(A5)
(A6 )

J=
j ( j + 1)
Jz = mj
where l is the orbital quantum number,
s is the spin quantum number,
j = l s
is the total quantum
number; ml is the orbital magnetic
quantum number; ms is the spin
magnetic quantum number and
m j = ml m s is the total magnetic
/

number.
Also atomic nuclei have intrinsic
angular momenta that contribute to
the total angular momenta of the
atoms. However, this contribution is
negligible [21].
The magnetic moment
Mj
.

associated with J is [22]:

M j = (e 2 m )J
.

(A 7 )

where is called the gyromagnetic

ratio. The values of for electrons,
neutrons and protons are respectively:
- 2.0024; -3.8256 and 5.5851. For
nuclear protons,
l = ml = 1, s = ms = 12 , j = l s = 12 , m j =

ml ms = 12 , J p = 3 2 , J pz = (1 2) .
Thus, Eq.(A7) gives
M Jp = p (e 2m p )J p = 2.44 1026 A.m 2 (A8)
/

M Jpz = p (e 2m p )J pz = 1.41 1026 A.m 2

(A9)

Then the total magnetic field H Jp of

the proton is [23]:

H Jp = M Jp 2r
1

(A10)

where r is the spin radius of the

proton. The total magnetic field
induction is B Jp = 0 H Jp , therefore
1

(A11)

BJp = 0 H Jp = 4.87 1033 r 3

We can write the angular

momentum J p in the following form
1

BJp

BJpz
F

r
Vp

x
BJpx

B Jpz )cos = p m pV p p

(A15)

However BJpz = BJp cos . Therefore

the equation above becomes
p m p p
BJp =
(A16)
e cos2
Comparison of (A16) and (A11) shows
that
cos 2
V p = 4 .66 10 25
( A17 )
pr 2
that
6.83 1013 cos 0.028cos

r >
=
rp
c
p

Fig. 1

J p = K p p where p is the angular

velocity of the proton and K p its
angular kinetic energy, given by

I p c 2
1
Kp = 2
(A12)
1
2
2
r 1 Vp c

where V p = p r and
I p = m p r p2 + m p r 2 =

= (r p2 r 2 + 1)m p r 2 = m p r 2

(A13 )

is the moment of inertia with respect to

the rotation axis; is a numerical
factor, which depends on the structural
form adopted for the proton. In the
case of a solid sphere, = 25 .
For V << c , Eq.(A12) reduces to
K = (Ic2 r 2 )(V 2 2c 2 ) = 1 2 I (V 2 r 2 ) = 12 I 2
of

Jp =

( 3 2)
2

and

J p = K p p shows that

p m p c 2
1
(A14)
1
p =

2
2
3 2 1 Vp c

From the intrinsic precession

motion of the proton we observe that

(eV

Due to V p < c , it follows from Eq.(A17)

R
y

Comparison

20
(Fig.1) the component of the
Lorentz's
force, F = eVp BJpzsin = eVp BJpz,
about the x axis, F cos , is equal
to
the
centripetal
force
2
2
Fcp = mpVp r = I r = pmpVpp .Thus,

(A18)

where r p = 1 .4 10 15 m and
cos = J pz J p = 0.577
On the other hand, from the nuclear
dimensions
we
know
that
15
r < rp = 1.4 10 m . Thus we can write
0.028 cos

rp < r < r p

(A19 )

An approximated value for r can be

obtained by means of the following
relation
0 .028 cos
rp
= Y
(A 20 )
r=
rp

whence
Y = 7 .87 4 p
Therefore we can write
rp
r=
= 1.78 10 16 4 p
(A21)
Y
or
1.0 10 63
p =
(A22 )
r4
From (A13) we have p r 2 0.1rp2

since r < r p . Thus from (A22) we

obtain

r 7 10
and

17

(A 23 )

(A 24 )

p 41

Comparison of p =Vp r and (A14) shows

that

Vp

(A25 )

= 4.7 10 9

1
1 V 2 c2

whence
V p = 3.8 10 7 m / s

21

(A28)

BN = ZBJp
3

Only the component, B N sin , alters

the radius r (Fig.3). The force Fr ,
BN sin
3

produced

by

increases
F = mpVp2 r

and

the
centripetal
decreasing
r

Vp ,
force
and

(A26)

increasing Vp . This means that the

proton acquires a new velocity
V p = p r c which corresponds to a
magnetic field BJp through the proton
that is equal to
(A29 )
B Jp = B N sin = ZB Jp sin
This phenomenon is similar to a
strong compression upon the proton,
which decrease r
increasing V p .
3

Equation (45) tells us that, if V p > 0.745c

Lp

B
Fig.2
Now consider a sample of a
monatomic
substance
(
atomic
number Z
) inside an external
magnetic field of induction B . Under
these circumstances the nuclear
protons carry out a precession motion
with respect to the direction of B ,
making an angle
with B (Fig.2).
The binary p which tends to align the
3

the gravitational mass of the proton

becomes negative. This explains the
negative gravitational masses of the
superparticles, under strong thermal
compression, in the neutron clusters
previously mentioned.
From Eqs.(A16) and (A14) we have
p m p p
=
B Jp =
e cos 2

2p m 2p c 2
1

(
=

1
A30 )
e 3 2 cos 2 1 V p2 c 2

)
4

3
3

axis of L p with the axis of B is

p = M Jpz Bsin
where M Jpz = 1.41 10
3

B Jp

26

Fr

(A27 )

A.m .

Therefore the magnetic field

of each nuclear proton is
3

aligned at the same direction of L p ,

and consequently the magnetic field of
the nucleus, B N , due to the protons at

}r

rp
Vp

BNcos

the direction of L p , will be given by

Fig.3

z
BNsin

BJp

BN
proton

 p mpp
BJp =
=
e cos2

(A31)

e 3 2 cos2 1 Vp2 c 2

whence

1
cos2
1
1 Vp 2 c 2

BJp

(A32)
=
BJp

1
cos2
1
1 V p2 c 2

Comparison of (A32) and (A29) gives

1 =
1 V 2 c 2

)
5

(A33 )

Substitution of (A33) into (45) shows that

the gravitational mass of the nuclear
protons can be written as follows

Zsin cos2
1

mgp = mp 2
mp (A34)
1V2 c2 1 cos2
p

From (A14) we can write

2
2

r Vp p Vp 1 V p c

=
=

r Vp p Vp

2
2

1 Vp c

(A35)

Comparison of (A35) and (A32) shows that

BJp cos2 r Vp

=
(A36)
BJp cos2 r Vp
Substitution of (A29) into (A36) gives
V p cos 2
r

(A37 )
= Zsin
cos 2

r
V
p

It can be
easily
shown that
Thus
(A37)
tan = (r r )tan .
becomes
sin2 V p
sin2 =
(A38)
Zsin V p
where sin 2 = 0.94 .

sin = 1

Z = Zmax, we obtain from (A38),

(sin 2 )min

2p m2p c2

Zsin cos 2
1
=
1
2
2
cos 2
V
c
(
)

1
p

Vp = Vp ,

For

1 Z max 10 2
obtain

22
and

(A39 )

(sin )min 103 .

whence

we

Thus

(cos )max

= 1 (sin 2 )min 1 .

(cos )min =

1 (sin 2 )max 0.7 .

On the other hand, (sin 2 )max = 1 .

Therefore,
(sin )max = sin45 = 0.707
and
Thus

0.7 < cos < 1

Substitution of V p = 3 .8 10 7 m / s ,

cos 2 = 0.333 and cos 2 0.8 into

Eq.(A34) yields
(A 40 )
m gp = (1 3 .9 10 2 Zsin )m p
The density of electromagnetic
energy in an electromagnetic field is
W = 12 E 2 + 12 H 2 . It is known that
E = vB = vH where, according to
(54), v = 2 for >> . Thus
2

+ 1 H 2 12 H 2
(A 41)
W = 12

For << ,
Eq.(54)
shows
that
v = c rr and therefore we obtain
W = H 2 .
In the case of nuclear protons
inside H , the work to bring the dipole
from = 0 (null energy) to is
6

p d

(A42 )

where p = M Jpz Bsin

in agreement

U =

with (A27); B = 0 H . Thus we can write

U =

p d =

= M Jpz B 2 sin d = M Jpz Bsin

0

(A43 )

This energy is equal to the energy

"extracted" from the field to align each
nuclear
proton
at
the
same
direction ( ), which is given by
(A44 )
U = (1 2 0 H 2V* ) 2 Z

where V* is the volume of the sphere

23
of radius r* , around the nucleus,
defined as follows:
The density of energy W is the same
in each point inside H . This means
that the density of energy in each
orbital electron,
W e = M Jez Bsin V orbitalspa ce
is equal to the density in each proton,
W p = M Jpz Bsin V*
where Vorbitalspa ce =

(ratom r* ) ; ratom
3

is the radius of the atom, and V* = 4 3 r*3 .

M Jpz
M Jez
=
(ratom r* )3 r*3
whence,
ratom
= 0.103ratom
1 + 3 M Jez M Jpz

(A45)

MJez = e (e 2me )Jez = 9.271024 A.m2

since
and M

induced magnetic flux density B and

dS is zero, and therefore the magnetic
flux B = B.dS will be positive and, in
accordance with (A40), there will be a
decrease in the gravitational mass of
the sample. However, when the
magnet is moved backward
the
direction of the induced magnetic flux
density is inverted ( the angle
becomes
equal to 1800 ) making
B = B.dS negative. In this case there
will be an increase in the gravitational
mass of the sample. It was implicitly
assumed in both cases that the
oscillating period ( T ) of the magnet is
relatively long.
If T is short the concept of
Effective or Root-Mean-Square Value
may be extended to the
periodic
magnetic flux B = B (t ) . The result is
7

Thus

r* =

the magnet ). Under these

conditions, the angle between the

Jpz

= 1 .41 10 26 A .m 2 .

Note that r* is smaller than the

radius of the first electronic orbit of the
atom (~ 5 10 11 m ).
Comparison of (A43) and (A44)
shows that
3

V*
B = 6.46 10 28 ratom B =
sin =
4 Z M Jpz
Z
0

r 3 d B

= 6.46 10 28 atom
(A46 )
Z cos dS
since
d B = B.dS = B cos dS
Note that the expression of
sin as function of B yields only
positive values of sin . Thus, it
is necessary the
substitution of B
by d B cos dS to show explicitly the
negative values of sin . Thus, if
> 2 the Eq.(A46) yields sin < 0 .
In this case, the sign ( ) in Eq.(A40)
becomes (+ ) .
In practice when a magnet
approaches from a metallic sample, a
magnetic field is induced at the sample
( in opposition to the magnetic field of
7

1 T 2
B dt
(A47)
T 0
Thus, the effective value of B is
B (rms ) (always positive). This means

B (rms ) =

that, cos will be always positive.

Consequently, sin will be always
positive too, and the sign () in
Eq.(A40) does not change, i.e., it will
be always negative.
For sin always positive we
may take the expression of sin as
function of B in (A46). In addition, if
the oscillating period of the magnetic
flux B = B (t ) is short
we may
change B for Brms , and consequently
the substitution of (A46) into (A40)
yields

27 3
mgp = 1 2.52 10 ratom Brms m p

(A48)

For a sinusoidal waveform, the

effective value of the magnetic flux
density, as we know, is

24
Bm
2
According to (A46) the value of
sin will be null when d B = 0 .
Consider then the Maxwell's equation
B
E =
(A49)
t
whence we obtain
B
d
S E dS = S t dS = dt SB dS =
d
(A50)
= B
dt
If B does not depends on time
(constant with respect to the time) then
B t = 0
and (A49) shows that
Brms =

E = 0 . Thus (A50) gives

dB = 0
In this case, Eq.(A46) gives sin = 0
and consequently Eq.(A40) reduces to
mgp = m p .
8

Now consider Eq.(A48). Note

3
that besides Brms it depends on ratom
.
The values of ratom for light elements
such as Mg, Al, Si, are 1.75 10 10 m
respectively.
1.43 1010 m , 1.17 1010 m
For heavy elements such as Pt, Au,
Pb, the values are 1.38 1010 m ,
1.44 1010 m , 1.75 1010 m respectively.
Thus, for Mg or Pb the Eq.(A48) gives

2
mgp = 1 1.35 10 Brms m p

(A51)

which shows that to yield a variation >

1% in the gravitational mass of the
protons of Mg or Pb , it is necessary
Brms > 0.74T Recently, superconducting
magnets are able to produce 14 .7T ,
therefore the validity of this part of the
theory can be checked.
An interesting situation arises
when a body penetrates a magnetic
field in the direction of its center.
According to (A48) the gravitational
masses of the protons of the body
decrease progressively. This is due to

the intensity increase of the

magnetic field upon the body while it
penetrates the field. Equation (4)
shows that the decreasing of
gravitational mass of the body reduces
its momentum. This means that for the
case of collisions the impact produced
by the body will be less than in the
absence of the magnetic field.
In order to understand this
phenomenon we might, based on (45),
think of the inertial mass as being
formed by two parts: one positive and
another negative. Thus, when the body
penetrates the magnetic field its
negative inertial mass increase, but its
total inertial mass decreases, i.e.,
although there is an increase of inertial
mass, the total inertial mass (which is
equivalent to gravitational mass) will be
reduced. Consequently the momentum
of the body will also be reduced.
A strong magnetic field can
therefore function as a protection
shielding against the impact of high
speed particles. This may be
particularly important for the protection
of spacecrafts during spatial flights.

25
APPENDIX B
Equation (59) shows that the
gravitational mass of a supermalloy
wire is strongly decreased when the
electric current through the wire has
extremely-low frequency. As we have
seen, for i0 = 0.04A and f 1.7 106 Hz
at
t = 1 4 f = 1 . 47 10 5 s 40 . 8 h
Eq.(59) gives m g (sm ) mi (sm ) .
The period of this wave is too
long. In order to reduce the period of
the wave we can reduce the diameter
of the wire. For example, in the case
of supermalloy or mumetal wire 0.005"
diameter, the period will be strongly
reduced down to ~100s. In addition, by
digitizing the top of this ELF wave, as
shown in Fig.4, we may produce a

ELF sinusoidal waves

T=1/f

(a)
ELF pulsed waves

T/2
t << T

(b)
ELF working wave
(ELF ww)

T/2

(c)
Fig. 4

ELF digitized wave which obviously

becomes much more adequate for
practical use.
This possibility points to some
interesting systems as shown in Fig.
5. Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the
generation of Lift Force . Figure 5(c)
shows a new concept of motor : the
Gravitational Motor, also based on the
gravity control.
When the gravitational field of an
object changes, the changes ripple
outwards through spacetime. These
ripples are called gravitational radiation
or gravitational waves.
The existence of gravitational
waves follows from the General Theory
of Relativity. In Einstein's theory of
gravity
the
gravitational
waves
propagate at the speed of light.
Just as electromagnetic waves
(EM), gravitational waves (GW) too
carry energy and momentum from their
sources. Unlike EM waves, however,
there is no dipole radiation in Einstein's
theory of gravity. The dominant
channel of emission is quadrupolar.
But the existence of negative
gravitational
mass
suggest
the
possibility of dipole gravitational
radiation.
This fact is highly relevant
because now we can build a
gravitational wave transmitter to
generate
detectable
levels
of
gravitational radiation. Gravitational
waves are very suitable as a means of
transmitting information because of
their low interaction an therefore low
scattering. In figure 5(d) we present the
Gravitational Radiation Transmitter, a
new concept of transmitter that arises
from this new technology.

26
F = (mg(sm) / mi(sm))P0 ; P0 =mi(sm) g

LIFT

Coil
(Supermalloy wire)

ELF ww
Generator

Coil

Coil

(Supermalloy wire)

(Supermalloy wire)

ELF ww
Generator

(a)

(c)

LIFT
GW

Supermalloy

GW

i
ELF ww
Generator
ELF antenna
(supermalloy)

(b)

(d)

Gravitational
waves (GW)will
be radiated from
the supermalloy
as consequence
of the variation of
its gravitational
mass (due to ELF
electromagnetic
field).

Fig. 5 - Schematic diagram of systems using gravity control:

(a) and (b) The generation of Gravitational Lift Force. (c) The Gravitational Motor
(d) The Gravitational Radiation Transmitter.

27
APPENDIX C
In this appendix we will show that
strong fluxes of ELF radiation upon
electric/electronic circuits can suddenly
increase the electric currents and
consequently to damage these circuits.
Let us consider an electric
current I
through a conductor
subjected to electromagnetic radiation
with power density D and frequency f .
Under these circumstances the
gravitational mass mge of the electrons
of the conductor, according to Eq. (58),
is given by
2

1 m e (C1)
m ge = 1 2 1 +

4 fc

31
where me = 9.11 10 kg .
Note that mge , becomes less

electric charges ( For cooper

conductors
e = 1.3 1010 C / m 3
).
Therefore increasing Vd produces an
increase in the electric current I . Thus
if
mge
is reduced
10
times

(m

ge

0.1me ) the drift velocity

Vd is

increased 10 times as well as the

electric current. This sudden increase
in
the
electric
currents
of
electric/electronic circuits can cause
damage.
In order for the ELF radiation to
arrive at each electron, the flux density
D must be greater than Dmin given by

reduced. For example, if f 106 Hz ,

D 10 5 W / m 2 and the conductor is
made of copper ( 0 ; = 5.8107 S / m

hf 2
(C 4 )
Dmin =
Aelectron
where Aelectron is the "area of cross
section" of the electron. We know that
the leptons should have length scale
less than
10-19m [25]. This means
that an electron has a maximum,
-19
"radius" of re~10 m. The plausible
relation given by Brodsky and Drell [26]
for the simplest composite theoretical
model of the electrons, g 2 = re c

and = 8900kg / m 3 ) then

or

than the inertial mass, me . If the

radiation upon the conductor
has
extremely-low
frequency
(ELF
radiation) then mge can be strongly

1
4fc
and consequently m ge 0.1me .
According to Eq.(6) the force
upon each free electron is given by
mge
dV
Fe =
= eE
(C 2)
3
2
2 2 dt
1V c
9

where E is the applied electric field.

Therefore the decreasing of mge
produces an increase in the velocity V
of
the
free electrons
and
consequently the drift velocity Vd is
also increased. It is known that the
density of electric current J through a
conductor [24] is given by
J = eV d
(C 3)
where e is the density of the free
9

g gDIRAC = re

c
:

where

= 3.9 1013 m and g 2 = 1.1 10 10 m

[27] gives an electron radius of

re 1022 m
Aelectron 10 45 m

Therefore assuming
(C4) gives
D min 10 12 f

(C 5 )

Thus, for
f 106 Hz
we have
2
D min 1W / m .
Since the orbital electrons
moment of inertia is given by
I i = (mi )j r j2 , where
mi refers to
inertial mass and not to gravitational
mass, then the momentum L = I i of
the conductor orbital electrons are not
affected by the ELF radiation.
Consequently this radiation just affects
the conductor free electron velocities.

28
APPENDIX D
Here we will show that the
possible existence of ELF radiation
into solar radiation can explain the
anomalous acceleration which has
been observed on the Pioneer 10 and
11 spacecrafts in the solar system [28]
and also the anomalous behavior of
mechanical systems during solar
eclipses observed by Allais [29] with
paraconical pendula and Saxl and
Allen [30] with a torsion pendulum and
measurements with gravimeters.
Equation (58) shows that the
presence of ELF radiation (frequency
ranging between 0.1Hz down to
into solar radiation can
0.1nHz )
slightly reduce the
gravitational
masses of any body in the solar
system. The gravitational mass of
these bodies become less than their
inertial masses, mi , as expressed by
2

1 m (D1)
m g = 1 2 1 +

4fc

The total energy of the spacecraft

(Hamiltonian) according to (20), is

H =

p 2 c 2 + mg2 c 2 .

Therefore

the

decreasing of m g reduces the total

energy of the spacecraft, and
consequently its acceleration. This
explains the fact that the Pioneer 10
and 11 spacecrafts, launched by
NASA, in the early 1970s, are receding
from the sun slightly more slowly than
they should be.
Similarly, the ELF solar radiation
slightly reduces the gravitational mass
of the Earth, M g , and consequently it
becomes smaller than its inertial mass
M i .
From Electrodynamics we know
that
radiation with frequency
f
propagating within a material with
electromagnetic characteristics ,
and has the amplitudes of its waves

attenuated by e1=0.37 (37%) when it

penetrates a distance z, given by
1
z=
(D2)
2

1
2 1 + ( ) 1

The radiation is mostly absorbed if it

penetrates a distance 5z.
Based on this equation we can
easily conclude that the ELF solar
radiation is mostly absorbed by the
moon, therefore during the eclipses,
when the moon passes in front of the
sun, the ELF solar radiation ceases to
fall upon the Earth and, according to
(D1), the gravitational mass of the
Earth increases ( M g becomes equal
to M i ) slightly increasing the gravity
g = GM g r 2 .
Similarly,
the
gravitational mass of the pendulum,
mg , also increases slightly during the
eclipse. Since the period, T , of the
pendulum is given by
m l
(D3)
T = 2 i
mg g

one can conclude that during the
eclipses the pendulum's periods are
slightly decreased. This means that
their motion becomes faster during the
eclipses, such as has been observed
in the experiments of Allais, Saxl and
Allen.

29
APPENDIX E
Equation (70) shows that the
gravitational
interaction
can
be
repulsive,
besides
attractive.
Therefore, as with electromagnetic
interaction, the gravitational interaction
must be produced by the exchange of
"virtual" quanta of spin 1 and mass
null, i.e., the gravitational "virtual"
quanta (gravitons) must have spin 1
and not 2.
It is known that the gravitational
interaction
is
instantaneously
communicated to all the particles of the
Universe. This means that the velocity
of the gravitational "virtual" quanta
must be infinite.
Consider a Mumetal ELF
antenna as showed in Fig.6. The ELF
electric
current
through
it
is
ie = i0 sint = i0 sin 2ft . According to
(59) the gravitational mass of the
antenna is given by

{ [

]}

mg = 12 1+ ie4 64 3c2 2 S 4 f 3 1 mi (E1)

where , , and S are respectively
the density, the magnetic permeability,
the electric conductivity and the area of
the antenna cross section.
It is easy to see that the ELF
electric current yields a variation in the
gravitational mass of the antenna,
which is detected instantaneously by
all particles of the Universe, i.e., the
gravitational "virtual" quanta emitted
from the antenna will instantaneously
reach all particles.
When
a
particle
absorbs
photons, the momentum of each
photon is transferred to particle and, in
accordance with (41), the gravitational
mass of the particle is altered.
Similarly
to
the
photons
the
gravitational "virtual" quanta have
mass null and momentum. Therefore
the gravitational masses of the

particles
are also altered by the
absorption of gravitational "virtual"
quanta.
If the
gravitational "virtual"
quanta are emitted by an antenna
(like a Mumetal ELF antenna) and
absorbed by a similar antenna, tunned
to the same frequency f , the changes
on the gravitational mass of the
receiving antenna, in accordance with
the principle of resonance, will be
similar to changes occurred on the
transmitting
antenna,
and
consequently the induced current
through the receiving antenna has the
same frequency f and, in agreement
with (E1), must be similar to electric
current through the transmitting
antenna. The Fig. 7 shows the
emission
and detection
of
gravitational "virtual" quanta by two
Mumetal ELF antennas.
Note that the changes of
gravitational mass of the antenna also
produce the so-called gravitational
waves which are ripples in the
geometry of the spacetime. This is
produced by the changes on the
gravitational field of the antenna. When
the gravitational field changes, the
changes ripple outwards through
space and take a finite time to reach
other objects. In Einstein's theory of
gravity these ripples (gravitational
waves) propagate at the speed of light
( c ).
Therefore the velocity of the
gravitational waves is much less than
the velocity ( ) of the gravitational
"virtual" quanta (gravitons). There is
another
fundamental
difference
between the gravitational waves and
gravitons: the gravitational waves are
real unlike the gravitons which are
virtual .
Note that a Mumetal ELF
antenna
emits
gravitons
and
gravitational waves simultaneously.
Thus it is not only a gravitational

30

M
u
m
e
t
a
l

Gravitational
"virtual" quanta
v=

ie

Electromagnetic Waves
v=c
Gravitational Waves
v=c

Fig. 6

31

Receiver
M
u
m
e
t
a
l

ir
f

Gravitational "Virtual" Quanta

( Gravitons )

Instantaneous Transmission
at any distance

M
u
m
e
t
a
l

f
ie

Transmitter
Fig. 7

32
antenna: it is a macroscopic quantum
gravitational antenna because
can
also emit and detect gravitational
"virtual" quanta, which can to transmit
information instantaneously from any
distance in the Universe
without
scattering.
Unlike the
electromagnetic
waves the gravitational waves have
low interaction and consequently low
scattering.
Therefore
gravitational
waves are suitable as a means of
transmitting information. However,
when the distance between transmitter
and
receiver
is too large, for
example of the order of magnitude of
several light-years, the transmission of
information by means of gravitational
waves becomes impracticable due to
the long time necessary to receive the
information. The velocity of the
gravitational waves is equal to the
speed of light ( c ) therefore the delay
would be in the order of several years.
The velocity of the gravitational
"virtual " quanta is infinite thus there is
no delay during the transmissions. The
scattering of this radiation is null.
Therefore this gravitational "virtual"
radiation or gravitational "virtual"
waves are very suitable as a means of
transmitting
information
at
any
distances
including
astronomical
distances.
In order to check these
theoretical predictions we propose the
following experiment: A transmitter and
a receiver both with Mumetal antennas
will be placed in two very distant
places, like Mars and Earth ( the
distance
is
~7.9X1010m).
Electromagnetic waves or gravitational
real waves emitted from Mars will need
~ 4.4 minutes to arrive at Earth. There
is no delay in the case of gravitational
"virtual" waves due to their infinite
velocity. Therefore simply checking
that there is no delay during the
transmission by
using
Mumetal
antennas we can check the existence
of the gravitons.

Since
the
gravitational
masses of the antennas vary during
the transmissions then another way to
check the existence of the gravitons is
to measure the weight of the receiving
and transmitting antennas during the
transmissions. In this case is not
necessary to put the antennas in very
distant places.
It is easy to see that the
information transportation with infinite
velocity by means of gravitons
promises to be quite useful for the
Internet (Quantum Internet) and also
for the development of Quantum
Teleportation Systems.
By operating with infinite velocity
and not with the speed of light these
systems will solve in the future the
problem of the cosmic transportation of
long range, since it is impracticable for
spacecrafts even with velocities very
close to light speed to reach places
whose distances are greater than 100
light-years.

33
REFERENCES
[1] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum gravity, an
Oxford Symposium, OUP.
[2] Isham, C.J., (1997) "Structural Problems
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory'', in M,
Francaviglia, G, Longhi, L, Lusanna, and
E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings of the 14th
International Conference on General
Relativity and Gravitation, 167-209,
(World Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
[3] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie
du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow, Portuguese
version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, p.35.
[4] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969)
Mecanique, Ed.MIR, Moscow, 15.
[5] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.35.
[6] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.36.
[7] Beiser, A. (1967) Concepts of Modern
Physics, McGraw-Hill, Portuguese version
(1969) Ed. Poligno, S.Paulo, p.151.
[8] Schiff, L.I. (1981) Quantum Mechanics,
McGraw-Hill, p.54.
[9] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.324.
[10] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.357.
[11] Landau, L.and Lifchitz,E.[3],p.p.358-359.
[12] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.64.
[13] Luminet, J. at al., (2003) Nature 425,
593595.
[14] Ellis, G.F.R (2003) Nature 425, 566567.
[15] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.440-441.
[16] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.333.
[17] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.331.
[18] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E.[3], p.327.
[19] Hawking, S.W (1971) MNRAS., 152, 75.
[20] Carr, B.J.(1976) Astrophys.J., 206,10.
[21] Beiser, A. (1967) Concepts of Modern
Physics, McGraw-Hill, Portuguese version
(1969) Ed. Poligno, S.Paulo, p.223.
[22] Alonso, M.and Finn, E.(1967)Fundamental
University Physics,Addison-Wesley,Portuguese
version (1972) Ed. Blcher, S.Paulo, p.79-80.

[23] Alonso, M.and Finn, E.(1967)Fundamental

University Physics,Addison-Wesley,Portuguese
version (1972) Ed. Blcher, S.Paulo, p.89.

[24] Quevedo, C.P.(1978) Eletromagnetismo,

McGraw-Hill, p. 102.
[25] Fritzsch, H. (1984) Quarks-Urstoff
unserer Welt, R. Piper GmbH&Co.
KG,Mnchen, Portuguese version (1990),
Ed. Presena, Lisboa, p.215.

[26] Brodsky, S . J., and Drell, S . D., (1980)

Anomalous Magnetic Moment and Limits
on Fermion Substructure, Phys. Rev. D,
22, 2236.
[27] Dehmelt, H.G.,(1989) Experiments with
an isolated subatomic particle at rest,
Nobel Lecture, p.590.
[28] Anderson, J.D, Lang, P.A, Lau, E. L, Liu,
A.S, Nieto, N.M and Turyshev, S.G.
(2002) Study of the anomalous
acceleration of Pioneer 10 and 11, Phys.
Rev. D 65, 082004. gr-qc/0104064.
[29] Allais, M.F.C (1957) Mouvement du
pendule paraconique et clipse totale de
Soleil 30 jui 1954,
C.R. Acad. Sci,
245,2001.
[30] Saxl, E.J. and Allen, M.(1971) 1970Solar
Eclipse as "Seen" by a Torsion Pendulum,
Phys.rev. D3, 823.