The Power Struggle of The Diadochoi in Babylon, 323 BC : Rrington

1374-08_Anc_Soc38_03_Meeus
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THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON,

323 BC*
Abstract: Immediately after the death of Alexander the Great a fierce
struggle for power ensued among the Diadochoi. It took more than
a month before the final settlement was agreed on because the generals, all of them striving to get as much personal power as possible, did not easily reach a compromise. Moreover, the infantrymen
were not prepared to accept just any decision the generals made.
This paper analyses the decisions taken in the various stages leading to the Babylon settlement, including the complex problem of the
distribution of offices, as well as the decision-making process. It
shows how Perdikkas eventually achieved a very unstable supremacy
after making many concessions, while some of the other Successors
seem to have preferred a territorial power base in one of the
satrapies.
The source material on the first month after the death of Alexander the
Great is relatively abundant. Nonetheless, much is unclear and there
has been a lot of scholarly debate. The last decades important progress
has been made, especially thanks to the works of Errington1, Anson2,
and Bosworth3. Bosworths thorough analysis will definitely set the
standard for many years to come. Thus, I do not need to deal with
every aspect, and I shall concentrate on a few problems which centre
around the power struggle of Alexanders generals who all tried to get
the most advantageous position possible in the new political set-up.
* I would like to thank professors Hans Hauben, Leon Mooren, Willy Clarysse, Guido
Schepens, and Hubert Meeus for their many useful remarks on earlier versions of this
paper. They do not, however, agree with everything stated here, and any remaining flaws
and errors are of course entirely my own.
Journal abbreviations are those of Lanne philologique. The translations of Curtius
and Justin are Yardleys (Quintus Curtius Rufus, The History of Alexander [Penguin
Classics], Middlesex 1984; Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus
[Classical Resources, 3], Atlanta 1994); all other translations are from the Loeb Classical
Library, unless stated otherwise.
1
R.M. ERRINGTON, From Babylon to Triparadeisos: 323-320 B.C., JHS 90 (1970),
p. 49-77.
2
E.M. ANSON, Craterus and the Prostasia, CPh 87 (1992), p. 38-43.
3
A.B. BOSWORTH, The Legacy of Alexander. Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under
the Successors, Oxford 2002, p. 29-63.
Ancient Society 38, 39-82. doi: 10.2143/AS.38.0.2033270

2008 by Ancient Society. All rights reserved.
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1. THE THREE STAGES OF THE BABYLON SETTLEMENT

R.M. Errington has shown the need for distinguishing three stages in the
Babylon settlement4: the meeting immediately after Alexanders death
and the stsiv of the phalanx (1.1); the compromise between nobles and
cavalry on the one side and infantry on the other (1.2); and the final settlement (1.3)5. Many scholars have neglected his conclusions and confusion continues6. Bosworth does take the different stages into account, and
consequently, his study is to my mind the first one to give a satisfactory
solution for the distribution of the offices.
1.1. The first meeting and the stsiv

Alexander died on the 11th of June7. The next day the main officers and
friends of the king met in the palace to discuss the succession. Our most
detailed sources on the episode, Curtius and Justin, contradict each other
on several important issues (cf. infra). Curtius is often reproached to have
adapted his account to reflect Roman history of his own time8, but scholars do not agree on which time this exactly was. This inconclusiveness
4
According to A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 32-34, settlement is a misnomer.
He is right in stressing the instability of it, but instable as it was, it still was a settlement.
5
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 54. Cf. F. SCHACHERMEYR, Alexander in Babylon
und die Reichsordnung nach seinem Tode (sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte 268), Wien 1970, p. 144-146, who,
however, did not yet fully realise the extent of the reorganisation in the final settlement.
6
E.g. M. RATHMANN, Perdikkas zwischen 323 und 320. Nachlassverwalter des Alexanderreiches oder Autokrat? (sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophischhistorische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte 724), Wien 2005, p. 27-28, who sees contradictions
concerning Krateros position in Photius epitome of Arrian, but actually fails to distinguish
between the second and the third stage.
7
L. DEPUYDT, The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 B.C. (-322),
ca. 4:00-5:00 PM, Die Welt des Orients 28 (1997), p. 117-135; T. BOIY, Late Achaemenid
and Hellenistic Babylon (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 136), Leuven 2004, p. 116117.
8
See the overview of J.E. ATKINSON, Q. Curtius Rufus Historiae Alexandri Magni,
in ANRW II 34.4, p. 3471-3472; ID., Originality and its Limits in the Alexander Sources
of the Early Empire, in A.B. BOSWORTH & E.J. BAYNHAM (edd.), Alexander the Great in
Fact and Fiction, Oxford 2000, p. 319-324, who exaggerates Curtius originality
concerning the events at Babylon: the account of the lustration is not implausible and if
it contains details not found elsewhere, it is because Curtius account is the most detailed
one, cf. infra, n. 35. See also E.J. BAYNHAM, Alexander the Great. The Unique History of
Quintus Curtius Rufus, Ann Arbor 1998, passim; D. SPENCER, The Roman Alexander.
Reading a Cultural Myth, Exeter 2002, passim.
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THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC
41
would seem to suggest that Curtius adaptation was not substantial and
rather subtle, and thus probably did not affect his account to a high extent.
His narrative of events in Babylon does contain one set of considerations
on Roman history, but this is clearly marked out as a digression9. The only
problem seems to be in X 8.15-22 where Arrhidaios plays an implausibly active role and gives a very apt and well-considered speech. All other
actions attributed to the king, such as the hearing of ambassadors10, might
well have been executed by his counsellors in Arrhidaios presence11.
Sharples view that Curtius is reticent on Arrhidaios condition is unwarranted: he does not indicate the problem explicitly, but it is clear enough
from his account that Arrhidaios was incapable of acting independently12.
Martins argument that the ignotus in X 7.1-2 must be an invention is not
convincing either13. The easiest solution seems the most attractive to me:
Arrhidaios was for Curtius the ideal compromise figure to give the reconciliatory speech in X 8.15-22 in which the historian could show his
rhetorical talents. Given that the rest of his account is the most plausible
9
Curt. X 9.3-6; at 9.7 he writes: Ceterum, ut at ordinem, a quo me contemplatio publicae felicitatis averterat, redeam (But let me return to the narrative from which my
reflections on our national prosperity diverted me).
10
Curt. X 8.8.
11
As was the case during later embassies at the court of Arrhidaios: Plut., Phoc. 33.712. T.R. MARTIN, Quintus Curtius Presentation of Philip Arrhidaeus and Josephus
Accounts of the Accession of Claudius, AJAH 8 (1983), p. 167-168, argues that Arrhidaios
silence in answer to Meleagros suggestion to kill Perdikkas (X 8.2) is a deliberate and
highly appropriate attitude, but this need not be the case. I. SHARPLES, Curtius Treatment
of Arrhidaeus, in P.J. CONNOR (ed.), Ancient Macedonia: An Australian Symposium. Papers
of the Second International Congress of Macedonian Studies, the University of Melbourne,
8-13 July 1991 [Mediterranean Archaeology, 7 (1994)], Sydney 1995, p. 53 n. 4, also considers X 8.6 as an instance of serious action on Arrhidaios behalf, but it is not impossible for a mentally deficient or retarded person to answer a rather simple question. The
image of an Arrhidaios leaving the meeting because he is frightened by the authority of
the generals (principum auctoritate conterritus X 7.13) does not seem to suggest a king
in full possession of his mental powers.
12
I. SHARPLES, art. cit. (n. 11), p. 54: The impression given by Curtius account is
one of reticence rather than ignorance. At p. 53 n. 4, he writes: Note also that Curtius
makes no mention of a regency for Arrhidaeus. It is clear, however, from X 10.1, where
Perdikkas leads the meeting, that Arrhidaeus was uncapable of doing so, and at X 10.4,
Curtius does mention the regency: Perdicca ut cum rege esset copiisque praesset, quae
regem sequebantur. If Arrhidaios did not suffer any deficiency, he could have commanded
the royal army himself; now Perdikkas has to do so.
13
T.R. MARTIN, art. cit. (n. 11), p. 161-190. See the refutation by I. SHARPLES, art. cit.
(n. 11), p. 56-58; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 35-38; E.M. ANSON, Eumenes of
Cardia. A Greek among Macedonians (Ancient Mediterranean and Medieval Texts and
Contexts. Studies in Philo of Alexandria and Mediterranean Antiquity, 3), Boston 2004,
p. 54 n. 17.
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and cogent one14, there is no reason to conclude that the insertion of this
invented speech has greatly affected the narrative of the events themselves.
The contents of the debates in the first meeting after Alexanders death
preserved in Curtius (X 6-7.15) and Justin (XIII 2.4-14) are also regarded
as largely fictitious by some scholars15. According to Hammond Curtius
and Justin added typically Roman race prejudice to the speeches16.
This need not be the case as it is clear to what extent most Macedonians
disliked Alexanders orientalisation policy17. Political tensions among the
Macedonians themselves also played a part here: it had been Perdikkas
proposal to await the birth of Rhoxanes child and make it king if it
should prove to be a boy. Perdikkas opponents rejected the proposal not
only because they objected to a half-Asian king, but also to thwart his
plans, and the argument of the Asian descent of the child was a convenient pretext for doing so. McKenchie even argued that Curtius account
of the debates is simply a rhetorical elaboration of the traditional debate
on the three constitutions (monarchy, oligarchy and democracy)18. His
argument is far-fetched and has been convincingly rejected by others19.
14
Cf. R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 75: we should be grateful that his intelligent and coherent account has survived.
15
R.N.H. BOERMA, Justinus boeken over de diadochen, een historisch commentaar.
Boek 13-15 cap. 2 met een inleiding op de bronnen voor de periode 323-302 v.C., Amsterdam 1979, p. 276; N.G.L. HAMMOND, A History of Macedonia III, 336-167 B.C., Oxford
1988, p. 101 n. 1.
16
N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 102 n. 1; cf. R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15),
p. 107.
17
Cf. G. WIRTH, Zur Politik des Perdikkas 323, Helikon 7 (1967), p. 297 n. 56; A.B.
BOSWORTH, Alexander and the Iranians, JHS 100 (1980), p. 7; W.S GREENWALT, Polygamy
and Succession in Argead Macedonia, Arethusa 22 (1989), p. 39-42, especially 39 n. 80;
J. ROISMAN, Honor in Alexanders campaign, in ID. (ed.), Brills Companion to Alexander
the Great, Leiden 2003, p. 293: We cannot ascertain the authenticity of words put by later
historians into the mouth of Alexander or others, but it can be safely assumed that the
resentment toward what was seen as blurring the lines between conquered and conqueror
was authentic and that it was used in peoples rhetoric against the king or anyone else.
Cf. K. GEUS, Eratosthenes von Kyrene. Studien zur hellenistischen Kultur- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte (Mnchener Beitrge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte, 92), Mnchen 2002, p. 85: Die Frage, welche Stellung die Barbaren im
Weltreich Alexanders einnehmen sollten, bewegte zur Zeit der Diadochen und Epigonen
die Gemter.
18
P. MCKENCHIE, Manipulation of Themes in Quintus Curtius Rufus Book 10, Historia 48 (1999), p. 44-60.
19
E.D. CARNEY, The Trouble with Philip Arrhidaeus, AHB 15 (2001), p. 68-69; A.B.
BOSWORTH, Plus a change Ancient Historians and their Sources, ClAnt 22 (2003),
especially p. 175-186.
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Saying that Curtius and Justin do not hand down the precise words spoken at the meeting is to state the obvious, but the contents of the speeches
they relate accord very well with the political set-up at the time of Alexanders death, and are completely consistent with both earlier and later
events. Consequently, most scholars assume that both ancient authors
provide a quite reliable account of the debates20.
Curtius (X 6.1) says that those invited were the corporis custodes, the
principes amicorum and the duces copiarum. The swmatoflakev, then,
were certainly present, as were the highest commanders and the closest
friends of the king. It is impossible, however, to determine exactly who
belonged to the latter two groups. Whether the rank and file were also present at the meeting is disputed, since the sources present two different traditions on this matter. According to Justin (XIII 2.4-3.1), the leaders held
a separate council in which they decided that Alexander was to be succeeded by his unborn child; afterwards they exacted an oath from the
cavalrymen to make them accept this ordering. Subsequently, the infantry
incensed about not being heard held a gathering where they acclaimed
Arrhidaios king. In Diodorus version (XVIII 2.2) there were also two
separate councils, but he mentions the meeting of the infantrymen first.
Diodorus must have switched the order of the assemblies: it is unthinkable that the leaders would have awaited the initiative of the common
soldiers. Curtius (X 6.1) on the other hand, says that the kings companions summoned a private meeting where the common soldiers forced an
entry, anxious to know what was going to happen. Scholarly opinion is
20
W. SCHUR, Das Alexanderreich nach Alexanders Tode, RhM N.F. 83 (1934), p. 132;
G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 293-294; J. SEIBERT, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Ptolemaios I. (Mnchener Beitrge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte, 56),
Mnchen 1969, p. 32-33; R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 72-75; F. SCHACHERMEYR,
op. cit. (n. 5), p. 122 (especially for Justin; Curtius he deems less reliable); P. GOUKOWSKY,
Essai sur les origines du mythe dAlexandre (336-270 av. J.-C.) I, Les origines politiques,
Nancy 1978, p. 193; L. MOOREN, The Nature of the Hellenistic Monarchy, in E. VAN T
DACK et al. (edd.), Egypt and the Hellenistic World. Proceedings of the International
Colloquium, Leuven 24-26 May 1982 (Studia Hellenistica, 27), Leuven 1983, p. 206 n.
2; W. HECKEL, The Marshals of Alexanders Empire, London 1992, p. 145-147; W.M.
ELLIS, Ptolemy of Egypt, London 1994, p. 25; W.L. ADAMS, The Successors of Alexander,
in L.A. TRITLE (ed.), The Greek World in the Fourth Century: from the Fall of the Athenian Empire to the Successors of Alexander, London 1997, p. 229; W. HUSS, gypten in
hellenistischer Zeit. 332-30 v.Chr., Mnchen 2001, p. 82; C. SCHFER, Eumenes von Kardia und der Kampf um die Macht im Alexanderreich (Frankfurter Althistorische Beitrge,
9), Frankfurt am Main 2002, p. 57; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 34-45 and ID., art.
cit. (n. 19), p. 178-180.
44
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divided on this issue: some prefer Justin and Diodorus, others Curtius21.
Mooren has adduced strong arguments in support of Curtius version22.
The kings death must have caused great disturbance with the troops and
it is not unlikely that they went to the palace in their distress. In Justins
account, the nobles arrived at a compromise quite easily, despite their
very differing views and mutual distrust, while Curtius shows that they
only closed ranks when they felt threatened by the resistance of the rank
and file. The latter development is by far the most likely. Moreover, the
version of Justin and Diodorus contains an inconsistency which makes it
very implausible. After Meleagros had opposed to Perdikkas proposal in
the meeting of the nobles and like the infantry championed the
cause of Arrhidaios, the commanders would have chosen precisely him
out of all possible candidates as ambassador who had to convince the
soldiers to accept Alexanders unborn child as king. It is very unlikely that
they lacked discernment to such an extent; consequently, the stories Justin
and Diodorus give have to be rejected23.
21
Justin and Diodorus: J.G. DROYSEN Geschichte des Hellenismus II, Geschichte der
Diadochen, 1877 (= Mnchen 1980), p. 5-7; P. JOUGUET, Limprialisme macdonien et
lhellnisation de lorient (Lvolution de lHumanit), Paris 1926, p. 132; W. SCHWAN,
Die Nachfolge Alexanders des Groen II, Einzelfragen, Klio 24 (1931), p. 309-310;
P. CLOCH, La dislocation dun empire. Les premiers successeurs dAlexandre le Grand
(323-281/280 avant J.-C.), Paris 1959, p. 11-12; P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 7879; R.N.H BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 277; H. BENGTSON, Die Diadochen: die Nachfolger Alexanders des Groen, Mnchen 1987, p. 16-17; N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15),
p. 101-102; A. SIMONETTI AGOSTINETTI, Flavio Arriano: gli eventi dopo Alessandro (Centro Ricerche e Documentazione sullAntichit Classica, Monografie 15), Roma 1993,
p. 34; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 44-45.
Curtius: R. SCHUBERT, Die Quellen zur Geschichte der Diadochenzeit, Leipzig 1914,
p. 110; M.J. FONTANA, Le lotte per la successione di Alessandro Magno dal 323 al 315,
Palermo 1960, p. 16 n. 10; R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 50-51; L. MOOREN, art. cit.
(n. 20), p. 233-236; W.S. GREENWALT, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 20-21; E.M. ANSON, The Evolution of the Macedonian Army Assembly (330-315 B.C.), Historia 40 (1991), p. 236;
W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 146-147; W. HUSS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 82. According to
F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 136, the army attended the meeting of the nobles, but
they only proclaimed Arrhidaios king at a later separate assembly. This view is certainly
impossible: Diodorus/Justin and Curtius provide two distinct traditions here, only one of
which can be correct: mixing both stories is unwarranted. P. BRIANT, Antigone le Borgne.
Les dbuts de sa carrire et les problmes de lassemble macdonienne (Annales littraires de lUniversit de Besanon, 152 Centre de recherches dhistoire ancienne, 10),
Paris 1973, p. 243, assumes that the soldiers stayed outside at the doors, because Curt. X
6.2 does not explicitly state that they entered. The following events, however, clearly imply
that they were inside: see L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 234.
22
L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 233-236.
23
Cf. M.J. FONTANA, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 16 n. 10: Non possibile infatti che i duci, che
sapevano Meleagro contrario alle loro decisioni, inviassero proprio lui come ambasciatore
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Heckel argues that Perdikkas had chosen Meleagros because of the

influence the latter could exercise on the foot soldiers as their commander. This does not seem to be a sufficient reason, as Perdikkas brother
Alketas was also an infantry commander, and he would have been the
obvious choice if being an infantry commander were the criterion by
which the nobles chose their envoy. Heckels counter-argument that the
uprising of the troops against Perdikkas shows that Alketas did not have
enough influence24, is not convincing. Once Meleagros had whipped up
the soldiers by encouraging them to appropriate a part of the booty, it
probably became almost impossible to restrain them, no matter how big
Alketas influence might have been. Consequently, the conclusion that
there was only one meeting, at which the soldiers were present, is the
most plausible one. Curtius does not, however, provide any information
on the number and nature of the troops present at the meeting.
It does not seem possible to identify Curtius sources for his account
of events at Babylon. Concluding that Curtius was the best source for
many elements in the episode following Alexanders death, Errington
suggested that he had based his narrative on Hieronymus of Cardia, but
there is no tangible evidence25. Hornblower, in her book on Hieronymus,
contended that the Cardian did not deal with the events at Babylon in
much detail26. If Hieronymus was anything like the serious Thucydidean
historian he is usually taken to be27, he must have spent considerable
presso la falange; G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 291: Er wre der einzige gewesen, der
nicht htte geschickt werden drfen. According to W. SCHWAN, art. cit. (n. 21), p. 309-310,
and R.N.H BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 112, the fact that Meleagros was sent, proves that he
did not champion Arrhidaios cause in the assembly of the commanders. This is less likely,
however: see below, n. 38. I. SHARPLES, art. cit. (n. 11), p. 55 also thinks that Meleagros did
not say anything in the first meeting, but while a simple error of name might account for the
attribution of Nearchos proposal to Meleagros, Nearchos will not have spoken for Arrhidaios
as he would thus undermine his own argument: Justin must have blended two speeches
together.
24
W. HECKEL, On Attalos and Atalante, CQ n.s. 28 (1978), p. 380.
25
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 72-75.
26
J. HORNBLOWER, Hieronymus of Cardia (Oxford Classical & Philosophical Monographs), Oxford 1981, p. 88-89. For a partial refutation of her argument: see E. BADIAN,
The Ring and the Book, in W. WILL & J. HEINRICHS (edd.), Zu Alexander d.Gr. Festschrift
G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag am 9.12.86, vol. I, Amsterdam 1987, p. 605-606.
27
For recent reiterations of this view see e.g. S. HORNBLOWER, in ID. (ed.), Greek Historiography, Oxford 1994, p. 43; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 169; B. BLECKMANN,
Fiktion als Geschichte. Neue Studien zum Autor der Hellenika Oxyrhynchia und zur Historiographie des vierten vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts (Abhandlungen der Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Gttingen. Philologisch-historische Klasse III, 277), Gttingen 2006,
p. 132. See, however, D. ASHERI, Hieronymus of Cardia c. 364-?260 BC, in N. WILSON
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attention on events at Babylon as they were vital for a proper understanding of the early Successor history. Given that in the general outline
of their narratives on Babylon Diodorus and Justin are much closer to
each other than to Curtius, and that the correspondence between Diodorus
and Justin is usually traced back to Hieronymus28, he might not be the
most likely candidate for being Curtius source. All of this, however,
should not be pressed too far.
From the outset Perdikkas tried to show off his close ties with Alexander29. He had placed the kings throne clearly in view, with the royal diadem, robes and weapons displayed on it. Then, he also added the signet
ring30. After that, he took the floor and proposed to await the birth of
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, New York 2006, p. 359-360, who relievingly points
out how uncertain our knowledge about Hieronymus actually is. Unfortunately, the recently
published P. Oxy. LXXI 4808, a text on Hellenistic historians, hardly adds any certainty
to our knowledge due to its lacunary state. Note, moreover, that the extant part of the
papyrus has only the last part of the authors name: []mos[. The word Diadochoi seems
certain, however, and the probable mention of Antigonos and Demetrios in the second
column does suggest that the text indeed concerns Hieronymus. One would especially
like to know the context of the words prv xrin (I 27), as this most likely was a statement concerning Hieronymus objectivity. If the reading sungra[fev ka nr]
s[p]oudaov[] is correct, it might provide some justification for the view of Hieronymus as a Thucydidean author.
28
Most extensively: F. REUSS, Hieronymus von Kardia. Studien zur Geschichte der
Diadochenzeit, Berlin 1876 (= Aalen 1985), p. 23-35; J. HORNBLOWER, op. cit. (n. 26),
p. 65-67.
29
R.M. ERRINGTON, Alexander in the Hellenistic World, in E. BADIAN (ed.), Alexandre le Grand. Image et ralit (Entretiens sur lAntiquit Classique, 22), Genve 1976,
p. 138-139; P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 81.
30
For the most recent discussion of the problems concerning the signet ring, see M. RATHMANN, op. cit. (n. 6), p. 9-26. A further argument for the historicity of Alexanders giving of
the ring to Perdikkas is provided by the Liber de Morte now that Bosworths excellent analysis has shown it to be Ptolemaic propaganda: A.B. BOSWORTH, Ptolemy and the Will of Alexander, in ID. & E.J. BAYNHAM (edd.), Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, Oxford 2000,
p. 207-241; see also E.J. BAYNHAM, A Baleful Birth in Babylon. The Significance of the
Prodigy in the Liber de Morte An Investigation of Genre, ibid., p. 242-262. Since in a propaganda document Ptolemaios had no reason whatsoever to make up events which were of
no significance to him, and on the contrary will have tried to embed his propagandistic inventions in as many facts as possible, the mention of the giving of the ring at LDM 112 would
now seem to be a conclusive argument for its historicity. If the omission of the ring story in
Arrian and Plutarch is indeed the consequence of Ptolemaios silence on the matter in his
Alexander History (thus most recently M. RATHMANN, op. cit. [n. 6], p. 9-10) and not of the
selection Arrian and Plutarch made, this also constitutes a further argument for the early date
of Ptolemaios History. As Bosworths study of the LDM shows that it was written about
309/8, we have a terminus ante quem for determing when Ptolemaios thought it useful to
conceal that Perdikkas had received the signet ring. There was indeed no reason to suppress
the fact in or after 309 as Perdikkas had long been dead by that time, and we may well assume,
then, that Ptolemaios wrote his history at the time of the struggle against Perdikkas.
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Alexanders child and to make it king if it would prove to be a boy.

Undoubtedly, he hoped to assume power as regent31.
Nearchos, however, argued that there was no point in awaiting an
unborn child while Alexander already had a son by Barsine, namely Herakles, as we learn from Curtius32. According to Justin (XIII 2.6-7) this
was Meleagros idea, but it is clear that Curtius is correct. On the occasion of the mass marriage at Susa, Nearchos had married a daughter of
Barsine33. If his proposal were to be accepted, he would be married to a
half sister of the king. Mehl considers Nearchos intervention as part of
the Bestrebungen der makedonischen Groen, den Reichsverband zu
lockern, because he interprets it as an attempt to undermine the possibility of a strong monarchy with Perdikkas as king34. At that time, however, that possibility had not yet been considered. Nearchos simply
wanted to develop a personal power base: as son-in-law of the queen
mother he could be very influential at court35. Although he vehemently
defended his cause, he did not get any support36. Boerma doubts that the
Greek Nearchos attended the meeting, and deems it impossible that this
proposal was uttered immediately after Perdikkas37. Given Nearchos
31
Curt. X 6.8-9 and Just. XIII 2.5; W. SCHUR, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 132. M. RATHMANN,
op. cit. (n. 6), p. 31, is too enthusiastic about Perdikkas good intentions when he interprets the nomination of Alexander IV as a proof of loyalty without even considering that
Perdikkas might just have aimed at a long period of regency.
32
Curt. X 6.10-11.
33
Arr., Anab VII 4.6.
34
A. MEHL, Seleukos Nikator und sein Reich. I. Teil, Seleukos Leben und die Entwicklung seiner Machtposition (Studia Hellenistica, 28), Lovanii 1986, p. 25.
35
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 50 and 74; P.A. BRUNT, Alexander, Barsine and
Heracles, RFIC 103 (1975), p. 31-32; D. OGDEN, Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death. The
Hellenistic Dynasties, London 1999, p. 47; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 38. According to P. MCKENCHIE, art. cit. (n. 18) p. 60, one should have no faith in Curtius unless
another source confirms his statements. J.L. ONEIL, Political Trials under Alexander the
Great and his Successors, Antichthon 33 (1999), p. 29, endorses this view, but in a slightly
more balanced way; cf. also J.E. ATKINSON, review of Bosworth, op. cit. (n. 3), CR n.s.
54 (2004), p. 158. Since Curtius account is the only correct one on this particular matter,
McKenchies view is untenable; cf. n. 19. Moreover, it is a priori clear that such a method
cannot be applied here. As Curtius provides the most elaborate account on the Babylon
settlement we have, he must by definition have written things not to be found in any of
the other preserved sources, but which certainly featured in some of the accounts which
have not been handed down.
36
Curt. X 6.12: Nulli placebat oratio. () iamque prope ad seditionem pervenerant,
Nearcho pervicacius tuente sententiam [Nobody liked Nearchus suggestion () and, as
Nearchus pressed his idea with greater insistence, they came close to rioting].
37
R.N.H BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 106.
48
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A. MEEUS
position under Alexander there is no reason to deny that he participated

in the debates. To propose making a son albeit a bastard of Alexander king immediately after the idea to appoint an unborn son was brought
forward, is logic itself.
These proposals provoked a fierce reaction from Meleagros. He rejected
the possibility of having a half Asian (sc. Alexanders unborn child or Herakles) rule over Macedonians, and therefore suggested that Alexanders
half-brother be chosen instead38. His suggestion was probably inspired by
personal ambition as well since the feeble-minded Arrhidaios would never
have been able to exercise power: Meleagros could then claim the regency
as he had supported the king from the very beginning39.
Deeming neither of the aforementioned candidates suited to rule the
Macedonian empire, Ptolemaios proposed that a council of those who
were closest to the deceased king should take up the government, meeting at Alexanders throne40. Justin (XIII 2.11-12) probably misrepresents
38
Just. XIII 2.6-10. Determining Meleagros attitude is difficult because the contradictions in the sources do not allow a clear conclusion. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3),
p. 38-40, has shown that he was most likely the first one to recommend Arrhidaios. It is
almost inconceivable that the army commanders would have discussed the candidacy of
Herakles and Rhoxanes unborn child, while failing to consider Arrhidaios. Meleagros,
then, was the one to push Alexanders half-brother forward, and he was followed by the
infantrymen. According to P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 330-331, Arrhidaios was le successeur dj dsign; this is endorsed by F.J. FERNANDEZ NIETO, La designacin del
sucesor en el antiguo reino de Macedonia, in V. ALONSO TRONCOSO (ed.), DIADOXOS
TJS BASILEIAS. La figura del sucesor en la realeza helenstica (Gerin Anejos, 9),
Madrid 2005, p. 39. There is, however, no trace of a designated successor in the sources,
and their arguments fail to convince. The situation under the Antigonids is no proof for
Argead practices. Curtius X 7.15 shows most of all that it was important to be of Argead
descent, not that there was any additional designation of a successor among the Argead
candidates. Even if the religious functions of the king are as important as Briant supposes,
the military tasks were at least as important, and it is quite unlikely that Alexander would
have appointed a successor who would never be able to command the army. Arrhidaios
was to only Argead to survive Alexanders accession to the throne, and this might well
have been because Alexander thought he would never be able to rule (A.B. BOSWORTH,
Conquest and Empire. The Reign of Alexander the Great, Cambridge 1988, p. 27-28; E.D.
CARNEY, art. cit. [n. 19], p. 65-66; S. MLLER, Manahmen der Herrschaftssicherung
gegenber der makedonische Opposition bei Alexander dem Groen [Europische
Hochschulschriften III, 974], Frankfurt am Main 2003, p. 34-43). That Arrhidaios did in
fact come to the throne was the result of a crisis no one could have foreseen; he would
never have become king under normal circumstances.
39
R.A. BILLOWS, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State
(Hellenistic Culture and Society, 4), Berkeley 1990, p. 53: Meleagros, naturally, expected
to wield actual power in Arrhidaioss name.
40
Curt. X 6.13-15. According to P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 193, Ptolemaios only
proposed this at a later time, namely the moment the nobles had to present a united front to
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49
Ptolemaios words here, making him suggest choosing one of Alexanders friends as king41. It is highly unlikely that Ptolemaios would have
made such a proposal: he must have realized that they were not going to
choose him, in which case it would become very difficult to develop a
personal position of power. Whatever his ambition was, the appointment
of a strong king could not have served it, unless he himself had been that
king. Contrary to what some scholars think42, Ptolemaios proposal was
Meleagros and the infantrymen (see below). Since both Justin and Curtius relate Ptolemaios
speech at this point, and it fits the logical course of the debate very well, his view seems
unwarranted. W.L. ADAMS, The Hellenistic Kingdoms, in G.R. BUGH (ed.), The Cambridge
Companion to the Hellenistic World, Cambridge 2006, p. 29, interprets Ptolemaios proposal
as a temporary solution, postponing the definite settlement until Rhoxanes child was born.
Both in Justin and in Curtius, however, it is clear that he did not want to appoint a king and
intended his solution to be in theory permanent. In practice, of course, he hoped to
gain as much personal power as possible, as soon as possible in this way.
41
Some have held that Justin means that Ptolemaios wanted the satrapies to be distributed among Alexanders friends who would then also jointly rule the empire: thus
G. WIRTH, review of Seibert, op. cit. (n. 20), BO 30 (1973), p. 411; P. GOUKOWSKY, op.
cit. (n. 20), p. 193. A more likely interpretation is offered in the translations of Seel and
Yardley: O. SEEL, Pompeius Trogus. Weltgeschichte von den Anfngen bis Augustus im
Auszug des Justin. Eingeleitet, bersetzt und erlutert, Zrich 1972, p. 242; J.C. YARDLEY, Justin. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus (APA. Classical
Resources, 3), Atlanta, GA 1994, p. 124; cf. W. HECKEL, The Politics of Distrust: Alexander and his Successors, in D. OGDEN (ed.), The Hellenistic World. New Perspectives,
London 2002, p. 82. They interpret the words qui provincias regant, quibus bella mandentur as being on the same level as qui prae virtute regi suo proximi fuerint. Justin, then,
says that Ptolemaios claimed that it is better to choose from those who stood close to their
late king in personal qualities, who are the governors of provinces, who are entrusted with
military campaigns (trans. Yardley, adapted). The change of tense is to be explained by
the fact that the king was dead, while the generals still held the government of the satrapies
and the military commands. Justin does not mention any council, and it would have been
impracticable to meet regularly for satraps who were scattered throughout the entire
empire; Wirths argument on the matter is unconvincing. R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15),
p. 321, holds that Curtius has adapted his account to his own view on the events, but he
does not say what this view would have been. It is much more likely that Trogus/Justin
could not conceive the empire being governed by a council and therefore made Ptolemaios
propose chosing a king from among Alexanders closest friends. I would like to thank dr.
Gert Partoens for discussing this passage with me. Professor Mooren pointed out to me
that since Justin does not expressly say that one man had to be chosen, he might well
mean that the members of a council had to be elected. If this is what Justin wanted to say,
his wording is extremely clumsy. To my mind the context does seem to suggest that the
choice of a king is what he was talking about.
42
A. BOUCH-LECLERCQ, Histoire des Lagides I, Les cinq premiers Ptolmes (323-181
avant J.-C.), Paris 1903, p. 9; W. SCHUR, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 132; M.J. FONTANA op. cit.
(n. 21), p. 206; K. ROSEN, Politische Ziele in der frhen hellenistischen Geschichtsschreibung, Hermes 107 (1979), p. 465; A. MEHL, op. cit. (n. 34), p. 25; G. WIRTH, Alexander, Kassander und andere Zeitgenossen. Erwgungen zum Problem ihrer Selbstdarstellung, Tyche 4 (1989), p. 202.
50
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A. MEEUS
not meant to weaken the unity of the empire43; disbanding the territory
Alexander had conquered, was unthinkable at that time44. He might really
have thought that it was possible to administer the empire in this way, but
more likely the proposal was simply aimed at preventing anyone else
from obtaining more power than he did the best he could hope for in
the given circumstances or at least undermining Perdikkas authority45. If so, he was apparently successful, because more nobles approved
of his suggestion than of Perdikkas, probably because most of them
deemed it the best way to obtain a position of power since they could not
all hope to become regent46. The difference of opinion should not be interpreted as the manifestation of an ideological opposition between advocates and opponents of collegiate government: it was mere expediency
with everyone adopting the point of view that was most suited to serve
his personal ambition. Schfer assumes that Ptolemaios might have acted
im Sinn des Perdikkas because he suggested that the council should
meet at Alexanders throne, the very throne on which Perdikkas had put
the ring47. This seems to be a shallow connection. Both men referred to
Alexander in order to grant some legitimacy to their proposals, but Ptolemaios proposition was almost diametrically opposed to Perdikkas: while
the latter wanted to appoint a king, the former explicitly suggested not
doing so. If Ptolemaios wanted to support Perdikkas, he would have
agreed with him instead of making a counterproposal.
43
Cf. P. JOUGUET, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 132; J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 32; R.M.
ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 74: an implication which it is difficult to see; L. MOOREN,
art. cit. (n. 20), p. 232: In Ptolemys opinion Macedon and its empire could survive without a king; M.B. HATZOPOULOS, Macedonian Institutions under the Kings I, A Historical and Epigraphic Study (Meletemata, 22), Athens 1996, p. 343-344.
44
P. JOUGUET, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 131: La pense de partager lEmpire ne pouvait
venir lesprit daucuns des grands chefs qui dlibrrent Babylone, aprs la mort
dAlexandre. Si vives que fussent les ambitions de chacun, ces Macdoniens ne pouvaient
songer dtruire luvre de la Macdoine; M.J. FONTANA op. cit. (n. 21), p. 15 n. 5: Era
troppo presto ancora perch il concetta dellunit dellimpero potesse far nascere dubbi o
tendenze separatistiche; W.M. ELLIS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 24: From our perspective, the
division of the empire seems inevitable. It cannot be overstressed that this solution was
unthinkable to the leaders who gathered in Babylon around the corpse of Alexander the
Great.
45
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 50-51 and 74-75: Ptolemys proposal was subtly aimed at undermining Perdiccas pre-eminence (p. 51).
46
Curt. X 6.16: Ptolomaeo quidam, pauciores Perdiccae adsentiebantur (Some
agreed with Ptolemy, fewer with Perdiccas). Cf. L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 233: For
them, as for Ptolemy, it was above all a matter of getting as much as possible out of the
actual political situation, and preventing others from getting more.
47
C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 57.
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51
Next, Aristonous proposed that Perdikkas should be appointed king48.

Despite the backing of the common soldiers, Perdikkas doubted whether
to accept or not49. Some scholars have argued that Curtius wanted to suggest a parallel with Tiberius accession, as the latter also pretended to
hesitate in order to be asked more pressingly; like Tiberius, Perdikkas
was, in their view, unchallenged and had no reason to doubt50. Perdikkas
position, however, was far from secure, and his wavering was welladvised. Curtius only mentions the resistance of Meleagros who even
tried to kill Perdikkas a little later (cf. infra) and Ptolemaios, but there
certainly were others who did not support Perdikkas, among whom were
those who backed Ptolemaios proposal51. Being a threat to their own
power, it is not surprising that Perdikkas kingship was opposed to by
other nobles52. Furthermore, other important generals not present at Babylon, such as Antipatros, Antigonos and Krateros, were potential opponents53. Thus, Perdikkas had to refuse the kingship to save both his position and his life54. Meleagros then started stirring up the soldiers and
48
Curt. X 6.16-17. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 43, doubts whether Aristonous
actually made this proposal and he argues that Curtius account might reflect negative
propaganda here. It is clear, however, that Aristonous was one of Perdikkas supporters,
as Bosworth himself indicates; cf. R.M. ERRINGTON, Bias in Ptolemys History of Alexander, CQ N.S. 19 (1969), p. 235-236 and W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 275-276. That Justin
does not mention Aristonous proposal is merely a matter of abbreviation; he leaves out
some of the other speakers as well: see R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 278. Consequently, I see no reason to reject Curtius account on this matter. Pace G. WIRTH, art. cit.
(n. 17), p. 288, summa imperii should rather be taken to mean supreme power than the
highest office, and consequently we need not assume that Aristonous has changed his proposal during his speech.
49
Curt. X 6.18: Haerebat inter cupiditatem pudoremque et, quo modestius quod
expectabat adpeteret, pervicacius oblaturos esse credebat (Perdiccas wavered, wishing
to do it but bashful, and he thought that the more diffident he was in seeking what he
expected to be his the more insistently they would press it upon him).
50
E. BADIAN, Studies in Greek and Roman History, Oxford p. 263; R.M. ERRINGTON,
art. cit. (n. 1), p. 51; J.E. ATKINSON, A Commentary on Q. Curtius Rufus Historiae Alexandri Magni Books 3 and 4 (London Studies in Classical Philology, 4), Amsterdam 1980,
p. 36; L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 237 n. 144. That the opposition to Perdikkas is less
clear in the other sources is, again, a consequence of the difference in extensiveness
between Curtius and the other authors: cf. above, n. 35. The question whether Tiberius
position actually was that stable need not detain us here, but see D. SHOTTER, Tiberius
Caesar (Lancaster Pamphlets in Ancient History), London 20042, p. 18-19.
51
Cf. R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 50-51.
52
Curt. X 6.18-22; cf. L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 236.
53
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 49; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 31-32.
54
Cf. R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 50-51; L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 236237; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 145; D. BRAUND, After Alexander: the Emergence of
the Hellenistic World, 323-281, in A. ERSKINE (ed.), A Companion to the Hellenistic World
52
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A. MEEUS
prompted them to seize the booty55. Apparently he was successful,

because he found wide support with them56.
The opposition of the soldiers eventually led to a compromise among
the nobles57. According to Curtius (X 7.8), they agreed that Perdikkas
and Leonnatos would be tutor for the unborn child, while Antipatros and
Krateros would hold joint responsibility for the government of Europe.
Justin (XIII 2.14) on the other hand, says that Perdikkas, Leonnatos,
Antipatros and Krateros were all appointed tutor. The first problem is
to determine the meaning of tutor: it could either be regent or guardian,
or both. This question need not detain us here. For the present purpose it
is enough to know that it certainly meant regent, and that it might have
included guardianship as well58. Determining whether there were two or
four tutores is difficult, but the more detailed information given by Curtius seems more likely because Justin often makes mistakes in abbreviating, and this might be another instance of simplification in his account,
changing two tutores and two governors of Europe into four tutores59.
Apparently the opposition among the nobles was strong enough to prevent that Perdikkas became the sole regent, despite the precarious situation. Another possibility is that the joint regency was a way to try to
appease Meleagros and his supporters somewhat because having a colleague made it more difficult for Perdikkas to usurp the kingship, as he
was planning to do according to Meleagros claims60. In any case, it is
(Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Oxford 2003, p. 22: His whole stance as
the guardian of Alexanders interests required hesitation, for Alexanders widow was pregnant and might produce a son and heir. As Alexanders champion Perdikkas could hardly
seize the throne from the kings son: much better to be regent, if there were to be a son.
55
Curt. X 6.20-24.
56
Curt. X 7.1.
57
W. SCHUR, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 132-133; R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 52;
L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 236. Contra: I. SHARPLES, art. cit. (n. 11), p. 59-60.
58
On this and related problems, see A. MEEUS, Some Institutional Problems concerning the Succession to Alexander the Great, forthcoming.
59
F. GRANIER, Die makedonische Heeresversammlung. Ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht (Mnchener Beitrge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte, 13),
Mnchen 1931, p. 59; N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 101; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit.
(n. 3), p. 44, prefer Justins account. J.G. DROYSEN, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 6; W. ENSSLIN, Die
Gewaltenteilung im Reichsregiment nach Alexanders Tod, RhM N.F. 74 (1925), p. 303;
P. CLOCH, op. cit. (n. 21) p. 11; M.J. FONTANA, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 18-19; R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 49 n. 1 and 52-53; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 136;
P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 78; R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 110; L. MOOREN,
art. cit. (n. 20), p. 234-235 follow Curtius.
60
Curt. X 7.21. Cf. G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 288. W. ENSSLIN, art. cit. (n. 59),
p. 303, explains the joint regency by the Besorgnis vor einer straffen Zentralgewalt (),
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53
clear that Leonnatos was included into the regency in order to limit
Perdikkas powers. Why Antipatros and Krateros, both absent from Babylon, were included in the compromise is unclear61. The appointment of
the governor of Europe does not seem a pressing concern at a time when
a civil war is about to arise over the question of the succession to the
throne.
The infantry, under Meleagros direction, refused to recognise the settlement of the generals and revolted. Most nobles fled the city, along with
the cavalry, but Perdikkas and a small circle of collaborators stayed within
the walls and tried to come to terms with the soldiery62. His opponents
sent a hit squad to kill Perdikkas, but he managed to escape63.
1.2. The compromise

By means of diplomatic machinations, Perdikkas succeeded in reaching
an agreement with the infantrymen, but it is unclear how much time it
took64. Arrhidaios (under the dynastic name of Philippos) and Alexanders
unborn child if it proved to be a boy would be joint kings65. The
organisation of the government is highly debated as most scholars fail to
distinguish this compromise from the final settlement66. The nobles did
not really reconcile themselves to the agreement reached with the infantry
for the purpose of avoiding civil war, and reorganised the government
again at a later stage (see 1.3). Most scholars, however, have neglected
this, and assume that the final stage only consisted of a distribution of the
die in den Kreisen der Grossen alsbald sich zeigte, but it is highly unlikely that most
nobles wanted a strong central government: cf supra, p. 50-51. Furthermore, a dual regency
is no guarantee for a strong government because internal dissension might cause impairment.
61
According to R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 53, the nobles hoped to win Antipatros and Krateros over to their side by means of their appointment and also to get the support of the phalanx: especially Krateros was very popular with the infantrymen.
P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 294 n. 34, assumes that they hoped to avoid a struggle
for power in Europe by including this regulation in the compromise, but it is very doubtful whether that belonged to the concerns of the generals in Babylon at the time and
whether it was a suitable means of doing so.
62
Curt. X 7.16-21; Diod. XVIII 2.4; Just. XIII 3.4-5.
63
Curt. X 8.1-4; Just. XIII 3.7.
64
See A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 46-49, who solves the contradictions in the
sources very plausibly.
65
Arr., Succ. F1a1; Curt. X 8.22-23; Diod. XVIII 2.4; Just. XIII 4.1-4.
66
See R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 54 n. 42.
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54
Pagina 54
A. MEEUS
satrapies67. Unfortunately no source gives each stage in its entirety and

there are a few contradictions. The following table might bring some clarification: it lists all decisions at the point when they are mentioned in the
sources, i.e. at the moment of the reconciliation with the phalanx on the
one hand (1.2), and at the time of the satrapy distribution on the other
hand (1.3)68:
compromise (1.2)
final settlement (1.3)
Perdikkas
A.3: xiliarxen xiliarxav

v rxen Jfaistwn
J.4.5: castrorum et exercitus
et rerum cura
C.10.4: cum rege esse

copiisque praeesse
D.2.4: pimeljtv tv
basileav
De.1: petrpeuon69 atov
(=the kings) tn rxn
De.4: Jfaistwnov
xiliarxa
H.: ptropov ka pimeljtv
tn basilikn pragmtwn
Krateros
A.3: prosttjv tv
Arridaou basileav
J.4.5: regiae pecuniae
custodia
A.7: the administration of

Europe, except for Thrace and
the adjacent areas (*)
De.4: kjdemona ka sj
prostasa tv basileav
Antipatros
A.3: stratjgv tn kat

tn Erpjn
J.4.5: Macedoniae et Graeciae
Antipater praeponitur
A.7: the administration of

Europe, except for Thrace and
the adjacent areas (*)
D.3.2(*) and De.3 (*): idem
Meleagros
A.3: parxov Perdkkou

C.8.22: tertius dux
J.4.5: castrorum et exercitus
et rerum cura
67
The first scholars to recognize that there was a later reorganisation of the central
government were R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 54, and F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit.
(n. 5), p. 144-146: see above, n. 5.
68
A. = Arr., Succ. F1a; Ap. = App., Syr. 57; C. = Curt. X; D. = Diod. XVIII; De. =
Dexippus (FGrH 100) F8; H. = Heidelberger Epitome (FGrH 155) F1.2; J. = Just. XIII;
L. = Libanius, Or. XI 79. The data of Diodorus, Dexippus and the Heidelberger Epitome
clearly belong to the third stage as these authors only mention the final decisions: see
below, 1.3.
69
The verb takes the plural form because the subject is o mf Perdkkan, which
should here be taken to mean simply Perdikkas, however.
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compromise (1.2)
Seleukos
55
final settlement (1.3)

Ap.: gemn tv ppou tv
tairikv
D.3.4: tazen p tn
pparxan tn tarwn
J.4.17: summus castrorum
tribunatus
L.: pparxov p Perdkkou
(*) quoted in n. 112.
Apparently Leonnatos no longer held an office in the second settlement

while in the earlier compromise of the nobles during the first meeting
(1.1) he had been appointed tutor. The reason for this sudden setback
seems to be beyond retrieval due to our summary sources.
Antipatros was confirmed in the office he already held under Alexander: stratjgv of Europe70. The respective positions of Perdikkas,
Krateros and Meleagros are less clear, as is the interrelation between their
offices. Arrian calls Perdikkas xilarxov and Krateros prosttjv.
These terms have been much debated, but no consensus has been
reached71. As I shall argue elsewhere, Ansons conclusion that
prostasa means regency and possibly also guardianship seems the
most probable solution72; again, the question of the guardianship need
not detain us here. The chiliarchy is the highest cavalry command, one
of the most important military positions73. The question to be dealt with
70
H. BENGTSON, Die Strategie in der hellenistischen Zeit. Ein Beitrag zum antiken
Staatsrecht I (Mnchener Beitrge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte,
26), Mnchen 19642, p. 15-56.
71
J. SEIBERT, Das Zeitalter der Diadochen (Ertrge der Forschung, 185), Darmstadt
1983, p. 84-89, provides an excellent status quaestionis up to 1978. More recent literature
includes: N.G.L. HAMMOND, Some Macedonian Offices: 336-309 BC, JHS 105 (1985),
p. 156-160; W. HECKEL, The Last Days and Testament of Alexander the Great. A Prosopographic Study (Historia Einzelschriften, 56), Stuttgart 1988, p. 19-21 and ID., The Marshals of Alexanders Empire, London 1992, p. 366-370; E.M. ANSON, art. cit. (n. 2);
P. BRIANT, Sources grco-hellnistiques, institutions perses et institutions macdoniennes:
continuits, changements et bricolages, in H. SANCISI-WEERDENBURG e.a. (edd.), Continuity and Change. Proceedings of the Last Achaemenid History Workshop, April 6-8, 1990
Ann Arbor, Michigan (Achaemenid History, 8), Leiden 1994, p. 291-298; E.D. CARNEY,
Women and Basileia: Legitimacy and Female Political Action in Macedonia, CJ 90 (1995),
p. 372-375; G. SINATTI, Epimeletes ed epimeleia in Diodoro Siculo XVIII-XX, in
B. VIRGILIO (ed.), Studi Ellenistici 8 (Bibliotheca di Studi Antichi, 78), Pisa 1996, p. 97122; A.W. COLLINS, The Office of Chiliarch under Alexander and the Successors, Phoenix
55 (2001), p. 259-283; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 51-53.
56
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here is whether Justins description of the offices of Perdikkas, Krateros,

and Meleagros accords with the titles Arrian gives. Schachermeyr has
pointed out that regiae pecuniae custodia does not exactly equal
prostasa74. I can see two possible explanations for Justins wording.
Either Trogus source gave a list of the duties of the prosttjv which
was poorly summarised by Trogus/Justin or it might more likely
have been a specification of the division of tasks between Perdikkas,
Krateros, and Meleagros. Justin says that Perdikkas and Meleagros were
also entrusted with the charge of the camp and the army. Arrian, too,
ascribes a military function to Perdikkas: the chiliarchy. Justin calls
Seleukos chiliarchy in the final settlement (1.3) summus castrorum tribunatus75, the supreme command of the camp, which accords albeit
not literally with the common equation xiliarxa = tribunatus militum76. The resemblance of this description to the castrorum et exercitus
cura of Perdikkas, suggests that the latter paraphrase also refers to the
chiliarchy in his case, and to a comparable military position for Meleagros (see below)77. Besides the military function, Justin also mentions
the rerum cura, as the manuscripts have it. Some, however, have emended
this to regum cura 78, but most scholars reject the emendation for various
reasons79. The emendation is indeed unnecessary: since the Macedonians
surely appointed regents the text is sound as it stands80. Perdikkas and
72
E.M. ANSON, art. cit. (n. 2); A. MEEUS, art. cit. (n. 58).
A. MEEUS, art. cit. (n. 58); similar views have already been argued by E.R. BEVAN,
Note on the Command held by Seleukos, 323-321 B.C., CR 14 (1900), p. 396-398, and W.
HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 366-370.
74
F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 126; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 52.
Attempts to explain the discrepancy between Arrian and Justin away, such as that of
R. LAQUEUR, Zur Geschichte des Krateros, Hermes 54 (1919), p. 295-300, have proven
unsuccessful.
75
See below, p. 61-62, for Seleukos appointment as xilarxov.
76
H.J. MASON, Greek Terms for Roman Institutions. A Lexicon and Analysis (American Studies in Papyrology, 13), Toronto 1974, s.v. xiliarxa 1.
77
Cf. F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 140.
78
The emendation originated with J.N. MADVIG, Adversaria critica ad scriptores Graecos et Latinos II, Adversaria critica ad scriptores Latinos, Copenhague 1873 (= Hildesheim
1967), p. 623-625; O. Seel adopted it in the Teubner edition.
79
R.N.H BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 124 (taking care of Arrhidaios was not Perdikkas
task); W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 369 n. 4 (there was only one king, i.e. Arrhidaios);
A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 51 (it is unlikely that Perdikkas would have included
Meleagros in the guardianship).
80
A. MEEUS, art. cit. (n. 58). J.N. MADVIG, loc. cit., deemed XIII 4.5 (castrorum et
exercitus et rerum cura Meleagro et Perdiccae adsignatur) and XIII 6.10 ([] Arridaeum
et Alexandri Magni filium, quorum cura illi [= Perdikkas] mandata fuerat []) contradictory. Maybe, then, the passages actually show that there was no distinction between
73
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57
Meleagros, then, were regent together with Krateros, as Perdikkas and

Leonnatos were supposed to share the regency in the very first compromise (1.1)81.
That Perdikkas was also a regent, explains why Arrian (Succ., F1a 3)
or Photius wrongly described the chiliarchy as pitrop tv
zumpsjv basileav: this can only refer to the regency, while the chiliarchy merely was the supreme cavalry-command. The original text probably stated that Perdikkas held the pitrop tv zumpsjv basileav
and was chiliarch at the same time, but Arrian/Photius misunderstood this
and interpreted it as if Perdikkas held the pitrop because he was chiliarch82. According to Curtius, Meleagros was tertius dux, while Arrian
calls him parxov Perdkkou. The most likely solution in this reconstruction seems to be that his infantry command was inferior to Perdikkas
cavalry command83. This would explain why Justin (XIII 4.17) labels the
chiliarchy summus castrorum tribunatus. Errington argues that Meleagros merely was Perdikkas deputy and that this was the most he could
expect84. It seems unlikely, however, that Perdikkas would have risked not
reaching a compromise by refusing to acknowledge Meleagros as his peer
the phalanx might not have accepted that Perdikkas became regent
rerum cura and regum cura, although it should be noted again that both passages
cannot be compared directly as XIII 4.5 belongs to the second stage while XIII 6.10 gives
the result of the third stage. At XIII 6.10 the manuscript readings should be maintained:
see R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 176-178. The wording rerum cura possibly originates from the same source as ptropov ka pimeljtv tn basilikn pragmtwn
and tn pitropn ka pimleian tn basilikn pragmtwn in the Heidelberger
Epitome (FGrH 155) F1.2 and 1.5: cf. K. ROSEN, Die Reichsordnung von Babylon (323
v. Chr.), AClass 10 (1967), p. 109 n. 107. See also Nepos, Eum., 2.1-2 (summa rerum tradita esset () Perdiccae () [et] liberi [Alexandri] in suam tutelam pervenissent), 5.1
(rerumque summa ad Antipatrum defertur), and Phoc., 3.4 (regiis rebus praeerat).
81
According to P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 80, Perdikkas and Leonnatos
renounced the regency as a concession from their part, and Krateros would from now on
be the sole regent. This view does not account for Justins rerum cura.
82
E.R. BEVAN, art. cit. (n. 73), p. 398 also concluded, rightly, I think, that Photius
blundered in his epitome of Arrian, although I cannot agree with his reconstruction of the
original text, since he fails to distinguish the second and the third stage of the Babylon settlement. Cf. F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5) p. 140-141; A.W. COLLINS, art. cit. (n. 71),
p. 276: () There is a strong possibility that the gloss [scil. t d n pitrop tv
zumpsjv basileav] may be a confused description by Photius of the functions of
Perdiccas pimleia rather than those of his chiliarchy.
83
Cf. W. SCHWAN, art. cit. (n. 21), p. 310; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 139 n.
80 and 140-141; G. SINATTI, art. cit. (n. 71), p. 108 n. 34: Associato al potere di Perdicca,
ma gi in posizione subordinata sul piano militare (parxov Perdkkou, secondo Arriano, FGrHist 156, F1,3), come commandante della fanteria macedone.
84
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 56; cf. E.M. ANSON, op. cit. (n. 13), p. 57-58.
58
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A. MEEUS
and Meleagros did not and probably he had already decided to dispose
of Meleagros as soon as he had the opportunity85. It seems, then, that
there were three regents among whom the tasks were divided: Perdikkas
was to command the cavalry and Meleagros the infantry, while Krateros
would be responsible for the treasury. However, given the confusion in
the sources and the lack of information on the period between this stage
and the final settlement (1.3), a definite and complete answer is impossible.
Yet Perdikkas had made these concessions only in order to reach a
compromise. Undoubtedly, he did not plan this settlement to be permanent86, so he immediately sought a way to get rid of Meleagros87. After
he had won the latters confidence, they jointly organised a ritual purification of the army88. This turned out to be a plot of Perdikkas and he had
30 or 300 soldiers who had supported Meleagros executed89.
Meleagros himself tried to escape in vain90. Some scholars assume that
Perdikkas killed Meleagros only after the final settlement (1.3) because
Diodorus (XVIII 4.7) narrates his death then91. All sources, however,
have the execution of Meleagros together with that of the soldiers and
Diodorus is the only one to insert the distribution of the satrapies and the
cancellation of the Hypomnemata before this event. It seems unlikely that
Meleagros did not flee immediately when his supporters were executed
and Perdikkas scheming became evident. This suggests that the interval
between the execution of the soldiers and the death of Meleagros indicated in the sources92 must have been very small and only means that
they were not killed at the very same moment, as both events were separated by the duration of Meleagros flight and subsequent capture. The
85
Cf. n. 86.
Cf. E. BADIAN, A Kings Notebooks, HSCPh 72 (1967), p. 202: Meleagers challenge had forced the marshals to patch up a compromise which they probably all knew
would not last long; R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 52 and 55-56; E.M. ANSON, art.
cit. (n. 2), p. 42-43.
87
Curt. X 9.7.
88
Justin (XIII 4.7) says that this was necessary propter mortem regis, while Curtius
(X 9.11) links it to the civil strife: probabilis causa videbatur praeterita discordia.
89
Arr., Succ. F1a4; Curt. X 9.7-19; Diod. XVIII 4.7; Just. XIII 4.7-8; A.B. BOSWORTH,
op. cit. (n. 3), p. 54 with n. 95.
90
Arr., Succ. F1a4; Curt. X 9.20-21; Diod. XVIII 4.7.
91
F. SCHACHERMEYR, Die letzten Plne Alexanders des Groen, JAI 41 (1954),
p. 121-122 and ID., p. 142; E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 202 n. 62; A.B. BOSWORTH, op.
cit. (n. 3), p. 55 n. 96.
92
Arr., Succ. F1a4 (o poll steron); Curt. X 9.21 (mox); Diod. XVIII 4.7 (met
d tata).
86
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59
reason why Diodorus has changed the order is that he only gives the
essentials of the different stages: a reconciliation between the phalanx
on the one hand and the cavalry and the generals on the other hand came
about and Perdikkas eventually became regent93. He does not deem the
regulations of the second stage (1.2) important as they did not exist very
long it is not clear how long exactly94 and he only narrates the
actual outcome. He does not mention the prospective kingship of Rhoxanes child because it was as yet unborn and this regulation consequently
did not affect reality at that time. Together with the final appointment of
a regent, the satrapies were distributed and after that Perdikkas had the
Hypomnemata cancelled. That is why Diodorus mentions these events
together with Perdikkas appointment and postponed his account of executions of the soldiers and the death of Meleagros95. The problem is that
this procedure has imperceptibly connected the second and third stages
of the settlement in Diodorus account.
1.3. The final settlement

After the mutineers had been executed, the generals reorganised the
administration, calling an assembly to discuss the future. Again, it is
impossible to determine who exactly attended this meeting, and the way
in which the decisions were made is equally unclear. An analysis of the
93
F. SCHACHERMEYR, Zu Geschichte und Staatsrecht der frhen Diadochenzeit, Klio 19
(1925), p. 443, and ID., p. 163, already noticed that this was the principle behind Diodorus
summary, albeit not entirely for the right reasons. See below, 1.3, for Perdikkas appointment as sole regent.
94
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 54 and A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 55, have
aptly remarked that it might have been a matter of weeks: Perdikkas had to gain Meleagros confidence, prepare his plot, and then organise the ritual purification which probably could not be performed on any given day. Aelian (XII 64), says that Alexander was
left unburied for thirty days while the Diadochoi argued about the succession. That the king
really was left unburied for such a long time in the Babylonian summer heath is rather
unlikely, but the duration of the negociations Aelian mentions might well be a round number close to the actual time period.
95
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 57 n. 59; P. GOUKOWSKY, ad Diod. XVIII 3.1
(Collection des Universits de France); A. MEHL, op. cit. (n. 34), p. 20 with n. 55;
E.M. ANSON, op. cit. (n. 13), p. 59, also prefer the chronology of Arrian and Curtius and
situate the death of Meleagros before the final settlement. R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1),
p. 54 n. 42 and A.W. COLLINS, art. cit. (n. 71), p. 277 n. 93 assume that the explanation
for the divergence in Diodorus simply is confusion.
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A. MEEUS
decisions is necessary to reconstruct the decision-making process and the

struggle for power that influenced it.
1.3.1 The decisions
1.3.1.1 The satrapy distribution
The distribution of satrapies does not pose major problems96. Most of the
satraps from Alexanders time were confirmed, probably largely for the
sake of convenience97. There were a few new appointments, however.
Ptolemaios replaced Kleomenes of Naukratis as satrap of Egypt while
the latter became his parxov, and Laomedon was appointed governor
of Syria98. Leonnatos obtained Hellespontine Phrygia, but Paphlagonia
(which had belonged to the same province under Alexander) was given
to Eumenes, together with Cappadocia. Peithon received the larger part
of Media while Atropates, the former satrap and father-in-law of
Perdikkas, retained the other part99. Caria was given to Asandros and
Thrace to Lysimachos. It is not quite certain whether Philotas appointment over Cilicia was decided only now: the former satrap, Balakros,
had died in 324 and it is not impossible that Philotas had already taken
over the satrapy at that time100. Two of the confirmed satraps also need
96
For the most recent discussion: see W. HUSS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 86-89.
Cf. J. KAERST, Geschichte des Hellenismus II, Das Wesen des Hellenismus, Leipzig
19262, p. 11; R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 55.
98
According to W. SCHWAN, art. cit. (n. 21), p. 332, Laomedon had already been
appointed satrap of Syria by Alexander because he was not present at Babylon in 323 and
was not important enough to be awarded a satrapy if absent. However, we do not know
whether Laomedon was at Babylon. In 326 he was still with the king, but after that nothing is known about his career under Alexander: W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 211. The
satrap of Syria during Alexanders last years is also unknown. Schwans argument about
Laomedons relative lack of importance is equally unconvincing: see below, 1.3.2. Most
scholars assume that Laomedon was newly appointed in the Babylon settlement: see
A.B. BOSWORTH, The Government of Syria under Alexander the Great, CQ n.s. 24 (1974),
p. 63-64; W. HECKEL, loc. cit.; M. SARTRE, DAlexandre Zenobie. Histoire du Levant
antique. IVe sicle avant J.-C. IIIe sicle aprs J.-C., Paris 2001, p. 92-93.
99
H. BERVE, Das Alexanderreich auf prosopographischer Grundlage, Mnchen 1926,
II, p. 92.
100
According to H. BERVE, op. cit. (n. 99), II p. 398, he was already appointed under
Alexander and W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 329 and ID., King and Companions:
Observations on the Nature of Power in the Reign of Alexander, in J. ROISMAN (ed.), Brills
Companion to Alexander the Great, Leiden 2003, p. 201 n. 17, and M. RATHMANN, op. cit.
(n. 6), p. 42, also consider this to be a possibility. A.B. BOSWORTH, loc. cit., on the other
hand, does assume that he was newly appointed in the Babylon settlement.
97
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61
to be mentioned here: Antigonos in Greater Phrygia and Menandros in

Lydia. The others are not relevant for an analysis of the power relations
which determined the decision-making at Babylon.
1.3.1.2 The regency

Perdikkas position does not really constitute a problem either101: he was
confirmed as regent, as is clearly stated by Curtius (albeit in a somewhat
clumsy phrasing), Diodorus, the Heidelberger Epitome, and the first paragraph of Photius summary of Dexippus102. However, in the fourth paragraph the latter, whose account seems based on Arrians103, says
Perdikkas still held the chiliarchy, but all other sources have Seleukos as
chiliarch in this stage of the settlement. The contradiction, both internal
and with an otherwise unanimous tradition, is already suspicious in itself.
In his summary of Arrian Photius did not mention Perdikkas position in
the final stage, but that Dexippus differs from Arrian concerning the position of Krateros, to whom the Athenian still attributes the prostasa,
proves that he has moved the offices of Perdikkas and Krateros from the
second (1.2) to the third stage (1.3)104. This is also apparent from the
101
See the table in 1.2.

The same conclusion is reached by E.M. ANSON, art. cit. (n. 2), p. 43; A.B.
BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 56-57; M. RATHMANN, op. cit. (n. 6), p. 26-29. The latters
argument, however, is flawed by his failure to distinguish between the three stages, resulting in the unwarranted use of elements from the first stage as evidence for the last stage.
Cf. also W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 370: In the almost three years that Perdikkas exercised power in Asia he did so as prostates or epimeletes, not as Chiliarch. He is indeed
never called chiliarch after the Babylon settlement: see below, n. 106. Consequently, the
view that Perdikkas at some point usurped the prostasa or part of it (thus most recently
W. HECKEL, art. cit. [n. 41], p. 93 n. 26) should be abandoned.
103
Although it seems to be generally accepted that Dexippus relied on Arrian alone for
his history of the Successors, G. MARTIN, Dexipp von Athen. Edition, bersetzung und
Begleitende Studien (Classica Monacensia, 32), Tbingen 2006, p. 154, remarks: ber
die Nhe zu Arrians Werk knnen wir also nichts Genaues sagen sagen. Photius phrase
ka t lla dizesin n pollov, v kn totoiv, Arrian kat t pleston smfwna grfwn (Dex. F1.8) actually shows that there were differences. These need not
have been limited to matters of style and emphasis by Dexippos. He might well have used
other sources too.
104
Cf. E.M. ANSON, art. cit. (n. 2), p. 42; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 49-50. The
view of J.D. GRAINGER, Seleukos Nikator. Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom, London
1990, p. 18-20, that Seleukos was the chiliarchs chiliarch, cannot stand because there
was no other chiliarch. Similarly, A.W. COLLINS, art. cit. (n. 71), p. 278, claims that
Perdikkas maintained the court chiliarchy and gave Seleukos the equestrian chiliarchy, but
I will argue elsewhere that there was no such distinction: A. MEEUS, art. cit. (n. 58). Thus
102
62
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A. MEEUS
structure of Dexippus text as it stands in Photius Bibliotheca. First, he

deals with the organisation of the central government (F8.1), and there he
is accurate: Arrhidaios and Alexander become king, with Perdikkas as
regent. Then he discusses the distribution of satrapies (F8.2-7), and in
the middle of that account he mentions the prostasa and the xiliarxa, two offices which belong to the central government. They are
inserted where Krateros position next to Antipatros should have been
mentioned. Given this confused structure and the internal contradiction,
Dexippus must be wrong here105. Moreover, after Babylon Perdikkas
office is always referred to as prostasa, pitrop or some description of it, and never as chiliarchy106, and it is clear that he held more
responsibility than commanding the cavalry: he was the highest official
concerning all matters of state. Consequently, the other sources must be
correct in stating that Seleukos now became chiliarch while Perdikkas
held the regency.
1.3.1.3 The administration of Europe

Arrian is the only one to mention Krateros new position: apparently the
nobles reverted to their original plan (see 1.1) to appoint him governor
of Europe together with Antipatros107. Kanatsulis disputes this conclusion108, but his arguments fail to convince. First of all, it is clear that
also A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 56: There is, however, no suggestion that Seleucus held anything other than the position previously occupied by Hephaestion and Perdiccas, that is, the chiliarchy itself. According to F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 145146, Dexippus is correct. He argues that the prostasa was modified in the final
settlement, but now the nature of the office is clear thanks to the demonstration of Anson
(art. cit. [n. 2]), this view is untenable.
105
It is not the only blatant mistake in Dexippus account: at 8.6 Seleukos is given
Babylon, an appointment which actually belongs to the Triparadeisos settlement.
106
App., Syr. 52: prostatesantov tn basilwn; App., Mithr. 8: tv p
Alezndrw genomnjv gv pitropewn; Arr., Succ. F1.30: rxwn tv psjv
dunmewv; Diod. XVIII 23.2: parlabe () tn tn basilwn prostasan. Arrians
rather general description of military command can not refer to the chiliarchy, because he
states it is the office Peithon and Arrhidaios held after Perdikkas, and they held the regency,
but not the chiliarchy.
107
Thus also R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 55: () in the final settlement after
Meleagers death they reverted to their original arrangement of making him share Europe
with Antipater (). Cf. Arr., Succ., F19 on Antipatros and Krateros: () n sj mora
mfw tetxqai [() they were appointed to the same province].
108
D. KANATSULIS, Antipatros als Feldherr und Staatsmann nach dem Tode Alexanders des Groen, Makedonika 8 (1968), p. 124-127.
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63
Krateros no longer held the prostasa: Dexippus is wrong in stating the

opposite, as argued above. Arrian (Succ. F1a7) is indeed the only source
to mention Krateros appointment, but pace Kanatsulis one cannot
use Justin (XIII 4.5) to contradict him, because it refers to the second
stage. That leaves Diodorus (XVIII 3.2) and Dexippus (F8.3), where
Krateros is not mentioned alongside Antipatros as governor of Europe. It
is more likely that Krateros was left out in Photius summary of Dexippus than that he was added in the epitome of Arrian, as one rather expects
elements to disappear in a summary than to be added109. The displacement
of Krateros office from the second to the third stage might have caused
the oversight or could be a consequence of it. Diodorus too, then, must
have skipped Krateros appointment in the third stage. If not, Krateros
would have had no office in the final settlement, and it is unlikely that
Perdikkas would not have tried to affect Krateros actions by an official
decision. There was, evidently, no guarantee that Krateros would obey,
but it was at least worth trying to send him to Europe, in order to prevent
him from coming to Babylon to contest Perdikkas position. Probably, this
was also what Perdikkas tried to achieve by cancelling the Hypomnemata
(see below, 2) and that would be substantially easier if Krateros had
already been appointed governor of Europe. That Krateros did not immediately leave for Europe after the Babylon settlement came about, does
not provide any indication on his office; it simply means that he did not
recognize the legitimacy of the decisions, if there was no other reason we
are unaware of.
Under Alexander Antipatros had been in command of the entire European part of the Empire, including Thrace, as stratjgv110. In his influential study on strategia in the Hellenistic age, Bengtson has argued that
this situation remained unchanged in the Babylon settlement. Most scholars agree with him and assume therefore that Lysimachos territory was
part of Antipatros province111. This view does not find support in the
109
Cf. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 58-59: Photius is generally reliable when
copying lists, although sometimes an element is left out.
110
H. BENGTSON, op. cit. (n. 70), p. 26-29.
111
H. BENGTSON, op. cit. (n. 70), p. 27-29 and 44-45; K. ROSEN, art. cit. (n. 80), p. 100101; D. KANATSULIS, art. cit. (n. 108) p. 122-123; O. MLLER, Antigonos Monophthalmos
und Das Jahr der Knige (Saarbrcker Beitrge zur Altertumskunde, 11), Bonn 1973,
p. 18; P. GOUKOWSKY, ad Diod. XVIII 18.4 (Collection des Universits de France); R.A.
BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 55; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 43; F. LANDUCCI GATTINONI, Lisimaco di Tracia. Un sovrano nella prospettiva del primo ellenismo, Milano 1992,
p. 102; H.S. LUND, Lysimachos. A Study in Early Hellenistic Kingship, London 1992,
p. 54; O. SCHMITT, Der Lamische Krieg (Habelts Dissertationsdrucke. Reihe Alte
64
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sources and Bengtsons arguments are not very convincing. All sources
mentioning Antipatros (and Krateros) in the distribution of satrapies
explicitly contrast the territory of Lysimachos and that of Antipatros and
Krateros112. As the lists of Arrian and Dexippus are very elaborate, it is
reasonable to assume that they aim to be complete and precise. That Lysimachos satrapy is always described as a separate province suggests that
Lysimachos was not subordinate to Antipatros and Krateros. That Dexippus (F8.3) still calls Antipatros stratjgv in the final settlement is
not a very strong argument either. Dexippus is the only author to do so
while Arrian (Succ., F1a3) only mentions the title stratjgv in the second stage of the settlement (1.2). Since Dexippus has moved the offices
of Perdikkas and Krateros from the second to the third stage (see above)
it is not unlikely that he did the same with Antipatros. Furthermore, the
question of the title might not be very relevant here: even with the same
title his territory might have been reduced. Bengtson, however, argues
against the sources that it would be impossible that Lysimachos had no
superior while the satraps in Asia had to obey Perdikkas113. This view is
based on the wrong premises that the chiliarch was grand vizier of Asia
and that Perdikkas was appointed chiliarch in the final settlement. Actually there were two kings and one regent holding sway over one entire
Geschichte, 33), Bonn 1992, p. 52 n. 20; C. FRANCO, Il regno di Lisimaco. Strutture

amministrative e rapporti con le citt (Studi Ellenistici, 6 Bibliotheca di Studi antichi,
71), Pisa 1993, p. 15; W. ORTH, Die Diadochenzeit im Spiegel der historischen Geographie. Kommentar zu TAVO-Karte BV2 Diadochenreiche (um 303 v.Chr.) (Beihefte zum
Tbinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B, 80), Wiesbaden 1993, p. 20. Contra:
A. SCHFER, Demosthenes und seine Zeit III, Leipzig 18872, p. 352; J. KAERST, op. cit.
(n. 97), p. 11; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 144-145; . WILL, Histoire politique
du monde hellnistique (323-30 av. J.C.) I, Nancy 19792, p. 25; A. SIMONETTI AGOSTINETTI,
op. cit. (n. 21), p. 48.
112
Arr., Succ. F1a7: Tn d kat tn Erpjn, Qrkjv mn ka Xerronsou
ka sa Qrzi snora qnj ste p qlassan tn p Salmudjssn to Ezenou Pntou kaqkonta, Lusimxw rx petrpj T d pkeina tv Qrkjv
v p Illuriov ka Triballov ka Agrinav ka at Makedona ka
Jpeirov v p t rj t Kerania nkousa ka o Elljnev smpantev
Krater ka Antiptrw nemqj. Dexip. (FGrH 100) F8.3: Qrkjv mn ka Xerronsou Lusmaxov Antpatrov d p psi Makedsi ka Elljsi ka Illuriov ka Triballov ka Agrisi ka sa tv Jperou zti Alezndrou
stratjgv atokrtwr kttakto. Diod. XVIII 3.2: Kat d tn Erpjn
Lusimxw mn dqj Qrkj ka t sunorhonta tn qnn par tn Pontikn
qlassan, d Makedona ka t pljsixwra tn qnn Antiptrw
proswrsqj.
113
H. BENGTSON, op. cit. (n. 70), p. 44.
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65
empire, and everyone including Lysimachos, Antipatros and Krateros

was subordinate to them114.
After the peace treaty with Athens in 322 Antipatros indeed offered
land in Thrace to the disenfranchised Athenians115, but this does not necessarily mean that he held sway over that territory. It was important for
Antipatros and Lysimachos to entertain good mutual relations and according to Pausanias (I 10.1) they did; Lund has provided convincing arguments that the Periegete is right116. Lysimachos had to confront an uprising of the local king Seuthes who tried to preserve his autonomous
position117, while Antipatros and Krateros had to concentrate entirely on
Aitolia after the capitulation of the Athenians118. Consequently, they could
not provide Lysimachos with direct military support, but they could aid
him by sending colonists119. The presence of an Athenian settlement
would help the governor in gaining control of his province as the settlers
were, like Lysimachos, in hostile territory and thus shared the same
fate120. As this measure, then, might simply have been an attempt to help
Lysimachos, it does not prove that Antipatros had any authority over
Thrace. Since Bengtsons arguments are so inconclusive, it seems better
to follow the sources in contrasting the territories of Antipatros and
114
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 56 n. 57. Diod. XVIII 3.1 describes Perdikkas
regency as tn lwn gemona: leadership of the whole.
115
Diod. XVIII 18.4-5; Plut., Phoc., 28.7.
116
H.S. LUND, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 54-55; cf. F. LANDUCCI GATTINONI, op. cit. (n. 111),
p. 102.
117
See J. KABAKCIEV, Thrakien in den Plnen Philipp II. und Alexander III. (341-323
v.u.Z.), Bulgarian Historical Review 28 (2000), p. 18-19, for Seuthes de facto autonomy
during Alexanders last years. Cf. P. DELEV, Lysimachus, the Getae, and Archaeology,
CQ N.S. 50 (2000), p. 384-386; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 269. H.S. LUND, op. cit.
(n. 111), p. 22-28, discusses Lysimachos troubles with Seuthes.
118
Diod. XVIII 24.
119
Cf. H.S. LUND, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 54.
120
E.J. BAYNHAM, Antipater and Athens, in O. PALAGIA & S.V. TRACY (edd.), The
Macedonians in Athens 322-229 B.C. Proceedings of an International Conference held at
the University of Athens, May 24-26, 2001, Oxford 2003, especially p. 27-28. See also
E. PODDIGHE, Nel segno di Antipatro. Leclissi della democrazia ateniense dal 323/2 al
319/8 a.C. (Collana del Dipartimento di Storia dellUniversit degli Studi di Sassari, N.S.
2), Roma 2002, p. 71 n. 50: Si deve ancora una volta ricordare che Antipatro dovette
intervenire ripetutamente per mantenere il controlle della regione. Admittedly, the interpretation is hindered by the fact that there is no indication as to where and how the Athenian colonists were settled: see J. CARGILL, Athenian Settlements of the Fourth Century
B.C. (Mnemosyne, Supplement 145), Leiden 1995, p. 37-38 and E.J. BAYNHAM, loc. cit.
Cf. the colonisation policy of Philippos II in Thrace: Diod. XVI 71.2; J.R. ELLIS, Population-Transplants by Philip II, Makedonika 9 (1969), p. 9-17; N.G.L. HAMMOND, A History of Macedonia II, Oxford 1979, p. 660-662.
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Krateros on the one hand and those of Lysimachos on the other. Perdikkas
probably detached Thrace from Antipatros province to create a buffer
zone separating Antipatros and Krateros from Asia, as Schfer already
pointed out121. The respective titles of Antipatros, Krateros, and Lysimachos are unknown, but it is in any case clear that they all were subordinate to Perdikkas, the regent of the empire.
1.3.1.4 Alexanders funeral

After the organisation of the administration, Alexanders funeral remained
to be dealt with. The exact decision the Successors made on this matter
is disputed because, again, most scholars fail to distinguish the different
moments. First, there is Alexanders wish, allegedly uttered on his
deathbed, to be buried at the sanctuary of Ammon at Siwa122. Some scholars assume that this was not Alexanders desire and that the sources are
influenced by Ptolemaic propaganda, aimed at legitimising Ptolemaios
possession of Alexanders body123. Alexander probably was unable to
speak during his last days124, but he might well have indicated where he
was to be entombed on an earlier occasion125. It is not unlikely that this
would have been in Siwa as Alexanders reverence for Ammon at the
end of his life is very clear and he even considered the god to be his
father126. Moreover, Ptolemaios did not have the least interest in assert121
A. SCHFER, loc. cit. (n. 111). Cf. . WILL, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 25; A. SIMONETTI
AGOSTINETTI, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 48.
122
Curt. X 5.4; Just. XII 15.7. Diod. XVIII 3.5 and Just. XIII 4.6, only mention the
decision of the Successors, and cannot be used as evidence for Alexanders wish.
123
W.W. TARN, Alexander the Great II, Sources and Studies, Cambridge 1949, p. 355;
cf. J. HORNBLOWER, op. cit. (n. 26), p. 41-42, N.G.L. HAMMOND, The Macedonian State.
Origins, Institutions, and History, Oxford 1989, p. 25 n. 45 and R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit.
(n. 39), p. 61 n. 19.
124
Arr., Anab., VII 26.1.
125
Cf. E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 187: We need not doubt the last wish of the
dying King. Even if not uttered with his last breath, it would be well known from previous conversation.
126
E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 186; A.B. BOSWORTH, Alexander and Ammon, in
K. KINZL (ed.), Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean in Ancient History and Prehistory.
Studies Presented to Fritz Schachermeyr on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday, BerlinNew York 1977, p. 55-67; E.A. FREDRICKSMEYER, Alexanders Religion and Divinity, in
J. ROISMAN (ed.), Brills Companion to Alexander the Great, Leiden 2003, p. 270-278,
especially 273. D. KIENAST, Alexander, Zeus und Ammon, in W. WILL & J. HEINRICHS
(edd.), Zu Alexander d.Gr. Festschrift G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag am 9.12.86, vol. I,
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ing that Alexander wanted Ammons sanctuary to be his last resting-place

because eventually he did not bury Alexander there either127. He
entombed Alexander in Egypt, so we would expect him to say in his propaganda that that is what Alexander wanted. And indeed, he did just that:
the Liber de Morte (108 and 119), a propaganda document of Ptolemaios
maintaining that he was the only Successor to observe Alexanders will,
states that Alexander wanted to be buried in Egypt128. Diodorus (XVIII
28.3) says the following about Ptolemaios after the body snatch of 321:
Ekrine gr p to parntov ev mn Ammwna m parakomhein,
kat d tn ktismnjn pb ato plin () poqsqai.
He decided for the present not to send it to Ammon, but to entomb it
in the city that had been founded by Alexander himself ().
This passage seems to confirm that the original destination was Siwa, if
it does not just refer to a change of Ptolemaios plans129. The embalming
of the body by Egyptian and Babylonian priests is also a possible indication that Alexander wished to be buried at Siwa and not at Aigai130.
There is, then, no reason to deny that the Diadochoi decided to entomb
Alexander at Siwa, complying with the kings last wish131. Some scholars, however, argue that Pausanias (I 6.3) disproves this view because he
says that those who had to take the body to Aigai were persuaded by
Ptolemaios to bring it to Egypt132. The decision to take it to Macedon,
Amsterdam 1987, p. 330-331, doubts that Alexander thought that Ammon was his father,
but he does acknowledge the kings high reverence for the god and the resulting wish to
be buried at Siwa.
127
D. KIENAST, art. cit. (n. 126), p. 331: Es wre aber politisch nicht unbedenklich
gewesen, erst zu propagieren, Alexander wolle beim Ammon bestattet werden, und sich
dann ber diesen letzten Wunsch des Knigs einfach hinwegzusetzen ().
128
A.B. BOSWORTH, art. cit. (n. 30), p. 219. Cf. the oracular response ordering to bury
Alexander in Memphis in the Alexander Romance (III 34.1-5, ed. H. VAN THIEL, Leben
und Taten Alexanders von Makedonien. Der griechische Alexanderroman nach der Handschrift L [Texte zur Forschung, 13], Darmstadt 1974).
129
According to J. HORNBLOWER, op. cit. (n. 26), p. 41: Diodorus implies that the
funeral cortge was destined for Alexandria in Egypt (). However, Diodorus clearly
states that the original destination was Siwa, but that Ptolemaios decided not to bring the
body there.
130
Curt. X 10.13; M. PFROMMER, Alexander der Groe. Auf den Spuren eines Mythos
(Zaberns Bildbnde zur Archologie. Sonderbnde der Antiken Welt), Mainz am Rhein
2001, p. 92.
131
Diod. XVIII 3.5; Just. XIII 4.6; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 160 n. 516; A.B.
BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 13 n. 30.
132
M. CARY, A History of the Greek World from 323 to 146 B.C., London 1978
(=19512), p. 13 n. 2; J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 98 and 111; P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21),
p. 318; N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 123), p. 25 n. 45; R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39),
68
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however, was not taken in 323, but was a later order by Perdikkas, given
well after the final settlement at Babylon had been reached133.
Justin (XIII 4.6) has erroneously moved the decision concerning the
burial at Siwa to the second stage, when Perdikkas made the compromise
with the infantry (1.2). It is highly unlikely that the decision not to bury
Alexander at Aigai was part of that agreement as the patriotically minded
phalanx would never have accepted such a breach with tradition. Moreover, if there was a previous decision concerning Alexanders burial, the
generals certainly would have rediscussed it for the final settlement, as
they reconsidered all important issues at this stage, and the royal burial
clearly was a matter of the highest interest: the one who controlled the
body, could present himself as the true successor134.
1.3.2 The decision-making process

The decision-making process leading to the final settlement should now
be analysed as it is unclear whether we are facing a compromise or
whether Perdikkas was able to impose his own will. Curtius (X 10.1),
Diodorus (XVIII 3.1) and the Heidelberger Epitome ([FGrH 155] F1.2)
state that Perdikkas held a council with the other leaders, but they are
silent on the way the decisions came about. Plutarch (Eum., 3.3) does not
mention Perdikkas: he simply has the generals meeting in a council to distribute the satrapies. Justin (XIII 4.9) and Dexippus (F8.7), on the other
p. 61 n. 19; W.M. ELLIS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 35; A. BERNAND, Alexandrie la Grande, Paris
19982, p. 250.
133
R. SCHUBERT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 182; E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 187; R.M.
ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 64-65; R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 125; W. HECKEL,
op. cit. (n. 20), p. 160 n. 516; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 13 n. 30. Contra: N.G.L.
HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 106 and ID., op. cit. (n. 123), p. 25; W.M. ELLIS, op. cit.
(n. 20), p. 35.
134
R. SCHUBERT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 180-181: Wer die Leiche besa, hatte damit vor
den andern Diadochen in dem Kampfe um die Herrschaft einen gewissen Vorsprung;
E. BADIAN, op. cit. (n. 50), p. 258; P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 130 and 318; W.S. GREENWALT, Argaeus, Ptolemy II and Alexanders Corpse, AHB 2 (1988), especially p. 41;
N.G.L. HAMMOND, Arms and the King. The Insignia of Alexander the Great, Phoenix 43
(1989), p. 219-220; A. STEWART, Faces of Power. Alexanders Image and Hellenistic Politics (Hellenistic Culture and Society, 11), Berkeley 1993, p. 222 and ID., Alexander in
Greek and Roman Art, in J. ROISMAN (ed.), Brills Companion to Alexander the Great,
Leiden 2003, p. 44; J. WHITEHORNE, Cleopatras, London 1994, p. 64-65; A. ERSKINE, Life
after Death: Alexandria and the Body of Alexander, G&R 49 (2002), p. 171; C. SCHFER,
op. cit. (n. 20), pp. 59-60; O.B. RADER, Grab und Herrschaft. Politischer Totenkult von
Alexander dem Groen bis Lenin, Mnchen 2003, p. 150-153.
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69
hand, explicitly say that Perdikkas distributed the provinces. According

to Arrian (Succ., F1a 5) Perdikkas was in charge, acting v Arridaou
keleontov, which Appian (Syr. 52) phrases as p t basile Filppw; this is clearly a legalistic fiction. It does not seem to make sense to
consider these differences between the ancient authors as meaningful135;
probably they simply are the result of the abbreviating activities of the
writers. The only conclusion that can be reached on this basis is that there
was a meeting and that Perdikkas, from that time onwards the only regent
evidently made the appointments de iure.
Some scholars argue on the basis of Diodorus text (XVIII 2.4) that the
army assembly made or confirmed the decisions136. There seems to be
some misapprehension here. As I have tried to show above (p. 58-59),
Diodorus (XVIII 2.4) has imperceptibly connected the second and third
stages of the settlement. His account goes as follows:
() o xaristatoi tn ndrn peisan atov monosai. Eq
d basila katstjsan tn Filppou un Arridaon ka
metwnmasan Flippon, pimeljtn d tv basileav
Perdkkan, ka basilev tn daktlion teleutn dedkei,
tov d ziologwttouv tn flwn ka swmatofulkwn paralaben tv satrapeav ka pakoein t te basile ka t
Perdkka.
() The men most inclined toward conciliation persuaded the parties
to come to an agreement. Straightaway they made Arrhidaeus, son of
Philip, their king and changed his name to Philip; Perdiccas, to whom
the king had given his ring as he died, they made regent of the kingdom; and they decided that the most important of the Friends and of
the Bodyguard should take over the satrapies and obey the king and
Perdiccas.
135
Cf. R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 313. Contra: J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20),
p. 29-35. Justins use of words like sortiri, is pace SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 30
not to be taken literally: it was the term the Romans used for appointing someone to an
office or province, which they happened to do by lot, and Trogus/Justin simply used it for
the sake of variation, without caring for accuracy. If one were to take it literally, a contradiction would arise with his statement that Perdikkas attributed the satrapies: see R.N.H.
BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 129. Cf. P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 137-138.
136
J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 31-32; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 142-143,
159 and 184; M.B. HATZOPOULOS, op. cit. (n. 43), p. 283-284. According to F. GRANIER,
op. cit. (n. 59), p. 65-66, it is difficult to believe that the army assembly alone decided on
the redistribution of satrapies, but on the basis of Diodorus (XVIII 2.4) he concludes that
they must have had some part in it. Even if Diodorus use of the plural tazan (Diod.
XVIII 3.5) has any evidential value, it only proves that the decisions were taken by more
than one person, but this might just as well have been the council of nobles as the army
assembly.
70
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At first sight this does indeed seem to be a single set of decisions, connected to the compromise between the phalanx and the cavalry and nobles
where the army assembly evidently had its say (1.2). Other authors, however, do not mention a redistribution of satrapies before the final settlement. Moreover, Perdikkas appointment as sole regent clearly belongs
to the third stage. The imperceptible splice, then, has to be situated after
Arrhidaios appointment as king137. Consequently, I see no reason to
assume that the army assembly decided that the satrapies had to be distributed anew and that Perdikkas was to be the only regent138.
While we can thus conclude that the distribution of satrapies was
arranged in the council of nobles after the execution of Meleagros and his
supporters, it remains to be seen whether it was a compromise or a unilateral decision of Perdikkas. It is hard to determine whether the distribution of territories was in Perdikkas advantage. Justin (XIII 4.9) states
that the measure allowed the regent to remove his rivals from court and
present the appointments as favours on his part139, but at the same time
he provided his opponents with a territorial power base. Furthermore,
after Meleagros death many of the generals might have wanted to leave
the court, looking for a safer place to try fulfilling their ambitions. On the
other hand, Perdikkas appointment as sole regent clearly constitutes a
significant improvement in comparison to the two previous compromises
(1.1 and 1.2), the more so since his two main rivals were cut off from
direct access to Asia by the creation of the Thracian buffer. The decision
to bury Alexander at Siwa, however, was less convenient for Perdikkas
because Ptolemaios, as satrap of Egypt, would control that area and thus
also the body140. The fact that Perdikkas had to de facto degrade his
137
Dexippus (FGrH 100) F8.1-2, and the Heidelberger Epitome (FGrH 155) F1.1-2,
show a similar structure.
138
Thus also P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 137-138 and 255-256; E.M. ANSON, op. cit.
(n. 13), p. 61 n. 47.
139
() inter principes provincias dividit, simul ut et aemulos removeret et munus
imperii beneficii sui faceret. For the first element: see also Arrian (Succ., F1a5). W.L.
ADAMS, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 230; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 57, assume that removing rivals was indeed Perdikkas aim.
140
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 29), p. 142. R. SCHUBERT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 181-182,
assumes that Siwa was considered neutral ground, but it is clear that in practice Ptolemaios would be the first to seize control of the tomb if it were located there. According
to Aelian XII 64, there was a fierce debate because all the generals wanted that Alexander would be buried in their territory. That they all demanded this is certainly exaggerated,
but we need not doubt that there actually was a debate. The Alexander Romance (III 34.1,
ed. H. VAN THIEL, op. cit. [n. 128]) also mentions a debate concerning the place of
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71
father-in-law Atropates by giving the larger part of his satrapy to

Peithon, is also a possible indication that the regent was unable to impose
his will on all matters.
The execution of the ringleaders responsible for the insurrection of the
troops had certainly deterred the phalanx from further opposition to
Perdikkas, but it is not sure whether the nobles were equally impressed.
Possibly some even left his camp precisely because of this cruel and ruthless action, as Arrian says that from then on mutual suspicion reigned
among the Diadochoi141. If all the nobles had united against Perdikkas,
he could not have remained regent. However, he certainly had the support of the somatophylax Aristonous as well as of his brother Alketas and
possibly also of Attalos142. Eumenes, who had remained neutral at first143,
might also have joined sides with Perdikkas now as he certainly showed
himself a loyal partisan of Perdikkas later144. The case of the bodyguard
Peithon is less clear: he was the one who had taken the initiative to execute Perdikkas proposal in the first meeting (1.1)145, but possibly he had
only done so in order to reach a compromise, without really belonging to
the Perdikkan camp146. Given the personal ambition he showed later on147,
it is less likely that he unconditionally sided with Perdikkas. Ptolemaios,
another bodyguard, had manifestly been an opponent of Perdikkas from
burial, albeit between Persians and Macedonians, where Ptolemaios came up with the
solution. W.M. ELLIS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 35, stresses that the other Diadochoi would not
have wanted the king to be buried in a remote area only accessible to Ptolemaios, but it is
clear that they did decide it nonetheless and Alexanders own wish definitely was a good
reason to do so: see above. E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 187 argues that they had to make
this decision because the governor of Macedon was an enemy in 323 while Ptolemaios was
not. It is clear, however, that Ptolemaios was no friend of Perdikkas either: see above,
p. 49-50, and below n. 148.
141
Arr., Succ., F1a5: z n Perdkkav poptov v pntav n ka atv ppteuen (For this he was suspected by all and was himself suspicious. Trans. Goralski).
142
See above, n. 48, for Aristonous; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 172, for Alketas;
W. HECKEL, art. cit. (n. 24), p. 381, for Attalos. See also the detailed discussion by
M. RATHMANN, op. cit. (n. 6), p. 32-50 on die Groen in Babylon und ihre Parteiung.
His list of Perdikkans [ibid., p. 48] certainly includes too many names, however.
143
Plut., Eum. 3.1-2; C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 19 and 54. It cannot be ruled out
that Eumenes neutrality was just pretence in order to be able to promote Perdikkas interests more efficiently.
144
Cf. R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 53, but I do not see why Seleukos appointment as chiliarch should necessarily mean that he was part of the Perdikkan party.
145
Curt. X 7.8.
146
Cf. R.A. BILLOWS, loc. cit.
147
See W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 277-279.
72
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the beginning148. Leonnatos, yet another bodyguard, will not have discarded his own ambitions in favour of Perdikkas149. He and Ptolemaios
certainly were not Perdikkas only opponents, but how numerous the
opposition was cannot be determined. In any case, it would not have been
wise for Perdikkas not to make any concessions at all when he became
sole regent150. It is, then, rather unlikely that Perdikkas decided everything
unilaterally.
Nevertheless, J. Seibert argues that Perdikkas acted omnipotently when
distributing the satrapies151. Two of the new satraps were Greeks and
according to him, these men could never have pressed their personal
claims in a synedrion of Macedonians. Ptolemaios was the only satrap
with the check of a parxov, sc. Kleomenes, and Seibert assumes he
would never have accepted this if he had had any input in the decisionmaking. Furthermore, Seibert argues that the satrapies were distributed
according to a well-considered system. Given their Greek origin Laomedon, appointed over Syria, and Eumenes, satrap of Cappadocia, would
never have been able to rise against the central government. The old
satraps Antigonos (in Phrygia) and Menandros (in Lydia) were deliberately surrounded by new and unimportant men: Philotas (in Cilicia) and
Asandros (in Caria). In Seiberts view the new appointment of Leonnatos
(in Hellespontine Phrygia) also fits this scheme designed to exclude coalitions of the satraps against the central government. According to him the
alternating ordering cannot have come about by mere coincidence.
148
Cf. B. NIESE, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten seit der
Schlacht bei Chaeronea I, Geschichte Alexanders des Groen und seiner Nachfolger und
der Westhellenen bis zum Jahre 281 v. Chr. (Handbcher der alten Geschichte, II 2),
Gotha 1893, p. 195; G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17) p. 317; R.A. BILLOWS, loc. cit.; A. STEWART, op. cit. (n. 134), p. 214; W. HUSS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 83; D. BRAUND, art. cit. (n. 54),
p. 23. Contra: A. BOUCH-LECLERCQ, op. cit. (n. 42) p. 10; M.J. FONTANA, op. cit. (n. 21),
p. 15 and 20; E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 187; C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 57.
J. ROISMAN, Ptolemy and his Rivals in his History of Alexander, CQ N.S. 34 (1984), p. 380,
argues that even if there was a rift between Ptolemaios and Perdikkas, it ended very soon
in any case because Ptolemaios supported Perdikkas in the confrontation with Meleagros.
It is clear, however, that there was a grave opposition between both men: see above,
p. 49-50. They had indeed buried the hatchet in order to close ranks against Meleagros
party, but as soon as the rebels were eliminated they no longer had any reason to be friends.
149
P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 164.
150
G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 317; P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 138; R.M. ERRINGTON, Geschichte Makedoniens. Von den Anfngen bis zum Untergang des Knigreiches,
Mnchen 1986, p. 111; A. MEHL, op. cit. (n. 34), p. 21-22; E.M. ANSON, op. cit. (n. 13),
p. 61; M. RATHMANN, op. cit. (n. 6), p. 27.
151
J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 27-38.
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73
Furthermore, Seibert deems it a significant indication that not all the new
satraps were important men who could press their claims to a satrapy and
that not all were men distrusted by Perdikkas. Thus, he rejects these two
interpretations of the ancient authors.
Seiberts arguments fail to convince. It is indeed unlikely that Greeks
were able to successfully claim a satrapy on their own, but they might
have been backed by one or more of the leading Macedonians. Thus,
Ptolemaios might have stipulated for Laomedons province: they were
good friends, and a man like Ptolemaios will already have understood
the strategical importance of Syria in the defence of Egypt before he
resided there.
It is remarkable that Ptolemaios was the only satrap who had a
parxov, but it is not unlikely that he had to make some concessions in
exchange for all the decisions to his advantage: the allotment of Egypt,
according to Diodorus the best satrapy152, Laomedons appointment in
Syria if he had procured it and Alexanders burial at Siwa. Moreover, Perdikkas might have insisted on retaining Kleomenes in office for
his competence in financial matters and his experience in the development
of Alexandria at least as a pretext153. Furthermore, there were drawbacks
for the other new satraps as well: Lysimachos satrapy had to a large
extent to be (re)conquered and he risked conflict with Antipatros and
Krateros; Leonnatos received Hellespontine Phrygia, but Paphlagonia,
belonging to the same province under Alexander, was given to Eumenes;
the latter, in turn, still had to conquer Cappadocia; Peithon only got a portion of Media as Atropates retained the other part of it; Antipatros and
Krateros had to share command, which might cause a power struggle154.
Ptolemaios, then, was certainly not the only one who had to make concessions.
It might have been difficult for Greeks to take personal initiatives
against the central government, but there is no reason why Laomedon
could not have concluded an alliance with Ptolemaios, and Eumenes
152
Diod. XVIII 6.3: satrapea pasn rstj ka prosdouv xousa meglav.

H. KLOFT, Kleomenes von Naukratis. Probleme eines hellenistischen Wirtschaftsstils,
GB 15 (1988), p. 217, calls Kleomenes an Organisation- und Finanzgenie; cf. G. LE
RIDER, Alexandre le Grand. Monnaie, finances et politique (Histoires), Paris 2003, p. 253:
Clomne fut lun de ces serviteurs qui permirent au Conqurant, par leur dvouement
et leur ingniosit, de raliser un certain nombre de grands desseins; B. LEGRAS, Kaqper
k palaio. Le Statut de lgypte sous Clomne de Naucratis, in ID. & J.-C. COUVENHES
(edd.), Transferts culturels et politique dans le monde hellnistique, Paris 2006, p. 83-101.
154
R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 55.
153
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if he did not yet belong to the Perdikkan party at that time155 might
have joined his friend Antigonos156. The new Macedonian satraps could
attach themselves to such coalitions as well. Furthermore, it is not even
certain that Philotas was indeed appointed at this time, and if so, it was
probably because the previous satrap had died and had not yet been
replaced157. Moreover, Arrian (Succ. F 24.2) says that Philotas was a
friend of Krateros, and Perdikkas would rather have chosen his own
friends if he wanted to be sure they would not rise against him. It is also
striking that most satraps simply remained in office: this does not suggest that Perdikkas had developed the kind of system Seibert assumes. For
most newly appointed satraps it is possible that Perdikkas indeed nominated them in order to remove his most important rivals: Krateros,
Eumenes, Leonnatos, Lysimachos, Peithon, Ptolemaios and maybe even
Asandros. Though the conclusion that the new satraps were mainly rivals
of Perdikkas cuts across Seiberts argument158, it does seem to suggest at
least some initiative on Perdikkas behalf. However, it is also possible that
but for some exceptions only the most important men were able to
obtain a satrapal appointment, and these very men were of course also
those whom Perdikkas distrusted.
Bosworth has also argued for Perdikkas omnipotence in distributing the
satrapies. In his view, Perdikkas had by the time of the final settlement
strengthened his position to such an extent that no-one could oppose him159.
However, his argument seems to be based too much on Perdikkas relationship with the phalanx which had indeed been gravely intimidated by the
executions; the nobles might have been less impressed, and now that the
rank and file had been placated, there was no more reason for them to concord with Perdikkas in all respects. There is no reason, then, to assume that
they would not have pursued their own ambitions, and as argued above
Perdikkas could not take the risk of becoming opposed to a large coalition of officers. The only way to avoid this was to make concessions.
Another important argument against Perdikkas omnipotence is Pausanias statement (I 6.2) that Ptolemaios was responsible for the partition of
155
Thus e.g. K. ROSEN, art. cit. (n. 80), p. 98: Erst im Verlauf der weiteren Entwicklung wurde er zum treuesten Anhnger des Perdikkas.
156
R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 35 n. 60, for the friendship between Eumenes and
Antigonos.
157
See above, n. 100.
158
J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 38.
159
A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 56-58.
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75
the empire in kingdoms, when opposing to those who wanted to make

Arrhidaios king160. Some scholars have taken Pausanias at face value, and
conclude that Ptolemaios wanted to disband Alexanders empire161. The
context of the passage, however, shows that Pausanias is misrepresenting
the facts and that the passage is actually a garbled reference the events
leading to the Babylon settlement. Tov v Aridaon tn Filppou tn
psan gousin rxn situates the action before Arrhidaios was definitively recognised king. Furthermore, it happened before Ptolemaios went
to Egypt. The statement cannot refer to Ptolemaios proposal in the first
meeting (1.1) as that was in no way related to any division of the territory162. Consequently, we are just facing the interpretation of Pausanias
who concluded from hindsight that the distribution of satrapies actually
meant the eventual break-up of Alexanders empire. The wording v tv
basileav () t qnj nemjqnai accords so well with Appians (Syr.,
52) description of the satrapal division, v satrapeav nemanto t
qnj, that they must be talking about the same event and clearly share a
single source163. The only difference between both phrases is the word
basileai in Pausanias, but this anachronistic use of the word is not
uncommon in our sources on the age of the Successors164; that Pausanias
also says in I 6.3 that Perdikkas wanted to remove Ptolemaios from n
Agptw basilea proves that he is making this mistake here because in
320 Ptolemaios was merely satrap of Egypt and not king. Thus, it would
seem that according to Pausanias source Ptolemaios, and not Perdikkas,
was the main initiator of the distribution of satrapies. Unless Pausanias has
160
I 6.2-3: Teleutsantov d Alezndrou tov v Aridaon tn Filppou tn
psan gousin rxn ntistv atv mlista gneto v tv basileav atiov t
qnj nemjqnai. [3] Atv d v Agupton diabv () [After the death of Alexander, by withstanding those who would have conferred all his empire upon Aridaeus, the
son of Philip, he became chiefly responsible for the division of the various nations into
the kingdoms. He crossed over to Egypt in person ().]. . WILL, op. cit. (n. 111),
p. 24; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 150 n. 466.
161
Thus recently e.g. N.G.L. HAMMOND, The Nature of the Hellenistic States, in Ancient
Macedonia VI. Papers Read at the Sixth International Symposium held in Thessaloniki,
October 15-19, 1996 (Institute for Balkan Studies, 272), Thessaloniki 1999, I, p. 483.
162
Contra: J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 32-33, who thinks that Pausanias simply misrepresents the proposal from the first meesting.
163
This is all the more conspicuous as it is a strange phrasing which seems to suggest
that the satrapies originated at this moment: see J. SEIBERT, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 31.
164
F. BIZIERE, Comment travaillait Diodore de Sicile, REG 87 (1974), p. 373; N.L.
COLLINS, The Various Fathers of Ptolemy I, Mnemosyne 50 (1997), 443 n. 24. For the
satrapy distribution: Nepos, Eum. 2.1, who says that the regna were distributed among
Alexanders friends.
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conflated different moments mentioned in his source, this passage also provides another highly interesting insight in the debates for the final settlement, namely that even Arrhidaios kingship was discussed again.
Some assume that his initiative for the distribution of satrapies is the
reason why Ptolemaios is named first in all the lists165. Probably he preferred having a territorial base of power to staying at court in order to
have the best possible position to pursue his personal ambitions. This
need not mean that he wanted to disband the empire, whether as an
explicit objective or as predictable consequence of his action166. If Ptolemaios was indeed the main instigator of the distribution, this supports the
hypothesis that he stipulated for Laomedons appointment.
All these elements together indicate that there probably were intense
negotiations and that the final settlement with the satrapal division was
the result of a compromise rather than of Perdikkas omnipotence167.
Especially Ptolemaios tried to undermine Perdikkas power; he obtained
the burial of Alexander at Siwa and was the main instigator of the distribution of satrapies. Possibly he already planned to attack Perdikkas
from his power base in Egypt, a country easy to defend168. On the other
hand, it is not unlikely that Perdikkas had already decided at this moment
to remove Ptolemaios as soon as possible169.
2. THE REJECTION OF ALEXANDERS LAST PLANS

After the organisation of the administration comes an episode only known
from Diodorus (XVIII 4.1-6): Perdikkas presented Alexanders last plans
165
G. WIRTH, art. cit. (n. 17), p. 317.

W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 150 n. 466, thinks such a policy of a wide distribution of power () would inevitably lead to the disintegration of the empire.
167
As argued also by R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 57; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op.
cit. (n. 5), p. 143; P. BRIANT, op. cit. (n. 21), p. 132-141 and 255; P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit.
(n. 20), p. 81; R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 314-315; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20),
p. 150; O. SCHMITT, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 52 n. 19; C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 20.
168
Cf. . WILL, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 24: Si ce renseignement (= Paus. I 6.2) est exact,
il implique vraisemblablement que Ptolme avait quelque ide derrire la tte, et lon ne
se trompera sans doute pas en pensant que ce fut sur sa demande, ou la suite de ses
intrigues, que lgypte lui fut attribue; W. HUSS, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 97: Hchstwahrscheinlich hatte sich Ptolemaios in der Umgebung des Alexandros befunden, als dieser
sich im J. 332/31 in gypten aufgehalten hatte. Und vermutlich wird ihm bereits damals
klar geworden sein, welche Chancen der Besitz dieses Landes erffnen konnte.
169
E.M. ANSON, op. cit. (n. 13), p. 61-62. According to Diodorus XVIII 14.2 Ptolemaios already knew that Perdikkas was going to try to remove him at the time of his
arrival in Egypt. I hope to deal with this in a forthcoming study.
166
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77
to the army assembly asking whether they should be executed. According to Badian this happened before the final settlement (1.3) because it
was not possible to know which commands had to be distributed as long
as the plans were not cancelled170. It is more likely, however, that
Perdikkas could only perform such a significant act171 once he had gained
the supreme command. Moreover, it was essential for him to have
Krateros mission to Europe confirmed before he cancelled Alexanders
instructions on the return to the motherland: it was of prime importance
to him that Krateros would leave Asia as soon as possible and not return
to Babylon172.
We do not know the complete contents of the Hypomnemata as
Diodorus only mentions t mgista ka mnmjv zia: the construction
of a thousand large warships for the conquest of the West, the building
of a road along the African coast all the way to the pillars of Herakles,
the building of ports and docks; the erection of six temples of 1500 talents each; synoikismoi, transpositions of people from Asia to Europe and
from Europe to Asia, and intermarriage in order to promote the unity of
the empire; the completion of Hephaistions funeral monument; and the
construction of a tomb for Philip comparable to the largest Egyptian pyramid. The authenticity of the Hypomnemata has long been disputed, but I
see no reason to doubt that they were real173, regardless of the question
170
E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 202 n. 62; N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 104.
Badians argument that Diodorus has the Hypomnemata episode out of place because it
disconnects the so-called Gazetteer of Empire from the division of commands, is obviated by Diodorus own statement on the reasons for giving the description of the empire
(XVIII 5.1): it did not serve as background for the distribution of commands but as a preamble to a mllousai przeiv.
171
Cf. Diod. XVIII 4.3 for the significance of the matter; E.M. ANSON, art. cit. (n. 21),
p. 238.
172
R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 57 n. 59, also prefers to place the reading of the
last plans after the satrapy distribution. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 59 n. 113, argues
that the rejection of the Hypomnemata did not mean the renunciation of Krateros commission to return to Europe. Ekrinan mjdn tn erjmnwn suntelen (XVIII 4.6)
indeed only refers to the specific proposals put to them, but we cannot conclude from
Diodorus what all of these were as he only gives a selection (t mgista ka mnmjv
zia: XVIII 4.4), and the explicit connection of the last plans with Krateros commissions
(XVIII 4.1) suggests that these were part of the proposals put to the soldiers. Since Krateros
first had to supervise the ship-building activities in Cilicia (A.B. BOSWORTH, From Arrian
to Alexander. Studies in Historical Interpretation, Oxford 1988, p. 209-210, it is not surprising that his mission was included in the last plans (cf. infra).
173
See especially A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 172), p. 185-211. J. SEIBERT, Alexander
der Groe (Ertrge der Forschung, 10), Darmstadt 1972, p. 7-10 and ID., op. cit. (n. 71),
p. 91, provides a good overview of the debates.
78
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A. MEEUS
whether the document Perdikkas read to the assembly was written by

Alexander as such. Tarn pointed out that the completion of the monument
for Hephaistion is an odd element: as the works were already in process,
it is quite out of place in a list of plans174. This observation is the basis
of Badians argument that Perdikkas was responsible for the compilation
of the list he presented, containing a well-considered selection from
Alexanders plans175; Hephaistions monument was then added to the list
to prove that it were the kings actual plans, one of which happened to
be in process already. Badian assumes that Perdikkas must have adapted
the contents of the rest of the list as well176, but this does not seem necessary: Alexanders plans were megalomaniacal enough177. Perdikkas
wanted the plans to be rejected178, which has determined the selection
process: he tried to present as many projects unpopular with the soldiers
as possible. While all of this is not implausible, there might even be a simpler solution as the document with the last plans need not necessarily
stem from Alexanders very last months: he might well have made some
sort of list before the construction of Hephaistions monument had started.
Krateros, whom Alexander had sent to Europe with 10,000 veterans in
324, was still in Cilicia when the king died179. Diodorus (XVIII 4.1) says
that the plans Perdikkas had cancelled were those Alexander had entrusted
Krateros with in 324180. By rejecting the plans, Perdikkas wanted to
renounce Krateros mission in Cilicia, so that he would no longer have
any reason to stay in Asia and could leave for Europe immediately.
Krateros evidently was not absolutely obliged to abide by a decision of
the army assembly in Babylon: he could dispute the legitimacy of it since
174
W.W. TARN, op. cit. (n. 123) p. 382; cf. E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 201: ()
this is the one item in the Hypomnemata that cannot be made plausible as such: the completion of a building that had been under construction for eight months could hardly be an
item in Alexanders projects.
175
E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 200-201.
176
Ibid.
177
Cf. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 172), p. 207. Contra: P.A. STADTER, review of
Bosworth, op. cit. (n. 172), AJP 110 (1989), p. 378, who the deems the account of the
Hypomnemata irreconcilable with the logistical genius indicated by Alexanders previous conquests because of the impracticability of the plans which he consigns to the realm
of rhetoric, propaganda and fantasy.
178
Diodorus XVIII 4.2.
179
A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 172), pp. 208-209; N.G. ASHTON, Craterus from 324
to 321 B.C., in Ancient Maceonia V. Papers Read at the Fifth International Symposium
held in Thessaloniki, October 10-15, 1989 (Institute for Balkan Studies, 240), Thessaloniki
1993, I, p. 128-129.
180
Cf. A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 59.
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79
a large part of the army was not in Babylon, but with him Cilicia.
Nonetheless, the moral authority of the assembly at Babylon was high:
an important part of the soldiers had rejected the plans, and his popularity with these very soldiers constituted Krateros main asset181. Moreover
Perdikkas wanted to avoid Antipatros crossing to Asia after Krateros
arrival in Europe182. One of the instructions Alexander had given Krateros
was to replace Antipatros as governor of Europe and send the latter to
Asia with new recruits183. Probably Perdikkas hoped that a struggle for
the power in Europe would come about, which would possibly lead to the
elimination of one of his rivals without him having to play an active part
in it184. Krateros, however, stayed in Asia until the summer of 322, when
he set out to aid Antipatros in the Lamian War; crossing over to Europe
immediately after the Babylon settlement would have implied recognition
of Perdikkas supremacy185. Some scholars assume that Perdikkas also
hoped to increase his popularity with the troops by cancelling the expensive plans and showing that he wanted to hear the armys opinion on
important matters186. This is certainly possible, but our ignorance concerning the context of the episode precludes any certitude on the matter.
3. THE OUTCOME OF THE BABYLON SETTLEMENT

The so-called balance of power some even call it a triumvirate187
between Perdikkas, Krateros, and Antipatros seems to be absolutely out
181

E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 202; F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 191;
W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 128-129; N.G. ASHTON, art. cit. (n. 176), p. 129.
183
Arr., Anab., VII 12.4. N.G. ASHTON, art. cit. (n. 179), p. 126, suggests that Alexander possibly wanted to appoint Antipatros overall commander, governor and kings representative in Asia an essential post once the King had left for his western campaign;
cf. M. ZAHRNT, Vershnen oder Spalten? berlegungen zu Alexanders Verbanntendekret,
Hermes 131 (2003), p. 408. The Alexander testament, a forgery emanating from Ptolemaic
propaganda (see above n. 27), seems to offer strong confirmation for this view. According to the testament Antipatros was to be governor of Western-Anatolia after Alexanders
death: Liber de Morte 117; W. HECKEL, op. cit. (n. 68), p. 28-29. It goes without saying
that the testament would be all the more effective if it contained as many elements as possible corresponding to what Alexander actually wanted at the time of his death.
184
E. BADIAN, art. cit. (n. 86), p. 202; C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 56; E.M. ANSON,
op. cit. (n. 13), p. 61.
185
N.G. ASHTON, art. cit. (n. 179), p. 129-130.
186
F. SCHACHERMEYR, op. cit. (n. 5), p. 192-193; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3), p. 60.
187
W.W. TARN, Alexanders pomnmata and the World-Kingdom, JHS 41 (1921),
p. 4; W. ENSSLIN, art. cit. (n. 59), especially p. 298; G. De SANCTIS, Perdicca, Studi
182
80
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A. MEEUS
of the question. Perdikkas, who had the best position to begin with, being
the kings closest companion present in Babylon, immediately tried to
gain supremacy while setting his main rivals against each other188. He
succeeded to a large extent as he was appointed sole regent and made
Krateros and Antipatros share command in Europe. Bosworth argued that
Perdikkas carefully refrained from a direct challenge to Craterus and
Antipater because he did not dare to confront them189, but appointing
them over the same province must have come across as an attack190.
Perdikkas, thus, had been able to establish his supremacy after the initial
resistance of the phalanx had been overcome, but his position was far
from secure as nobody could predict the reaction of Antipatros and
Krateros and as men like Ptolemaios and Leonnatos were not likely to
acquiesce in his supremacy.
There is no trace of the separatist tendencies some scholars have argued
for, especially in Ptolemaios actions. He fiercely opposed Perdikkas, but
nothing indicates that he or any other officer for that matter thought
of disbanding the state191.
italiani di Filologia Classica N.S. 9 (1931), now in A. FERRABINO & S. ACCAME (edd.),
Gaetano De Sanctis. Scritti Minori V, 1931-1947 (Storia e Letteratura, 124), Roma 1983,
p. 109-112; F. GRANIER, op. cit. (n. 59), p. 61-63; P. ROUSSEL, Le dmembrement de
lempire dAlexandre, in G. GLOTZ et al, Histoire Ancienne II, Histoire Grecque IV,
Alexandre et lhellnisation du monde antique 1, Alexandre et le dmembrement de son
empire, Paris 1938, p. 262; M. CARY, op. cit. (n. 132), p. 2-3; M.J. FONTANA, op. cit.
(n. 21), p. 50; H. BENGTSON, op. cit. (n. 70), p. 63-81; M. FORTINA, Cassandro, re di
Macedonia, Torino 1965, p. 15; K. ROSEN, art. cit. (n. 80), p. 95-99; O. MLLER, op. cit.
(n. 111), p. 18; P. GOUKOWSKY, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 195; R.N.H. BOERMA, op. cit. (n. 15),
p. 75, 295 and 299; . WILL, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 22-23; N.G.L. HAMMOND, op. cit. (n. 15),
p. 103; R.A. BILLOWS, op. cit. (n. 39), p. 56; J. SEIBERT, Zur Begrndung von Herrschaftsanspruch und Herrschaftslegitimierung in der frhen Diadochenzeit, in ID. (ed.), Hellenistische Studien. Gedenkschrift fr Hermann Bengtson (Mnchener Arbeiten zur Alten
Geschichte, 5), Mnchen 1991, p. 87; O. MRKHOLM, Early Hellenistic Coinage. From the
Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336-188 B.C.), Cambridge 1991, p. 55;
W. HECKEL, art. cit. (n. 41), p. 89; C. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 20), p. 19.
188
G. Wirths conclusion [art. cit. (n. 17), p. 284; endorsed by M. RATHMANN, op. cit.
(n. 6), p. 32 n. 99] Perdikkas geht es darum, vorerst eine Instanz zu finden, Einzelpersnlichkeit oder Gremium, welche die Krfte des Reiches zusammenzuhalten vermag,
seems rather nave. Rathmann (ibid., p. 39) shows more sense of reality when writing on
Lysimachos position: Da diese Satrapienzuweisung letztlich den politischen Spielraum
des Antipatros und Krateros in Europa berhrte (), kann hierin eine bewusste Spitze des
Perdikkas gegen Antipatros gesehen werden. This is, however, in contradiction to the
views on the relationship between Perdikkas and Antipatros expressed ibid., p. 30.
189
190
A. SCHFER, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 353-354, already pointed this out; cf. R.M. ERRINGTON, art. cit. (n. 1), p. 59.
191
Although it does not seem to be supported by the sources, the view that there were separatists among the Diadochoi still finds wide acceptance, but it is finally being abandonned
30-10-2008
14:58
Pagina 81
81
The conclusion that only one regent, being in supreme command of the
entire empire, was appointed also disproves the view that Europe and
Asia were considered to be two separate basileai192. It should now be
clear that both kings were considered to hold sway over the entire
empire193. The joint kingship only emerged as a compromise between the
phalanx and the nobles: it has no constitutional significance194. If
Arrhidaios stayed in Asia, this was because he was king of the entire
Macedonian empire; there was no such thing as the council of regents for
Alexander IV which Miltner concocted, and even if it did exist, the feeble-minded Arrhidaios would not have been part of it. That documents
were dated by the years of Arrhidaios in Asia too, can only mean that his
kingship covered that area as well. Likewise, the fact that both kings
always stayed together, either in Asia or in Europe, can only mean that
they were both kings of the entire empire, in spite of Miltners ingenious
explanations.
by some scholars: E.S. GRUEN, The Coronation of the Diadochoi, in J.W. EADIE & J. OBER
(edd.), The Craft of the Ancient Historian. Essays in Honor of Chester G. Starr, Lanham
1985, p. 253-271; E.D. CARNEY, The Sisters of Alexander the Great: Royal Relicts, Historia
37 (1988), p. 402; H.S. LUND, op. cit. (n. 111), p. 51-52; A.B. BOSWORTH, op. cit. (n. 3),
p. 246-247; W.L. ADAMS, art. cit. (n. 40), p. 28-35; A. MEEUS, De territoriale ambities van
de diadochen in de eerste jaren na de dood van Alexander de Grote (323-320 v.C.), forthcoming in Koninklijke Zuidnederlandse Maatschappij voor Taal- en Letterkunde en
Geschiedenis: Handelingen 61 (2007).
192
This view has been argued most elaborately by F. MILTNER, Die staatsrechtliche
Entwicklung des Alexanderreiches, Klio 26 (1933), p. 47-51, and H. BENGTSON, op. cit.
(n. 70), p. 63-81. It was endorsed most recently by W. HECKEL, art. cit. (n. 41), p. 89.
M. RATHMANN, op. cit. (n. 6), p. 19-20 n. 53, provides good arguments against the view
of a constitutionally defined Doppelknigtum. See also Diod. XVIII 41.5-7 and 50.2
where Antigonos, the stratjgv of Asia, is clearly subordinate to the regents Antipatros
and Polyperchon.
193
On the status of the kings: see C. HABICHT, Literarische und epigraphische berlieferung zur Geschichte Alexanders und seiner ersten Nachfolger, in Akten des VI. Internationalen Kongresses fr Griechische und Lateinische Epigraphik. Mnchen 1972 (Vestigia, 17), Mnchen 1973, p. 370-377; W. HECKEL, IG II2 561 and the Status of Alexander
IV, ZPE 40 (1980), p. 249-250; E. ARENA, La titolatura regale nella macedonia ellenistica: i basilev Filippo III e Alessandro IV nelle fonti letterarie ed epigrafiche (323-317
a.C.), in Ancient Maceonia VI. Papers Read at the Sixth International Symposium held in
Thessaloniki, October 15-19, 1996 (Institute for Balkan Studies, 272), Thessaloniki 1999,
I, p. 77-98; P. FUNKE, Philippos III. Arrhidaios und Alexandros IV. von Amun auserwhlt, in V. ALONSO TRONCOSO (ed.), op. cit. (n. 38), p. 45-56. The possible adaptation
of Persian elements at Arrhidaios court would also indicate that he was considered king
of both Europe and Asia: see S.A. PASPALAS, Philip Arrhidaios at Court An Ill-Advised
Persianism? Macedonian Royal Display in the Wake of Alexander, Klio 87 (2005), p. 72101.
194
Cf. L. MOOREN, art. cit. (n. 20), p. 238: The compromise that was reached at
Babylon (joint kingship of Philippos Arrhidaios and Rhoxanes son) was not so much a
constitutional as a political one.
30-10-2008
82
14:58
Pagina 82
A. MEEUS
After more than a month of struggle between infantry and nobles, and
among the nobles themselves, the Macedonian empire finally had a government it could move on with. However, it remained to be seen whether
and how long everybody would be prepared to abide by the agreements.
B3000 Leuven
Alexander MEEUS
Onderzoekseenheid Oude Geschiedenis
APPENDIX
OVERVIEW OF THE DECISIONS TAKEN IN THE THREE STAGES195
(1.1) The first compromise of the nobles (Curt. X 7.8; Just. XIII 2.14)
Alexanders child king if it would be a son
Perdikkas and Leonnatos regent
Antipatros and Krateros governor of Europe
(1.2) The compromise between nobles and phalanx
Philippos III joint king with Alexanders child if it would be a son (Just. XIII
4.2-3; Arr., Succ., F1a1[?])
Perdikkas, Krateros, and Meleagros regent (prosttjv), with Perdikkas commanding the cavalry (being xilarxov), Meleagros the infantry, and Krateros
administering the finances (Just. XIII 4.5; Arr., Succ., F1a3; Curt. X 8.22)
[Dex. F8.4]
Antipatros governor of Europe (Just. XIII 4.5; Arr., Succ., F1a3)
(1.3) The final settlement of the nobles
Philippos III joint king with Alexanders child if it would be a son (Dex.
F8.1)
Perdikkas sole regent (Diod. XVIII 2.4; Curt. X 10.4; Dex. F8.1; Heidelberger Epitome F1.2)
Seleukos xilarxov (Diod. XVIII 3.4; Just. XIII 4.7; App., Syr., 57; Libanius, Or. XI 79)
Antipatros and Krateros governor of Europe (Diod. XVIII 3.2; Arr. F1a7;
Dex. F8.3)
satrapy distribution (Diod. XVIII 3.1-3; Just. XIII 4.10-25; Curt. X 10.1-4;
Arr., Succ., F1a5-7; Dex. F8.2-7)
Alexanders burial at Siwa (Diod. XVIII 3.5) [Just. XIII 4.6]
195
If, according to the present reconstruction, a source mentions a decision in the wrong
place, the reference is given between square brackets.

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1374-08_Anc_Soc38_03_Meeus

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON,

Ancient Society 38, 39-82. doi: 10.2143/AS.38.0.2033270

1. THE THREE STAGES OF THE BABYLON SETTLEMENT

1.1. The first meeting and the stsiv

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Heckel argues that Perdikkas had chosen Meleagros because of the

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Alexanders child and to make it king if it would prove to be a boy.

position under Alexander there is no reason to deny that he participated

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Next, Aristonous proposed that Perdikkas should be appointed king48.

prompted them to seize the booty55. Apparently he was successful,

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

1.2. The compromise

satrapies67. Unfortunately no source gives each stage in its entirety and

final settlement (1.3)

A.3: xiliarxen xiliarxav

C.10.4: cum rege esse

A.7: the administration of

A.3: stratjgv tn kat

A.7: the administration of

A.3: parxov Perdkkou

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

final settlement (1.3)

(*) quoted in n. 112.

Apparently Leonnatos no longer held an office in the second settlement

here is whether Justins description of the offices of Perdikkas, Krateros,

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Meleagros, then, were regent together with Krateros, as Perdikkas and

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

1.3. The final settlement

decisions is necessary to reconstruct the decision-making process and the

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

to be mentioned here: Antigonos in Greater Phrygia and Menandros in

1.3.1.2 The regency

See the table in 1.2.

structure of Dexippus text as it stands in Photius Bibliotheca. First, he

1.3.1.3 The administration of Europe

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Krateros no longer held the prostasa: Dexippus is wrong in stating the

Geschichte, 33), Bonn 1992, p. 52 n. 20; C. FRANCO, Il regno di Lisimaco. Strutture

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

empire, and everyone including Lysimachos, Antipatros and Krateros

1.3.1.4 Alexanders funeral

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

ing that Alexander wanted Ammons sanctuary to be his last resting-place

1.3.2 The decision-making process

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

hand, explicitly say that Perdikkas distributed the provinces. According

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

father-in-law Atropates by giving the larger part of his satrapy to

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

Diod. XVIII 6.3: satrapea pasn rstj ka prosdouv xousa meglav.

THE POWER STRUGGLE OF THE DIADOCHOI IN BABYLON, 323 BC

the empire in kingdoms, when opposing to those who wanted to make