Physical Electronics: First Class

Physical Electronics
First class
(1)
Bohrs Model
Why dont the electrons fall into the nucleus?

Move like planets around the sun.
In circular orbits at different levels.
Amounts of energy separate one level from
another.
Bohrs Model
Nucleus
Electron
Orbit
Energy Levels
Bohr postulated that:
Fixed energy related to the orbit

Electrons cannot exist between orbits
The higher the energy level, the further it is
away from the nucleus
An atom with maximum number of electrons
in the outermost orbital energy level is stable
(unreactive)
How did he develop his theory?

He used mathematics to explain the visible spectrum
of hydrogen gas
High
Low
energy
energy
Radio Micro Infrared
Ultra- XGamma
waves waves .
violet Rays Rays
Low
High
Frequency
Frequency
Long
Short
Wavelength
Wavelength
Visible Light
The line spectrum

electricity passed
through a gaseous
element emits light at
a certain wavelength
Can be seen when
passed through a
prism
Every gas has a
unique pattern (color)
Line spectrum of various elements
Drawback
Bohrs theory did not
explain or show the
shape or the path
traveled by the
electrons.
His theory could only
explain hydrogen and
not the more complex
atoms
Increasing energy
Fifth
Fourth
Third
Second
First
Further away
from the
nucleus means
more energy.
There is no in
between
energy
Energy Levels
The Quantum Mechanical Model

Energy is quantized. It comes in chunks.
A quanta is the amount of energy needed to move
from one energy level to another.
Since the energy of an atom is never in between
there must be a quantum leap in energy.
Schr dinger derived an equation that described the
energy and position of the electrons in an atom
Heated gases emit line spectra (v. heated

solids)
In 1885, J. J. Balmer showed that the
wavelengths, , in the visible spectrum of
hydrogen could be reproduced by a simple
formula.
7 1 1
2
2
1
2
n
The known wavelengths of the four visible lines

for hydrogen correspond to values of n = 3, n =
4, n = 5, and n = 6.
Prior to the work of Niels Bohr, the stability of

the atom could not be explained using the
then-current theories. How can e- lose energy
and remain in orbit????
Bohr in 1913 set down postulates to account
for (1) the stability of the hydrogen atom and
(2) the line spectrum of the atom.
1. Energy level postulate An electron can have
only specific energy levels in an atom.
2. Transitions between energy levels An electron
in an atom can change energy levels by
undergoing a transition from one energy level to
another.
Energy-level
Diagram for
the Electron
in the
Hydrogen
Atom
Transitions of
the Electron in
the Hydrogen
Atom
Bohr Theory of the

Hydrogen Atom
Bohrs Postulates
Bohrs theory explains not only the emission
of light, but also the absorption of light.
When an electron falls from n = 3 to n = 2
energy level, a photon of red light
(wavelength, 685 nm) is emitted.
When red light of this same wavelength
shines on a hydrogen atom in the n = 2 level,
the energy is gained by the electron that
undergoes a transition to n = 3.
Bohrs theory established the concept of atomic

energy levels but did not thoroughly explain the
wave-like behavior of the electron.
Current ideas about atomic structure depend on
the principles of quantum mechanics, a theory
that applies to subatomic particles such as
electrons. Electrons show properties of both
waves and particles.
The Bohr model for an electron transition in hydrogen between quantized energy levels with different
quantum numbers n yields a photon by emission, with quantum energy
me 4
h
2
8 0 h 2
1
1
1
1
2 2 13.6 2 2 eV
n1 n2
n1 n2
This is often expressed in terms of the inverse wavelength or "wave number" as follows:
me 4
RH
2
8 0 ch3
RH 1.097 107 m 1
Failures of the Bohr Model
While the Bohr model was a major step toward understanding the quantum
theory of the atom, it is not in fact a correct description of the nature of electron
orbits. Some of the shortcomings of the model are:
1. It fails to provide any understanding of why certain spectral lines are brighter
than others. There is no mechanism for the calculation of transition
probabilities.
2. The Bohr model treats the electron as if it were a miniature planet, with
definite radius and momentum. This is in direct violation of the uncertainty
principle which dictates that position and momentum cannot be simultaneously
determined.
The Bohr model gives us a basic conceptual model of electrons orbits and
energies. The precise details of spectra and charge distribution must be left to
quantum mechanical calculations, as with the Schr dinger equation.
Bragg Diffraction
Diffraction
Pathlength difference
= 2dsin.
Constructive
Interference:
2dsin = n
= h/p
Photon E=pc
Slow Neutron:
E = p2/(2M)
See pictures in text
Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different types of phenomena
observed with light, a strong case can be built for a wave picture:
Phenomenon
Can be explained in terms of

waves.
Can be explained in terms of

particles.
Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric effect
Compton scattering
Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves. But the photoelectric
effect and the Compton scatering suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too were
found to exhibit dual natures.
The first clue in the development of quantum

theory came with the discovery of the de
Broglie relation.
In 1923, Louis de Broglie reasoned that if light
exhibits particle aspects, perhaps particles of
matter show characteristics of waves.
He postulated that a particle with mass m and a
velocity v has an associated wavelength.
The equation = h/mv is called the de Broglie
relation.
de Broglie Waves and the Bohr

Model
Why is the angular momentum of
the electron restricted to certain
values?
The electron has a wavelength and
forms standing waves in its orbit around
the nucleus.
An integral number of electron
wavelengths must fit into the
circumference of the circular orbit.
n 2 r
h
h
nh
n 1, 2,3,...
(2 r / n) 2 r
nh
L rmv
n 1, 2,3,...
2
p mv
If matter has wave properties, why are they not

commonly observed?
The de Broglie relation shows that a baseball
(0.145 kg) moving at about 60 mph (27 m/s) has a
wavelength of about 1.7 x 10-34 m.
34 kgm 2
s
6.63 10
34
( 0is.145
1.7 that
10 such
m waves
value
sokgincredibly
)( 27 m / s ) small
This
cannot be detected.
Electrons have wavelengths on the order of a few
picometers (1 pm = 10-12 m).
Quiz
Which of the following particles has the shortest
wavelength? ( = h/mv)
a. an electron traveling at x m/s
b. a proton traveling at x m/s
c. a proton traveling at 2x m/s
Measuring the position and momentum

of an electron
Shine light on electron and detect reflected
light using a microscope
Minimum uncertainty in position
is given by the wavelength of the
light
So to determine the position
accurately, it is necessary to use
light with a short wavelength
Measuring the position and momentum

of an electron (contd)
By Plancks law E = hc/, a photon with a short
wavelength has a large energy
Thus, it would impart a large kick to the
electron
But to determine its momentum accurately,
electron must only be given a small kick
This means using light of long wavelength!
Use light with short wavelength:

accurate measurement of position but not
momentum
Use light with long wavelength:

accurate measurement of momentum but not
position
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle
The more accurately you know the position (i.e.,

the smaller x is) , the less accurately you know the
momentum (i.e., the larger p is); and vice versa
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

involving energy and time
The more accurately we know the energy of a

body,
the less accurately we know how long it
possessed
that energy
The energy can be known with perfect precision
(E = 0), only if the measurement is made over
an infinite period of time (t = )
Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics

that mathematically describes the wave
properties of submicroscopic particles.
We can no longer think of an electron as having a
precise orbit in an atom.
To describe such an orbit would require knowing its
exact position and velocity.
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg showed (from
quantum mechanics) that it is impossible to know
both simultaneously.
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle is a

relation that states that the product of the
uncertainty in position (x) and the uncertainty
in momentum (mvx) of a particle can be no
smaller than h/4.
h
( x )( m v x )
4
When m is large (for example, a baseball) the
uncertainties are small, but for electrons, high
uncertainties disallow defining an exact orbit.
Quantum Mechanics
Although we cannot precisely define an
electrons orbit, we can obtain the probability
of finding an electron at a given point around
the nucleus.
Erwin Schrodinger defined this probability in a
mathematical expression called a wave function,
denoted (psi).
The probability of finding a particle in a region of
space is defined by 2.
Quantum Numbers and Atomic

Orbitals
According to quantum mechanics, each
electron is described by four quantum numbers.
Principal quantum number (n)
Angular momentum quantum number (l)
Magnetic quantum number (ml)
Spin quantum number (ms)
The first three define the wave function for a particular
electron. The fourth quantum number refers to the
magnetic property of electrons.

Orbitals
The principal quantum number(n) represents
the shell number in which an electron
resides
The smaller n is, the smaller the orbital
The smaller n is, the lower the energy of the
electron

Orbitals
The angular momentum quantum number (l)
distinguishes sub shells within a given shell
that have different shapes.
Each main shell is subdivided into sub shells.
Within each shell of quantum number n, there are n
sub shells, each with a distinctive shape.
l can have any integer value from 0 to (n - 1)
The different subshells are denoted by letters.
Letter
l
s
0
p
1
d
2
f
3
g
4 .

Orbitals
The magnetic quantum number (ml)
distinguishes orbitals within a given sub-shell
that have different shapes and orientations in
space.
Each sub shell is subdivided into orbitals, each
capable of holding a pair of electrons.
ml can have any integer value from -l to +l.
Each orbital within a given sub shell has the same
energy.

Orbitals
The spin quantum number (ms) refers to the
two possible spin orientations of the electrons
residing within a given orbital.
Each orbital can hold only two electrons whose
spins must oppose one another.
The possible values of ms are +1/2 and
1/2.

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Physical Electronics

Why dont the electrons fall into the nucleus?

Bohr postulated that:

Fixed energy related to the orbit

How did he develop his theory?

The line spectrum

Line spectrum of various elements

The Quantum Mechanical Model

Heated gases emit line spectra (v. heated

The known wavelengths of the four visible lines

Prior to the work of Niels Bohr, the stability of

Bohr Theory of the

Bohrs theory established the concept of atomic

Failures of the Bohr Model

See pictures in text

Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Can be explained in terms of

Can be explained in terms of

The first clue in the development of quantum

de Broglie Waves and the Bohr

If matter has wave properties, why are they not

Measuring the position and momentum

Measuring the position and momentum

Use light with short wavelength:

Use light with long wavelength:

The more accurately you know the position (i.e.,

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

The more accurately we know the energy of a

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics

Heisenbergs uncertainty principle is a

Quantum Numbers and Atomic

Quantum Numbers and Atomic

Quantum Numbers and Atomic

Quantum Numbers and Atomic

Quantum Numbers and Atomic

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