Land Vibrations, Air Blast and Their Control: Be Be

CHAPTER 33
Land vibrations, air blast and their control
33.1 INTRODUCTION
The principal disturbances created by blasting are: vibrations, air blast and fly rock, Fig. 33.1. All of them can,
under some circumstances, cause damage to structures
nearby and, apart from this, be the source of permanent
conflict with the inhabitants who live close to the operation. Dust formation is also quite frequent and difficult to
control.
In order to solve these problems, it is necessary to have
more highly qualified blast superintendents so that they
can reduce the level of disturbances at a reasonable cost.
Another issue to take into account is the job of information and public relations, which is becornming a necessity, undertaken by the directors of the operation. This can
be even more effective than an exhaustive study by
specialists in the matter.
This chapter analyzes the theory of vibration and air
blast produced by blasting, the methodology of study, the
applicable darnage criteria and the design Parameters
which must be taken into consideration by the technician
to be able to control these environrnental alterations.
large part of the energy is used up in overcoming friction

and in displacing them.
At points close to the blasts, the characteristics of the
vibrations are affected by the Iactors of blast design and
their geometry. At large distances from the blast, the
design factors are less critical and the transmitting medium of rock and soil overburden dominates the wave
characteristics.
The surface materials modify the wave trains making
these last longer and have lower frequencies, therefore
increasing the response and potential damage to nearby
siructures.
From a study canied out by Stagg and Dowding
(1980), it can be deduced that the vibration frequencies in
coal mines are lower than those generated in quanies and
consiructionjobs, Fig. 33.2, which is justified by the long
length of the explosive columns, the complexity of the
geological structures and by the presence of soil overburden.
An appreciable amount of the energy transported by
vibrations in coal mines has a frequency that is lower than
10 Hz. This induces important ground displacement and
high stress levels, which provoke darnages in stmctures
with resonance frequency between 4 and 12 Hz.
T
CHARACTERISTICS
\
The Parameters which affect the characteristics of vibrations are, practically, the same ones which infiuence the
results of the blasts. They can be classified in two groups:
controllable and uncontrollable by the Users of explosives.
The local surrounding geology and rock geomechanics
have great influence on vibrations.
In homoge=Kd
massive ro-GSiEvibrations are propagated in all directions; but in complex
geological structures, the wave propagation can vary with
the direction and, consequently, give different attenuation
indexes or laws of propagation.
When the rocky substratum is covered by soil overburden this usually affects the intensity and frequency of
vibrations. Soil usually has less elasticity modulus than
the rocks and, for this reason, the wave propogation
velocity dirninishes in this type of material. The vibration
frequencyf also dimishes, but displacement A increases
significantly as the overburden thickens.
The magnitude of the vibrations decreases rapidly with
distance increase if soil overburden is present because a
canied out by Nobel's Explosive Company Limited, it

can also be observed that 90% of the blasts in coal mines
produces vibration frequencies under 20 Hz. The number
of blasts in quanies that give frequencies between 4 and
21 Hz is approximately 80%, Fig. 33.3.
The phenomenon of low frequencies is most clearly
seen in underwater blasts or in rock masses that are
saturated with water.
33.2.2 Charge weight per delay
The magnitude of ground and air vibrations at a determined point varies with the explosive charge that is
detonated and the distance of that point from the blast
area. In blasts where more than one period number of
detonator is used, the largest charge per delay has the
most direct influence on vibration intensity and not the
total charge used for the blast, as long as the delay interval
is sufficient to avoid constructive interferences between
the waves generated by the different groups of blastholes.
When there are various blastholes in a blast with
detonators which have the same nominal delay time, the
334
Drilling und blasting of rocks
Photo 33.1. Alterations produced by blasts: vibrations, air blast, fly

rnckanbdust.
30-
P-/----Y
\-
//-
'.
--- W
C ,
WW DlRECTlON
cTm
-'/
FRECUENCY
AR B L A S ~
AwLFlCATlON RANGE FOR

RESlMNTlAL STRUCTURES
Fig. 33.3. Predominant vibration frequencies in surface coal mines and

quanies.
Table 33.1. Cooperation fractions for different types of detonators.

Detonator
Period Period Scatter Cooperation within penumber (ms)
(ms)
riod (Reduction factor)
Fig. 33.1. Disturbances originated by rock blastings.

,
COAL MiNE BLASTHG
QUARRY BLASTING
Note: These values are only for frequencies over 20 Hz.
maximum charge weight per delay is usually less than the

total, owing to cap scatter in the break times of each
detonator System. For this reason, in order to deterrnine
said charge weight per delay, a fraction of the total
number of charges initiated by detonators of the Same
nominal delay is estimated. Thus, for example, for the
detonators manufactured by Nitro Nobel AB the following cooperation fractions can be estimated (Persson,
1980)Table 33.1.
The charge weight per delay is the most important
individual factor that affects the generating of vibrations.
The relationship that exists between vibration intensity
and the charge is of potential type, therefore, for particle
velocity the following exists:
The investigationscarried out by the US Bureau of Mines
show that the value of a is around 0.8.
FRECUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 33.2. Predominating frequencies of vibrations from coal mine,

quarry, and construction blasting (Dowding et al. 1980).
33.2.3 Distance frompoint of blast

The distance from the blasts has, as happens with the
charge, great influence on the magnitude of vibrations.
335

As the distance increases, vibrations diminish according
to a law of the following type:
1
where the value of b, according to the US Bureau of

Mines, is around 1.6.
Another effect of distance is due to attenuation of the
high frequency wave components, as the earth acts a filter
through which the lower frequencies pass. Thus, at long
distances the ground vibrations will have more energy in
the low frequency range, Fig. 33.4.
~~~~h~~interesting arid sometimes confusing aspect is

the powder factor.
When confronted with vibration problems, some engi eers propose to reduce the powder factor of the blast,
but nothing is farther from the minimum level situation.
Blasts have been recorded in which the powder factor
was reduced 20% from the optimum and the vibration
levels measured were two or three times higher as a
consequence of the confinement and poor spatial distribution of the explosive, causing lack of displacement and
swelling energy.
In Fig. 33.5, the powder factor influence can be obs e ~ e din extreme situations arid close to the optimum
level in bench blasting.
FE 15c
-E
I-
Fig. 33.5. Powder factor influence on vibration intensity.
kiat. position
oy
hst. position 600
hst. p&tiQn !360
#-I@
IW
I
\\
oa
\\
- ---------- - --
hst po8m1-11800
----inst. position 00
Fig. 33.6. Typical recording instmment positions and finng angles for
a 3 hole blast, with a firing sequence of 1-2-3 from left to nght (Wiss
and Linehan).
33.2.5 Types of explosives
a. EFFECT OF DISTANCE
b. EFFECT OF GEOLOGY
There is a correspondence between the particle velocities

and the strains induced in the rocks, and this constant of
proportionality is the irnpedance of the rock medium.
Therefore, the first practical consequence is that those
explosives which generate lower blasthole pressures will
also produce lower vibration levels. These explosives are
those of low density and detonation velocity such as
ANFO. If thb Same amount of ANFO is compared with a
common slu;ky, or with an aluminized watergel, the intensity of vibrations generated by the first is 2 and 2.4
times lower respectively. This finding has been supported
engineers such as Hagan and Kennedy (1981),
by va*
In vibrographic studies, if explosives of very different

strengths are used, the charges should be normalized to a
standard explosive of known strength. Usually ANFO is
chosen as the reference explosive, as it is the most widely
used.
33.2.6 Delay Period
C.
EFFECT OF RECEIVING STRUCTURES
Fig. 33.4. Effects of site conditions on blast vibrations.
The delay internals between blasthole detonations can be

referred to as the nominal delay or effective delay time.
The first is the difference between the nominal initiation times, while the effective delay time is the difference
of the arrival times of the pulses generated by blasthole
Drilling und blasting of roch

4
detonation fired with consecutive periods. In the simple

case of a single row of holes, these Parameters are interrelated by the following equation:
S X cos Q,
te = tn VC
where: te = Effective delay time, tn = Nominal delay
time, S = Spacing between holes, VC = Propagation
velocity of the seismic waves, Q, = Angle between
.. i
successiveiy aetonated R
v
i
sor or recording instmment.
In Fig. 33.6, the case of a single row of blastholes with
different relative positions of the recording instruments.
The critical angle of the relative position where the
seismic waves anive at the sarne time and, therefore, a
collaboration can occur between them, will be that where
t, = 0, and can be determined from:
VC X t,
Q,, = arc cos
In Fig. 33.7, a multiple blast is represented and the

directions where there is a more probable interaction of
the waves according to the theoretical break direction of
the holes.
When refening to the minimum delay time that eliminates constructive interferences or has summing or
interacting effects, in the first studies carried out by
Duvail et ai. (1963), internals of 8 and 9 ms were suggested, calculated from the testing done in limestone
quanies. Langefors (1963) points out that with internals
of more than 3 times the vibration period it can be
assumed that there is no interaction between adjacent
blastholes that are detonated in sequence, as the signals

are absorbed. Wiss and Linehan (1978) suggest a nominal
delay time between successive delay internals of 17 ms,
to eliminate the summing effect of the vibrations. In
another study done by Nobel's Explosives Co. of Great
Britain, on secuenced blasts with delay times between
charge weights per hole of under 25 ms, the existance of
constructive interferences in the maximum vibration
level is confirmed, Fig. 33.8.
33.2.7 Geometricparameters oj the biasts

The majority of the geometric design parameters have a
considerable influence on vibrations generated by blasting. Some comments on the subject are:
- Drilling diameter. The increase in drilling diameter
is negative as the arnount of explosive per hole is proportional to the square of the diameter, which would give
very high charge weights per hole on occasions.
- Bench height. The relationship H/B > 2 should be
maintained,whenever p o s ~ - o ~ C i e r t o - o b t a i ~ r g + fragmentation and eliminate toe problems, as well as
reducing vibration levels because the charges are less
confined.
- Burden und spacing. If the burden is excessive, the
explosion gases find resistance to fragmentation and rock
displacement, and palt of the explosive energy is transformed into seismic energy which increases vibration
intensity, Fig. 33.9. This phenomenon is most noticeable
in presplitting blasts, where total confinement exists and
vibrations of around five times those of a conventional
bench blast can be registered.
If burden size is small, the gases escape and expand
towards the free face at a very high speed, giving impulse
--
Land vibrations, air blast und their control
ment at the base, which means that a higher percentage of

the explosive energy is converted into ground vibrations.
This also makes for superAuous expense in drilling and
explosives, and the fioor is left irregular.
- Stemming. If stemming is too high, apart from fragmentation problems, confinement is increased and vibration levels are possibly higher.
- Blasthole inclination. Inclined blastholes allow
better use of energy at fioor level, and even reduce
vibrations.
- Decked charges (decoupling).Tests carried out by
Melnikov, using decked charges of 65 to 75%, show that
fragmentation is improved and the size distribution is
more uniform.
The percentage of secondary blasting is reduced from
30
18
Fig. 33.8. Influence of the delay period upon the maximum vibration
IeveI.
8 V 60D
1-P
.I,,il
_ , -. -,,_ ..
=,
.,
_ = .-, ..,_.,
VIBRATION
MTENSITY
- ~ ; Z z - - - ~
I-,
C.
,, , ,,
- ,
==,.=
,,
.,,>=,,
, , ,,
=-,=,=
-.
(ai
337
of ground vibrations, Fig. 33.10.

- Size of the blasts. The dimensions of the blasts are
limited, on one hand, by the maximum charge weights
per hole that have been determined in the vibrographic
studies based on the laws of propagation, types of structures to be protected and characteristic pararneters of the
disturbance phenomena.
33.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND
VlBRATiONS
BOD
In the following paragraphs some theoretical aspects of

the generation and propagation of vibrations produced in
rock blasting are analyzed; although it must be indicated
that this is just a mere approximation to the problem, as
the actual phenomena are much more complex owing to
the interaction of different types of waves and their
modifying mechanisms.
33.3.1 Types of generated seismic waves
The vibrations generated in blasting are transmitted

through the ground as seismic waves. The wave front is
displaced radially from the point of detonation. The different seisrnic waves are classified in two groups: body
waves and suface waves.
Fig. 33.9. Effects of the explosion according to the distance of the

charged shothole from the free face (Berta, 1985).
to the rock fragments and projecting them uncontrollably,

apart from provoking an increase in air blast and noise.
Spacing has a similar infiuence and its dimension
actually depends on the burden value.
- Subdrilling. When longer than necessary lengths are
used, each additional section collaborates each time with
a lesser amount of energy for shearing and rock move-
QOi
e 0 ' 4 0 6 0 I O d
Fig. 33.10. Decked charge influence in vibration intensity.
338
Drilling and blasting of rocks
The first type of body waves are called Primary or

Compressional. These wave propagate through the
ground materials altematingly producing compressions
and dialations, with particle movement in the direction of
wave propagation. These are the fastest waves and they
change the volume but not the shape of the materials
through which they propagate.
The second type are made up of Transverse or Shear S waves which move the particles in a direction that is
perpendicular to that of wave propagation, Fig. 33.11.
'The velocity of the transverse waves is somewhere
between that of the longitudinal waves and the surface
waves. The materials through which they propagate
c h q e in shape but not in volume.
The surface waves that are usually generated in rock
blasts are: Kayleigh-K waves and Love-Q waves. Other
types of surface waves are the Channel waves and the
Stonelly waves which are not important as they supply
very little information.
The Rayleigh waves are characterized by eliptical particle orbit, usually a motion that is contrary to the propagation direction of the wave. The Love waves are faster
than the Rayleigh and give particle motion that is transVerse to that of propagation.
The propagation velocity of the P and S waves depends
on the elastic constants of ground materials and can be
estimated from the following equations:
COMPRESSiON (p)
PARTICLE MOTION
PROPAGATION
DlRECTlON
where: pr = Rock density, V = Poisson's ratio, E =

Young's modulus, VC and VC, = Propagation velocities
of the longitudinal ancftransverse waves, respectively.
For a material with a Poisson coefficient of 0.25, it can
es VC and that the velocity
Ac
-VP~
P---
..
the number of delays in the blasts can be large, the

generated waves interact with one another in time and
space, producing for complex movements which require
that the instruments be placed in three directions: radial,
vertical and transversal, Fig. 33.12.
The distribution of the energy transported by the different types of waves has been studied by several investigators such as Miller and Pursey (1955), Vorob'ev
(1973), etc. who have come to the conclusion that the
Rayleigh waves cany between 70 and 80% of the total
energy.
In the blasting manual by Du Pont, it is stated that this
type of wave dominate the surface ground movement at
several hundred meters from the blast and, as many
structures and buildings around the operations are farther
than 500 m away, the Rayleigh waves constitute the
highest potential damage risk.
33.3.2 Waveparameters
PARTUE
MOTION
A simplification for the study of blast generated vibraFig. 33.11. Cornpressive-P and Shear-S waves.
MAX. VALUE
TME HSTORY RECORD T
Fig. 33.12. Different wave types.
A
n
Fig. 33.13. Hamonic wave rnotion.
tions consists of considering these as harmonic motion

type waves, Fig. 33.13.
The basic Parameters for analysis are:
- Amplitude (A).Maximum displacement of a particle
from its rest position.
- Particle velociv (V). Velocity at which a particle
moves.
- Acceleration (U). Velocity per unit time, i.e.,
a = v/t.
- Frequency Cf). Complete number of oscillations or
cycles per second. The frequency is the inverse of the
perid T,.
The displacement y at any instant is worth:
The length of the wave h for a propagation velocity of VC

is:
The relationships between displacement, velocity and

acceleration of the particle are:
y =A
sen (ot)
When only the maximum absolute values of these param

m
s
are converted into:
33.3.3 Geometric attenuation

The density of the energy of propagating waves generated by the detonation of an explosive charge diminishes
as the waves reach larger volumes of rock. Given that the
ground vibrations induced by the blasts comprehend a
complex combination of waves, it would seen logical to
take into consideration certain geometric attenuation
factors for each type. In a homogeneous, elastic and
isotropic medium, the amplitude drops due to geometric
absorption, and its drop, for different types of dominating
waves, is proportional to:
- IIDS for body waves in an (semi)infinite medium.
- 1 1 ~ 9for
. ~Rayleigh waves.
- 11052 for body waves that travel along a free surface.
339
Where DS is the distance from the seismic source

(Richart et al. 1970).
33.3.4 Non-elastic absorption
In nature, the rock masses do not constitute an elastic,
isotropic and homogeneous medium for vibration propagation. To the contrary, numerous non-elastic or nondispersive effects appear which provoke a loss of energy
during wave propagation, which is added to that caused
by geometric attenuation. There are numerous reasons for
the non-elastic attenuations, and each has different degrees
of influence:
- Dissipation in a nonelastic matrix owing to the
relative movement in the intercwstaline surfaces and
pianes of aiscontinuity.
- Attenuation in-saturatedrocks owing to fluid movement with respect to the matrix.
- Flow inside the cracks.
- Dispersion of Stresses induced by absorbed volatiles.
- Reflection in porous rock or with large cavities.
- Energy absorption in Systems that have phase
changes, etc.
33.3.5 Interaction of elastic waves
The interaction of seismic waves in time and space can
bring about a concentratin or focusing which gives attenuation coefficient values that are higher or lower than
predicted or theoretically calculated.
The topography and geometry of the geological formations can produce the reflection and concentration of
wave fronts in certain points.
23 A
'P-
Air blast is the pressure wave that is associated with the

detonation of an explosive charge, whereas noise is the
audible and infrasonic part of the spectmm: from 20 Hz to
20 kHz.Air blasts are the low frequency air vibrations
with values that are usually under 20 Hz.
According to Wiss and Linehan (1978), the causes of
these disturbances are the following:
1. Ground vibration brought on by an explosion (Rock
-pressri.ibpuke>.
2. Escape of gases from the blasthole when the sternming is ejected (Stemming release pulse).
3. Escape of gases through the fractures created in the
rock mass face (Gas release pulse).
4. Detonation of the initiating cord in the Open air.
5. Displacement of the rock at bench face as the blast
Progresses (Air pressure pulse).
6. Collision between the projected fragrnents, Fig.
33.14.
The combination of vibrations associated with these
sources give a mobile front of air overpressure that travels from the blast point. As air is compressible, it absorbs part of the pressure wave energy to later set it free
The most frequent ranges of the different characteristic

Parameters of blast induced vibrations are shown in Table
33.2.
33.5.1 Recording und analyzing equipment

The recording system consists of several components
which carry out the following functions:
- Detection by Sensors.
through expansion of the hpt gases, causing depression in

those points.
Air blast characteristics are not easy to predict. Factors
such as clirnate, topography, etc. intervene which, along
with the actual blast design, can give different results in
each case.
As mentioned before, air blast contains a considerable
amount of low frequency energy which can eventually
produce duect damage on structures; however,
quency vibrations are more common and are felt in
windows, dishes, doors, etc.
Table 33.2.
Parameter
Displacement
Particle velocity
Particle acceleration
Length of pulse
Wave length
Frequencv
Range
l ~ to -10 mm
~
1 0 - ~ to 103 mmls
10 to l d mmls
0.5 to 2 s
30 to 1500 m
0.5 to 100 Hz
33.5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR RECORDING AND

ANALYZING VIl3RATIONS AND AIR BLAST
In order to carry out a study of vibrations and air blast,
special instrumentation is required, as follows:
- A seismograph system which detects and records
ground movement.
- A Computer System which anal~zesthe recorded
signals.
Photo 33.3. Triaxial recording station consisting of three accelerometers.
Land vibrations, air b)lastund their control
- The transmission of the electric signals emitted by

the sensors through the conductor wires, and
- Recording of the signals with a seismograph for its
postenor study and analysis.
In Fig. 33.15, a schematic diagram of the operations
and instrumentation used in the study of vibrations is
represented.
The sensors make up the first element of the measunng
system and should be planted well in contact with the
ground so that they vibrate as part of the earth, ernrniting
the signal which represents the true ground motion. This
contact can be achieved by simply placing the sensors on
the ground, by screwing them to blocks of aluminum or
ADJVSTMENT OF TENSION INTENSITV
1-
able if the sensors are electrodvnamic: anchonng them

next to a metal block by means of an expansion plug
introduced into a hole made in the rock, which is the most
common system used in firm ground; setting the sensors
inside a box and burying it in the earth, used when the
ground is not consolidated; and other less frequent alternatives such as drilling blastholes and cementing them to
create a firm base, using synthetic resins, etc.
There are two tendencies as to where the sensors
should be placed: one, on the ground near the structures to
be protected; and another, on the structures themselves,
bearing in mind that the latter will reflect the response of
the constniction and not record the ground movement.
As to the vibration sensors, the most widely used are
the vibration seismographs and the acceleration seismographs. The first are the most popular, as particle velocity
has become the Parameter used to correlate the vibrations
with the damage produced by the blasts.
They are electromagnetic type transducers which emit
an electnc tension that is proportional to the velocity of
the vibration particle. The electnc signal is generated by a
mobile coil within the field of a stationary magnet, Fig.
resonance frequency of the vibration seismograph,which
is usually between 5 and 15 Hz,and up to a maximum of
200 to 300 Hz. As can be seen, they are not recornmendable when low frequencies exist.
The acceleration seismographs are based on the difference of potential generated by a piezoelectric crystal
under force. This force is proportional to the mass of the
cnstal by the acceleration of vibratory movement, Fig.
33.17.
The recorders are instruments that allow visualizatiZip
and amplification of the signals coming from the sensors.
They can be of various types: those which only record
peak values on paper, those which are continuous on
photographic paper, printed by ultraviolet light galvanometers, those of needle and thermic paper, those which
use magnetic tape cassette or record, recording analogic
signals registered by the sensors.
These have the advantage of allowing the signal to be
reproduced whenever necessary, introducing filters, integrators, etc. between said signal and the recorder.
The analogic recording on magnetic tape is canied out
with different techniques which are adapted to the pertinent conditions: modulated frequency recording - inter-
I
R
E
-
,
I
I
-AL
TREATMENT
ON PAPER
Fig. 33.15. Schematic diagram of the recording and analysis of vibrations.
re.,ri=lClc
U O W G L l W T SENSITIVE PAPER
Fig. 33.16. Velocity gauge.
Fig. 33.17. Acceleration seismograph (accelerometer).
Photo 33.4. Seismograph for blast monitonng.
342
esting for low frequencies, direct recording for high

frequencies, and multiplexed recording when a large
number of signals come in.
The seismograph system is usually composed of analog or digital instruments to reproduce and visualize the
signals.
When the signals are recorded on magnetic tape, these
can be reproduced for a complete analysis, including the
calculation of the Rapid Transform of Fourier in order to
obtain the density of impulse frequency received or the
energy destribution of seismic movement as function of
the frequency. Apart from this, with the graphics obtained
as function of the time, the maximum vibration level and
its corresponding period can be predicted, as well as the
length
- of the disturbance, etc.
xx
g
g
or denved, in order to eliminate certain components or
calculate other Parameters from the primitive recording;
for example if acceleration has been measured, integrate
one or two times to obtain particle velocity or displacement, respectively.
Lastly, it should be indicated that the Sensors, although
treated with care, should be checked periodically for
sensitivity, and possible variation with use.
A u blast is usually measured with a Sonometer, which
is easy to transport and install. It should be placed away
from reflecting surfaces, in front of shielding objects and
making certain that there is no background noise or wind
to modify the recording.
Special attention should be paid in selecting the scale
of consideration, according to the measurements required.
33.6 CALCULATORS OF PROPOGATION LAWS
FOR LAND AND AIR VIBRATIONS
One of the fundamental Stages in fhe stuay ana controi 01
vibrations generated by blasting is the determination of
the laws that govem theu Propagation in different mediums of land or air.
There are several methods used to estimate the ground
movements produced by blasting. These methods are
relatively simple as, if not, they would not have been
readily accepted in the practical field of mining and civil
engineenng.
P
Leconte (1967), when revising the vibration control

techniques suggested substituting the maximum particle
amplitude of the Moms equation for the vector sum of the
particle velocity, as follows:
7
Amongst the most rigorous posterior investigations,

those of Blair and Duvall(1954) and Duvall and Petkof
(1959) are worthy of mention as they also try to correlate
the intensity of generated seismic movement with the
explosive charge weight and the distance to the source. In
the supposition that the explosive column is a symmetncai spnere, the c
o
n
p
--eiS
the explosive charge. Similar results were obtained by Ambraseys
and Hendron (1968) and Dowding (197 1).
In a general sense and taking particle velocity as the
most characteristic vibration Parameter, it was found h a t
the intensity of the seismic waves and the scaled distance
(cocient between the distance and the charge elevated to
an exponent) followed the law below:
where: V = Particle velocity, DS = Distance, Q = Maximum charge per delay, K, n = Empirical constant.
If cylindncal charges are used, it has been observed by
dimensional analysis that the distances should be corrected by dividing them by the Square root of the charge,
Devine (1962), Devine and Duvall (1963), then being
able to define the following laws of propagation, Fig.
33.19:
This formula has been one of the most widely used up to

present by numerous investigators, official organisms,
users and manufacturers of explosives.
Other authors such as Atewel et al. (1965), Holmberg
and Persson (1978), and Shoop and Daemen (1963) do
not take into consideration a particular charge symmetry
and use the following general equation:
v=KxrQxm6
33.6.1 Calculatorsfor ground vibrations

One of the first propagation equations was suggested by
Moms (1950) and is as follows:
where: A = Maximum particle amplitude (rnm),Q =

Explosive charge weight (kg), DS = Distance from blast
to recording point (m), K = Characteristicconstant of the
site which varies from 0.57, for competent hard rocks, up
to 3.40 for unconsolidated ground.
where K, a and b are empincal constants estimated for a

determined site by means of a multiple regression analysis.
At relatively small distances, in comparison with the
X D S ~
charge length, the propagation law V = K X
can be modified by taking into account the following
geometric model, Fig. 33.20.
If one takes as basis a lineal charge concentration q,
(kgtm), the particle velocity V can be obtained by integrating the previous equation with respect to the relative position along the length of the charge.
DIGITAL SIGNAL
Fig. 33.18. Seismograph Systems for recording and analyzing vibrations and air blast.
PARTiCLE VELOCITY (mm/s)
= i ~ t i = i i = i l s r i ~
li-i~=i~~i=ii=ir=
9 163.6 mm/s
/'
A~L<I--
I
I
L
V(Ws)
323 (D/QM)-L=
XI
&B
Fig. 33.20. Integration over charge length to calculate particle velocity

at an arbitrary observation point (Holmsberg and Person).
The distance from any part of the charge to point A is

given by:
DSFDSO
X (DS, X tag 8 -
X,
jL
where: DS, = Minimum distance from charge to point A,

8 = Angle of inclination, xi = Distance from lower end
of the elemental charge qi.
,'Se~g
t5
MAX~AUMCHARGE PER DELAY ( ~ g )
Fig. 33.19. Tndimensional representation of a vibration propagation

Iaw.
qi = 41X Q
Integrating 1 along the total length of the charge, the
maximum particle velocity is given by:
Q
v=kxqlax
DS; + (DS, X tag 8 - x12
[Io'
For competent rocks, such as Swedish granites, there are
344
some constants with values k = 700, a = 0.7 and b = -1.5,

with V expressed in mmls.
In the Figs 33.21 and 33.22, the value of V is shown as
function of DS, minimum distance from the point of
interest to the elongated charge, and the iineal charge
concentration for an explosive such as ANFO.
This method of calculation is very interesting when
wishing to preserve the resistance characteristics of the
remaining masses, in surface mining slopes as well as
underground walls, as it enables the estimation of maximum charges for blastholes near the surface of the cut.
The Swedish school, headed amongst others by Langefors, Kilhstrm and Gustafsson, relates the charge levels
Q/D?^/. with particle velocity by using the equation:
a 3000
>
2000
(,
0 1
i
WTANCE DS (m)
.D,!+_
Fig. 33.21. Blastholes of small diameter and length charged with

ANFO (Holmberg and Persson).
Lundborg (1977), basing his observations on data of the

US Bureau of Mining (Nicholls et al, 1971) found a law
V = f(DS,Q), and proposed the following equation:
log V = 4.08 + 0.14 log Q - 2.06 log DS
0.22 log Q X log DS
-Y2
v=KX
II
1000
0)
S 000
->EE
emo
which is represented as a tridimensional surface. A

simplificationconsists in adapting a plane to said surface,
obtaining the following equation:
log V = 2.86 + 0.66 log Q - 1.54 log DS
1000
The investigations carried out in the last few years have

permitted a better prediction than with the typical lines
represented on bilogarithmic Paper, using the curved
lines in correlations following the tendencies of the pairs
of data Just and Free (1980), and Lopez Jimeno et al.
(1985). Although the exponential fall has been acknowhas not been taken into account in the predictor equations
until recently.
\
Just and Free (1980), propose the following propagation law, based on observations in controlled blasts:
o
o
PO
10
40
DiSTANCE DS (m)
Hg. 33.22. Blastholes of large diameter and length charged with

ANFO (Holmberg and Persson).
assuming that the body waves are predominant and that

spherical divergency exists.
Cihosh and i J % E K m taice into c o n s i d e r ~
nonelastic absorption to take into account the exponential
fall of V,making it proportional to e *s, Fig. 33.23.
They suggest, depending upon the types of waves, the
following ~ropagationlaws:
1. Body waves that are predominant (e.g. close to the
blast) and measured on the surface:
300
so00
30'000
DISTANCE (m)
Fig. 33.23. Vibration propagation laws with geometnc absorptions

and nonelastic exponential attenuations(Ghosh and Daemen, 1983).
where DR = Scaled distance.

Therefore, the following exists:
n, = Coupling factor =
1
2. Body waves that are predominant (e.g. close to

blast) and measured under the ground surface.
1
1
v a -=
,therefore
(DR)
E, = Energy per unit of mass (MJJkg), Q = Amount

of explosive (kg), Ze = Impedance of explosive
(kg - m-, - s-I), Zr = Impedance of rock (kg . m-, . s-I),
D = Blasthole diameter (mrn), d = Charge diarneter
(mm).
~ r b mthe previous equations the following is obtained:
E]-
3. Rayleigh waves that are predominant (e.g. at large

distances from the blast).
DS
v a -=
(DR)O.~
E]
'/z
As the significative duration of vibration is considered to

be five times the period:
,therefore
and, as the ground frequency is calculated with:

f = (kf X log DS)-
The exponent of Q will depend upon the geometry of the

explosive charge, as indicated previously, L/3 for spherical
charges and '/z for cylindncal. The general equations
which enclose the former ones are, therefore:
'
where kf is a characteristic ground constant which

influences the reduction of frequency with distance,
Table 33.3. The amplitude and acceleration values can be
calculated from:
33.6.2 Theoretical prediction of ground vibrations
When instrumentation and eqdipment to carry out a study

of vibrations are available, the intensity of the disturbances originated by blasting can be predicted with a
theoretical model, G. Berta (1985), taking into account
that the seismic energy transmitted to the rock by the
explosive can be evaluated with the two following equations:
F, 2.rC2Azf2-$? X Dr X V(' X T X
~o-~(MJ)
where: A = Displacement (m),f = Frequency (Hz), DS =
Distance from the explosion point (m), p, = Density of
the rock (kg/m3), VC = Seismic velocity (mls), T, =
Duration of the vibration (s), n, = Breaking factor (Charges laid on the ground n, < 0.4; Charges without a free
face n, > 0.4), n , = Impedance factor =
n, X nl X n2 X ETX 106
5 X kfx 1 0 g D S x . n ~p r x VC
The previous formula is only valid when DS is over 1
meter.
Emmple
~ n s i d e r a c y b-oH@kgIn-agr&e-Irenck
f
with one free face.
The data of the explosive is:
Table 33.3.
Type of ground
Water logged sands and gravel
Cornpact alluviurns
Hard and compact rock
kf value
0.11-0.13
0.06-0.09
0.01-0.03
346
The characteristicrock parameters are:
33.6.3 Air blast estimators
p, = 2700 kg/m3
VC = 5000 m/s
kf = 0.01
Zr = 13.50 X 106kg . m-2 . s-'.
The law of air blast propagation is accepted to be of the

following type:
and the relationship blasthole diameterlcharge diameter'

is D/d = 1.M.
What is the probable vibration intensity at a distance
150 m?
Jio
The audible component, which is the part of the spectnim

comprehended be 20 Hz and 20 kHz, also called noise, is
commonlv measured in dB. The decibel is defined in
terms of overpressure with the equation:
V = -X
150
SP
NR = 20 log r\
--L
X 4.32 X lU"
3Y0
V5 X 0.01 X log 150 X IZ X 2700 X 5000
0.0 12 m/s = 12 mm/s
where: NR = Noise level, SP = Overpressure ( ~ / m ~ ) ,

SP, = Pressure of the lowest audible sound (20 - 104
N/m2), Figs 33.25 and 33.26.
If experimental data for air blast is not available, a first
estimation can be found from the nomograph given by
Ladegaard-Pedersen and Daily (1975), Fig. 33.27, obtained for bench blasting with a stemming height of 300.
Knowing the scaled distance and burden, the most probable air blast level can be determined.
33.7 STUDIES OF VIBRATION AND AIR BLAST

Fig. 33.24. Building situated at a distance DS from a position where
blasting occurs.
33.7.1 Planning for study of vibrations

The two basic objectives for a study of vibrations are:
- Finding the law of propagation of the vibrations to
later determine the maximum charge weight per hole for
a given distance and a previously adopted prevention
cntena.
- Finding the predorninating vibration frequencies for
S i R U C N R E S DAMAGED
6900
MOST WIM)OWS BREAK

SOME WlNOOWS BREAK
W O D A M A W LEVEL
=
=
I(MSHES AND -WS
10-'
L..,....., ,, ,, , , , ,-,,
50
70
9 0
110
130
, , , , j10..
150
170
NOISE LEVEL (da)
40 2.14'
I
AIR BLAST
FROM
EXPLOCIONS
RATTLE)
HOSPITAL ROOM
Ref. 20 p N / d
Fig. 33.25. Nomograph for overpressure conversion at noise level

(Sisking et al. 1980).
Fig. 33.26. Human and structural response to sound pressure level.
the rock mass to be excavated, thus permitting the most

effective initiation sequence to be established.
To carry this out requires a previous geological anaiysis of the area between the blasts and the structures to be
SCALED DISTANCE D
v (m/Kgm)
Fig. 33.27. Prediction of air overpressure from the geometry and
charge of the blasts.
protected. In function with the findings, a scaied down

blast can be designed, either individual or multiple, in
which the charge weight per hole or distances can be
varied, in order to Cover a wide range of scaled distances.
Once the results of the first blasts have been given, it
can be decided which of the components is the most
interesting to measure if the recording stations are not
triaxiai and, above all, when a large number of sensors are
not available.
The minimum number of blasts recornrnended is between 8 and 10, and the execution conditions as to
confinement,priming,
- etc. should be sirnilar to those used
conservative
postures are adopted, firing practicaily without a free
face.
The spatial situation is also important, because a study
camied out at a determined level and within a geologicaistructurai context may not be, on occasions, extrapolated
to other areas. All vibration studies have a limited value
where space and time are concemed.
Once the records have been reproduced and analyzed
in the laboratory, Fig. 33.29, they can be compared stadisticaily to ascertain the law of propagation.
Previously, all data will have been sumrned up in a
Table, giving, for example, the maximum vibration
levels, V if it is particle velocity, and the Scaled Distances
DR, if the law to be obtained is of the following type:
where: y = Particle velocity V,x = Scaled distance DR.
Logarithms can be taken and a straight line can be
adjusted by squared minimurns, Fig. 33.30.
BLAST DESOU
EU
-
YBRATW RECORDER
347
logy=loga
+ bxlogx
where:
C. (log X)' -
(C log X)'
n
and
DlSTlHCE FRCU BLAST
AREA T 0 S T R K T W E
a = Exponential
@logy
-- b- Zlogx]
T
YUOLYC00ssl*TfficnwM
PRODVCTI(*( BLAST
D E W W E R OF
BLASTHOLES. DELAV
SECUEWWELAV
and the lineai coefficient r from:
[C (log X) X (log Y) -
Fig. 33.28. Planning for a study of vibrations.
1'
(C log X) X (C. log Y)
If the Standard Deviation is also caiculated, it would be

possible to draw the parallel lines between which a determined number of vaiues can be found (e.g. 95%), thus
adopting a Safety Factor for the law of propagation.
348
MlNlSTRY OF INDUSTRY AND ENERGY
GEOMlNlNG TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF SPAIN

DEPARTMENT OF
UNDERGROUND WATER AND
GEOTECHNICS
Laboiafory of rock rnechanlcr
SIGNAL
L V
500 HZ
POWDER DISTRIBUTION
L V
5 0 0 HZ
+ 8 5 8 .8 m E U
1
-
MULTIPLE BLAST
9 6 . L mS
Date : JAN. 30. 1986
Place : METRAMA
Sile : E-2
Channel : 6
Recetver : PCB-690
Flllers :
Observal~ons:
OV
F SPECTRUM
1 V
500 HZ
-22.4 dBEU
1
90 . O I
2 1 5 .8 H Z
Fig. 33.29.Example of a vibratio: recording obtained in a blasting for one wmponent.
There are numerous equations (laws) that can be adjusted and, amongst ali of them, the one which best suits
the occasion should be chosen. This is now carried out
with small Computer programs which have been specially
prepared.
-~eik&&*-Baft-*fdamages decided, the value of the scaled distance can be
ascertained from the equation, enabling the preparation
of the table of maximum CO-operatingcharges for different distances.
For example, if the law obtained for a determined
percentage of probability or safety level is:
V
where
= 1400 X D R - ' . ~
--
and V is not to be over 30 mmls, Fig. 33.30. The Table

of Charges-Distances will correspond to DR = 11.04
m/kg112and therefore, the following values will exist,
Table 33.4.
The method to be applied
. . .for air blast is very similar.
+
%
t
I
m
l
duration of seismic excitement increases and frequency

diminishes in relationship with distance to the point of
blast, adjusting laws of the following type:
AHz) = K ,
DS - K2,and
Table 33.4.
Distance to the blast (m)
Max. CO-operating
charge (kg)
100
300
500
700
82
738
2050
4017
349

EI.
The value of T, should refer to a Same type of blast, as in

multiple rounds with a total time t,, T, = k X t, is
fulfiiled, with K taking on values of 3,4 or even more at
several hundred meters.
DESCRIPTICU
OF FmoATION
Excav~teilDepth
FootIngr,concrete
Wldth of footlngs
i l r l l a . concrete
33-7.2 Inspections previous to blasting
brlck
or above grolind
block
brick
proportional t o loads
omiorrtc blocka
or
thickners
Are the Four Corners I.evel. h a s u r e
The objective of these inspections is to compile data in a

written document which gives the condition of a stnicture
before cornrnencing excavation work with explosives.
Many buildings have cracks in unknown places and their
occupants accuse the vibrations and air blast generated by
blasting as the cause.
countnes, these inspections are normal practice and, in the US, the Office of Surface Mining contemplates that any inhabitant having property at less than
800 meters from a blasting area can ask the Adrninistration for a previous study.
The first advantage of this documentation is that it
makes the residents of areas close to the blast aware of the
fact that many cracks and imperfections in their buildings
are originated by other than seismic causes, such as
changes in weather, humidity, wind, ground conditions
and the constmctive quaiity itself. The second advaitage
1s the F i r s t BrIck Coarse Lcvel

Ploor J o l s t s
Are both ende on nssonry

Lcngth
or vood
slze
atze
Olatance between floor j o l s t r
Are there double j o l s t s under unsiipporteJ part1tItona

Span and Lype of nld-npan support for l o i e t a
1V. DESCRIPFICU OF
U)T
Level
sloplng t o front
t" d d *
Crnded
or f l l l e d
arei
1 s i r e a properIr dralned
P r w l s l o n s for hsndllng uater f r a roof
In ~ b r o l dralnrge
l
c a r r l e d away frm v e l l
Are there large t r e e s nearby
Depth of v a t e r t a b l e
Any aettlement of n e i r b r atructures
cm,KIs :
BY
(Type 1. name)
IIOUSE NUHBER AND STRBET
PRBSENT WRIHC INSPECTIOH
V. DESCRIPTIOH OP
m,one
or t w
W .
filll
Nu.ber of r-s.
E-
Walls, p l a a t e r
dovn
C ~ n s t r u c t l o ~frame
,
brlck
brlck veneer
concrete b l a k
8Lone veneer
ihlngle
Roof,
-
S~UCCO
l f Brlck. Type of Llntela.
vood shlngle
(rofercncr i ~ r a r i non
~ witect
WER
4 lathe
llgpsvm board
or p a r t i a l
up
arm
cei1ing. p l a a t e r
c~oriirlon
Paper
- cracks
p l a s t e r and l a t h e
pilnt
(Yes)
d a t l o n and rizc: i t s t e *etler
meta1 l a t h e
-B
or ggpam board
(AO)
IIorIzmtal (H), Vertlcal
0').Slanting
(C)
01
cley t l l e
BSTMATB AGE OF CIUCKS
Canatruction uid Type.

k e OE house.
Any additlon t o bouse.
eonditlm
paint
; i f so. l e i t snae as o r i e i n a l c m r t r u c t i o i ,
&-
craeka
(Yea)
(W)
L x a t i o n and a i r c ; i t a t e vhcther Rorirontal (H). Vertical (V). Slantlng 6 ) :
North
Corners of
vindws
Cornera
of doora
Othars. 1.c.
rlndwa
LSTRIAIE AGE OP CIUCKS
350
- Type of ground on which the structure sits.

- Vibratory charactenstics of the structural and nonstructural entity of the building and modifying factors.
A parameter which is important in controlling potential damage by blast induced vibrations is their dominating frequency. In the cases where the natural frequency of
the buildings is very close or equal to the dorninating
frequencies, a resonance phenomenon is produced with
magnifying effects, Fig. 33.32.
The natural frequencies of the buildings or structures
can generally be calculated analytically with simple
equations, widely used in seismic engineenng, such as
the following:
- Buildings with prefabricated or reinforced concrete
walls:
-l.oOo 7
0 800-
600400-
5
$>
200-
100-
eo-
!9
40-
I-
30
zo-
dC
108-
ae460.4
0.2 0.1
I
I
6810
20
\
4 0 6 0 ~ 1 0 0 200
I
i
1
- Buildings with framework structure of reinforced

concrete:
400
SCALED DISTANCE ( r n / ~ g ~ ~ )
Fig. 33.30. Adjusted law of propagation.
T, = 0.09 X Hv
L,
- Buildings with metal structure:

T, = 0.10 X -Hv
LP
is that the documentation can be used, if the occasion

arises, to verify or contest the damage clairns attributed to
vibrations.
On many occasions, the initial cost of drawing up these
documents is greatly compensated by the lower number
of claims and conflictive situations with lawsuits between
person can inspect 7 or 8 homes in one day.
The procedure used for describing the condition of a
structure should be as systematic and detailed as possible,
writing down all visible defects and even taking photographs, if necessary. Each document should contemplate,
h s t of all, the identity of the owners, address and situation of the residence, and the date of inspection, Fig.
33.3 lshows the System used by Vibra-Tech for a study of
the inside of a home. Other aspects to take into account
are those w i i i c k f e f e ~ e V m t u r c ,
garages, foundations, etc.
33.8 DAMAGE PREVENTION CIUTERIA

FOR BULDINGS
33.8.1 Building response
Damages that appear in structures from vibration type
effects depend upon the dynamic response of the building
which itself, at the Same time, is conditioned by various
factors such as:
- Type and characteristics of the vibrations, duration,
frequency, transmitted energy, etc.
In all the previous equations: ts = Penod (s), H , = Height

of building (m), Lp = Floor dimension, taken in the direction of the vibratton whose effect is desired to be indicated (m), hv = Height of each floor (m).
The typical frequency values are found between 5 and
15 Hz, being lower as the number of floors increase.
..
e independently from the
superstructure and usually have natural frequencies between 12 and 20 Hz.
Another parameter that is as important as the natural
frequency is absorption. The cornrnon values of these
coefficients in residential type stmctures (Dowding et al.
1980) vary around 5%.
The vibrations in buildings can be magnified due to the
response of the structural elements of which they are
composed, Fig. 33.33. Therefore, more attention should
~
When lowering charge weights per hole and increasing

blasting times, dangerous vibration frequencies may be
generated if they are close to those of resonance. For
example, using milisecond delay detonators of 30 ms,
and leaving a number unused, a vibration of 1000/
60 = 16.7 Hz is being caused, which is within the range
of potential damages. This phenomenon has been proved
by the authors in recorders near the blast areas. (Lopez
Jimeno and Abad, 1986).
A simple method to predict the structural response of a
building to vibrations is the Fast Fourier Transform,
(FFT) application. FFT informs in practice about what
frequency band, and responsible wave length is needed to
be ornitted for avoiding damage and disturbances. FFT
LQnd vibrations, air blast und their control

2. FlELD WALL IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE
1. WALL IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE
3. WALL DEFORMITIES
ENTRY
CElLlNG IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE
LOWER LET
8. PILASTER AND RECESS AREAS
9. STAIRWAY IDENTIFICATION
MIYWALL SEAM
SEPARATIONS
LOWER WQHi
) BACX T0 WALL H I
11. BASEMENT WALL IDENTlFlCATlON
12. FLOOR IDENTIFICATION
AREA 'C
AREA -A'
Tm ARE4 0'
Fig. 33.31. Horne inspectionSystem.
BAU< T0 WALL K
352
I
GREAT WAVE LENGTH
I X - - J
Fig. 33.32. Magnification effects when the building's natural frequency is close to the dominating frequency in the earth (Clark et al.).
SMALL WAVE LENGTH
Fig. 33.35. Interaction between the building foundationsand vibrating

ground.
ACELERATKX
SHEAR
SETTELMENT
Fig. 33.36. Types of damage.
Fig. 33.33. Magnification within a building (Clark et al.).
T E EFFECT OF P-WAM PROPAGATION
TE
EFFECT OF C-WAVE P
analysis is the less costly and sirnplest way today and can
be utilized for practically every blast design, solving
successfully resonance and magnification problems.
produced by seismic motion, the most representative are

those called X-cracks, because when the structures are
deformed by relative movement of the bases, tensile
Stresses are created on the diagonals of the parallelograms which cause damage by compression, overcoming the strength of the matenals, Fig. 33.37.
W
Fig. 33.34. Effects of the P and S waves on stmctures.
33.8.2 Damageprevention criteria

After finding the law which governs the propagation of
the seismic waves in a rocky medium, the degree of
maximum vibration tolerated by different types of stmc-
353

tures near the excavation must be estimated in order to
prevent damage.
The decision of which criteria or levels of vibration
prevention should be adopted is usually a delicate issue.
This requires expert knowledge of the mechanisms which
intervene in the phenomena of blasting and the responses
of structures. A risky criterium can cause damages and
imperfections, whereas a conservative posture could upset or even paralize the development of mining or civil
engineering activity with explosives.
The prevention criteria for vibrations produced by
blasting has been subjected to study since the beginning
of the century. Worthy of mention are: the investigations
nf RnckweU in 1977;
74-hT
who
used particle acceleration as the most characteristic parameter; Crandell in 1949, who used the energy ratio,
Morris in 1950, who established a new damage criterium
based on the amplitude of vibration, and Langefors and
Kihlstrm in 1958, who adopted particle velocity as the
most important Parameter, proposing different levels,
depending upon the intensity of potential damages. Afterwards, in 1963, these authors took into consideration the
type of ground upon which the structures had their foundations, proposing criteria with wider outlooks. During
the decade of the sixties and seventies, numerous investigators such as Northwood, Crawford, Edwards, Duvall, Fogelson, Nicholls, etc., exposed different safety
limits, all based on particle velocity, already forseeing the
necessity of adjusting those prevention levels to the different types of constructions, as done by Ashley in 1976,
Chae in 1978, Wiss in 1981, etc.
In another step towards developing and perfecting the
criteria, apart from the type of rock under the foundations, the type of structure to be protected was introduced
as another variable as important as vibration frequency,
publishing the French Regulation AFTES (1976), the
(1983), etc. All mentioned criteria is summed up graphically in Fig. 33.38.
5
Afterwards, several investigators such as Dowding
(1977), Medearis (1977), Maik (1979), Walker, Young
and Davey (1981), Sisking, Stagg, Kopp and Dowding
(1981), etc. directed their efforts towards the correlation
of structure response with damages produced by different
vibration intensities, through analysis of the seismic
spectrums. One fact that has become more noticeable day
by day in biese investigations is u i e e e & i i m p o r tance of the low frequencies.
However, even though the criteria and application of
techniques known in seismic engineering have evolved,
the discrepancies between engineers and organisms are
still quite noticeable, especially when the studies are of a
local nature. It must also be noted that rarely are clear and
concise recommendations or calculations given by
operators who do not have a profound knowledge of the
phenomenology of vibrations.
Another aspect worihy of mention is that in the majority of cases, the damage threshold is adopted for structures and buildings, without taking into account their
contents. Sometimes there might be Computers, electric
relays or other sensitive equipment which must be protected from even lower vibration levels than those for the
building itself.
Lastly, the O.S.M. (Office of Surface Mining) in the
United States, in 1983, acknowledging the dependence
that exists between the dominating vibration frequency
and the distances to the blast area, published the following recommendations for protecting buildings near the
mines, Table 33.5.
The criteria shown are not only useful as damage
thresholds, but also as a starting point when recording
equipment is not available. Thus, for example, when
there is a house at 1000 m distance from the blast, the
maximum CO-operatingcharge recommended is:
33.8.3 Damage prevention criteriafor air blast
Air blast usually produces fewer problems than ground

vibrations. Window panes usually break before structural
damage occurs; cracks in the plaster, for example.
The criteria proposed by Siskind and Summers (1974),
to avoid window pane breakage are shown in Table 33.6..
The probability of window pane breakage for a determined overpressure can be estimated with the equation
proposed by Redpath:
PR, (%) = 2.043 X 10- X ~ iX AP2.78
. ~ ~
where: A, = Area of the window pane (m2),A P = Overpressure (mbar).
levels, as the dB(L) refer to a logarithmic scale. An
overpressureof 120dB(L) is 78.6% more than one of 115
dB(L). See Table 33.7, with the values in kPa.
Table 33.5.
Distance to
blast area
~
Max. particle
Recommended scaled distance
velocity (mmls) when instrymentationis not available (mlkg 12)
m3.7
7k3
90to 1500m 25
> 1500111 19
24.50
29.00
Table 33.6.
Safety level
Precaution level
Limit level
Limit noise level

Cineal peak* C-peak
~ B ( L-)
dgc)
120
128
120-130
128-136
130
1336
A-peak
~B(A)
95
95-1 15
115

26
10
16
200
20 26
THOPlEN Arm
MRClTVM
EDWARDS AN
~
(1880) O
OF AUSTRALIA
10
16
20 26
TYPE OF VBRATKm
NOT SPECFED (20 k)
DAMAQES
DAMAGES
Fig. 33.38. Damage cntena.
DAMAQES
ASHLEY
(1076)
DAMAGES
ESTEVE
(1078)
DAMAQES
DAMAGES
DAMAGES
2.8
80
200
nK)
MAW
WO
PARTICLE VnoclTY (M/#)
VIBRATIONS
(10 - 6OHr)
DAMAQES
1
DAMAQES
I
WlSS
(1981)
1
DAMAGES
CLASS I : METALLIC B U L W Q OR OF REMORCED CONCRETE

B U G C W H OUTSDE WALLS AND PICLARS OF CONCRETE MSDE WALLS OF
CLASS I : CONCRETE OR MASONRY
CLASS I: B U M H 0 S AS BEFORE BUT OF WOODEN STRUCTURE AM WALLS OF MASOECIY
CLASS IV : CONSTROCTION VERY SENSITIVE T 0 VIBRATIONS: OBJECTS OF MSTORICAL MTEREST
Fig. 33.38. Damage critena (cont.).
DAMAGES
2.6
m.
PIPE1:
PIPEn:
2o.a
REWUIiWN W 4160 ( R E S U M
m 80mm
VL
~ O R i a n , T A U L ~
APARTYerrBIllOHOORBLUR~YllTHSTUCCOORPUSTW
PIPE I: CCSTOWCM-ARrnmAL 81191105 OR DUE T 0 T1W cawwJc)E( ARE

SEHSmYETOugUTD(BL+ODONOTPWT*WTO~IQI
Pd
Table 33.7.
Overpressure
180 &(L)
> 170
X)
0 a S
Probable effect
20.0 kPa
170
150
140
6.3
6.3
0.63
0.2
136
0.13
120
115
0.02
0.0112
60
ffl
200
Important damage to conventional stnictures

Cracks will appear in plaster
Many window panes will break
Some window panes will break
Probable breakage of large window panes
Limit of air blast proposed by
U.S.B.M.
Complaints
< 6%of overpressure which can
cause breakage of large window
Danes
m0
Fig. 33.38. Damage cntena (cont.)
Table 33.8 (Baker, 1973).

Description
Simple negative gradient
Simple positive gradient
Zero gradient near the surface and with positive gradient above
Negative gradient near surface with strong
positive gradient above
Intensification factor
0
5
10
100
357
Land vibrations, air, blast und their control
Other important aspects to take into account are the

atmospheric conditions at the moment of the blast. In
Table 33.8, five different Situations are shown and the
intensification factors of air blast that can be expected.
33.9 EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS AND AIR BLAST
ON PEOPLE
~
1.
ORECT DAMAQE ON BUILDWGS FROM BLAST QENERATED

VBRATIONS
2 UPPER LIMIT RECOMMENDED FOR BLAST

UPPER LWT RECOMMENDED FOR S119UNO PILES VBRATOAY
COMPACTORS, DEEP DYNAMK; COMPACTORS A M TAAFFIG
ON WHEELS
4. MAXIMUM VALUE FOR BM COMPUTERS F THE W R A C T W
OF THE VBRATION iS U
66
6. MAXiMUM VALUE FOR BM C O I R I I T W F Tb& W R A C T M
OF THE ~ A T K N ovw k
8.
8. LIMIT OF M A N PERCEPTm
Fig. 33.39. Damage criteria.
One of the factors to be considered when blasting is the

physiological response of human beings, as with levels
under the maximum admissible for prevention of damage
to structures, there can be an index of perception which
could make people think of probable d&age, Fig. 33.40.
'I'hereIore, it 1s frequent that in many prolects the
i
b
r
e
A
w
p
e
m
s
than on the probability of damages.
There are numerous regulations on human response to
vibrations, the two most important being ISO-263 1 and
DIN-4150. Other investigations such as those of ReiherMeister, Crandell, Goldman, Rathbone, etc., who represent graphically where different levels of perception are
established in function with vibration intensity and frequency, Fig. 33.41.
An analytical procedure of estimation is proposed by
Steffens (1974), based on the caiculation of a Parameter
K.
0.005Axf2 - 0.8vxf - 0 . 1 2 5 ~ ~
K=
(100 +P)% - (100 + f2)% - (100 + f2)%
where: f = Frequency (Hz), A = Amplitude (pm), V =
Particle velocity (mmls), a = Acceleration (mm/s2).
According to this value of K, the levels of perception of
Table 33.9, are distinguished
,
264
DANQER
DANGER
l0lS
RICK
26.4
SEVERE
60.8
26.4
30.6
SEVERE
26.4
17.8
SEVERE
W Y H G
0.2
- ...
ANNOYMG
4i
B '
f
RLCK
RlsK
00.8
60.8
DINGER
0l8
0f.8
264
2M
26-
26
26
NDTWBLE
t6
NOTICUBLE
0.8
0.6
026
0.26
VBRATIONS ON
A PERMANENT
BASS
Photo 33.5. Sonometer installed to measure air blast.
YBRATlONS ON
A TRANSlTORV
BASIS WlTHOT
NOISE UielASED
-VER
BLAST CAUSED
VWRATDNS
ACCWAMED
BY NOlSE BUSED
OBSERVER
Fig. 33.40. Human response to vibrat'ions, according to whether they

are accompanied by noise or not (Oriard).
358
FRECUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 33.41. Human response to vibration according to Goldrnan

(19418).
Photo 33.6. Damage produced in a presplit blast caused by overcharging.
Table 33.9.
Value of K
< 0.1
0.1
0.25
0.63
1.6
4.0
10.0
Level of perception
Not perceptible
Almost perceptible
Barely perceptible
Perceptible
Easily perceptible
Highly detectable
Severelv detectable
33.10 EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS ON

ROCKMASSES
Vibrations have two fields of action on rock masses. On
one hand they affect the integrity of the rocks or their
compressive strength Parameters and, on the other, can
*
-.
provoke wall or slope coiiapse when unstabilizing actrons
are introduced.
In the first instance, the critical vibration velocity can
be determined after finding the longitudinal wave propagation velocity in the rock mass, the density and the
tensile strength of the rock.
where: RT = Tensile strength, pr = Density of the medium, VC = Propagation velocity of longitudinal waves.
Thus, for a rock with P, = 2.6 t/m3 and VC = 4500
mis, the following exists:
RT (MPa)
Vcrit ( d s ) =
0.117
According to Unard ( ISiIU), the damage threshold in rock
slopes is around 60 cmis of particle velocity.
Afterwards, Bauer and Calder (1971); give the criteria
shown in Table 33.10.
Fig. 33.42, gives, in a general sense, the predictable
damages due to effect of vibrations in function with the
maximum charge weight per unit of delay and the distance from the Center of gravity of the blast to the recording point.
Fig. 33.43, shows a procedure to estimate the damages
to rock masses from blast vibrations.
When refemng to wall stability, this can be determined
'WEAK' ROCK Q(0.1

MRW<PO
VERY 'POOR' ROCK
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (mm/s)
Fig. 33.43. Loss of rock rnass quality according to vibration level.
~ 6 o t o33.7. Backbreak and face loose rock on final pit slope.
Fig. 33.44. Unstabilizing effect of vibrations in a block resting on a

slope.
by the relationshipbetween fhe active forces, which tend

MSTANCE F R W BLAST (m)
Fig. 33.42. Relationship between rnaxirnurn charge weight per delay,

disiance and peak particle velocity.
Table 33.10.
Particle velocity (crnls)
< 25
25-60
60-250
> 250
Predictable darnages
No danger in sound rock
Possible sliding due to tensile breakage
Strong tensile and sorne radial cracking
Cornplete breakup of rock rnasses
to produce sliding or failure, and the resisting forces,

which oppose the movilization of the masses implicated.
Although the behavior of a wall when confronted with
dynarnic effects is complex, owing to the numerous
factors that concur, one of the simplified methods to
calculate the safety coefficient consists in supposing that
the acceleration or velocity due to the seism of the blast is
changed into a static force in a determined direction and
is proportional to the weight of the sliding mass.
In the case of a block resting on an inclined plane, Fig.
33.44, the equation that gives the Safety Factor, SFdepreciating the effect of the vertical component of vibratoxy
movement, is:
360
-----------SAFETY FACTOR WiTH BLASTS
F
where: Ch = Cohesion, Sp = Contact area of the block,
W, = Weight of the block, = Slope angle, $ = Friction
angle, 8, = Angle caused by longitudinal component of
vibrations.
In the particular case of Zero cohesion and with the
following vaiues: = 32' and = 37", the Safety Factor
is 1.2, but if the vibrations act with a longitudinal component V, = 6 mmls, with a frequency of 25 Hz, SFchanges
to be 0.98 and block sliding is produced.
Depending upon the type of failure,calculation models
can be developed to detemiine Safety Factors for differ-
Al
+--
SAFETY FACTOR
WlTHOUT BLASTS
N
-
33.11 EFFECT OF VlBRATIONS ON FRESHLY

POURED CONCRETE
In actuai practice, numerous occasions arise when it is
necessary to build concrete siructures at the Same time
when excavations by blasting are being carried out. For
example, linings during turne1 driving, foundations for
the primary crushing buildings near Open pits, etc.
Fig. 33.46, shows prevention criteria given by Oriard
depending upon curing or hardening time of the concretes, aithough such recommendations cannot be made
extensive to all types of concrete.
As can be observed, during the hardening period of 0 to
4 hours, the concrete is still not hard and the adrnissible
levels are relatively high. From 4 to 24 hours, it begins to
harden slowly, and after 7 days it reaches a strength that is
approximately ?4of the find product (28 days), allowing
a progressive intensification of the vibrations.
can he
:
m
I-
e-
5'4 0
LAW OF
PROPAGATION
0 6
0 60-
V
GI
ww
6 e m
, , ,,
m
4060
, , ,,
emuoaiorwio
Fig. 33.45. Variation of the Safety Factor for a block with a wedge cut
in function with scaled distahce.
usi=d for an
orientative caiculation of the maximum CO-operative

charges, according to age of concrete and distances to
blast are:
Fill and muss concrete
Q = 38.20 X 10-3 X D S ' . ~X ~K
(DS in m and Q in kg)
where: K = 1.0 for t = 0-4 hours, K = 0.16 for t = 4-24

V
- 11-J'Y dqs, K - 0.7forr - 3-7-7fi-v.3fOrt
K = 2.3 for t = 7-10 days, K = 5.5 fort = + 10 days.
m M
SETTWG T M (hl
0 9
~ 3 3 T 4 - ~ i m uparticle
m
veiocity in tunction wifh nardeninz
time.
Reinforced or structural concrete

Q = 14.55 X 10- X D S ' . ~X ~K
(DS in m and Q in kg)
where: K = 1.0 for t = 0-4 hours, K = 0.08 for t = 4-24

hours, K = 0.37 for t = 1-3 days, K = 1.0 for t = 3-7
days, K = 3.0 for t = 7-10 days, K = 7.58 for t = + 10
days.
Other factors to take into account are the characteristic
frequencies of the vibrations, extemal hardening conditions, areas of rock-concrete contact, etc.
On the other hand, Isaac and Bubb (1981), summed up

ail their experiences and those of Scandinavian investigators in a graph where, according to the strength
acquired by the concrete, the maximum vibration level is
deterrnined.
In the consiruction of some nuclear plants in Spain the
following criteria have been used:
36 1

Fill concrete
where: RC(t) = Strength acquired by the concrete after a

time t (MPa).
With the limitations:
- Time passed after pouring the concrete 2 8 h.
- Maximum particle velocity I 100 mmts.
Structural concrete
*V
(mmls) = 60 X
number of detonators or delay times possible, with

sequenced explosives or miiisecond delays if the commercial series of electric blasting caps is surpassed, Figs
33.48 and 33.49.
- Reduce the number of blastholes having instantaneous detonators, as these give higher dispersion that the
highest numbers of the series.
- Choose an effective delay time between holes and
rows which avoid wave interaction and give good rock
displacement.
- Set the initiation sequence in a way that it Progresses
away from the structure to be protected, Fig. 33.50.
RC(t)
-I 1 0 0
L3
With the same limitations as before.
33.12 RECOMMENDATIONSFOR REDUCING

GROUND VIBRATION AND AIR BLAST
LEVELS
Aithough each case should be carefuiiy analyzed, the
principal measures that can be taken for reducing blast
generated vibrations are:
- Minimizing the explosive charge per miiisecond
delay: Reducing the drilling diameter; Shortening the
length of the holes; Decking the charges in the holes and
initiating them at different times; Utilizing the maximum
+j
I I
1,It I
11
FACE
II~~I
FACE
t?
.S !
13
t0
1,111
DELAY PERlW H
UHUPPER
CHARGE DECK
7
0.
a.
1i111
tI1
I ~ I ~ , I ~ I
FACE
111 h i
h
b.
.
6
is_
wi
1 D E L A Y PERIOD IN
LOWER CHARGE DECK
II~I~
W
IS
C.
Fig. 33.48. Blasis with deckedchargesin the holes.
FACE
a. STAGGERED IN LlNE
FACE
6UDQlliDD11 Q U U 6 '
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)
Fig. 33.47. Admissible vibration levels depending upon the strength of

the conmte.
b. STAGGERED 112"
Fig. 33.49. Multiple blas&with the Samenumber of holes and different
durations.
362
FACE
INCORRECT
FACE
CORRECT
+
7
Fig. 33.50. Initiation sequence in relation to the stnicture to be protected.
s
I
s
.'\
/,
ORKUNAL
FACE
wm
+<vs
11
Vs
NTERBLASTHOLE DELAY
SPEED OF SOUND H AR
Fig. 33.5 1. Blast progression along a face and simulation of air blast.
SWELD VALUE : zp
.z 33
(A+B)
- (R+D)
-,
- Use the adequate powder factor, as when it is

lowered the charge confinement can increase and, consequently, so will the intensity of vibrations. Obviously, an
excessive consumption will create an unnecessary overload, accompanied by great disturbing effects.
- Place the Pattern with a relationship H/B > 2.
- Control drilling so that the patterns coincide with the
nominal ones.
- Use only the subdrilling necessary to acheive good
breakage.
- Use the largest possible face blast area.
- Create shields or discontinuities between the stmctures tobe protected and the masses to be blasted.
As with-ground vibrations, the recommendations for
air blast reduction are:
\3ee
the corresponding part about ground vibrations).
- Choose delay times so that the blast Progresses
along the face at a velocity lower than that of sound in the
air (< 340 mls), Fig. 33.51.
- Increase confinement of the explosive charges with
long sternming heights > 250, but not excessive, and use
adequate inert material.
- Avoid using detonating cord, and when it is necess q , Cover it with fine sand of a minimum thickness of 7
to 10 cm.
- Never fire blasts when the direction of the wind is
critical.
- Select patterns and sequences that avoid cooperative
wave interaction.
- Inspect the state of the faces before blasting in order
to correct the charges with in the blastholes with burdens
that are under the nominal.
- Control the explosive charge in ground with solution cavities to eliminate pocket concentrations.
- Place earth or other types of shields between blast
m
33.12.1 Reducing vibrations with precision detonators

The effect of lineal interference or superposition of the
wave trains generated by different sequenced explosive
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 33.52. Interposing shields between the blasts and receiving

points.
Photo 33.8. Face displacement in a one-hole blast for a vibration

study.

HYBRID MODELLING OF BLAST VIBRATIONS
Fig. 33.53. Phases of vibration simulation in

multiple blastings.
( I I O U L S B I K B N ~
Fig. 33.54. Seismograph resulting from the superposition of two wave

trains that are 40 ms apart.
Photo 33.9. Field tests to measure the effectiveness of noise and air
blast reduction in a detonating cwd covered with sand.
DELAY TIME Tz-TI (s.10-')
Fig. 33.55. Results of the superpositionof two signals on the peak vibration value when varying delay times.
364
Drilling und blasting of r o c h

WLTPLE ROW BLAST WlTH 7 2 m
DELAY BETWEEN ROWS
SINGLE ROW BLAST
FREOUENCY (Hz]
FREOUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 33.56. Frequency pattems vs delay time. (a) Row with4 blastholes wiih 2 ms increases between charges, (b) Two rows of 4 blastholes, with 72 ms
delay between holes in row, and 3 ms increase between rows.
charges is a phenomenon which has drawn much attention lately. Supposing that each hole of a blast produces
the same vibration, but delayed in time by sequenced
initiation, it is possible to simulate the recording that
would be obtained - with its maximum particle velocity
and dominating frequencies - by combining the vibrations of a group of blastholes with a given geometry and
initiation sequence.
In Fig. 33.53, a simulation pmcedure is given for the
vibrations of a blast, having on hand the actual recording
of the signal produced by only one hole.
Ac c
the result of the superposition of two equal wave trains

between which exists a time gifference of 40 ms.
In practice, the milisecond detonators give a dispersion
(cap scatter) in initiation times, increasing with the higher
series numbers. For this reason, the computer simulators
should be more probabilistic than detenninistic, and the
Monte Carlo method can be applied to establish the
initiation times of each charge by creating aleatory
numbers and by using the functions of density of the
S.
Recently, with the development of high precision detonators, the old idea of achieving the superposition or
destructive interferences of vibrations so that that the
peaks and valleys of two waves would be nullified, thus
reducing vibrations, has taken on importance and constitutes a field of investigation that is reaping benefits.
The use of these electronic accessories, along with
sequential blasting machines, gives an infinite number of
combinations. The simulation of the results obtained
simplifies making the most appropiate choice to reduce
vibration levels and control frequency.
Fig. 33.55 gives the results of variation in delay timing,
with increases of 1 ms, in the superposition of two
signals. As can be observed, the delay of 15 ms gives the

lowest maximum vibration velocity.
In the same manner, the spectral analysis of Fourier can
be canied out in order to determine the dominating
frequencies that would be generated. Fig. 33.56 shows
two simulations that correspond to a single row blast and
to another multiple blast where two different delay intervals, multiples of 2 and 3 ms respectively, are studied.
Each row of the graph represents the spectra of frequencies with which the theoretical optimum sequence can be
deterrnined to avoid low frequencies, proven to be the
rous, in ablast of prefixed neometry.
REFERENCES
Abad, M: Puesta a Punto de un Equipo de Registro y Andlisis de
Voladuras. Resultados Obtenidos en Rocas Igneas. Simpbsium
sobre el Uso Industrial del Subsuelo. 1981
Allard, E? et al.: Etude des VibrationsEngendrekspar les Tirs de Mines.
Scetaroute, Fkvrier, 1986.
Anderson, D.A. et al.: A methodforsite-specific prediction andcontrol
"9
Anderson, D.A.: The 8 Minisecond Criterion Have we delayed too
long in questioning it? S. E.E., 1989.
Andrews, A. B.: Design criteriafor sequential biasting. E. I. Dupont de
Nemours Co., 1980.
Andrews, A.B.: Control of ground vibration from surface biasting
using computer simulations to evaluate the effects of cap scatter.
S.E.E., 1990.
Ashley, C.: Blasting in urban areas. Tunnels & nnneling, Vol. 8, Sept
1976.
Barkley, R.C. et al.: Ground and air vibratiom caused by surface
blasting. N.T.I.S., 1983.
Birch, W.J. et al.: Predictions of ground vibrations from blasting on
opencast sites. NCB Opencast Executive, 1982.
Bollinger, G.A.: Blast VibrationAnalysis. 197 1
Clark, D. et al.: Vibration: Its effect & measurement techniques at or
near dwellings. Technical Report, Nitro Consult. 1982.
365
Land vibrations,air blast und their control
Chae, Y.S.: Design of excavation blasts to prevent damage. Civil

Lopez Jimeno, C. & E.: Principales Parbmetros de Diseiio en las
Engineering, ASCE, vol. 48, April, 1978.
Voiaduras a Cielo Abierto y su Conexibn con los Fekmenos
Dowding, C. H.: Blast vibration monitoring andcontrol. Prentice-Hall,
Vibratorios. Tecniterrae, Septiembre, 1985.
Inc., 1985.
Lopez Jimeno, E.: La Voladura de Rocas y las Alteraciones AmEdwards, A. J. & T. D. Northwood: Experimental studies of the effects
bientales. Canteras y Explotaciones, Septiembre, 1985.
of blasting on structures. The Engineer, vol. 210, Sept. 1960.
Medearis, K.: Rational damage criteria for low-rise structures subEsteves, J. M.: Control of vibrations caused by blasting, Memona 498,
jected to blasting vibrations. Proceeding Institution of Civil EnLaboratono National de Engenharia civil, Lisboa, 1978.
gineers, Sept. 1982.
Fogelson, D.E.: US Bureau of Mines Research on vibrations from
Mein-Ban Lo:Prediction of ground vibration induced by pile driving.
blasting. L'Industrie Minerale, 1971.
15th Conference on Stmctural Engineering. Filipinas, 1981.
Gennan Institute of Standards: Vibrationof building. Effects on strucOnard, L. L. et al.: Short-delay blasting at A~conda'sBerkeley Open
tures. Pastfach 1107,DIN 4 150.
Pit Mine, Montuna. AIME, Annual Meeting. Nevada, 1980.
Ghosh, A. & J.K. Daemen: A simple new blast vibration predictorOriard, L.: Notesfrom blast darnage orientation 1984.
based on wave propogation laws. 24th, US Symposium on Rock
Persson, PA.: Underground blasting in a city Subsurface Space,
Mechanics, 1983.
1980.
Hagan, T. N.: The design of blasting procedures to ensure acceptable
Phang. M.K. et al.: Investi~ationsof biast-underground vibrations
noise air blast and ground vibrations in surface coal mining.
from sutjace mining. ~ h e ~ n i v e r &
of ~labama.1983.
Environmental Control in Coal Mining, 1980.
Preston. D.J.: New methodr in ~roductionblast monitorinn andoptimin t - n u n > n , A. J. ~ c i j k a t ) s ) ~ ~ - ~ n t r o t t e . rT ,t t ;b, ~~, - ~ - ~ i o n 3
civil engineering projects. Proceedings North American Rapid
Shoop, S.A. et al.: Site-specifc predictions of ground vibrations induced by blasting. Annual Meeting of SMEIMME, 1983.
Excavation and Tunneling Conference, MME, 1972.
Siskind, D.E. et al.: Structure response and damage produced by
Hidalgo, E. et al.: La Medida de la Onda de Baja Frequencia Producida por las Voladuras. VIIi Simposio Nacional sobre Reconociairblast from surface mining. US Bureau of Mines, RI, 8485.
miento de Macizos Rocosos, 1984.
1980Hinzen, K.G. et al.: A new approach to predict and reduce blast
Siskind, D.E. et al.: Structure response und damage produced by
ground vibrationfrom sutface mine blasting. US Bureau of Mines,
vibration by modelling of seismogrm und using a new electronic
initiation system S E E , 1987.
RI 8507,1980.
Skipp, B.O.: Blasting vibrations - Ground and structure response.
Holmberg, R. & PA. Persson: Design of twuiel perimeter blasthole
Dynamic Waves in Civil Engineering, 1970.
patterns to prevent rock damage. Proc. ninnelling '79.
Lande, G. et al.: Controlled Tunnel Blasting. ninnels & Tunnelling,
Skipp, B.O.: Ground vibration instnunentation A general review
1982.
Instrumentation for Ground Vibration and Earthquake, 1978.
La Orden, L.: Acciones Sismicas en la Edificacibn. Instituto Eduardo
Smith, N. S.: Contributionof sub-gmde explosivechargeas a source of
ground vibrationsin bench blasting. University of Missouri, Rolla,
Tomja. 1973.
Leet, L.D.: Vibrationsfrom construction blasting. The Explosives
1979.
Smith, N. S.: An investigationof the effect of explosiveprimer location
Engineer. 1960.
on rock fragmentation und ground vibrations. University ~f
Linehan, I!&J. E Wiss: Vibrationandair blast noisefrom surface coal
Missouri, Rolla. 1983.
mine blasting. SME-AIME Fall Meeting, 1980.
Stachura, V.J. et al.: Airblast und ground vibration generation und
Lopez Jimeno, C.: Las Voladuras Submarinas y sus Efectos Ambientales. I Curso sobre Control de Vibraciones Producidas por
propagationfrom contour mine blasting. US Bureau of Mines, RI,
Voladuras. Fundaci6n G6mez-Pardo, 1982.
8892,1984.
Lopez Jimeno, C.: Criteriosde Prevencibn de Daiiospara Vibraciones
Stagg, M.S. et al.,: Measurement of blast induced ground vibrations
Generadas por Voiaduras y Transmitidas a Travis del Terreno.
und seismograph cuiibration US Bureau of Mines, RI, 8506,
1980.
E.EM., 1982.
Stagg, S. et al.: Effectsof repeated blastings on a wood-frame house.
Lopez Jimeno, C.: Efectos Desestabilizadores en TaludesRocosos por
m
-
Control de Vibraciones Producidas por Voladuras. Fundation

G6mez-Pardo, 1983.
-,
Lopez Jimeno, C.: Ajuste Estadistico de Leyes de Propagacibn de las
Vibraciones Terrestres. I Seminario de Ingenieria de Arranque de
Rocas con Explosivos en Proyectos Subterrheos. Fundaci6n
G6mez-Pardo, 1986.
Lopez Jimeno, C. & M. Abad: EI Seccionado de Cargas: UM Tecnica
Eficapara Disminuir el Nivel de Vibraciones.Canteras y Explotaciones, Noviembre, 1986.
1W4
Walker, S.: Development of response spectra techniquesforprediction

of structural dnmagefrom open-pitblasting vibrations. University
ofleedys 1981.
Walter, E.J.: Decay of seismic pulses near the source.' Earthquake
Notes, 1960.
Winzer, S.R.: Initiatorfiring times and their relationship to blasting
performance. 20th US Sumposium on Rock Mechanics, 1979.
CHAPTER 34
Flyrocks and their control
34.1 INTRODUCTION
~
Hyrock, also c d e d rock throw, is the uncontrolled pro~

f
~
r
n
n
t
s
p
~
r
stitutes one of the main sources of material damage and
harm to people.
The conditions which favor flyrock are as follows:
Geology
Intensely fissured and jointed rocks faciliiate the appearance of flyr&ks more than massive and homogeneous
rocks. However, as the latter require large quantities of
energy to obtain a good fragmeniation, this type of rock
usually causes more problems.
Very careful control should be be observed when blasting in karstied ground with a large number of voids and
vugs.
Explosives und their distribution
The explosives which have a high Bubble Energy (ANFO, for ex.) produce more rock throw than others which
have a more elevated Strain Energy, such as gelatin
explosives.
As to distribution, it has to be. made
. certain that the
wcmebc vambles of the b h t couicde with those of the
design, especially in the following cases:
- When the top part of (he bench is broken due to
excessive subdrilling from the benches above or unsufficient stemrning to avoid the risk of crater effect, Fig.
34.2 1.
- When the face is very irregular, with areas along the
length of the explosive column which have very little
burden.
and Persson and the American Roth are tools that vredict
the maximum throw of flyrock.
Below, the most irnportant points of these models are
rciteci.g
~
o
n
34.2.1 Swedish model
The Swedish Detonic Research Foundation (1975) developed a theoretic model that permits the estimation of the
maximum distance reached by a fragment under optimum conditions.
From scaled tests, with high speed photography and
theoretical calculations, the following equations are proposed to determine the initial velocity of throw in the
blastings where crater effect was produced:
10Dx2600
V.
Tb X Pr
where: vo = Initial velocity (rnls), D = Diameter of the
blasthole (Inches), Tb = Size of the rock fragments (m),
pr = Rock density (kg/m3).
By using the standard equations of ballistic trajectory
and taking into account that the product vo X Tb X pr
s e * *
As-indicatedin other chapters, flyrock control starts with
a conect blast design.
In multiple blastings, apart from inspecting the state of
the face of the round and conectly size the stemrning, it is
fundamental to choose the timing of the stemrning between rows, so as not to have too much confinement in
the last blastholes which can produce flyrock.
34.2 MODELS T 0 CALCULATE THE THROW OF
FLYROCK
The empirical models proposed by the Swedish Lunsborg
mum throw length was calculated.

The results obtained are shown in Fig. 34.2, or they can
be found analytically from:
In practice of bench blastings, it has been proven that the

throw lengths are much smaller than when crater effects
~ r o d u c e d Therefore,
.
in well designed blasts, the
throw lengths can be calculated from Fig. 34.3. For
example, for a specific charge of 0.5 kg/m3, the maximum throw range would be given by:
L=4OxD
and if the blastholes were drilled to 102rnm (4"), it would
be:
Tb = 0.25 m
34.2.2 American model
This model, owed to Roth (1979), is based upon the
367
equation proposed by Gurney to caiculate the initial

velocity of the fragments propelled by an explosive:
where: vo = Initial velocity, CE

= Gurney's constant,
function of the explosive, ql = Concentration of explosive per unit of length, m, = Totai mass of material per
unit of length.
For the flyrock coming from vertical faces the equation
has been modified to:
Photo 34.1. Fiymk during the blasting.
where W i s smailer than m a s the direction of deton&n is tangent to the rock. The author suggests taking
626= VD/3for many explosives, where VD is the detonation velocity. For ANFO, the vaiue of the radical is 0.44
D.
If the energy losses are taken into account, the previous
equation is transformed into:
where: E, = Seisrnic energy generated per unit weight of

explosive, Ei = Energy to crush a unit weight of rock,
Er = Energy absorbed to fragment a unit weight of rock,
K,, K2, K3 =. Proportionaiityconstants.
The equations of V: expressed in (mls) for different
types of rocks are transformed into:
Granite
V:
= 3,487 X 106(q,/ml) - 584
HOLE DIAMETER (inches)
n
..
0,l
Fig. 34.2. Calculated maximum throw versus boulder size with blasthole diameter as a Parameter (Lundborg et al.).
02
0,3
0.4
03
46
07
0,8
09
1,O
SPEClFlC CHARGE (Kg/m3)
Fig. 34.3. Maximum throw length as a function of specific charge.
368
Fig. 34.4. Maximum range of vertical face flyrock from ANFO loaded
shots in limestone.
Fig. 34.6. Maximum range for bench top flyrock for ANFO loaded
shots in granite and sandstone.
these nomographs were determined for ANFO, if watergels are used the distances should be increased by 50 %.
The burden value should also be corrected if cavities or
rock loss exist on the free face from previous blastings.
For flyrock from the bench tops, an empirical approximation is proposed, based upon the reduced depth h l ~ % ,
where h is the depth of the end of the charge and Q is the
total quantity of explosive, Fig. 34.6.
Covenngs are all the elements used to cover the blastings

in order to avoid rock throw or any other material that
could harm people, buildings etc.
Generally speaking, any protection System should
~ ~ a r r g ~ r t i c a t f a c d ~ ~ d r f r o m ~ 6 t o (x i~e~dh e - ~ h n p _ r h n r i n t i r . s :
shots in granite.
- Reduced weight and high resistance.
- Ease of union or overlaping of the elements
- Permeability to gases.
Limestones und dolomites
- Ease in placing and removing.
- Economical and reusable.
- Good size to cover large areas, etc.
Going back to the ballistic trajectory fonnulas, the theoAccording to the type of blast, different coverings will
retical maximum ranges for a single blasthole can be
be used.
estimated.
For flyrock coming from a free face, the esthations
34.3.1 Dirchblasring
eXCaVationof lots
can be based upon the nomographs of the Figs 34.4 and
When blastings are canied out in small ditches and
34.5. ~nowledgeof the type of rock, the di&eter of the
inhabited areas are nearby, a covenng of loose sand can
blasthole and the type of explosive are a requirement. As
be used with thicknesses equal to the stemrning height,

maintaining a rninimum of 0.8 to 1 m, Fig. 34.7.
Owing to the weight of the sand, the explosive charges
should be slightly larger than in unprotected blastings.
369
Another system consists in overlaping Conveyer belts

and pinning them down to the ground with sandbags, for
example. At the same time metal s c r e e ~ n gor mesh,
nylon nets, or rubber tires that overlap, etc., can be used.
In lot excavations with explosives, the most cornmon
system is that of the conveyor belts. These should Cover
the horizontal surface of the round as well as the free
bench face, Fig. 34.8.
In all instances it is necessary to male certain that the
connection cucuits are all right before and after the
coverings have been placed.
D E S W CQlADE
Fig. 34.7. Protection of a ditch blast by means of a sand covering.
34.3.2 Secondary blastings

Secondary blastings are a cornmon source of flyrock. In
RUBBLE MATS AND

WUSTRIAL BELT
S A M BAQs
systems mentioned, it is reco

be removed to areas where th
slopes of the exploitation to eliminate part of the noise
produced by the secondaq blast and, at the same time,
take advantage of the shielding effect of the faces with
respect to the fragments of flying rock.
Fig. 34.8. Protection of a bench blast.
Photo 34.2. Blasting mat.
34.3.3 Demolitions
In demolition work, the blastholes drilled in the exterior
structural elements should be protected by heavy screens
made up of hanging conveyor belts. Special pistols are
used to-nail them in place, and undemeath the holding
points there should be sufficient space to allow the gases
to escape because, if this is not done, the protections
would be tom down in the first blasting.
Other types of complementary protections are metallic
sereens and bales of straw.
On the other hand, as the. lower
parts of the structures
.
it 1s necessarv tn -1
the
door and window o p e ~ n g to
s avoid rock throw from the
interior. In these operations, heavier materials are used
such as wooden boards, metal plates, sandbags, etc.,
which should be installed before charging the blastholes
to eliminate possible damage to the circuit lines of the
blast. Occasionally, the whole perimeter of the structure
to be demolished is covered with geotextile sheets which
act as complementaq protection.
34.3.4 Safeiy areafrom which the round isjired

In any surface operation, during the blasts there is always
a desired displacement of the muckpile, a normal rock
throw distance, and a safety area around the blast. The
size of these zones depends upon the characteristics of the
blasting, making them vary from blast to blast. However,
the prediction models can serve as a tool to define these
three areas, Fig. 34.9.
The rock throw that falls in the safety area, farther
away than normal, as well as that that surpasses it should
be studied in order to establish their origin and the corrective measures to be taken.
Photo 34.3. Placing of a heavy covering upon a small blast.
370
BLAST AREA
I
I
AREA OF HORMAL FLYROU<
SAFETY AREA OF ELASTS
Fig. 34.9. Areas around the blasts in function with rock throw.
the adequate protection measures, the following recommendations should be followed:

- Perfect marking out of the drilling Patterns, especially in ground with an irregular profile, Fig. 34.1 1.
- Control of the deviations and depths of the blastholes.
- Burden size for the blastholes of the first rows.
*
I
I
- Check for vugs in the rock mass.
Fig. 34.10. Blasting shelter to protect the shot firer.
- Control of the charging of the explosive and its
distribution along the length of the blasthole.
- Careful sternming, measuring its height and using
the proper material.
- Selection of an initiation sequence that gives good
break direction to the blast.
- Initiation in the bottoms of the holes.
REFERENCES
A~ to
the
firer should be placed to fire the
rounds, he should be
the safet~areas arid use
some System of protection such as a metallic blasting
shelter, Fig. 34.10, nearby underground operations, front
end
. . loader shovels, etc.
34.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CARRYING OUT
BENCH BLASTINGS
In order to control rock throw in bench blasts, apart from
Bergeron, M.: Controle des Roches Volantes a la Mine Jeffrey SEEQ,

1986.
Lopez Jimeno, C.: Estudio de la Excavacion de una Central Tkrmica.
Proyecto Fin de Carrera, ETS Ing. de Minas, Madrid, 1978.
Lundborg, N. et al.: Keeping the lid onflyrock in open-pir blasring.
EIMJ, May, 1975.
Melnikov, N. & M. Chesnokov: Safer~in open-casr mining. M R
Publishers, Moscow, 1969.
Roth, J.: A modelfor the determinationofflyrock range os afunction of
shot condirions. Bureau of Mines, Open File Report, 77-81.

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CHAPTER 33

Land vibrations, air blast and their control

large part of the energy is used up in overcoming friction

canied out by Nobel's Explosive Company Limited, it

Drilling und blasting of rocks

Photo 33.1. Alterations produced by blasts: vibrations, air blast, fly

AwLFlCATlON RANGE FOR

Fig. 33.3. Predominant vibration frequencies in surface coal mines and

Table 33.1. Cooperation fractions for different types of detonators.

Fig. 33.1. Disturbances originated by rock blastings.

COAL MiNE BLASTHG

Note: These values are only for frequencies over 20 Hz.

maximum charge weight per delay is usually less than the

Fig. 33.2. Predominating frequencies of vibrations from coal mine,

33.2.3 Distance frompoint of blast

Land vibrations, air blast and their control

where the value of b, according to the US Bureau of

~~~~h~~interesting arid sometimes confusing aspect is

Fig. 33.5. Powder factor influence on vibration intensity.

hst. p&tiQn !360

33.2.5 Types of explosives

There is a correspondence between the particle velocities

In vibrographic studies, if explosives of very different

EFFECT OF RECEIVING STRUCTURES

Fig. 33.4. Effects of site conditions on blast vibrations.

The delay internals between blasthole detonations can be

Drilling und blasting of roch

detonation fired with consecutive periods. In the simple

In Fig. 33.7, a multiple blast is represented and the

blastholes that are detonated in sequence, as the signals

33.2.7 Geometricparameters oj the biasts

Land vibrations, air blast und their control

ment at the base, which means that a higher percentage of

of ground vibrations, Fig. 33.10.

In the following paragraphs some theoretical aspects of

The vibrations generated in blasting are transmitted

Fig. 33.9. Effects of the explosion according to the distance of the

to the rock fragments and projecting them uncontrollably,

Fig. 33.10. Decked charge influence in vibration intensity.

Drilling and blasting of rocks

The first type of body waves are called Primary or

where: pr = Rock density, V = Poisson's ratio, E =

the number of delays in the blasts can be large, the

Fig. 33.12. Different wave types.

Fig. 33.13. Hamonic wave rnotion.

Land vibrations, air blast und their control

tions consists of considering these as harmonic motion

The length of the wave h for a propagation velocity of VC

The relationships between displacement, velocity and

When only the maximum absolute values of these param

33.3.3 Geometric attenuation

Where DS is the distance from the seismic source

Air blast is the pressure wave that is associated with the

Drilling und blasting of roch

The most frequent ranges of the different characteristic

33.5.1 Recording und analyzing equipment

through expansion of the hpt gases, causing depression in

33.5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR RECORDING AND

~~hinteresting arid sometimes confusing aspect is