EMS-LECTURE 7: Economic Dispatch and Optimal Power Flow

Introduction:

Economic Dispatch forms the important analysis functions dealing with Operation in an EMS.
Economic Dispatch (ED) is defined as the process of allocating generation levels to the
generating units in the mix, so that the system load is supplied entirely and most economically.
In static economic dispatch, the objective is to calculate, for a single period of time, the output
power of every generating unit so that all the demands are satisfied at the minimum cost, while
satisfying different technical constraints of the network and the generators.

Economic Dispatch is the process of determination of the output power generated by the unit or
units to supply the specified load in a manner that will minimize the total cost of fuel. Each
generating unit has a unique production cost defined by its fuel cost coefficients (a, b, c of
a+bp+cp2). Economic dispatch is also defined as the coordination of the production costs of all
the participating units in supplying the total load. The purpose of economic dispatch is to
determine the optimal power generation of the units participating in supplying the load. The sum
of the total power generation should equal to the load demand at the station. In a simplified case,
the transmission losses are neglected. This makes the task of solution procedure easier. In actual
practice, the transmission losses are to be considered. The inclusion of transmission losses makes
the task of economic dispatch more complicated. A different solution procedure has to be
employed to arrive at the solution.
Economic Dispatch models the electric power system (with one or more control areas)
and dispatches the available generation resources to supply a given load for each control

area in the most economic manner in real-time operation. The objective is to minimize
the

total

generation

cost

(including

fuel

cost,

plus

emission

cost,

plus

operation/maintenance cost, plus network loss cost) by meeting the following operational
constraints:

System load demand

Downward-and-upward regulating margin requirements of the system

Lower and upper economic limits of each generating unit

Maximum ramping rate of each generating unit

Unit's restricted operating zones (up to three restricted zones per unit)

Emission allowance of the system (SO2, CO2, NOx)

Network security constraints (maximum mW power flows of transmission lines)

Supporting multiple I/O curves (incremental Heat Rate) and emission cost curves
for different fuels.

The program operates in real-time, according to a schedule you determine Automatic

Generation Control (AGC), e.g. every two (2) minutes. It can also be scheduled more
frequently by AGC under various circumstances, such as changing the control mode of a
unit in AGC, or the system base load deviation exceeding a pre-specified threshold, or a
request to execute on demand by an operator.

Economic dispatch is the method of determining the most efficient, low-cost and reliable
operation of a power system by dispatching the available electricity generation resources to
supply the load on the system. The primary objective of economic dispatch is to minimize
the total cost of generation while honoring the operational constraints of the available generation
resources.
Economic Dispatch is the process of allocating the required load demand between the available
generation units such that the cost of operation is minimized. There have been many algorithms
proposed for economic dispatch: Merit Order Loading, Range Elimination, Binary Section,
Secant Section, Graphical/Table Look-Up, Convex Simplex, Dantzig-Wolf Decomposition,
Separable Convex Linear Programming, Reduced Gradient with Linear Constraints, Steepest

Descent Gradient, First Order Gradient, Merit Order Reduced Gradient, etc. The close similarity
of the above techniques can be shown if the solution steps are compared. These algorithms are
well documented in the literature. We will use only the graphical (LaGrangian Relaxation)
techniques.
Generation Models
The electric power system representation for Economic Dispatch consists of models for the
generating units and can also include models for the transmission system. The generation model
represents the cost of producing electricity as a function of power generated and the generation
capability of each unit. We can specify it as:
1. Unit cost function:
Fi = Fi ( Pi )

(7.1)

where F i = production cost

F i (.) = energy to cost conversion curve

P i = production power
2. Unit capacity limits:
Pi Pi max
Pi Pi min

(7.2)

3. System constraints (demand supply balance)

N

P
i =1

=D

(7.3)

Formulation of the LaGrangian

We are now in a position to formulate our optimization problem. Stated in words, we desire to
minimize the total cost of generation subject to the inequality constraints on individual units (2)
and the power balance constraint (3). Stated analytically, we have:
N

Minimize:

F (P )
i =1

Subject to: (1)~(3)

The equality constraint h(x) = b for the general case was allowed to contain multiple constraints.
Here, in the EDC problem, we see that there is only one equality constraint, i.e., h and b are both
scalars. This implies that lambda is a scalar also. The Lagrangian function, then, is:
N

i =1

i =1

= Fi ( Pi ) + ( D Pi )

(7.4)

KKT Conditions
Application of the KKT conditions to the LaGrangian function of (4) results in:
Fi ( Pi ) / Pi = i=1,2N

(7.5)

D Pi = 0
i =1

(7.6)

The KKT conditions provide us with a set of equations that can be solved. The unknowns in
these equations include the generation levels P 1 , P 2 , , P n and the LaGrange multipliers , a
total of (n+1) unknowns. We note that (5) provides n equations, (6) provides one equation. Thus,
we have a total of (n+1) equations.

KKT Conditions for a 2-unit system

To illustrate more concretely, lets consider a simple system having only two generating units.
The LaGrangian function, from (4), is:

= F1 ( P1 ) + F2 ( P2 ) + ( D P1 P2 )
The KKT conditions, from (5) and (6) become:
F1 ( P1 ) / P1 =
F2 ( P2 ) / P2 =

(7.7)

D = P1 + P2

(7.8)

Graphical Solution
Recall the first KKT condition when applied to the generation system, if we assume that all
binding inequality constraints have been converted to equality, then the equations becomes

F1 ( P1 ) / P1 = F2 ( P2 ) / P2 =

(7.9)

This equation implies that for all regulating generators (i.e. units not at their limits.) each
generators incremental costs are the same and are equal to lambda.
This very important principle provides the basis on which to apply the graphical solution
method. The graphical solution is illustrated in Figure 1 (note that "ICC" means incrementalcost-curve). The unit's data are simply plotted adjacent to each other. Then, a value for lambda is
chosen (judiciously) and the generations are added. If the total generation is equal to the total
demand "P T " then the optimal solution has been found. Otherwise, a new value for lambda is
chosen and the process repeated. The limitations of each unit are included as vertical lines since
the rulers must not include generation beyond unit capabilities. The unit is simply fixed at the
value crossed.

Figure 7.1. Graphical Solution of EDC

Example:
There is a simple two units system including two very similar units that have the following inputoutput cost function and incremental cost function:

F1 = 8 P1 + 0.024 P12 + 80
F2 = 8.2 P2 + 0.025 P22 + 82

(7.10)

F1 / P1 = 8 + 0.048 P1
F2 / P2 = 8.2 + 0.05 P2

(7.11)

0 P1 80
0 P2 80

(7.12)

Discretize the I/O curve and incremental cost curve with 10MW space each, 9.92 is the mean
value among the discrete points of the incremental cost curve for unit 1, 10.2 is the mean value
for unit 2.
Suppose the system lambda value is known, then apply the equal lambda criteria (graphical
solution) to the two units, corresponding to each specific value of lambda within the minimal and
maximal of incremental cost, there is optimal output level for each unit. From the spreadsheet,
we can see that the correlation coefficient between the optimal output levels is

 X ,Y =

COV ( X , Y )
=1
X . Y

; for the lambda value outside of the minimal or maximal incremental

cost of any unit, the output level for that unit is at minimal or maximal, another unit bears the left
demand, their correlation coefficient is also 1 (perfect correlation). According to the correlation
defined in pearson, the whole correlation is 1 in the whole data set.
Suppose the system demand level is known, then apply the graphical method to the economic
dispatch problem of the two units, and determine the corresponding lambda for the demand level.
If value of lambda is within the minimal and maximal of incremental cost, the specific output
level of each unit is determined, from the spreadsheet, we can see that the correlation between
the optimal output levels is 1, if the lambda value outside of the minimal or maximal incremental
cost of any unit, the output level for that unit is at minimal or maximal, another unit bears the left
demand, their correlation coefficient is also 1 (perfect correlation). According to the correlation
defined in pearson, the whole correlation is 1 in the whole data set.
The result is coincident with the fact that in the competitive market, the optimal bid for identical
or very similar units are strongly correlated, which is an important aspect that should be
considered carefully in making decision on optimal bidding strategy.
This is mathematically given as
N

min F =

F (P )
i

(7.13)

i =1

Pi - P D = 0

(7.14)

i =1

P imin P i P imax

i = 1, , N

where
F

is the operating cost,

is the number of generating units,

Pi

is the power output of i th generating unit,

F i (P i ) is the individual fuel cost function of i th generating unit,

PD

is the demand,

P imin

is the i th generating units minimum output,

(7.15)

P imax

is the i th generating units maximum output.

The fuel cost function or input-output characteristic of the generator maybe obtained from design
calculations or from heat rate tests. The fuel cost function of generator that usually used in power
system operation and control problem is represented with a second-order polynomial.
Fi ( Pi ) = ai + biPi + ciPi 2

(7.16)

where a i , b i and c i are non-negative constants of the i th generating unit. For some generator
such as large steam turbine generators, however, the input-output characteristic is not always
smooth. Large steam turbine generators will have a number of steam admission values that are
opened in sequence to obtain ever-increasing output of the unit. This kind of units input-output
curve is shown in Fig. 1. The fuel cost function of this kind of unit can be expressed as
Fi ( Pi ) = ai + biPi + ciPi 2 + ei sin( fi ( Pi min Pi ))

(7.17)

The economic dispatch problem assumes that the amount of power to be supplied by a given set
of units is constant for a given interval of time and attempts to minimize the cost of supplying
this energy subject to constraints on the static behavior of the generating units. However, plant
operators, to avoid shortening the life of their equipments, try to keep thermal gradients inside
the turbine within safe limits. This mechanical constraint is usually translated into a limit on the
rate of increase/decrease of the power output. Such ramp rate constraints distinguish the dynamic
economic dispatch from the traditional, static economic dispatch. Since these ramp rates
constraints involve the evolution of the output of the generators, the dynamic economic dispatch
cannot be solved for a single value of the load. Instead it attempts to minimize the cost of
producing a given profile of demand.

The dynamic economic dispatch is one of the main functions of power system operation and
control. It is a method to schedule the online generator outputs with the predicted load demands
over a certain period of time so as to operate an electric power system most economically while
the system is operating within its security limits. This problem is a dynamic optimization
problem taking into account the constraints imposed on the system operation by generator
ramping rate limits. The dynamic economic dispatch is not only the most accurate formulation of
the ED problem but also the most difficult to solve because of its large dimensionality.

The problem can be mathematically formulated as follows.

T

Min F =

F ( P )
it

t = 1,.,T

it

(6)

t =1 i =1

Subject to
(i)

Power Balance constraint

N

it

PD = 0

i = 1,,N

(7)

i =1

(ii)

Unit capacity Constraints

Pit min Pit Pit max

(iii)

i = 1,..,N t = 1,.,T

(8)

Ramp Rate constraints

Pit Pi (t 1) URi
Pi (t 1) Pit DRi

i = 1,..,N t = 1,.,T

(9)

Since dynamic economic dispatch was introduced, several optimization methods have been used
to solve this problem.

Economic Dispatch:
1) Consider a three generator system
H 1 = 510.0 + 7.21 P 1 + 0.0142 P2 1 MBtu/hr.
H 2 = 310.0 + 7.85 P 2 + 0.0194 P2 2 MBtu/hr.
H 3 = 78.0 + 7.97 P 3 + 0.0048 P2 3 MBtu/hr.

The fuel cost are:

Unit 1: fuel cost = 1.1 Rs/MBtu

150 P 1 600

Unit 2: fuel cost = 1.0 Rs/MBtu

100 P 1 400

Unit 3: fuel cost = 1.0 Rs/MBtu

50 P 1 200

F1 = H1 fuel cost1
= (510 + 7.2 P1 + 0.00142 P12 )1.1
F1 = 561+ 7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12 )

(1)

F2 = H 2 fuel cost 2
F2 = 310.0 + 7.85 P2 + 0.00194 P2 2

(2)

F3 = H 3 fuel cost 3
F3 = 78 + 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32

(3)

The total operating load PD = 850 Mw

P1 + P2 + P3 = 850
By lambda iteration method,
dF1 dF2 dF3
=
=
=
dP1 dP2 dP3
for optimal generation scheduling
dF1
= 7.92 + 0.003124 P1 =
dP1
dF2
= 7.85 + 0.00388 P2 =
dP2
dF3
= 7.97 + 0.00964 P3 =
dP3

(4)

 - 7.92
0.003124
- 7.85
P2 =
0.00388
- 7.97
P3 =
0.00964
P1 =

Sub for P1 , P2 , P3 in equation (4)

- 7.92
- 7.85 - 7.97
+
+
= 850
0.003124 0.00388 0.00964
681.57 -5385.6706 = 850
850 + 5385.6706
=
681.57
= 9.148 Rs / Mwhr
9.148- 7.92
= 393.08 Mw
0.003124
9.148- 7.85
P2 =
= 334.5 Mw
0.00388
9.148- 7.97
P3 =
= 122.2 Mw
0.00964

P1 =

P1 = 393.08 Mw, P2 = 334.5 Mw, P3 = 122.2 Mw

2) Suppose the price of unit 1 is decreased to 0.9 Rs/Mwhr. Obtain the optimum schedule
Soln: The fuel cost function of unit 1 becomes:
F1 (P1 ) = (510 + 7.2 P1 + 0.00142 P12 ) 0.9
F1 (P1 ) = 459 + 6.48 P1 + 0.001278 P12

dF1
= 6.48 + 0.00256 P1 =
dP1

P1 =

- 6.48
- 7.85
- 7.97
; P2 =
; P3 =
0.00256
0.00388
0.00964

Sub for P1 , P2 , P3 in equality constrain

P1 + P2 + P3 = PD = 850
- 6.48 - 7.85 - 7.97
+
+
= 850
0.00256 0.00388 0.00964
752.1 - 5381.21 = 850
=

850 + 5381.21
= 8.285
752.1

= 8.285 Rs / Mwhr

Schedule of units :
- 6.48
P1 =
= 705 Mw
0.00256
- 7.85
P2 =
= 112.1Mw
0.00388
- 7.97
P3 =
= 32.67 Mw
0.00964
Both units P1 and P2 are found to violate the inequality constraints
P1 = 600 Mw ; P3 = 50Mw
P2 = 850 - (650 + 50) = 200 Mw
P1 = 600 Mw ; P2 = 200 Mw; P3 = 50Mw

dF1
dP1

= 6.48 + 0.00256 600

P1 = 600

= 8.016 Rs / Mwhr
dF3
dP3

= 7.97 + 0.00964 50
P3 = 50

= 8.452 Rs / Mwhr
new =

dF2
= 7.85 + 0.00388200
dP2
= 8.626 Rs / Mwhr

For unit 1 and unit 3, the following conditions needs to be satisfied.

dF1
new as P1 = P1max
dP1
dF3
new as P3 = P3min
dP3

dF3
8.452 < new . Therefore, it cannot be fixed at the
The first is satisfied, but 2 condition i.e.=
dP3
lower (minimum) limit.
Now let us fix P1 = 600 Mw , do the economic dispatch for units 2 and units 3.

PD new = PD - P1 = 850 - 600 = 250 Mw

P2 =

- 7.85
- 7.97
; P3 =
0.00388
0.00964
P2 + P3 = PD new

- 7.85
- 7.97
+
= 250
0.00388 0.00964
361.46 - 2849.95 = 250
= 8.576 Rs / Mwhr
8.576 - 7.85
= 187.17 Mw
0.00388
8.576 - 7.97
P3 =
= 62.86 Mw
0.00964
P2 =

dF1
dP1

= 8.016 8.576 ()
P1 = 600

Final gen :
P1 = 600 Mw ; P2 = 187.17 Mw; P3 = 62.86 Mw

Economic dispatch with losses

F1 = 561+ 7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12

F2 = 310 + 7.85 P2 + 0.00194 P2 2
F1 = 78 + 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32
Ploss = 0.00003P12 + 0.00009P2 2 + 0.00012P32

dF1
= 7.92 + 0.003124 P1
dP1
dF2
= 7.85 + 0.00388 P2
dP2
dF3
= 7.97 + 0.00964 P3
dP3

Ploss
Ploss
P
= 0.00006 P1 ;
= 0.00018 P2 ; loss = 0.00024 P3
P1
P2
P3
The Coordination equation is:
P
dFi
+ loss =
dPi
Pi

i =1, 2,3...

7.92 + 0.003124 P1 + (0.00006 P1 ) =

7.85 + 0.00388 P2 + (0.00018 P2 ) = A

7.97 + 0.00964 P3 + (0.00024 P3 ) =
Iteration -1 :
Let us start with values of P1 , P2 , P3 as
P1 = 400 Mw
P2 = 300 Mw
P3 =150 Mw

The total losses are

Ploss
Ploss
P
= 0.024;
= 0.054; loss = 0.036
P1
P2
P3
Total losses are Ploss = 15.6 Mw
Equation A becomes
7.92 + 0.003124 P1 + (0.024 ) =
7.85 + 0.00388 P2 + (0.054) =
7.97 + 0.00964 P3 + (0.036 ) =
P1 + P2 + P3 = 850 + 15.6
P1 + P2 + P3 = 865.6 2

7.92 + 0.003124 P1 = ( 0.976 )

0.976 - 7.92
0.003124
0.946 - 7.85
P2 =
0.00388
0.964 - 7.97
P3 =
0.00964
P1 =

Sub in 2,
0.976 - 7.92
0.946 - 7.85
0.964 - 7.97
+
+ =
= 865.6
0.003124
0.00388
0.00964
656.23 = 5385.17 = 865.6
= 9.5252 Rs / M w hr
The values of P1 , P2 , P3 are:
P1 = 440.65 Mw ; P2 = 299.18 Mw ; P3 = 125.76 Mw
Since the values obtained are found to be far different from start values assumed, the second
iteration is proceede with this new values of generations.

OPTIMAL POWER FLOW PROBLEM FORMULATION

The OPF problem requires the solution of non-linear equations, describing optimal and/or secure
operation of a power system. The general OPF problem can be expressed as:

Minimize F ( x, u )

(1)

Subject to g ( x, u ) = 0

(2)

h ( x,

where
xT =

u T = [ PG T

VLT

VG T

(4)
tT

QSH T ]

(5)

Load flow equations are:

NG

0=
Pi Vi V j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij )

(6)

j =1

NL

0=
Qi Vi V j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij )

(7)

j =1

NG

F ( x, u ) is

(a P
i =1

i Gi

+ bi PGi + c)

(8)

g ( x, u ) is a set of non-linear equality constraints (Power flow equations) and h( x, u ) is a set of

non-linear inequality constraints of a vector argument x and u . The vector x consists of

dependent variables and u consist of control variables. h( x, u ) is a system operating constraints
that include:
a) Branch flow limits

S k S k max

k = 1.....nl

b)Voltage at load buses VLk min VLk VLk max k = 1....N L

c) Generator MVAR QGk min QGk QGk max k = 1....N G
d) Slack bus MW

PG min PG PG max

u consist of control variables such as:

a) Generator MW except slack MW PGk min PGk PGk max

b) Generator bus voltage VLk min VLk VLk max k = 1....N G
c) Transformer tap setting tk min tk tk max k = 1....ntran
The transformer taps are discrete with a change step of 0.0125 p.u.

d) Bus shunt capacitor bSHk min bSHk bSHk max k = 1....N C

Summary
This section describes the application of Economic Dispatch in power systems.

REFERENCES
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John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
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X. S. Han, H. B. Gooi and D. S Kirschen, Dynamic Economic Dispatch: Feasible and Optimal
Solutions, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 22-28, Feb. 2001.
K.P. Wong and C.C. Fung, "Simulated annealing based economic dispatch algorithm," IEE Proc.
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Part .C, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 509-515, Nov. 1993.
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Problems in Economic Dispatch

1. The Incremental Fuel costs in rupees per MWh for a plant consisting of two units are:
dC1
0.20 PG1 + 40.0
=
dPG1
dC2
0.25 PG 2 + 30.0
=
dPG 2

20 MW PG1 , PG 2 125MW

Assume that both the units are operating at all times, and total load varies from 40MW to
250MW. How will the load be shared between the two units as the system load varies
over the full range? What are the corresponding values of plant incremental costs? Plot
the variation of incremental fuel cost versus plant output.

2. For the plant described in Problem 1, find the saving in fuel cost in rupees per hour for
the optimal scheduling of a total load of 130MW as compared to equal distribution of the
same load between the two units.

3. A constant load of 300 MW is supplied by two 200 MW generators whose incremental

fuel costs are given by:
dC1
0.10 PG1 + 20.0
=
dPG1
dC2
0.12 PG 2 + 15.0
=
dPG 2

with powers PG in MW and cost C in Rs/hr. Determine a) the most economical division
of load between the two generators and b) the saving in Rs/day thereby obtained
compared to equal load sharing between the generators.

4. Consider a three unit system described by the cost equations as:

F1 =225 + 8.4 P1 + 0.0025 P12 $ / hr

F2 =729 + 6.3P2 + 0.0081P22 $ / hr
F3 =400 + 7.5 P3 + 0.0025 P32 $ / hr
45 MW P1 , P2 350 MW ; 47.5 MW P3 450 MW

Use the lambda iteration method to find the economic dispatch for a total load demand of
450 MW.
5. Consider a two unit system with fuel cost equations given by:

=
F1 0.024 P12 + 8 P1 + 80 Rs / hr
F=
0.04 P22 + 6 P2 + 120 Rs / hr
2

System Load in MW

Assume a daily load cycle as shown in fig. below:

150 MW

12 hours
50 MW

12

6 A.M.

12

6 P.M.

12

a) Would it be more economical to keep both units in service for the twenty-four hour
period?
b) What is the economic schedule for the period from 6.00 A.M. to 6.00 P.M.?
c) What is the economic schedule for the period from 6.00 P.M. to 6.00 A.M.?

6. A two bus system is shown in Fig.1 If 100 MW is transmitted from plant 1 to the load; a
transmission loss of 10 MW is incurred. Find the required generation for each plant and
the power received by the load when the system is Rs. 25 /MWh.

The incremental fuel costs of the two plants are:

dC1
0.02 PG1 + 16.0 Rs / MWh
=
dPG1
dC2
0.04 PG 2 + 20.0 Rs / MWh
=
dPG 2
Plant 1

Plant 2

PG1

PG2
Load

7. Consider the system of example 6 with a load of 237.04 MW at bus 2 . Find the optimal
load distribution between the two plants for (a) when losses are included but not
coordinated and (b) when losses are also coordinated. Also find the savings in Rs/hr
when losses are coordinated.
8. Fig shows the incremental fuel cost curve of two generators A and B. How would a load
a. More than 2Pg
b. Equal to 2Pg
c. Less than 2Pg
be shared between A and B, if both the generators are running.

IC

Gen B
Gen A

(MW)Min

Pg

(MW)Max

MW

9. The Incremental Fuel costs in rupees per MWh for a plant consisting of two units are:
dF1
0.10 PG1 + 20
=
dPG1
dF2
0.12 PG 2 + 16
=
dPG 2

The min and max loads on each unit are 20 MW and 125 MW respectively. Determine
the incremental fuel cost and allocation of load between units for minimum cost when
loads are (i) 100 MW (ii) 150 MW. Determine the saving in fuel cost in Rs/hr for
economic distribution of 200MW load compared with equal distribution at the same total
load.

10. A system consists of two plants connected by a tie lie and a load is located at plant 2.
when 100 MW is transmitted from plant 1, a loss of 10 MW takes place on the tie line.
Determine the generation schedule at both the plants and the power received by the load
when for the system is Rs 25/ MWhr. The incremental fuel cost equations are
dF1
0.10 PG1 + 22
=
dPG1
dF2
0.12 PG 2 + 16
=
dPG 2

11. Consider a two unit system with fuel cost equations given by:

=
F1 0.015 P12 + 16 P1 + 50 Rs / hr
F=
0.025 P22 + 12 P2 + 30 Rs / hr
2
The loss coefficients of the system are given by B11 = 0.005 B12 = -0.0012 and B22 =
0.002. The load to be met is 200 MW, determine the economic operating schedule and
corresponding cost of generation if (i) transmission losses are coordinated (ii) losses are
included but not coordinated.

12. To supply a total system load of 310 MW, three plants of total capacity of 500 MW are
scheduled for operation. Evaluate the optimum load scheduling if the plants have the
following cost characteristics and limitations.
dC1
= 0.12 PG1 + 30 Rs / MWh 30 PG1 150
dPG1
dC2
= 0.20 PG 2 + 40 Rs / MWh 20 PG 2 100
dPG 2
dC3
= 0.16 PG 3 + 10 Rs / MWh 50 PG 3 250
dPG 3

13. The heat rate of a 100MW fuel fired generator is 10 MKCal/MWhr @ 25 % of rating, 9
MKCal/MWhr @ 40 % of rating, 8 MKCal/MWhr @ 100 % of rating. The cost of the
fuel is Rs 2/MKCal. Find (a) Cost equation (b) Fuel input rate and fuel cost when 25 % ,
50 % and 100 % loaded. (c) Incremental cost in Rs/MWhr (d) the approximate cost and
cost using quadratic approximation in Rs /Hr to deliver 101 MW.

14. Let the two units of the system have the following cost curves

C1 =120 + 40 P1 + 0.1P12 Rs / hr

System Load in MW

C2 =100 + 30 P2 + 0.2 P22 Rs / hr

290 MW

12 hours
70 MW

12

6 A.M.

12

6 P.M.

6 A.M.

Let us assume a daily load cycle as shown in the fig above. Also assume that a cost of Rs
400 is incurred in taking either unit off the line and returning it to service after 12 Hrs.
Consider the 24 Hr period from 6 am one morning to 6 am the next morning. Find out
whether it would be economical to keep both units in service for this 24 Hr period or to
remove one of the units from service for 12 hrs of light load.

15. Consider the following three IC curves

PG1 =
100 + 50 IC1 2.0 IC12 MW
PG 2 =
150 + 60 IC2 2.5 IC22 MW
PG 3 =
80 + 40 IC3 1.8 IC32 MW
where IC is in Rs/MWhr.
The total load at a certain hour of the day is 400 MW. Neglecting transmission losses obtain
optimum generation scheduling within an accuracy of 0.05 MW. Note all PGs must be real
positive.