Moisture Control

EPA 402-F-13053 | December 2013 | www.epa.
gov/iaq/moisture
Moisture Control
Guidance for Building
Design, Construction
and Maintenance
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
December 2013
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Contents
Foreword: How to Use this Guidance................................................................................................. v
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................. vi
Chapter 1
Moisture Control In Buildings.................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Health Implications of Dampness in Buildings...................................................................................... 1
Moisture Damage in Buildings............................................................................................................. 2
Moisture Problems are Expensive......................................................................................................... 7
How Water Causes Problems in Buildings............................................................................................. 7
Moisture Control Principles for Design.................................................................................................. 8
Moisture Control Principle #1: Control Liquid Water.............................................................................. 8
Moisture Control Principle #2: Manage Condensation.......................................................................... 14
Moisture Control Principle #3: Use Moisture-Tolerant Materials............................................................ 19
The Basics Of Water Behavior................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter 2
Designing for Moisture Control................................................................................................................ 26
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 26
Designing Effective Moisture Controls................................................................................................ 26
Building Commissioning................................................................................................................... 26
Who Should Read this Chapter.......................................................................................................... 27
Site Drainage................................................................................................................................... 28
Foundations.................................................................................................................................... 32
Walls.............................................................................................................................................. 38
Roof And Ceiling Assemblies............................................................................................................. 45
Plumbing Systems........................................................................................................................... 54
HVAC Systems................................................................................................................................. 57
iii
Chapter 3
Constructing to Prevent Moisture Problems................................................................................................ 67
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 67
Pre-Construction Planning................................................................................................................. 71
Site Drainage Construction................................................................................................................ 74
Foundation Construction................................................................................................................... 76
Wall Construction............................................................................................................................. 78
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Construction............................................................................................. 80
Plumbing System Installation............................................................................................................ 82
HVAC System Installation.................................................................................................................. 84
Chapter 4
Operating and Maintaining Moisture-Controlled Environments....................................................................... 87
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 87
Site Drainage Maintenance............................................................................................................... 90
Foundation Maintenance................................................................................................................... 92
Wall Maintenance............................................................................................................................ 93
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Maintenance............................................................................................ 95
Plumbing System Operation and Maintenance.................................................................................... 98
HVAC System Operation and Maintenance.......................................................................................... 99
Appendix A - The Pen Test........................................................................................................... A-1

Appendix B - Roof Inspection Checklist......................................................................................... B-1
Appendix C - Testing Moisture During Construction..................................................................... C-1
Appendix D - Air Pressure Mapping............................................................................................... D-1
Appendix E - HVAC Inspection Checklist....................................................................................... E-1
Appendix F - Site Drainage Maintenance.......................................................................................F-1
Appendix G - Dampness & Mold Evaluation.................................................................................. G-1
Glossary............................................................................................................................................. H-1
iv
Foreword: How to Use this Guidance
This document was developed by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Indoor
Environments Division. It provides practical guidance
on how to control moisture in buildings.1 It is not a
textbook, code or standard.
Who Should Read this Guide

This guide can be used by anyone who designs,
builds, operates or maintains buildings and heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment. It
was developed specifically for:
Chapter 1 focuses on principles of moisture control:

how water moves into and within a building and
why the movement of water should be controlled or
managed. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 provide professionspecific guidance for the design, construction and
maintenance phases of a buildings life. To illustrate
how core concepts and principles relate to each stage
of a buildings life, each guidance chapter contains
hyperlinks to relevant principles described in Chapter
1 and other related material throughout the text. Each
guidance chapter also includes methods for verifying
the appropriate implementation of the moisture
control recommendations and a reference section
that identifies additional related resources for readers
interested in more detailed information.
Professionals who design buildings and produce

drawings, specifications and contracts for
construction or renovation.
Professionals who erect buildings from the
construction documents.
Professionals who operate and maintain buildings,
conducting preventive maintenance, inspecting the
landscape, building interior and exterior equipment
and finishes and performing maintenance and
repairs.
NOTE: This document does not address flood water control. For information about managing flood water, see http://www.epa.gov/naturalevents/flooding.html or http://www.epa.
gov/naturalevents/hurricanes/. Accessed on November 6, 2013.
1
Acknowledgements
The United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, Indoor Environments
Division would like thank the many professionals who contributed to this document, including Terry Brennan
and Michael Clarkin of Camroden Associates and Lew Harriman of Mason-Grant Consulting.
The Agency would also like to thank Christopher Patkowski for permission to use the photograph of water
droplets on the front and back covers.
The figures in this document came from several sources:
yy Terry Brennan provided the photographs used in Figures 1-1 to 1-14.
yy Christopher Patkowski created Figures 1-15, 1-16 and 2-14 based on illustrations in the Whole Building
Design Guide (www.wbdg.org), a program of the National Institute of Building Sciences.
yy Terry Brennan drew Figure 1-17 and provided the spreadsheets used to create Figures 1-18 and 1-19. He
also provided the photograph for Figure 1-20.
yy Christopher Patkowski created Figure 2-1. He also created Figures 2-2 to 2-4, Figures 2-6 and 2-7, and
Figures 2-9 to 2-12 based on illustrations provided by Joe Lstiburek of Building Science Corporation.
yy The U.S. Department of Energy provided the map in Figure 2-5.
yy Christopher Patkowski drew Figure 2-8 based on an illustration in a publication of the Canadian Mortgage
and Housing Corporation. He also drew Figure 2-13.
yy Terry Brennan drew Figures 2-15 and 2-16.
yy Lew Harriman provided Figure 2-17.
yy Terry Brennan provided Figure 4-1 and drew Figures A-1 to A-3.
yy Christopher Patkowski drew Figures D-1 to D-3 based on drawings by Terry Brennan.
yy Figure G-1 was provided by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
vi
Chapter 1: Moisture Control in Buildings
Introduction
To be successful, moisture control does not require

everything be kept completely dry. Moisture control is
adequate as long as vulnerable materials are kept dry
enough to avoid problems. That means the building
must be designed, constructed and operated so that
vulnerable materials do not get wet. It also means
that when materials do get wet, the building needs to
be managed in such a way that the damp materials
dry out quickly.
Moisture control is fundamental to the proper

functioning of any building. Controlling moisture is
important to protect occupants from adverse health
effects and to protect the building, its mechanical
systems and its contents from physical or chemical
damage. Yet, moisture problems are so common in
buildings, many people consider them inevitable.
Excessive moisture accumulation plagues buildings
throughout the United States, from tropical Hawaii
to arctic Alaska and from the hot, humid Gulf Coast
to the hot, dry Sonoran Desert. Between 1994 and
1998, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation
(BASE) study collected information about the indoor
air quality of 100 randomly selected public and
private office buildings in the 10 U.S. climatic
regions. The BASE study found that 85 percent of the
buildings had been damaged by water at some time
and 45 percent had leaks at the time the data were
collected.2
Health Implications of Dampness in Buildings

At the request of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), the Institute of Medicine (IOM)
of the National Academy of Sciences convened a
committee of experts to conduct a comprehensive
review of the scientific literature concerning
the relationship between damp or moldy indoor
environments and the appearance of adverse health
effects in exposed populations. Based on their review,
the members of the Committee on Damp Indoor
Spaces and Health concluded that the epidemiologic
evidence shows an association between exposure to
damp indoor environments and adverse health effects,
including:
Moisture causes problems for building owners,

maintenance personnel and occupants. Many
common moisture problems can be traced to poor
decisions in design, construction or maintenance. The
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) notes that, more
often than not, the more serious problems are caused
by decisions made by members of any of a number of
different professions.3 However, such problems can
be avoided with techniques that are based on a solid
understanding of how water behaves in buildings.
Upper respiratory (nasal and throat) symptoms.

Cough.
Wheeze.
Asthma symptoms in sensitized persons with
asthma.
The committee also determined that there is limited
or suggestive evidence of an association between
exposure to damp indoor environments and:
Moisture control consists of:
Dyspnea (shortness of breath).
Preventing water intrusion and condensation in

areas of a building that must remain dry.
Lower respiratory illness in otherwise healthy

children.
Limiting the areas of a building that are routinely

wet because of their use (e.g., bathrooms, spas,
kitchens and janitorial closets) and drying them out
when they do get wet.
Asthma development.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Limiting Indoor Mold and Dampness in Buildings. 2013 (PDF) at https://www.ashrae.org/about-ashrae/position-documents. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Prolonged damp conditions can lead to the

colonization of building materials and HVAC
systems by molds, bacteria, wood-decaying molds
and insect pests (e.g., termites and carpenter ants).
Details of the results of this review were published in

a 2004 report, Damp Indoor Spaces and Health.4 It
is also important to note that immuno-compromised
individuals, such as some categories of hospital
patients, are at increased risk for fungal colonization
and opportunistic infections.5
Chemical reactions with building materials and

components can cause, for example, structural
fasteners, wiring, metal roofing and conditioning
coils to corrode and flooring or roofing adhesives to
fail.
After the publication of the IOM report, a study by

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory concluded
that building dampness and mold raise the risk of
a variety of respiratory and asthma-related health
effects by 30 to 50 percent.6 A companion study by
EPA and Berkeley Lab estimated that 4.6 million
cases of asthma, 21 percent of the 21.8 million cases
of asthma in the U.S. at that time, could be attributed
to exposure to dampness and mold in homes.7
Water-soluble building materials (e.g., gypsum

board) can return to solution.
Wooden materials can warp, swell or rot.
Brick or concrete can be damaged during freezethaw cycles and by sub-surface salt deposition.
Paints and varnishes can be damaged.
The insulating value (R-value) of thermal insulation
can be reduced.
Moisture Damage in Buildings

In addition to causing health problems, moisture
can damage building materials and components. For
example:
The following photos show some of the damage that

can result from moisture problems in buildings.
Figure 1-1 Mold growing on the surface of painted gypsum board and trim.
Long-term high humidity is the source of the moisture that allowed the mold
growth. All of the walls experienced similar near-condensation conditions.
Consequently, the mold growth is widespread rather than concentrated in a
single damp area.
Institute of Medicine (2004) Damp Indoor Spaces and Health. http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Damp-Indoor-Spaces-and-Health.aspx. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Institute of Medicine (2004) Damp Indoor Spaces and Health. http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Damp-Indoor-Spaces-and-Health.aspx. Accessed November 6, 2013.
W. J. Fisk, Q. Lei-Gomez, M. J. Mendell (2007) Meta-analyses of the associations of respiratory health effects with dampness and mold in homes. Indoor Air 17(4), 284-295.
doi:10.1111 /j.1600-0668.2007.00475.x
6
D. Mudarri, W. J. Fisk (2007) Public health and economic impact of dampness and mold. Indoor Air 17 (3), 226235. doi:10.1111 /j.1600-0668.2007.00474.x
Figure 1-2 Mold growth on painted concrete masonry. The cool masonry wall
separates a classroom from an ice rink. Humid air in the classroom provides
moisture that condenses on the painted surface of the masonry. That moisture
allows mold to grow on the paint film.
Figure 1-3 Mold growth on vinyl floor tile. Long-term high humidity provided
moisture that was absorbed into the cool vinyl tile and supported mold
growth. Also note that the high humidity caused the adhesive attaching the
tile to the floor to fail, allowing the tile to become loose.
Figure 1-4 Corrosion of galvanized fluted steel floor deck. The floor is at grade
level. The source of the water is rainwater seepage.
Figure 1-5 Corrosion of structural steel in a ceiling cavity in a cold climate.
The steel extends into the exterior wall assembly. During cold weather, the
steel near the wall is chilled by cold outdoor air. The building is humidified,
and condensation from high indoor humidity provides the moisture that rusts
the cold steel.
Figure 1-6 Blistering paint on split face concrete block. Wind-driven rain
is the source of moisture contributing to the damage. Water wicks into
the concrete masonry unit (CMU) through pin holes in the paint. The sun
drives water vapor through the CMU. The assembly cannot dry to the interior
because low-vapor-permeability foam board, taped at the joints, insulates the
interior surface of the wall. The wall remains saturated throughout the spring,
summer and fall. The same paint on areas of the wall sheltered from sun and
rain shows no damage.
Figure 1-7 Condensation behind vinyl wallpaper in a warm, humid climate.
Condensation and mold growth occurs behind the vinyl wallpaper on both
exterior and interior walls. Air leaks in the return plenum of the air handler
depressurizes the interior and exterior wall cavities. Warm, humid exterior air
is drawn from outside through air leaks in a heavy masonry wall.
Figure 1-8 Rainwater leaks in a rooftop parapet wall result in damaged plaster
and peeling paint. Rainwater is drawn into this brick assembly by capillary
action, and the moisture is aided in its downward migration by gravity. The
peeling paint contains lead and results in an environmental hazard as well as
physical damage to the plaster.
Figure 1-9 Interior plaster damaged by rain seeping around a window in a

brick building. The inside of the exterior wall is insulated with closed-cell
spray foam. Consequently, the wall cannot dry to the interior, so it retains
excessive amounts of moisture. At the point where the plaster on the window
return meets the brick wall, rainwater wicks into the plaster causing the
damage seen in this photo.
Figure 1-10 Further rain damage to interior plaster. At another location on an
office window in the building shown in Figure 1-8, rain seepage turns gypsum
board joint compound to a fluid, causing the gypsum to bubble and lift.
Figure 1-11 Gypsum board on the lower edge of a basement wall dissolved by
seasonal flood waters. The water table is just below the basement floor during
dry weather and rises several inches above the floor during heavy spring rains.
Figure 1-12 Hardwood gymnasium floor warped by moisture in the cavity

below it. Water rises through the concrete sub-floor. The source of the
moisture is rainwater that has not been drained away from the foundation of
the building.
Figure 1-13 Tile adhesive that failed to cure because of water in the concrete
and high pH. The tile can be removed by hand. The floor is a concrete slabon-grade. The water visible in the photo evaporates into the room after several
minutes. Its source may be liquid water wicking up from the sub-slab fill or
water vapor migrating through the slab.
Figure 1-14 Damage to bricks caused by the migration of soluble salt through
them. Salts in the brick or mortar dissolve in rainwater that wicks through the
brick. The water evaporates in the buildings interior, and the salt left behind
crystalizes and splits the surface layer off the brick, exposing its interior. This
process is called sub-fluorescence.
Moisture Problems are Expensive
How Water Causes Problems in Buildings
Health problems and building damage due to

moisture can be extremely expensive. Berkeley Lab
estimates that the annual asthma-related medical
costs attributable to exposures to dampness and mold
total approximately $3.5 billion in the U.S.8 But many
more adverse health outcomes due to damp buildings
have been reported, each with associated costs of
its own. And damage to the building itself is also
costly. Building owners and tenants bear a significant
proportion of these costs, including:
Mention water damage and the first image that comes

to mind for most people is liquid water in the form
of rain, plumbing leaks or floods. Many water leaks
are easy to detect. When it rains, water may drip
around skylights, or a crawl space may fill with water.
If a toilet supply line breaks, the floor will likely be
flooded.
On the other hand, many water-related problems
are less obvious and can be difficult to detect or
diagnose. For example, the adhesive that secures
flooring to a concrete slab may not cure properly if the
slab is damp, resulting in loose flooring and microbial
growth in the adhesive. Or, humid indoor air may
condense on the cool backside of vinyl wallpaper that
covers an exterior wall, providing ideal conditions for
mold to grow. These problems are less obvious than
a leak because water is not running across the floor,
and the real damage is being done out of sight under
flooring or behind wallpaper.
Absenteeism due to illnesses such as asthma.

Reduced productivity due to moisture-related health
and comfort problems.
Increased insurance risk, repair and replacement
costs associated with corroded structural fasteners,
wiring and damaged moisture-sensitive materials.
Repair and replacement costs associated with
damaged furniture, products and supplies.
Loss of use of building spaces after damage and
during repairs.
Moisture problems are preventable. They do not

happen until water moves from a source into some
part of a building that should be dry. The actual
Increased insurance and litigation costs related to

moisture damage claims.
8
D. Mudarri, W. J. Fisk (2007) Public health and economic impact of dampness and mold. Indoor Air 17 (3), 226235. doi:10.1111 /j.1600-0668.2007.00474.x
damage begins after enough moisture accumulates to

exceed the safe moisture content limit of moisturesensitive materials.
Moisture Control Principle #1:

Control Liquid Water
The first principle of moisture control is to keep liquid
water out of the building. Sheltering occupants from
water is a primary purpose of building assemblies
including roofs, walls and foundations. Among the
sources of water from outside a building are:
To diagnose or prevent a moisture problem, keep

in mind four key elements of moisture behavior in
buildings:
1. Typical symptoms of moisture problems. They
include corrosion of metals, the growth of surface
mold or wood-decaying molds, insect infestations,
spalling exterior brick or concrete, peeling paint,
failing floor adhesives, stained finishes and health
symptoms.
Rain and melting snow, ice or frost.

Groundwater and surface runoff.
Water brought into the building by plumbing.
Wet materials enclosed in building assemblies
during construction.
2. Sources of moisture. Among them are rainwater,

surface water, ground water, plumbing water,
indoor and outdoor sources of humidity and sewer
water.
Problem: Building Assemblies and Materials Get Wet
3. Transport mechanisms. They include liquid water

leaking through holes, wicking through porous
materials, or running along the top or bottom of
building assemblies and water vapor carried by
warm, humid air leaking through assemblies and
by diffusion through vapor-permeable materials.
Moisture problems are common. By their very nature,

buildings and the construction process are almost
certain to encounter moisture problems that could
lead to poor indoor air quality and other negative
impacts. The most common liquid water problems
include:
4. Common failures of moisture control elements and

systems. Moisture controls include site drainage,
gutter systems, above- and below-grade drainage
planes, effective flashing, condensate drainage
and humidity controls. Failures can occur during
any phase of a buildings life and may include
poor site selection or design, poor material or
equipment selection, improper installation or
sequence of building materials and equipment,
insufficient coordination between trades during
construction and insufficient or improper
maintenance of materials or equipment.
Rain and snow get inside. Rainwater, surface water

and ground water, including snowmelt, may enter
a building through leaks in roofs, walls, windows,
doors or foundations. In most climates, rain is the
largest source of water in buildings. Rainwater
intrusion can cause great damage to the building
itself and to its contents.
Plumbing leaks. We intentionally bring water into
buildings for cleaning, bathing and cooking, and
we intentionally drain wastewater out of buildings.
Any water brought in and drained out is contained
in pipes, vessels and fixtures that can tolerate
being wet all or most of the time. However, leaks in
plumbing supply lines, drain lines, sinks, showers
and tubs may cause problems. Although model
plumbing codes require both the supply side and
drain/vent side of plumbing systems to be tested for
leaks, these tests are sometimes performed poorly
or not at all. Large plumbing leaks are immediately
obvious, but small leaks inside walls and ceiling
cavities may continue unnoticed for some time.
Moisture Control Principles for Design

To control moisture for long building life and good
indoor air quality, follow these three principles:
1. Control liquid water.
2. Prevent excessive indoor humidity and water vapor
migration by air flow and diffusion in order to limit
condensation and moisture absorption into cool
materials and surfaces.
Water during construction causes problems.

Some materials are installed wet because they
were exposed to rain or plumbing leaks during
construction. Wet concrete masonry units (CMUs),
poured or pre-cast concrete, lumber and the
exposed earth of a crawl space floor have all been
sources of problems in new buildings.
3. Select moisture-resistant materials for unavoidably

wet locations.
Armed with an elementary understanding of these
principles, readers will be prepared to control
moisture and prevent the vast majority of moisture
problems that are common in buildings.
8
Some materials are installed wet because water is

part of the process. Poured concrete, floor levelers,
wet-spray insulation and water-based finishes all
contain water. Porous materials that appear dry may
contain enough water to cause problems if they
come in contact with moisture-sensitive materials
or if they humidify a cavity after they are enclosed.
Flooring, wall coverings and coatings will fail if they
are applied before surfaces are dry enough. Water
from these materials may indirectly cause problems
by raising the humidity indoors during a buildings
first year of use, leading to condensation problems.
Prevent plumbing leaks by locating plumbing lines

and components where they are easy to inspect and
repair, are unlikely to freeze, and are not in contact
with porous cavity insulation.
Avoid enclosing wet materials in new construction
by protecting moisture-sensitive and porous
materials during transport and on-site storage and
by drying wet materials before they are enclosed
inside building assemblies or covered by finish
materials.
Drained Roofing and Wall Cladding
Roofing and cladding systems are frequently backed
by an air gap and a moisture-resistant material that
forms the drainage plane. Most of the water that
seeps, wicks or is blown past the cladding will drain
out of the assembly. The drainage plane prevents any
water that might bridge the air gap from wetting the
inner portions of the assembly. Some examples are:
Solution: Control Liquid Water Movement

Effectively controlling liquid water intrusion requires
all of the following:
Drain rain, irrigation water and snowmelt away
from the building. The first step in water control
is to locate the building in dry or well-drained soil
and use or change the landscape to divert water
away from the structure. In other words, drain the
site. This includes sloping the grade away from
the building to divert surface water and keep
subsurface water away from the foundation below
grade. After the site is prepared to effectively drain
water away from the building, the building needs
a storm water runoff system to divert rain from the
roof into the site drainage system.
Roofs. Asphalt or wooden shingles, metal panels

and elastomeric membranes are common outer
layers for roofs.
Walls. Wooden and vinyl siding, stucco, concrete
panels, brick, concrete masonry units and stone
veneers are common outer layers for walls.
Drainage planes. Building felt, tar paper and waterresistant barriers are commonly used as drainage
planes beneath roofing and wall cladding systems.
Single- and multi-ply roofing combine the drainage
plane with the outer layers of the roofthere is no
inner drainage plane material.
Keep rain and irrigation water from leaking into the

walls and roof. Leaking rainwater can cause great
damage to a building and to the materials inside.
In successful systems, rainwater that falls on the
building is controlled by:
Figure 1-15 illustrates the concept of a drained

wall assembly. Although the cladding intercepts
most of the rainwater, some liquid will seep inward.
The air gap acts as a capillary break, and seepage
cannot jump that gap. Instead, seepage runs down
the back of the cladding until it is drained out by
the flashing. Some of the seepage may run to the
drainage plane along materials that bridge the gap,
for example, mortar droppings or cladding fasteners.
The impermeable surface of the drainage plane keeps
water out of the backup sheathing, CMU or concrete,
protecting the inner wall. Water flows down the
drainage plane and over the flashing, which diverts it
back outside.
yy Exterior cladding, roofing and storm-water

management systems to intercept most of the
rain and drain it away from the building.
yy Capillary breaks, which keep rainwater from
wicking through porous building materials or
through cracks between materials. A capillary
break is either an air gap between adjacent
layers or a material such as rubber sheeting that
does not absorb or pass liquid water. A few rain
control systems consist of a single moistureimpermeable material, sealed at the seams, that
both intercepts rainwater and provides a capillary
break. Membrane roofing and some glass panel
claddings for walls work in this way.
Some roofing or siding materials absorb water (e.g.,

wooden shingles or siding, fiber cement siding,
traditional stucco and masonry veneers), while
others do not (e.g., roofing membranes, vinyl siding
and metal or glass panels). Historically, the porous
Keep water from wicking into the building by using

capillary breaks in the building enclosure. Moisture
migration by capillary action can be interrupted
using an air space or water-impermeable material.
9
Figure 1-15 Drained Wall Assembly
insulation and finish system (EIFS). Note that the

sill flashing protects the wall assembly from seepage
at the corners of windows and at the joints between
windows. Dams on the sides and back of the sill
pan flashing stop any seepage from running into the
building or into the wall beneath the window.
Foundations
The building foundation must be detailed to protect
the building from rainwater. The above-grade portions
of a foundation are often masonry or concrete. Much
of the rainwater that wets the above-grade wall simply
drains off the surface to the soil below. Masonry
walls are often protected below grade using Portland
cement-based capillary breaks (e.g., traditional
parging or proprietary coatings). Concrete walls may
be treated with additives that provide an integral
capillary break or may be so massive that absorbed
water is more likely to be safely stored in the wall
drying out between stormsthan to wick through to
the interior.
Landscape surfaces immediately surrounding the
foundation perform the same function for the walls
below grade as the roofing and cladding in the walls
above grade: they intercept rain and drain it away
from the building.
materials were backed by an air gap. Examples

include wooden shingles on skip sheathing, masonry
veneers and heavy masonry walls with 1- to 2-inch
cavities separating brick walls and beveled siding
installed shingle style. The air gap between the
siding and the interior of the wall enables wet porous
materials to dry out to either the outdoor air or into
the air gap.
The damp-proof or waterproof coatings on below-grade

walls serve the same purpose as the drainage plane
in the above-grade walls. These coatings provide
a capillary break that excludes the rainwater that
saturates the surrounding fill. An additional capillary
break is formed by free-draining gravel or geotechnical
drainage mats placed against the below-grade walls.
These materials provide an air gap that allows water
to drain freely down the foundation wall.
In either case, the drainage plane must be watertight

at all joints and penetrations. Table 1-1 lists
penetrations commonly found in roofs and walls and
presents ways to maintain the watertight integrity of
the drainage plane. This list is not comprehensive.
Any and all penetrations through roofing and exterior
cladding must be detailed to prevent rainwater
intrusion.
At the bottom of the below-grade wall, a footing

drain system carries rainwater and ground water away
from the footing and the floor slab. Paint formulated
for use on concrete can be applied to the topside
of the footing to provide a capillary break between
the damp footing and the foundation wall. A layer
of clean coarse gravel, with no fines, can provide an
air-gap-style capillary break between the earth and the
concrete floor slab. Plastic film beneath the floor slab
provides a vapor barrier as well as a capillary break
beneath the slab. These drainage layers and the vapor
barriers beneath foundation slabs are often required
by building codes.
Windows, curtain walls and storefronts are all used

in wall assemblies and are among the more complex
penetrations to detail. Typically, standard details for
window head, jamb and sill flashing are provided
by the manufacturers of these components. Figure
1-16 illustrates a method of providing pan sill and
jamb flashings for walls constructed with an exterior
10
Table 1-1 Maintaining Drainage Plane Water-Tightness in Roofs and Walls

Penetrations Commonly Found in Roofs
How to Maintain Drainage Plane Water-Tightness
Joints between pieces of roofing
Shingling or sealing provides continuity
Roof edges
Overhangs, copings and drip edges provide capillary breaks
Roof intersections with adjoining, taller

walls
Through-flashing provides continuity where a lower story roof

intersects the wall of the higher level and where any roof meets a
dormer wall. Flashing and counter-flashing of veneers and low-slope
roof membranes keep water out of joints between materials
Skylights and roof hatches
Flashing, curbs and counter-flashing provide continuity
Chimneys
Flashing, crickets and counter-flashing provide continuity
Air handlers and exhaust fans
Flashing, curbs and counter-flashing provide continuity
Plumbing vents
Flashing and counter-flashing provide continuity
Penetrations Commonly Found in Walls
How to Maintain Drainage Plane Water-Tightness
Windows
Head flashing, jamb flashing and panned sill flashing provide

continuity
Doors

continuity
Outdoor air intakes

continuity
Exhaust outlets and fans

continuity
Fasteners
Sealants provide continuity
Utility entrances
Sealants provide continuity
The Pen Test
for documenting compliance with the guidance in

Chapters 2, 3 and 4.
The waterproof layers of the walls, roof and foundation

must form a continuous, six-sided box with no gaps,
no cracks and no holes. It is difficult to achieve this
degree of integrity, especially at the long edges where
the walls meet the roof and the foundation. The
pen test is used before the architectural design is
complete to help make sure these continuous water
barriers, when installed according to the design, will
not leak.
Figure 1-17 illustrates tracing the capillary break in a

sample section. Starting at the center of the roof:
The roofing membrane is the first line of defense,
protecting the water-sensitive inner materials from
rain and snowmelt.
Tracing the roofing membrane from the center
of the roof to the edge of the roof, the roofing
membrane rises up the parapet wall where it flashes
beneath a metal coping, which also forms a
metal fascia.
When rainwater control has been well designed, it

should be possible to trace the waterproof layers that
form a capillary break around a sectional view of the
building without lifting pen from paper. This simple
test can be performed not only for the rainwater
control, but also for the thermal insulation layer and
the air barrier. The methods for all three are outlined
in Appendix A and are part of the requirements
The fascia forms a drip edge, channeling water

away from the cladding.
An air gap between the drip edge and the brick
veneer forms a capillary break, protecting the
materials beneath the coping from rainwater.
11
Figure 1-16 Pan Sill and Jamb Flashings for EIFS Walls
Behind the brick veneer, air gap and foam board,

a self-adhering water-resistant barrier (WRB)
applied to the gypsum sheathing forms a capillary
break between the damp brick and the inner wall
assembly.
A polyethylene foam sill seal makes a capillary

break between the foundation and the bottom
of the framed wall, connecting with an inch of
extruded polystyrene insulation that makes a
capillary break between the top of the foundation
wall and the edge of the floor slab. Polyethylene
film immediately beneath the slab provides the
code-required water vapor retarder and forms a
capillary break between the bottom of the slab and
the fill below. NOTE: If the bed of fill beneath the
slab consists of crushed stone greater than inch
in diameter (and if it contains no fines), the bed
also forms a capillary break between the soil and
the slab.
The WRB laps over the vertical leg of a head

flashing, protecting the window from rainwater with
a drip edge and an air gap. Weep holes allow water
to drain from behind the brick cladding.
The window frame, sash and glazing form a
capillary break system that sits in a pan sill flashing
at the bottom of the window.
The pan sill flashing forms a capillary break
protecting the wall beneath from seepage through
the window system.
Note the critical role of flashing in excluding water

and in diverting water out of the building if it leaks
in. Applying the pen test to the building design shows
The pan sill flashing shingles over the WRB in the

wall beneath, which shingles over a flashing that
protects the bottom of the wall system.
12
Figure 1-17 Tracing the Capillary Break in a Sample Section9

The blue line traces the elements of the capillary break in the rainwater control system for a section through a
building.
Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance, http://www.

sprayfoam.org.
the importance of flashing that is both well-designed

and well-installed. There are no certification programs
for the proper installation of flashing; however,
the following trade associations offer educational
materials and training programs for flashing design
and installation:
Prevent Plumbing Leaks

To avoid plumbing leaks, new plumbing systems must
be pressure tested at a stage of construction when the
plumbing lines are easily inspected and leaks can be
readily repaired. This is a code requirement in many
jurisdictions.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors

National Association (SMACNA), http://www.
smacna.org.
National Roofing Contractors Association, http://
www.nrca.net/.
Supply lines must be pressurized to design values,

and drain lines must hold standing water. Plumbing
must be designed not only to prevent initial problems,
but also to permit easy maintenance to avoid future
problems.
National Concrete Masonry Association, http://www.

ncma.org.
Brick Industry Association, http://www.bia.org.
9
Figure 1-17 was updated in April, 2014.
13
Further, plumbing should be located where:
materials that can support mold growth or change

dimension.
Leaks will be noticed quickly.

Leaking water will not wet easily damaged
materials.
Moisture Control Principle #2:

Manage Condensation
Water inside the plumbing will not freeze in cold

weather.
Limit indoor condensation and make sure

condensation dries out when and where it occurs.
Plumbing access panels allow critical maintenance

over the life of the building. They should be located
anywhere concealed valves or traps will need to
be inspected for leaks or accessed for adjustment,
maintenance or replacement.
Problem: Condensation Happens

Keep Track of the Dew Point
Both indoor air and outdoor air contains water vapor.
Wherever air goes, water vapor goes. When humid
air contacts a surface that is cold enough, the water
vapor in the air will condense onto that cold surface.
The concept of the air dew-point temperature is very
useful in understanding when, why and how much
condensation will occurand how to avoid it.
No matter the climate, avoid placing plumbing lines,

valves and drain lines in exterior walls and ceilings
that have porous insulation. If the plumbing leaks,
insulation in those walls or ceilings will get wet. Once
wet, porous insulation takes a long time to dry (or may
never dry). This situation can lead to mold growth,
corrosion of structural fasteners and needless energy
consumption. Also, in climates with cold winters, any
plumbing located in exterior walls or above ceiling
insulation is more prone to freezing and bursting.
The dew point is the temperature of the air at which

condensation occurs. The higher the dew point, the
greater the risk of condensation on cold surfaces.
The dew point depends on how much water vapor the
air contains. If the air is very dry and has few water
molecules, the dew point is low and surfaces must be
much cooler than the air for condensation to occur.
If the air is very humid and contains many water
molecules, the dew point is high and condensation
can occur on surfaces that are only a few degrees
cooler than the air.10
Avoid Enclosing Wet Materials in Building

Assemblies
Moisture-sensitive materials and equipment should
be kept dry during construction. In particular, gypsum
board, finished woodwork, cabinets and virtually all
mechanical equipment should be stored in a weatherprotected shelter or installed in their final, weatherprotected locations immediately upon delivery to the
site.
Consider hot weather condensation inside a building.

Condensation can be prevented as long as the indoor
air dew point is below the temperature of surfaces
that are likely to be cold. If the dew point rises,
moisture will begin to condense on cold surfaces. For
example, humid outdoor air leaking into a building in
Miami will have a dew point above 70F throughout
most of a typical year. During normal operation of
an air-conditioned building, there are many surfaces
that have a temperature below 70F. For example, a
supply air duct carrying air at 55F will have a surface
temperature near 55F. If the infiltrating outdoor air
has a dew point of 70F, its moisture will condense
on the outside of that cold duct, and possibly on the
supply air diffuser.
If moisture-sensitive or porous materials get wet, dry

them quickly before mold grows or physical damage
occurs. Masonry walls and concrete floor slabs, for
example, are very porous and can hold a great deal of
water. Masonry block and concrete must be thoroughly
dry before being coated or covered by water-sensitive
materials such as floor tile, carpeting, paint or paperfaced gypsum board.
Water is added to some materials during installation
(e.g., concrete, water-based coatings, wet-spray fireproofing and wet-spray insulation). These materials
must be allowed to dry naturally, or force-dried using
specialized equipment before being enclosed in
building assemblies. These intentionally wet materials
may not suffer from long exposure to moisture, but
as they dry, they will transfer their moisture to nearby
Dew Point vs. Relative Humidity

When most people think of humidity, they think of
relative humidity (RH) rather than dew point. But
Dew point can be measured by cooling a mirrored surface until condensation just begins to appear. Monitors that measure dew point directly in this way are called chilled
mirror devices.
10
14
relative humidity is just that, a relative measurement

and not one that expresses the absolute amount of
water vapor in the air. In simple terms, RH is the
amount of water vapor in the air compared to the
maximum amount the air can hold at its current
temperature.11 Change the air temperature and the
relative humidity also changes, even if the absolute
amount of water vapor in the air stays the same. So
knowing only the RH of the air is not much help in
predicting condensation.
air dew point, you will need a psychrometric chart to

find the dew point based on the temperature and RH
of the air. A psychrometric chart graphs the physical
and thermal properties of moist air.12 A simplified
psychrometric chart relating the airs temperature and
RH to its dew point at sea level is shown in Figure
1-18. With this chart and the readings from a lowcost monitor to measure air temperature and RH, one
can determine the more useful value of air dew point
in a few seconds.
Unlike RH, the dew point does not change with

air temperature. In that sense it is an absolute
measurement of the amount of water vapor in
the air. When you know the dew point of the air
and the temperature of a surface, you can predict
condensation. If the dew point is above the
temperature of the surface, water vapor will condense
onto that cold surface. If the dew point is below the
surface temperature, moisture will not condense. So
it is simple to predict condensation, as long as you
know the dew point of the air surrounding the surface.
For example, assume an instrument shows the

outdoor air is 85F and its RH is 60 percent. Plot
that point on the chart. Then, beginning at that point
move horizontally to the left until your line intersects
the saturation curve (i.e., the 100 percent RH curve
that forms the left edge of the chart). From that
intersection, read straight down to the bottom of the
chart to determine the dew point. As shown in Figure
1-18, the dew point of air at 85F and 60 percent
RH is 70F. In other words, air at those conditions
will begin to condense moisture when it contacts any
surface that has a temperature of 70F or below.
To be sure, knowing the dew point is not always easy

because many humidity instruments measure and
read only air temperature and relative humidity. So
if the instrument you are using does not display the
The psychrometric chart reveals an important dynamic

between surface temperature, dew point and RH.
Notice that if the RH is 90 percent, a surface only
Figure 1-18 A Simplified Psychrometric Chart Relates Air Temperature, RH and Dew Point.
The technically more accurate definition of relative humidity is the ratio of vapor pressure in the air sample compared to the vapor pressure of that air if it were completely
saturated at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage. But the definition provided above is sufficiently accurate, easier to understand and useful for managing moisture
in buildings.
11
The psychrometric chart is a powerful tool for understanding the water vapor characteristics of air and the effects of heating and cooling moist air. Its history and use are fully
explained in the ASHRAE publication Understanding Psychrometrics by Donald Gatley.
12
15
Figure 1-19 The Difference Between Room Air Temperature and the Dew Point as a Function of RH
has to be 3F cooler than the air for condensation to

occur. It is very likely that during normal operation in
many seasons there will be surfaces in buildings that
are 3F colder than room temperature.
adequate dehumidification capacity to remove it, in

order to keep the dew point within reasonable limits.
Inside residential buildings, people and their
activities, especially cooking and washing of floors
and clothes, are usually the leading sources of
humidity.
At high temperatures, high RH may also mean there is

a strong risk of condensation. Figure 1-19 shows the
relationship between RH and the number of degrees
cooler a surface must be for condensation to appear
when the RH is between 25 percent and 100 percent.
This graph provides a way to think about dew point
in terms of RH. At 50 percent RH, a surface must be
around 20F cooler than the room air for condensation
to occur. Under ordinary circumstances, few surfaces
in a building are 20F cooler than room air.
In humidified commercial and institutional buildings

such as hospitals, museums and swimming pool
enclosures, indoor humidity is very high by design or
necessity.
In low-rise buildings of all types, damp basements or
crawlspaces may add as much water vapor to the air
in a day as all the other internal sources combined.
Causes of Condensation in Buildings
During the cooling season, humidity loads from

outdoor air are far larger than loads generated inside
commercial and institutional buildings. The largest
sources of humidity are the ventilation air, the
makeup air that compensates for exhaust air, and the
air that infiltrates into the building through air leaks
in the enclosure. If the ventilation and makeup air is
kept dry and the building is tight so that it does not
allow much leakage, the contributions from outdoor
air will be low.
Condensation may be the result of excessively high

dew point, unusually cold surfaces, or a combination
of the two.
The indoor dew point is a balance between the
addition and subtraction of water vapor from the air. A
building has both indoor and outdoor sources that add
water vapor, and its mechanical systems must have
16
Figure 1-20 Condensation on Uninsulated Metal Framing

in a Cold Climate
Water vapor may be removed from indoor air

by dehumidification (e.g., air conditioners or
dehumidifiers) or by ventilation air when the outdoor
air is dry. Ventilating air only dehumidifies the indoors
when the outdoor air dew point is lower than the
indoor air dew point.
Exhaust air is a special case. When an exhaust fan
rids a building of highly humid air, from showers or
cooking, for example, the indoor humidity loads are
reduced. On the other hand, if the outdoor air that
replaces that exhaust air has a dew point above the
indoor dew point, the incoming outdoor air represents
a humidity load that must be removed by the
mechanical system.
Condensation Problems During Cold Weather

In cold weather, condensation is most likely to occur
on the inside of exterior walls or roof assemblies.
The temperature of sheathing and cladding on the
outside of the insulation and air barrier will be near
the temperature of the outdoor air. Indoor window
surfaces are often cooler than surrounding walls and
are typically the first sites of condensation during
cold weather. If the surface temperature of an indoor
wall is below the indoor dew point at a void in the
insulation or at an uninsulated framing member,
enough water may accumulate to support mold
growth. If there is a hole in the air barrier and the
building is under negative pressure at that location,
cold infiltrating air may bypass the insulation layer
and chill indoor surfaces to temperatures below the
dew point.
Condensation occurs on a C-channel at the top of a parapet

wall located in a cold climate. The building is humidified and
pressurized with filtered outdoor air to maintain specified interior
conditions.
it happens to be raining the day the condensation

problem is found, it might be mistaken for a rainwater
problem.
Condensation may occur within an assembly. For

example, a steel beam that passes through an exterior
wall will be much colder than the adjoining inner
surfaces of the wall because the beam conducts
heat from inside to outside hundreds of times faster
than an insulated portion of the wall. If the building
is under positive pressure, the warmer, more humid
indoor air will be forced into the enclosure through
holes in the air barrier and condensation within the
assembly may result.
Air pressure can be higher inside a building than

outside for two reasons. First, the upper floors of a
building are usually under positive pressure during
cold weather due to the stack effect. Buoyant warm
air rises from the lower to the upper floors and then
flows out near the top of the building. As a result,
cold outdoor air is pulled into the building at its
base. During cold weather, condensation usually
occurs on the upper floors. Any gaps, cracks or holes
through the upper floors of the enclosure receive a
constant flow of warm, humid air exiting the building.
Condensation occurs where the warm humid air leaves
the cold enclosure.
Condensation problems within wall or roof assemblies

are hidden and may be mistaken for rainwater
or plumbing leaks. For example, warm air from a
humidified space, such as a swimming pool area,
may leak past the air barrier and insulation layers
into an attic during freezing weather. The water vapor
in the indoor air may form frost on the bottom of
the roof deck, accumulating there until a warm day
when it melts and leaks back through the ceiling. If
The second reason air pressure can be higher inside

is that, to avoid uncomfortable drafts and freezing
pipes, the mechanical ventilation system generally
brings in more air from outdoors than is exhausted
to the outside. Condensation may occur when warm,
17
humid air is forced out of the building through cold

walls. In addition, portions of a building may be
pressurized by mechanical system fans if the supply
air side of the air distribution system has more air
than the return air side. For example, a room that has
two supply diffusers but no dedicated return will be
under positive pressure when the windows and doors
are closed. If the interior surfaces of the exterior walls
near that room have gaps, cracks or holes, humid
indoor air under positive pressure will be forced into
the cold exterior wall.
A similar dynamic occurs in below-grade walls.

Water vapor migrating into a basement from the
ground beneath may condense when it encounters
a vapor barrier on the inside of a finished
basement wall.
Solution: Control Condensation

Effective condensation control requires keeping the
dew point below the temperature of surfaces indoors
and within building cavities. The dew point can be
lowered by designing, installing and maintaining
HVAC systems to control indoor humidity in both
heating and cooling mode. Building enclosures can
be designed and constructed so surface temperatures
within the assemblies are above the dew point
regardless of season. Neither of these design elements
can succeed by itself. They must work together as a
system.
Condensation Problems During Hot Weather

Condensation can sometimes be a problem in hot
weather. Hot weather condensation is more common
in buildings equipped with air conditioning (AC)
systems that are very large and difficult to control and
in buildings located in climates that have thousands
of hours of humid weather. Six factors contribute
to problems in buildings that have air conditioning
systems:
Use airtight HVAC systems to keep indoor dew points

low. To prevent condensation on indoor surfaces
during cooling mode, keep the indoor dew point
below 55F (e.g., maximum 50 percent RH when the
indoor air temperature is 75F). This can be done by
designing air conditioning systems that dehumidify
even when there is no need for cooling, or by using
dedicated dehumidifiers to dry the ventilation air
whenever the outdoor dew point is above 55F. See
references below and in Chapter 2 for more details on
designing HVAC systems to manage indoor humidity.
1. Air conditioning chills all the indoor surfaces

some surfaces more than others.
2. When air conditioners do not run long enough
to dehumidify, they cool the air in the building
without removing moisture from the air, raising the
indoor dew point and increasing the chances of
condensation on cool surfaces.
3. Supply air ducts, diffusers and refrigerant or
chilled water lines are much colder than the room
air.
The most important job of the air conditioning system

is to remove the large and nearly continuous humidity
load from the incoming ventilation and makeup air.
After that load is removed, the much smaller water
vapor loads from indoor sources may be removed by:
4. When a buildings exhaust air exceeds the amount

of its makeup air, the building will draw in
unconditioned, moisture-laden outdoor air through
gaps, cracks and holes in the building enclosure.
That outdoor air will come into contact with
surfaces chilled by the AC systems.
Exhaust systems designed to remove water vapor

from known sources of humidity such as showers,
cooking areas and indoor pools.
5. Sun shining on wet masonry, stucco or wood will

raise the temperature of that material, evaporating
some of the stored water and driving a portion
of the evaporated water further into the assembly,
and sometimes into contact with colder indoor
surfaces.
Ventilation with outdoor air in non-air-conditioned

buildings.
Air conditioning systems equipped with dedicated
dehumidification components and controls that
activate them when the dew point rises above 55F.
6. Intentional or accidental vapor barriers on the

inside surfaces of exterior walls may cause
condensation during cooling conditions. For
example, water vapor driven in from outdoors may
condense when it encounters a vinyl wall covering
on the cool, inside surface of an exterior wall.
Design building enclosures to prevent condensation.

At minimum the exterior enclosure must:
Be made airtight by using continuous air barrier
systems around the entire enclosure. These
18
systems must greatly reduce leakage of inside air

into the exterior enclosure assemblies during cold
weather and leakage of outdoor air into the exterior
enclosure or interior wall, ceiling and floor cavities
during warm weather.13 Air sealing an enclosure
makes it easier to manage indoor-outdoor air
pressure relationships with practical airflow rates.
hospitals, knitting mills and museums], analyses

should be performed by a knowledgeable person
using one of several computer simulations such as
WUFI or hygIRC. For more information on managing
condensation in the enclosure and hygrothermal
modeling, see references in Chapter 2).
It is important to note that a layer of porous material
which can safely store moisture may be used as a
buffer to improve the condensation resistance of
an assembly. For example, a fibrous cover board
beneath a fully adhered low-slope roofing membrane
reduces the risk of condensation that can damage
the adhesive layer. A concrete masonry backup wall
behind a fluid-applied drainage plane can safely store
moisture in the event of minor seepage.
Meet minimum R-values in accordance with the

2012 International Energy Code.
Manage the flow of heat and water vapor through
all enclosure assemblies to avoid condensation on
materials inboard of the drainage plane.
Insulating materials must be used to manage heat
flow in order to keep the surface temperature of lowpermeability materials inside the enclosure above the
expected dew point. A continuous thermal barrier is
also necessary to prevent condensation on the interior
surfaces of exterior walls and ceilings during heating
conditions. The insulation layer must be continuous
to prevent condensation in low R-value components
of the enclosure (e.g., metal framing, concrete slab
edges and angle iron ledgers). The pen test can be
conducted to trace the thermal barriers continuity.
Design HVAC systems to manage air flow and control

condensation. HVAC system pressurization may be
used to manage the direction in which air flows
through an enclosure. Controlling pressure in airconditioned buildings in hot, humid climates is
crucial to controlling condensation in the enclosure.
Buildings in those climates must be positively
pressurized to prevent warm, humid outdoor air from
entering building cavities and the building itself.
To manage water vapor migration by diffusion, select

materials with appropriate water vapor permeability.
The materials in the wall or roof assembly must
be layered to keep low-perm materials above the
dew point during the heating and cooling seasons
and to allow the assembly to dry out if it gets wet.
This protection must be provided in all above- and
below-grade walls, floors, ceilings, plaza and roof
assemblies, including opaque walls and roofs, glazed
fenestration and skylights, curtain wall systems and
exterior doors.
In climates with a significant cold season, humidified

buildingssuch as swimming pools, hospitals and
museumsmust not be positively pressurized,
otherwise humid air will be forced into cold building
cavities. In cold climates, slight depressurization is a
better strategy for humidified buildings.
Moisture Control Principle #3: Use MoistureTolerent Materials
Condensation control must be provided for typical

sections and at thermal bridges. Many standard
designs in published work detail assemblies that
provide condensation control for various assemblies
in many climates. For example, the International
Building Code covers condensation control for a
variety of wall types and all North American climates.
Straube (2011) includes systematic guidance for four
fundamental wall and roof assemblies in all North
American climates, plus a discussion of underlying
moisture dynamics. (See references below and in
Chapter 2. For designs and climates not covered
in published guidance, and for buildings with high
humidity levels indoors [e.g., swimming pools,
The final moisture control principle is to use building

materials that can withstand repeated wetting in areas
that are expected to get wet. Adequate control can
be achieved by using moisture-tolerant materials and
by designing assemblies that dry quickly. Moisturetolerant materials should be used in areas that:
Will get wet by design.
Are likely to get wet by accident.
Areas that Get Wet by Design

Some locations and materials in buildings are
designed specifically to be wet from time to time.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), for example, has chosen a maximum allowable air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic feet per minute per square foot of total enclosure
area at a pressure difference of 75 Pascals when tested in accordance with the USACE test protocol. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Air Leakage Test Protocol for Building
Envelopes Version 3 May 11, 2012.
13
19
They include custodial closets, laundry rooms,

kitchens, baths, indoor pools, spas, locker rooms,
entryway floors and floors that are regularly mopped or
hosed down.
gypsum board, medium density fiberboard (MDF)

and oriented strand board (OSB). Moisture-sensitive
materials are vulnerable because they may:
Areas Likely to Get Wet by Accident
Quickly and easily absorb liquid water and, once

wet, take longer to dry than materials that are
impermeable to liquid water.
Contain nutrients that are digestible by molds,

bacteria or wood-decaying molds.
Some areas are likely to experience water leaks over

the course of time. For example, spaces that contain
plumbing equipment, such as laundry, lavatory, bath
and utility rooms, are prone to water leaks and spills.
Below-grade wall and floor assemblies are at the
bottom of the building. Water from leaks below grade,
on the surface, or above grade is likely to end up on
the lowest floor. In these areas, use moisture tolerant
materials and assemblies that dry quickly.
Have no anti-microbial characteristics.

Delaminate, crumble, dissolve or deform when wet
or while drying.
Substitutes for vulnerable materials are now
commonly available at only a modest increase in cost.
For example, mold- and moisture-resistant gypsum
board, fiber cement board tile backers and sub-floors
are available in home improvement stores in addition
to builders supply yards.
Many materials can safely get wet as long as they dry

quickly enough. Stainless steel, copper, some stones,
china and porcelain tile contain no nutrients to
support the growth of molds or bacteria, do not absorb
water and are stable when wet. These characteristics
are why these materials have long been used in
bathrooms, kitchens and entryways.
If in doubt, the moisture-resistant properties of

a building material can be determined by testing
according to ASTM D3273-00 (2005) Standard
Test Method for Resistance to Growth of Mold on
the Surface of Interior Coatings in an Environmental
Chamber. Designers can ask the manufacturer for the
results of these tests.
In areas that may get wet from time to time, it is

best to avoid building materials that have proven
to be vulnerable to moisture damage. Among these
moisture-sensitive materials are untreated paper-faced
REFERENCES
The following references are included for further
reading and guidance.
American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM

E1554-03 standard test methods for determining external air
leakage of air distribution systems by fan pressurization.
Advanced Energy. Crawl Spaces. Advanced Energy. http://www.

crawlspaces.org/. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This condensed document provides details and technical
information for designing and constructing closed, insulated
residential crawl spaces. The full research reports underlying
the crawl space recommendations can also be downloaded
from the site www.crawlspaces.org. Although the research
was conducted in North Carolina, many of the results can be
applied to other climates.)
American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM D 3273

standard test method for resistance to growth of mold on the
surface of interior coatings in an environmental chamber.
American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM E77903 standard test method for determining air leakage rate by
fan pressurization.
American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM
E1554-03 standard test methods for determining external air
Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual D, Residential

duct systems.Arlington, VA:. (This guidance for duct design
and installation is the basis for building codes in several
states and is an ANSI-approved national standard.)
American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM WK8681 new

standard test method for resistance to mold growth on interior
coated building products in an environmental chamber.
Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association.

2006.Technical standard 1 measuring air permeability of
building envelopes. Air Tightness Testing and Measurement
Association
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004.Position Document on Limiting
Indoor Mold and Dampness in Buildings. http://tinyurl.com/
ASHRAE-Mold-PD
20
Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004.Ventilation for acceptable indoor
air quality, standard 62.1-2004.Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE.
(The ASHRAE ventilation standard provides information
needed to determine ventilation rates for differing
occupancies plus a number of design operating and
maintenance requirements to ensure proper performance
of ventilation equipment. Section 6.2.8 specifically deals
with exhaust ventilation. Standard 62.1 applies to many
situations.)
exposure to known hazards. These practices also frequently

yield other benefits such as improved durability and reduced
operating costs.)
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2004. Best
Practice Guide Building Technology: Glass and Metal Curtain
Walls. C.M.H.C.
Practice Guide Building Technology: Fire and Sound Control
in Wood-Frame Multi-Family Buildings. C.M.H.C.

Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004.Ventilation and acceptable indoor
air quality in low rise residential buildings, standard 62.22004.Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE.
(This standard applies to low-rise residential buildings. Exhaust
systems are covered in portions of sections 5, 6 and 7.)

Practice Guide Building Technology: Architectural Precast
Concrete: Walls and Structure. C.M.H.C.
Practice Guide Building Technology: Brick Veneer Steel Stud.
C.M.H.C.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004. Energy standard for buildings
except low-rise residential buildings standard 90.1-2004.
Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE.
(This standard provides minimum requirements for the
energy-efficient design of all buildings, with the exception of
low-rise residential buildings.)

Practice Guide Building Technology: Brick Veneer Concrete
Masonry Unit Backing. C.M.H.C.
Practice Guide Building Technology: Flashings. C.M.H.C.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE). 2008. Design criteria for moisture
control in buildings, standard 160 P. Atlanta, GA: ANSI/
ASHRAE.

Practice Guide Building Technology: Wood Frame Envelopes.
C.M.H.C.
ANSI/AMCA. 2007.AMCA standard 500-L-07 Laboratory

methods of testing louvers for rating. AMCA.

Practice Guide Building Technology: Wood-Frame Envelopes
in the Coastal Climate of British Columbia. C.M.H.C.
Atlanta Regional Commission. 2001. Georgia Stormwater

Management Manual, Volume 2: Technical Handbook.
(Volume 2 of the Technical Handbook provides guidance on
the techniques and measures that can be implemented to
meet a set of storm water management minimum standards
for new development and redevelopment. Volume 2 is
designed to provide the site designer or engineer with
information required to effectively address and control both
water quality and quantity on a development site. This
includes guidance on better site design practices, criteria
for selection and design of structural storm water controls,
drainage system design and construction and maintenance
information.)
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. 2004

Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual, ed. Jane
A. Rothchild. Hartford: Connecticut Department of
Environmental Protection.
(This manual provides guidance on the measures necessary to
protect waters from the adverse impacts of post-construction
storm water. The guidance is applicable to new development,
redevelopment, and upgrades to existing development.
The manual focuses on site planning, source control, and
pollution prevention, and storm water treatment practices.)
Department of the Army. 1994. Site Planning and Design, TM
5-803-6.
http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/ARMYCOE/COETM/ARCHIVES/
tm_5_803_14.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This technical manual describes the site planning and
design process used to develop a project to fulfill facility
requirements and create the optimal relationship with the
natural site. The manual focuses on the site planning and
design process as it leads from program and site analysis to
the preparation of a concept site plan.)
Baker, M.C. 1972. Drainage From Roofs. Canadian Builders

Digest. 151. Ottawa.
(This digest is a general discussion of roofs and roof drainage
and highlights many roof drainage design considerations.)
Brennan, T., J.B. Cummings, and J. Lstiburek. 2002. Unplanned
Airflows and Moisture Problems. ASHRAE Journal. Nov.
2002: 44-49.
(This article reviews the moisture dynamics caused by
unplanned airflows during heating and cooling modes, and
discusses interventions that can be made to prevent or solve
the problems.)
Ferguson, B.K. 2005. Porous Pavements. Boca Raton: CRC Press

(This book provides comprehensive guidance and case
histories for design, construction and maintenance, based on
25 years of practical experience with porous pavements, their
hydrology and their relationship to storm water drainage and
surface water management for buildings, roads, parking lots
and landscape vegetation.)
Building Sciences Corporation. 2005. Read This Before You

Design, Build or Renovate.
Revised May 2005. http://www.buildingscience.com/
documents/guides-and-manuals/gm-read-this-before-youdesign-build-renovate. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This pamphlet offers guidance about remodeling practices
that foster healthy homes by reducing occupants risk of
Gatley, D.P. 2000. Dehumidification Enhancements for

100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Simplifying the decisionmaking process, Part 1. HPAC Heating/Piping/AirConditioning
Engineering Sept.: 27-32.
21
(This three-part series of articles describes the underlying
psychrometrics in ventilating buildings and provides
design guidance for several methods of enhancing the
dehumidification performance of air conditioning and
ventilation systems.)
International Code Council (ICC). 2012. 2012 International

Energy Conservation Code. ICC.
(The IECC addresses energy efficiency in homes and
buildings. IECC is the successor to the council for American
Building Code Officials [CABO] Model Energy Code [MEC].
The IECC is revised on a 3-year cycle with a supplement
issued half-way through the cycle. Revisions to the code
occur through an open, public hearing process, and each
code or supplement is denoted with the year it was adopted
[e.g., 2006 IECC].)

100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Recuperative heat exchange
is an energy-efficient way to accomplish reheat while also
reducing cooling capacity, Part 2. HPAC Heating/Piping/
AirConditioning Engineering Oct.: 51-59.
Kanare, H. 2005. Concrete Floors and Moisture. Skokie, Illinois:

Portland Cement Association.
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Attic Ventilation.
ASHRAE Journal 48: 36.
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Basements. ASHRAE
Journal 48: 24

100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Enthalpy heat exchange,
the use of desiccants, and vapor compression dehumidifiers
are cost effective ways to maintain healthy and comfortable
buildings, Part 2. HPAC Heating/Piping/AirConditioning
Engineering Nov.: 51-59.
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Drain planes. ASHRAE

Journal 48: 30
(This ASHRAE Journal article covers the underlying
principles of rainwater control in buildings, focusing on
the use of weather-resistant materials that provide shingled
drainage beneath siding materials.)
Lstiburek, Joseph 2004. Understanding Vapor Barriers. ASHRAE
Journal 46: 40
(This ASHRAE article describes water vapor dynamics in
wall sections and provides a flow-chart method of selecting
materials for the inside and outside of cavity walls that have
appropriate water vapor permeability for specific climates.
Assemblies can be designed without resorting to computer
simulation.)
Harriman, L., Brundrett, G. and Kittler, R. 2001. Humidity

Control Design Guide for Commercial and Institutional
Buildings. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. (This manual by ASHRAE
is an effort to expand the design of cooling equipment to
include dehumidification performance. Design analysis
includes peak outdoor air dew point performance as well as
peak outdoor temperature analysis.)
National Asphalt Pavement Association. Online. Internet.

Available at http://www.asphaltpavement.org/.
(The National Asphalt Pavement Association is a trade
association that provides technical, educational, and
marketing materials and information to its members, and
supplies technical information concerning paving materials.)
Henderson, H.I., D.B. Shirey, and R.A. Raustad. 2003.

Understanding the Dehumidification Performance of
Air Conditioning Equipment at Part-Load Conditions.
Presentation, CIBSE/ASHRAE Conference, Edinburgh,
Scotland. September 24-26, 2003.
(This technical paper presents analysis and data on
the degradation of dehumidification performance of air
conditioning equipment during part-load conditions. Controls
and systems that contribute to this problem are discussed.)
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB).

Odom, J.D. and DuBose, G.H. 2005. Mold and Moisture
Prevention.Washington, D.C. (This manual is the 17th
monograph in NCARBs Professional Development Program. It
describes moisture and mold problems in buildings, specific
design and construction considerations for enclosures, and
HVAC systems as they relate to moisture and mold problems.)
HygIRC (A hygrothermal modeler from the Institute for Research

in Construction in Canada http://archive.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/
eng/projects/irc/hygirc.html. Accessed November 6, 2013.
HygIRC is a sophisticated modeler that is actively supported
by the IRC. Workshops are available. Like WUFI and MOIST,
HygIRC assumes no air flow through the assembly.)
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). Building Envelope

Design Guide. http://www.wbdg.org/design/envelope.php.
Accessed November 6, 2013.
(The NIBS, under guidance from the Federal Envelope
Advisory Committee, has developed this comprehensive guide
for exterior envelope design and construction for institutional
and office buildings. Sample specifications and sections are
included.)
International Code Council (ICC). 2012. International Building

Code 2012. ICC.
(Chapter 18 provides code requirements for soils and
foundations including requirements for excavation, grading
and fill around foundations. Section 1203.3.1 contains
requirements for ventilated crawl spaces.)
Rose, W. B. 2005. Water in Buildings: An Architects Guide to

Moisture and Mold. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
(This is not a design guide, but rather a deeper look at water
and its peculiar behavior in regard to building materials,
assemblies, and whole buildings. Illustrated with specific
examples, it explains the how and why of moisture control.)
International Code Council (ICC). 2012. International Plumbing

Code 2012. ICC.
(Chapter 11 provides code requirements for storm drainage,
including roof drainage requirements. Section 312.2 to
Section 312.5 specify a gravity test of the drain and vent
side of plumbing systems.)
22
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National
Association. 1985. SMACNA Air Duct Leakage Test Manual.
Virginia. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
National Association.
(A companion to HVAC Duct Construction Standards Metal
and Flexible, this manual contains duct construction leakage
classification, expected leakage rates for sealed and unsealed
ductwork, duct leakage test procedures, recommendations on
use of leakage testing, types of test apparatus and test set-up
and sample leakage analysis.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006

Construction Site Storm Water Runoff Control. Washington,
D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
(This resource provides detailed information on constructionphase storm water management, including best management
practices.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. National
Menu of Storm Water Best Management Practices.
Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection
Agency. (This resource provides detailed information
including applicability, design criteria, limitations and
maintenance requirements on these and many other site
drainage methods.)

Association. 1993. Architectural Sheet Metal Manual
Fifth Edition. Virginia. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
Contractors National Association.
(The SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual provides
design criteria and details for roof drainage systems, gravelstop fascia, copings, flashing, building expansion, metal
roof and wall systems, louvers and screens and other metal
structures. Chapter 1 contains data, calculations, and charts
for designing roof drainage systems.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006.Porous

Pavement. Post-Construction Storm Water Management in
New Development and Redevelopment.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.
cfm?action=min_measure&min_measure_id=5. Accessed
November 6, 2013.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Managing
Storm Water to Prevent Contamination of Drinking Water.
Source Water Practices Bulletin. EPA 816-F-01-020.
Environmental Protection Agency.
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sourcewater/pubs/fs_swpp_
stormwater.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance. 2003. Spray Polyurethane

Foam for Exterior Subgrade Thermal and Moisture Protection.
Virginia: Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance.
(A technical guide to specifying closed-cell spray foam
polyurethane on the outside of basement walls as thermal
insulation and moisture protection.)
Straube, John. 2011. High Performance Building Enclosures.
Somerville, MA: Building Science Press (This book includes
the fundamentals underpinning the physics of heat, air and
moisture control in high-performance building enclosures and
practical design guidance to achieve them for a wide array of
enclosure assemblies in all North American climate zones.)
Water Management Committee of the Irrigation Association. 2010

Turf and Landscape Irrigation: Best Management Practices.
Irrigation Association.
WUFI: Hygrothermal modeling software to assess the water vapor
dynamics of wall and roof systems in numerous climates.
WUFI is available from the Fraunhofer Institute of Building
Physics http://www.hoki.ibp.fraunhofer.de/ in Germany and
Oak Ridge National Laboratory http://www.ornl.gov/sci/
btc/apps/moisture/. Accessed November 6, 2013. ORNL
conducts training for using WUFI.
Texas Water Development Board. 2005. The Texas Manual on

Rainwater Harvesting. Texas: Texas Water Development
Board. http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/innovativewater/rainwater/
docs.asp. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This manual presents a discussion on the history of rainwater
collection, harvesting system components, water quality and
treatment, system sizing and best management practices.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Alternative
Pavers (Post-Construction Storm Water Management in New
Development and Redevelopment). Washington, D.C.: United
States Environmental Protection Agency. http://cfpub1.epa.
gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_
measure&min_measure_id=5. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This resource is intended to provide guidance on the types of
practices that could be used to develop and implement storm
water management programs.)
23
The Basics of Water Behavior
Water occurs at temperatures often found in buildings

as a liquid, a gas (water vapor) and in an in-between
state (adsorbed on solid surfaces).
Water vapor migrates from one place to another in

several ways:
Water vapor in the air goes where the air goes.
This is, by far, the fastest and largest mechanism
of water vapor transport. All air, whether inside or
outside of buildings, is constantly moving from
areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
If dry air is pulled into the building from outdoors,
it will dehumidify the indoor air. If humid air is
pulled in, it will add to the humidity load that must
be removed by the mechanical system.
Liquid water moves from one place to another in

several ways:
Water runs through pipes and vessels. Water moves
from higher pressure to lower pressure in pipes and
fixtures. A leak in a pressurized pipe or tank can
release much more water than a similar leak on the
drain side of the plumbing system.
Water runs downhill. Rainwater, surface water,
spilled water, water on the drain side of plumbing
fixtures and water in condensate pans are all
affected by gravity.
Water vapor migrates through materials by

diffusion. Liquid water may not be present and
nothing may appear to be wet, but water vapor can
still slowly migrate through what appears to be solid
materials. Vapor molecules will slowly bump their
way through the spaces between molecules of the
material. The molecules are moving from an area
of higher water vapor concentration to lower water
vapor concentration. The more porous a material is,
the easier it is for water vapor to diffuse through it.
The rate water vapor diffuses through a material is
measured in perms. Higher perms mean higher
water vapor flow rates.
Water wicks upwards. Water wicks up through tiny

cracks and holes. To see wicking in action, stand
two plates of glass on edge in inch of water.
Push them together and as they get closer the
water wicks up between them. The closer together
the plates, the higher water wicks. This happens
because water molecules are attracted to the glass
and to other water molecules. What works for
cracks works for pores in materials. Stand a porous
material like paper, wood, concrete, a sponge or
gypsum board on edge in inch of water and the
water wicks up into the material. How high it goes
depends on pore size and how quickly the water
can dry out the sides to the air. Water wicks through
materials in a process called capillary action.
When water is in tiny pores, gravity is not the most
important force acting on it.
Water changes from liquid to gas (evaporation) and

from gas to liquid (condensation).
Water evaporates from liquid water on surfaces,
becoming water vapor. Most of the water vapor
that originates inside buildings is the result of
evaporation from open containers, sprays or damp
porous materials. Showers, fountains, pools, sinks,
pots on stoves, dishwashers and wash water on
floors are all sources of indoor humidity, as are
the building occupants themselves. People, plants
and animals release water vapor. In typical office
spaces, the occupants are probably the main source
of water vapor. Wet materials such as wet concrete
or exposed earth in crawl spaces or basements are
also sources of indoor humidity. The evaporation
rate depends on many factors including the
temperature of the water and the relative humidity
of the air. The warmer the water, the drier the air
next to the wet surface. The faster air blows across
a wet surface, and the larger the exposed surface
Water runs along the bottom or sides of materials.

For the same reasons that water wicks up through
porous materials, water can cling to the sides
and bottoms of materials. Water is attracted to
many materials and to itself. Water from rain or
a plumbing leak may travel many feet along the
bottom of a floor joist or roof truss before collecting
in a drop big enough to fall. When water first
condenses on a mirror or a cooling coil, it clings to
the vertical surfaces. Water does not run down until
the droplets become large enough for gravity to
overcome the intermolecular forces.
24
Water vapor is adsorbed onto surfaces. Water as a

gas moves around very freely. Water adsorbed onto
a solid surface is far less free to move around than
water vapor. In this state, it takes more energy to
break the water free than if it is a liquid or a gas.
Water molecules clinging to a solid surface are less
available for chemical or biological activity than is
liquid water.
area, the greater the evaporation rate. It takes more

energy to evaporate water from porous materials
than from impermeable materials because the water
molecules are more tightly bound by capillary forces
and it is difficult to blow dry, ventilating air through
many porous building materials.
Water vapor condenses on a surface, becoming
liquid. If surface temperatures are below the dew
point of the air next to them, water molecules in the
surrounding air will condense on the cool surfaces.
Cold water pipes, air conditioning ducts and cold
roof decks experience condensation, just like a cold
drink sweats in the humid summer air.
25
Chapter 2: Designing for Moisture Control
Introduction
Designing Effective Moisture Controls
The most common participants in the process of

designing a building are architects, engineers,
landscape architects and the clients. The design team
can also include:
Providing good moisture control in the design of a

building is largely the responsibility of the design
team. Third parties that provide construction
management or commissioning services may play
critical roles in the design and implementation of
moisture controls. A construction management service
may participate in the management of the project at
varying levels from inception, design and construction
to turnover and occupancy. The goal of construction
management ordinarily is to manage the schedule,
cost and quality to the owners satisfaction, but if a
construction manager is part of the design team, it
is crucial that the manager take on responsibility for
implementing the teams moisture control objectives.
The owner of the building, if the building is being

designed and built for a specific person or entity.
The owner can help identify how and by whom the
building will be used.
The future occupants of the building, if they are
known at the time the building is designed. They
can help set goals for durability, maintainability and
moisture protection.
Building and grounds personnel representing the
owner, who can provide years of building operation
and maintenance (O&M) experience.
Building Commissioning
The contractor that will construct the building,

if the contractor has been selected when the
design work begins.14 Experienced contractors and
subcontractors can bring the realities of managing
moisture during construction to the design of the
building.
HVAC systems have been commissioned for many

years by testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB).
However, commissioning entire buildings is a
relatively recent innovation in construction. In
1996, ASHRAE published The HVAC Commissioning
Process Guideline 1-1996, which extended the
scope of traditional TAB to include point-to-point
testing of digital controls and functional performance
testing to assess the performance of electrical and
mechanical systems that work together. Since then
this process has been extended to the electrical
systems; potable, sanitary, drainage and irrigation
systems; power production and cogeneration systems;
the building enclosure; sustainable aspects of the
project; and the entire building design process itself.
In 2005, the U.S. General Services Administration
(GSA) published The Building Commissioning Guide.
The guide provides a process for including building
commissioning in the planning, design, construction
and post-construction phases of a project. A table
in the guide summarizes commissioning activities
and recommends the commissioning agent review
the design for, among other things, the enclosures
thermal and moisture integrity and its moisture vapor
Where there is a shortage of real estate for sale

or rent, buildings are often designed and built
on speculation. In such cases, the occupants,
programs and processes that eventually will reside
in the building are known only in general terms. For
example, when planning an office building, the design
team can assume the occupants will be ordinary office
workers and the building will have no special sources
of liquid water or humidity. However, the resulting
design will not have the benefit of input from the
owner, the actual occupants or the building and
grounds staff that will have to make the building work
over the years.
Whether or not the contractor is on board during the design process, the contractor will have the important role of clarifying the design teams intentions regarding moisture
control, planning measures to control water during construction, and preparing response plans for accidental water events that occur during construction. This role is explored in
detail in Chapter 3.
14
26
control. If a commissioning agent is involved in the

design and construction of a building, many of the
quality assurance procedures related to moisture
control and associated measures could easily fall
within the agents scope. A general process for
building commissioning is presented in ASHRAE
Guideline 0-2005: The Commissioning Process
the industry-accepted commissioning guideline.
The National Institute of Building Science (NIBS)
published Guideline 3-2006: Exterior Enclosure
Technical Requirements for the Commissioning
Process, which presents a process for building
enclosure commissioning and contains many annexes
to illustrate the steps in the process. In 2012,
ASTM published E2813-12 Standard Practice for
Building Enclosure Commissioning. This standard
practice follows Guideline 3 procedures and includes
functional testing required for fundamental and
enhanced enclosure commissioning.
cooperation with the owner, contractor and third

parties:
Documents overall moisture control goals.
Plans water controls and water event responses to
be implemented during construction.
Identifies inspection, testing, commissioning and
quality-assurance activities to ensure the intended
moisture-control measures are implemented as
designed.
Establishes requirements of and responsibility for
providing, reviewing and accepting submittals, shop
drawings, proposed substitutions and scheduled
inspections.
Documents the O&M procedures required to keep
the intended moisture control measures working
throughout the buildings life.
This chapter has six subsections:
1. Site Drainage.
Who Should Read this Chapter
2. Foundations.
This chapter is for the design team members who

produce the design, bid and construction documents.
It includes a list of design elements that will
protect a building from moisture-related problems.
The design team must understand the problems
that water causes in buildings and the dynamics
of moisture sources, moisture migration and
moisture control. This knowledge must be reflected
in the design documents, building drawings and
specifications.
3. Walls.
4. Roof and Ceiling Assemblies
5. Plumbing Systems.
6. HVAC Systems.
Each subsection discusses techniques to provide
protection from moisture problems and specifies:
The issue that is being addressed.
The moisture-control goals for the issue.
Good design is a prerequisite for a building

that resists moisture problems; however, good
design alone is not enough. The design must be
implemented correctly during construction and
maintained during the buildings operation by the
owner or manager. To that end, the design team in
Guidance on implementing techniques to achieve

each moisture-control goal.
Ways to verify that the moisture-control techniques
have been included in the building design and have
been properly installed or constructed.
27
Site Drainage
Porous pavement is a permeable surface often built

with an underlying stone reservoir that temporarily
stores surface runoff before it infiltrates into the
subsoil. Porous pavements may be made using
asphalt or concrete. Medium-traffic areas are the
ideal application for porous pavement. Porous
pavement may be inappropriate in areas such as
truck loading docks and areas where there is a great
deal of commercial traffic.
Issue
Water from rain, snowmelt and irrigation systems
can infiltrate a building, damaging the structure and
its contents. Properly designed site drainage avoids
building damage and the need for potentially costly
remediation.15
Goal
Modular porous pavers are permeable surfaces

that can replace asphalt and concrete; they can
be used for driveways, parking lots and walkways.
Alternative pavers can replace impervious surfaces,
resulting in less storm water runoff.
Design the site so that water from rain, snowmelt and

landscape irrigation is prevented from entering the
building.
Guidance
The two broad categories of alternative pavers are

paving blocks and other surfaces, including gravel,
cobbles, wood, mulch, brick and natural stone.
Guidance 1: The site drainage design creates a

controlled condition to help move water away from the
building. To the extent possible, the design maintains
the rate of water-soil infiltration (i.e., the downward
entry of water into the surface of the soil) at the site
before the site was disturbed. Runoff (i.e., water that
does not infiltrate into the soil) must be managed by
other drainage methods.
Guidance 3: Use grading to slow down runoff and

achieve a more balanced infiltration rate. Topography
helps determine the amount, direction and rate
of runoff. To the extent possible, retain existing
contours so that the existing drainage patterns can
be maintained. Grading also can be used to correct
drainage problems. Where steep slopes contribute to
rapid runoff, re-grading to more moderate slopes can
reduce runoff velocity.
Guidance 2: Avoid unnecessary impervious surfaces.

Avoiding unnecessary or large impermeable surfaces
or using alternative, relatively permeable paving
materialswill allow more water to infiltrate, thus
reducing the size and cost of systems managing
runoff. Placing facilities on a site changes the sites
drainage characteristics by increasing the impervious
area, which, in turn, increases the volume of runoff
that must be managed. Where large expanses of
impervious surface are unavoidable, such as parking
lots, breaking the expanse into smaller areas or using
alternative permeable pavement techniques can help
reduce runoff.
Guidance 4: Ensure positive site drainage principles

are met, including:
Making certain water is moved away from the
building.
Ensuring water is not allowed to accidentally pond
in low areas.
Making sure the finished floor is elevated enough so
that water will not back up into the building if the
drainage systems are blocked.
Alternative paving materials such as pervious

pavement, modular porous paver systems or other
surfaces can be used to reduce runoff.
15
Figure 2-1 illustrates positive drainage principles.
This document does not address flood waters from rivers or lakes, the sea or from other extreme weather events.
28
Figure 2-1 Positive Drainage Principles
Retention or detention control methods such as wet

or dry ponds.
Guidance 5: When runoff must be controlled and

redirected away from the building, identify and design
water runoff management approaches appropriate for
the sites characteristics. Potential approaches to use
include:
yy Wet pondsstorm water ponds, wet retention

ponds and wet extended-detention pondsare
constructed basins that contain a permanent
pool of water throughout the year or at least
throughout the wet season. Ponds treat incoming
runoff by allowing particles to settle and algae
to take up nutrients. The primary removal
mechanism is settling, which occurs as runoff
resides in the pond. Pollutant uptake, particularly
of nutrients, occurs through biological activity.
Wet ponds traditionally have been widely used as
a storm water best management practice.
Infiltration control methods such as swales or

infiltration trenches.
yy A swale (i.e., a grassed channel, dry swale,
wet swale, biofilter or bioswale) is a vegetated,
open-channel management practice designed
specifically to treat and attenuate runoff for
specified water quality and volume. As water
flows along these channels, vegetation slows it to
allow sedimentation; the water filters through a
subsoil matrix or infiltrates the underlying soils or
both.
yy Dry detention pondsdry ponds, extended

detention basins, detention ponds and extended
detention pondshold runoff for some minimum
time to allow particles and associated pollutants
to settle. Unlike wet ponds, these facilities do not
have a large permanent pool of water; however,
they are often designed with small pools at the
basins inlet and outlet. Dry detention ponds
also can contribute to flood control by providing
additional flood water storage.
yy An infiltration trench (i.e., infiltration galley)

is a rock-filled trench with no outlet that
receives runoff. The runoff passes through some
combination of pretreatment measures, such as
a swale and detention basin, and into the trench.
Runoff is stored in the spaces between the stones
in the trench and from there infiltrates through
the trench bottom and into the soil. The primary
pollutant removal mechanism of this practice is
filtering through the soil.
29
Select trees, shrubs, ground cover and other

landscaping elements based on their ability to grow
well with little or no additional water. Such plants
will minimize the use of water for irrigation.
For detailed information including applicability,

design criteria, limitations and maintenance
requirements on these and many other site drainage
methods, visit EPAs storm water management
website.16
Explore the potential for capturing, diverting and

storing rainwater for landscape irrigation, drinking
and other uses. This approach can be used in all
climates. For more information, see the Texas Water
Development Board reference The Texas Manual on
Rainwater Harvesting.
Guidance 6: Landscape irrigation systems must be

designed so that they do not spray the building or
soak the soil next to the foundation. Consider hiring
a qualified irrigation designer or irrigation consultant
to design the system, keeping in mind these
considerations:
Guidance 9: Develop a construction-phase stormwater-management plan. The plan should address at a

minimum:
Spray heads and rotor heads spray water into the

air. When designing spray systems consider wind
conditions. Wind can carry airborne water beyond
the area intended to be covered, and the sprinklers
may spray the building or the soil around the
foundation.
Methods for minimizing the potential for storm

water runoff during construction.
Methods to drain storm water from the site and
away from the structure during construction.
Drip irrigation is a slow, even application of water

through plastic tubing that delivers water directly
to plants. Drip irrigation systems use less water
than spray systems; however, they still can soak the
ground around the foundation and cause moisture
problems in a building.
Methods for preventing building materials from

getting wet.
All irrigation systems, regardless of type, should be

properly controlled and monitored. Timers should be
installed to ensure the system shuts off. Water flow
meters should be installed to measure the volume
of water moving through the system. Regularly
monitored meters can be a source of information
about excessive water use due to timer problems
or system leaks. Consider installing devices such
as tensiometers or soil blocks to measure soil
moisture.
Construction-phase storm water management

supervisory roles and responsibilities.
Methods for keeping the building or portions of the

building dry during construction.17
Policies and methods for drying materials and the
building if they become wet.
For detailed information on construction-phase storm

water management, visit EPAs storm water best
management practices website.18
Guidance 10: Develop guides covering the O&M of
the storm water management system. The guides
should include:
The theory of operation of storm-water-management
systems.
Guidance 7: Ensure water draining from one building

or site does not violate the good drainage of an
adjacent building or site. This can happen when a
building is constructed close to an existing building
and dumps drainage water (e.g., roof, surface, etc.)
onto or at the existing building, overwhelming its
drainage features.
Inspection procedures.
Maintenance procedures and requirements.
For detailed information on post-construction storm
water management, visit EPAs storm water best
management practices website.19
Guidance 8: Consider green building practices that

minimize the need for irrigation or that capture
rainwater for use in irrigation.
16
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.
For some large projects, interior work may begin before the upper floors have been completed. Special rainwater-control measures are needed to protect the lower floors. See
Chapter 3 on the construction phase for more details.
17
18
19
30
Provide the construction manager and the building

owner with a list of post-construction inspection
and maintenance requirements for the site drainage
systems.
Verification of Site Drainage

If storm water from the site is to be conveyed to
a municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4),
get a list of MS4 operators requirements for the
municipality. Give the list to the construction
manager before construction begins.
Provide the construction manager with a list
of construction-phase critical details and an
inspection schedule of the site drainage system,
identifying the sequence of inspections, parties
responsible for the inspections, and required
documentation of the inspection results.
31
Foundations
Issue
control the surface flow of water, or meet a more

stringent local building code requirement. Applying
this slope to a distance of 6 to 10 feet from the
foundation generally is acceptable.
Building foundations are vulnerable to moisture

problems for a number of reasons, including:
Reduce water infiltration into the soil surrounding

the building using a barrier at or slightly beneath
the surface (e.g., a cap of silty-clay soil or
subsurface drainage landscape membrane). Care
must be taken to prevent the roots of plants in this
zone from penetrating the barrier.
Water from rain and from plumbing leaks is drawn

by gravity to foundations, which are exposed to
surface water, rain-soaked soil and, possibly, high
water tables.
Water may condense on foundation materials during
warm weather because the materials are cooler than
the outdoor air.
Design the foundation and surrounding grade

so there is a minimum of 8 inches of exposed
foundation after the final grading.
Crawl spaces and basements are holes in the

ground and have more extensive contact with soil
than slab-on-grade foundations.
Guidance 2: Design below-grade drainage systems

to divert water away from the foundation and specify
capillary breaks to keep water from wicking through
the foundation to moisture-sensitive materials (e.g.,
wooden framing and paper-covered gypsum board).
Many moisture problems can be avoided by properly

designing the foundation. Moisture problems
associated with improperly designed foundations
can be difficult and expensive to identify and
fix, can create the potential for health problems
resulting from mold growth, and can be a liability
for building owners.
Slab-On-Grade Liquid Water Control (See Figure 2-2)

Below-grade perimeter drainage is not required
for concrete slab-on-grade foundations when the
surrounding finish grade is sloped as specified in
Guidance 1, the slab is elevated at least 8 inches
above finished grade, and the design includes
appropriate capillary breaks. Incorporate a capillary
break between:
Goals
Foundation Design Goal 1: Design the foundation to
prevent rainwater and groundwater incursions.
Foundation Design Goal 2: Avoid condensation on
slab-on-grade foundations, in crawl spaces and in
basement foundations.
The foundation and the above-grade wall (e.g., a

layer of polyethylene foam sill seal, metal or rubber
flashing, or a damp-proof masonry course between
the concrete foundation and the wood or steel
framed walls or the concrete or masonry walls).
Guidance
The earth and the floor slab (e.g., a layer of

coarse aggregate with no fines, a plastic or rubber
membrane, or a layer of plastic foam insulation
placed beneath the slab). NOTE: While coarse
stone will provide a capillary break, a vapor barrier
directly beneath the slab is required to manage
water vapor migration.
Foundation Design Goal 1: Design the foundation to

prevent rainwater and groundwater incursions.
Guidance 1: Plan the surrounding slope to divert
water away from the building. This guidance applies
to slab-on-grade foundations, crawl spaces and
basements.
The earth and below-grade portion of the perimeter

stem wall or thickened edge slab (e.g., damp-proof
coating or a water-proof membrane placed on the
thickened edge slab or stem wall).
Specify a 5 percent6 inches per 10 feetslope

to the finish grade away from the foundation to
32
Figure 2-2 Illustration of Ground Water Control for Slab Foundations
If there is a joint between the slabs perimeter edge

and a stem wall, a capillary break may be needed
between the edge of the slab and the perimeter wall
to prevent water wicking from the perimeter wall into
the slab.
footing drain pipe surrounded by coarse aggregate

with no fines and filter fabric, drained to a preferred
disposal option such as daylight or a sump pump).
Locate the top of the pipe at or below the bottom
of the finished slab regardless of the location of the
pipe with respect to the footing.
If the roof slopes to eaves without gutters, protect the

bottom of the above-grade portion of the wall against
rain splash (e.g., raise the foundation wall and slab
out of the ground 18 inches or more, or construct the
wall with robust drainage and drain plane protection).
Specify filter fabric to prevent fine soils from

clogging the curtain drain and the footing drain
system.
Incorporate a capillary break between:
yy The top of the foundation wall and the first-floor
framing system (e.g., a layer of polystyrene sill
seal, metal or rubber flashing, or a masonry
damp-proof course between the concrete
foundation and the wood, steel, or concrete floor
structure).
Crawl Space and Basement Liquid Water Control

(See Figures 2-3 and 2-4)
Design the basement or crawlspace so that the
interior floor grade is above the 100-year flood level
and the local water table.
yy The earth and the basement floor slab (e.g., a

layer of coarse aggregate with no fines, a plastic
or rubber membrane, or a layer of styrene foam
insulation placed beneath the slab).
Specify a curtain of free-draining material (e.g.,

sand and gravel, coarse aggregate with no fines, or
a synthetic drainage mat) around the outside of the
foundation between the unexcavated earth and the
basement wall.
yy The free-draining perimeter fill and the belowgrade portion of the basement wall (e.g., a dampproof coating or a water-proof membrane placed
on the outside of the basement wall).
Specify a drainage collection and disposal system

to be located below the top of the footing or the
bottom of the slab floor (e.g., perforated exterior
33
Provide a vapor retarder sheet directly under the

concrete floor slab to prevent water vapor infiltration
through the floor system. Vapor retarders should
meet requirements of ASTM specification E 1745
Class A, B or C.
NOTE: A plastic or elastomeric membrane can

be used in place of a concrete slab to form a
capillary break and prevent evaporation from
the soil into the crawl space. A concrete slab
has the advantages of being more durable and
of blocking the entry of burrowing rodents.
Membranes are less expensive and easier to
install.
Mechanical equipment can be located in basements

that have insulated walls. Specify air-sealing details
to provide a continuous air barrier from the abovegrade wall down the foundation wall and ending in
the center of the basement floor. Use the pen test
(See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the air
barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the foundation is a
part of the whole building air barrier system.
Design a capillary break between the top of the

footings and foundation walls (e.g., painted-on
coating).
Specify a drain in the foundation floor that leads to
an approved disposal site.
Specify a whole building air leakage rate when

tested at 75 Pascal pressure difference in
accordance with ASTM E779-10 Standard Test
Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by
Fan Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007)
Standard Test Methods for Determining Airtightness
of Buildings Using an Orifice Blower Door. For
example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers now
requires a maximum air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic
feet per minute at 75 Pascal pressure difference.
Include in the plan:

yy Assumptions about maximum rainfall or
snowmelt.
yy Drainage surface areas including shapes, slopes,
superstructures or other obstructions.
yy Estimated water flows.
yy The location and capacities of all sub-grade
drainage features (e.g., drain lines, discharge
locations, man-holes, access pits).
When insulating on the outside of foundation walls:

yy Specify insulating materials that can tolerate
exposure to the earth. Extruded styrene and
high-density expanded styrene foam boards,
closed-cell spray polyurethane foam insulation,
and fiberglass or mineral wool insulating drainage
panels have been successfully used to insulate
outside surfaces of foundation walls.
Foundation Design Goal 2: Avoid condensation on

slab-on-grade foundations, in crawl spaces or in
basement foundations.
Slab-on-Grade Condensation
yy Extend the insulation from the top of the footing

to the top of the sub-floor.
Insulate slab-on-grade foundations (e.g., install

extruded styrene foam board beneath the slab) to
keep the floor from sweating during warm, humid
weather.
yy Specify protective covering for the above-grade

portions of exterior insulation (e.g., stucco on
stainless steel lath).
Provide perimeter and sub-slab insulation to meet

the International Energy Conservation Code.
When insulating on the inside of foundation walls:
Provide a vapor retarder sheet directly under the

concrete floor slab to prevent water vapor from
infiltrating the floor system. Vapor retarders should
meet the requirements of ASTM specification E
1745 Class A, B or C.
yy Specify a layer of foam board or closed-cell spray

polyurethane foam insulation against the interior
side of the basement wall to keep warm humid
air away from the cool foundation.
yy Specify an insulating value for the foam layer
high enough to meet the ASHRAE Standard 90.1
requirements, or specify a combination of foam
insulation and, on the foundation wall, moisturetolerant insulation in the wall cavity (e.g.,
fiberglass or mineral wool). The combination of
foam and fiberglass insulation meets the required
R-value, prevents condensation and allows the
assembly to dry to the interior (See Figure 2-3).
Basement Condensation Control (See Figure 2-3)

Specify insulation for the above- and below-grade
basement walls to meet the ASHRAE Standard
90.1 requirements. NOTE: Do not insulate
basement ceilings.
34
Figure 2-3 Illustration of Basement Foundation Showing Drainage and Damp Proofing Only
yy Specify appropriate fire protection for the interior

insulation system (e.g., fire-rated gypsum board).
yy Use air conditioning or dehumidifiers to reduce

basement humidity during warm, humid seasons.
yy Design the entire system so that wooden and

paper-based materials do not touch concrete
(e.g., isolate them with a spacer, such as closedcell foam board, spray polyurethane foam or
polyethylene foam, which provides a capillary
break).
Crawl Space Condensation Control

Crawl space foundations may be vented to the
outdoors or air sealed.
The specifications for non-vented crawl spaces are
the same as for basements, with one exception:
a plastic or elastomeric membrane can be used
instead of a concrete slab to form a capillary
break and prevent evaporation from the soil into
the crawl space. Concrete slabs are more durable,
provide a solid floor for the contractor to work
from, and block the entry of burrowing rodents;
however, membranes are less expensive and easier
to install. Sealed crawlspaces must be ventilated
in accordance with International Building Code
1203.3.22012 (See Figure 2-4).
yy Do not use any materials inboard of the

insulating layer that have a permeability rating
of less than two perms. Materials that have a
perm value of one by the dry cup method and
a perm value higher than two by the wet cup
method may be used. For example, do not use
vapor-impermeable vinyl wallpaper on insulated
basement walls.
yy Provide details showing how the insulation
layer on the inside of the foundation provides
continuity with the upper floor wall insulation.
35
For vented crawl spaces:
Standard Test Methods for Determining

Airtightness of Buildings Using an Orifice Blower
Door. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers requires a maximum air leakage rate of
0.25 cubic feet per minute at 75 Pascal pressure
difference.
yy Specify one or more layers of insulation in the

floor system between the crawl space and the
first floor to achieve the insulation levels required
by ASHRAE Standard 90.1. NOTE: Mechanical
equipment cannot be located in vented
crawlspaces. Specify air-sealing details to provide
a continuous air barrier from the above-grade wall
across the floor between the crawl space and the
first floor. Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to
trace the continuity of the air barrier. NOTE: The
air barrier for the foundation is part of the whole
building air barrier system.
yy A plastic or elastomeric membrane can be used

instead of a concrete slab to form a capillary
break and prevent evaporation from the soil
into the crawl space. Concrete slabs are more
durable, provide a solid floor for the contractor
to work from, and block the entry of burrowing
rodents; however, membranes are less expensive
and easier to install.
yy Specify a whole building air leakage rate when

Methods for Determining Air Leakage Rate by
Fan Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007)
yy Provide screened vents to meet the International

Building Code requirements for ventilated crawl
spaces (Section 1203.3.1).
Figure 2-4 Components of an Unvented Crawl Space Foundation
Source: Conditioned Crawlspace Performance, Construction and Codes, Building Science Corporation (http://www.buildingscience.com/
documents/bareports/ba-0401-conditioned-crawlspace-construction-performance-and-codes). Accessed November 6, 2013.
36
Verification of Foundation Design
dimensional drawings where three or more elements

of the air barrier, insulation layer and water vapor
control intersect.
Write a description detailing how the foundation

system manages rain and surface and sub-surface
water. This typically would be located in the basisof-design document.
Specify a fan pressurization test in design

specification documents to assess the entire
building enclosure using ASTM E779-10 Standard
Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by
Fan Pressurization. Or ASTM E1827-96(2007)
Standard Test Methods for Determining Airtightness
of Buildings Using an Orifice Blower Door.
Provide details of sub-surface drainage systems in

construction documents.
Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify
elements of the drainage system and the continuity
of the capillary break from the intersection of
the foundation with the first floor walls, around
the foundation wall footing, to the center of the
foundation.
yy Specify when the test should be conducted in

relation to the completeness of the air barrier
system.
yy Identify the appropriate testing party.
Provide two-dimensional sectional drawings where

two materials that form the rainwater control come
together and three-dimensional drawings where
three or more elements of the rain protection
system come together.
yy Specify how the results should be documented,

judged and accepted or rejected.
yy Specify the remedies if the building fails the test.
Specify quality assurance programs for the
installation of the hygrothermal control elements of
the enclosure. Provide a list of critical details and
an inspection schedule for the air barrier, insulation
layer and water-vapor-control elements of the
foundation. Specify the sequence of inspections,
the parties responsible for the inspections and the
required documentation of the inspection results.
Provide a list of critical details and an inspection

schedule for the drainage and capillary break
elements of the foundation that identifies the
sequence of inspections, the parties responsible for
the inspections, and the required documentation of
the inspection results.
Provide a list of inspection and maintenance
requirements for the foundation drainage system.
Write a description detailing how the foundation
system manages water vapor during cooling and
heating modes, as applicable. Prepare drawings
and specifications that detail water vapor migration
control and the permeability and insulating values
for all materials.

requirements for the interior finishes if they are
critical to water vapor control. For example, if water
vapor control depends on a vapor-permeable interior
finish, low-perm vinyl wall coverings and paints
should be avoided during renovations. Pictures,
blackboards and mirrors should be spaced off the
wall.
Provide two-dimensional sections where two

materials that form the air barrier, insulation layer
and water vapor control intersect. Provide three-
Specify, in the control guide for the building

operators, the maximum dew point levels allowed in
the interior of basements and crawlspaces.
37
Walls
Issue
beneath the drain plane material, across the top

of the trim, and out past the siding and trim (See
Figures 2-6 and 2-7). The bottom must have a
pan flashing with end dams and a back dam. Side
flashing must cover the rough opening and extend
beneath the drain plane on the wall and flash down
over the end dams on the sill flashing.
Moisture control is an important aspect of designing

an integrated building enclosure. Failing to properly
design walls to manage moisture and failing to
integrate moisture management system features
with those of other building enclosure components,
such as the roof and foundation, can lead to serious
moisture-related damage. Correcting problems
resulting from poorly designed walls can necessitate
the replacement of multiple building components
leading to high repair costs.
Among the most common problem areas for

flashings in walls are:
yy Windows.
yy Doors and trim.
yy Outdoor air intakes, exhaust outlets and fans.
Goals
yy Ducts, pipes and electric conduit entries and

exits.
Wall Design Goal 1: Design exterior walls to manage

rainwater.
yy Through-wall flashings where a horizontal

element (e.g., roof) intersects the wall of a taller
portion of the building. Similar locations include
exterior stairway-wall intersections as well as
relieving angles, awning decks, and balcony
and plaza intersections with the wall of a taller
section of building (See Figure 2-8.)
Wall Design Goal 2: Design exterior walls to prevent

condensation of water vapor on cool surfaces within
the dry portion of the exterior wall assembly, on the
inner surface of the exterior walls or within the interior
wall, floor or ceiling cavities.
Wall Design Goal 2: Design exterior walls to prevent

condensation of water vapor on cool surfaces within
the dry portion of the exterior wall assembly, on the
inner surface of the exterior walls or within the interior
wall, floor or ceiling cavities.
Guidance
Wall Design Goal 1: Design exterior walls to manage
rainwater.
Guidance 1: Design walls to protect their inner
portions from direct rain and seepage through the
cladding.
Guidance 1: Design walls to be sufficiently airtight to

limit water vapor migration by air flow.
Design walls that have rainwater protection behind

the cladding in the form of air gaps and barrier
materials (i.e., the drain plane) to keep water from
wicking further into the wall.
Specify air-sealing details to provide a continuous air

barrier from the roof-wall intersection to the abovegrade wall-foundation intersection. Use the pen test
(See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the air
barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the walls is part
of the whole building air barrier system. Specify a
whole building air leakage rate when tested at 75
Pascal pressure difference in accordance with ASTM
E779-10 Standard Test Methods for Determining Air
Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization or ASTM E182796(2007) Standard Test Methods for Determining
Door. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Specify in the design drawings and specifications

the flashing of penetrationsincluding windows,
doors and roof-wall intersectionsto a designated
drain plane.
Provide sections and specifications detailing
flashing for all wall penetrations. Flashing for larger
penetrations (e.g., windows, doors and exhaust
and intake grilles) must be carefully designed and
detailed. At the top, flashing must extend from
38
requires a maximum air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic

feet per minute per square foot of air barrier surface
when measured at a pressure difference of 75 Pascals
between indoors and outdoors. The air barrier surface
area includes all six surfaces of the barrier: top,
bottom and all four sides.
continuity of the air barrier and the insulating layers

at penetrations and intersections.
Option 1: Follow published regulation or guidance on
combining insulation, air barriers and the permeability
of materials for walls to control condensation (See
references Chapter 2). Examples include:
Select a layer of material in the wall assembly to

form the basis of the air barrier systems. Interior
gypsum board, foam board or spray foam insulation,
concrete, and oriented strand board (OSB) or
plywood deck are good choices for the basis of
air barrier systems in wall assemblies. Include
specifications for all accessory materials required to
provide durable continuity of the air barrier.
The 2012 International Building Code and

International Residential Code.
High Performance Building Enclosures by
Straube (2011) provides systematic guidance for
condensation control in four types of roof and wall
assemblies for all North American climates.
Understanding Vapor Barriers by Lstiburek
(ASHRAE August 2004) applies to all climate zones
(See Figures 2-9 through 2-12).
Provide sections and specifications detailing

methods for providing air barrier continuity,
especially at penetrations, corners and edges:
The Building Envelope Design Guide on the Whole

Building Design Guide website includes brick and
stone veneer and curtain wall systems.
yy At penetrations through the air barrier layer (e.g.,

rough openings for windows, doors, pipes, shafts
and conduits).
The Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation

Best Practice Guides apply to climate zones 6 and 7.
yy At transitions between one air barrier material

and another (e.g., wall-ceiling intersections and
wall-floor intersections).
Option 2: Model the performance of proposed wall

assemblies using a hygrothermal software program
(e.g., WUFI or hygIRC). Use design conditions from
ASHRAE Standard 160P for modeling. Note, however,
that the results of computer simulations should
be interpreted cautiously and in light of real-world
construction practices. For example, most computer
models assume that walls are airtight and that no
water vapor is transported through them by airflow.
Therefore, for the model to be valid, the assembly
must be designed, installed and tested to meet air
tightness standards. Also, the performance of any
assembly depends on its orientation in regard to solar
load and wind direction during heavy rains. Some of
the programs can model the dynamic of rainwater
absorbed by porous claddings and vaporized into the
assembly by the sun, but others cannot.
yy Where the air barrier must pass around structural

elements (e.g., heavy steel construction must
be carefully detailed where the exterior walls
encounter vertical steel posts or horizontal
beams).
Provide sections highlighting the air barrier and
connecting materials and methods from the center
of the roof to the center of the foundation for each
section.
Guidance 2: Meet or exceed the R-value for walls
as described in the 2012 International Energy
Conservation Code.
Provide two-dimensional sections detailing methods
for providing insulation layer continuity:
yy At windows, doors, columns, conduits and other
penetrations through the air barrier layer.
Guidance 4: Design brick and masonry-clad walls to

prevent the rain-sun-driven water vapor dynamic.
yy At transitions between one insulating material

and another (e.g., where roof insulation meets
wall insulation).
If the cladding is brick or concrete masonry units

and the wall is insulated with high-permeability
(perm >10) porous insulation and located in
climate zones 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (See Figure 2-5):
yy At thermal bridges in the insulation layer (e.g.,

where steel members penetrate the insulation
layers).
yy Back-vent the cladding.

yy Use low-permeability (perm <1) insulating
sheathing and interior finishes with perm >2.
Guidance 3: Design walls to manage heat flow and

vapor diffusion to avoid condensation in the wall
assembly and to dry toward the interior, exterior
or both. Designers may provide details about the
yy In climate zones 1, 2 and 3, design the building

to operate at positive pressure.
39
Figure 2-5 The International Energy Code Climate Zone Map Developed by the U.S. Department of Energy
Verification of Wall Design
and tests, the parties responsible for them and

the required documentation of the results. Parties
involved in QA may include subcontractors, general
contractors, commissioning agents and independent
third-party inspection or testing providers. Provide a
list of inspection and maintenance requirements for
the exterior cladding, flashings and drain plane.
Write a description detailing how the wall system

manages rain. Include this description in the basisof-design document.
Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify the
continuity of the drain plane from the intersection
with the roof, through flashings, and around
penetrations to the foundation.
Use wall assemblies detailed in guidance or

journals that have been designed to manage
water vapor and condensation for the climate of
interest. Perform hygrothermal modeling when
no documentation through previous testing or
modeling of a wall assembly in a particular climate
is available.

materials that form the rainwater control come
three or more elements of the rain protection
come together. Sections must show continuity of
capillary breaks and flashing around penetrations
and interface with air barrier and insulation systems
(See Figure 2-8).
Write a description detailing how the wall system

manages water vapor during cooling and heating
modes, as applicable. Prepare drawings and
specifications that detail water vapor migration
control and the permeability and insulating values
of all materials.
Specify a quality assurance (QA) program for

installation of the rainwater protection systems.
At a minimum, provide a list of critical details, an
inspection schedule and quality assurance tests of
the drainage and capillary break elements of the
wall systems. Specify the sequence of inspections
Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify

the continuity of the insulation layers and air
barriers from the intersection with the roof,
40

through flashings, and around penetrations to the

foundation.
materials that form the insulation layers and air
barrier come together and three-dimensional
drawings where three or more elements of the
insulation and air barrier come together.

Provide a list of critical details, an inspection
schedule and QA tests for the air barrier, insulation
and vapor control elements of the walls. Specify
the sequence of inspections and tests, the parties
responsible for them, and required documentation
of the results.
Specify in the design specification documents a

fan pressurization test to assess the entire building
enclosure in accordance with ASTM E779-10
Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage
Rate by Fan Pressurization, ASTM E182796(2007)Standard Test Methods for Determining
Door or the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Air
Leakage Test Protocol for Building Envelopes.
Specify QA programs for the installation of the

hygrothermal control elements of the enclosure.
critical to water vapor control (e.g., if water vapor
control depends on a vapor-permeable interior
finish, then low-perm vinyl wall-coverings and
paints should be avoided during renovations;
pictures, blackboards and mirrors should be spaced
off the wall).
yy Specify the target airtightness level.

system.
Specify maximum dew points to be maintained in

conditioned spaces during the heating and cooling
seasons.
Figure 2-6 Section Illustrating Window Flashing and Jamb Flashing for Stone Veneer Wall
41
Figure 2-7 Section Illustrating Pan Sill Flashing and Jamb Flashing For Brick Veneer Wall
Figure 2-8 Detail Illustrating Through Flashing Where a Lower Roof Intersects a Wall
42
Figure 2-9 Concrete Block with Interior Rigid Insulation and Stucco
Figure 2-10 Concrete Block with Interior Rigid Insulation Frame Wall with Cavity Insulation and Stucco
43
Figure 2-11 Frame Wall with Exterior Rigid Insulation with Cavity Insulation and Brick or Stone Veneer
Figure 2-12 Precast Concrete with Interior Spray-Applied Foam Insulation
44
Roof and Ceiling Assemblies
Issue
Slopes and Typical Roof Coverings
Improper detailing of the roof and ceiling assemblies

may result in unwanted water intrusions or
condensation problems that can lead to damage to
the building and its contents. Failure to properly
design the roof can result in more frequent and costly
roof maintenance or repairs and a shorter building
lifespan. In roof-and-ceiling assemblies, the rain
water control portion of the roofing system may be
separated from insulation and air barrier layers by
a vented attic space. In this case, rainwater control
continuity is traced through the roofing system,
while air barrier and insulation continuity may be
traced at ceiling level. In this section, the term roof
assembly refers to the entire assembly that provides
rain protection, thermal insulation, air barriers and
condensation control.

Low-slope roof coverings:

yy Built-up roofs.
yy Modified bitumen.
yy Single-ply.
yy Sprayed polyurethane foam.
yy Metal panels.
Steep-slope roof coverings:
yy Metal panels and shingles.
yy Asphalt shingles.
yy Slate.
yy Tile.
to be safe. Slightly higher slopes can be tolerated for
limited-access roofs where mechanical equipment
that requires routine inspection and servicing is
located, but the slope of these roofs still must be
low enough to allow safe walking. Higher roof pitch
may be selected for visual appeal, consistency with
surrounding buildings or for the ability to shed snow
or rain. Roofing materials selected for appearance or
performance may have minimum slope requirements.
For example, slate roofs should not be less than or
equal to a 3-in-12 pitch (3:12), while some low-slope
roof membranes have been used on essentially flat
roofs. For these materials, this guidance requires at
least a -in-12 pitch (:12) to promote positive
drainage in the face of deflection and construction
tolerances. Even flat roofs should be sloped.
Goals
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 1: The roof
collects and disposes of rainwater.
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 2: Roof
assemblies are designed to prevent condensation of
water vapor on cool surfaces within the dry portion
of the roof assembly, on the interior surface of the
exterior roof assembly or within the interior wall, floor
or ceiling cavities.
design considers maintenance for moisture control.
Use roofing materials that are appropriate for the

pitch. Select roofing material in accordance with
the requirements of the Whole Building Design
Guide for low-sloped and steep-sloped roofs.
NOTE: Low-sloped roofs are defined as roofs with
a slope less than or equal to 3:12 (25 percent).
However, with the exception of metal roofs, most
low-slope roofs must have a minimum slope of
:12 (2 percent). Steep-slope roofs are defined
as roofs whose slope is greater than 25 percent.
Some materials can be used on both low and steep
slopes, while others are limited to either low or
steep slopes.
Guidance
collects and disposes of rainwater.
Guidance 1: Slope the roof to drain rainwater toward
collection and disposal sites.
Determine roof slope, or pitch, based on ordinary
use and design requirements. For example, for safety
purposes a roof that serves as a plaza, garden area,
or other social space must have a slope low enough
45
Design site water collection and disposal systems to

provide positive roof drainage where:
Leaders may be placed either above or below

ground.
yy All loading deflections of the roof deck are

considered.
For below-ground or above-ground leaders, use

materials conforming to the standards listed in
the IPC. Ensure that seams and joints in leaders
are watertight to prevent water from escaping next
to the foundation. In order to prevent root growth
within below-ground leaders, ensure that the
leaders are not perforated.
yy Local rainfall rates are considered.

yy The roofing manufacturers drain placement
requirements are followed.
yy Roof drainage within a maximum of 48 hours
after precipitation is ensured.
If above-grade leaders are used, provide protection

from accidental damage or encroachment.
Guidance 2: Design the roof drainage system with

sufficient runoff-handling capacity.
Direct all leaders to code-approved disposal,

typically daylight, drywells, swales or ponds. But in
buildings making efforts to reduce rainwater runoff,
rainwater may be collected for use in building
operations. Proper disposal prevents potentially
contaminated storm water from adversely affecting
water quality.
The amount of water to be handled depends on

the area and slope of the roof and the intensity of
rainfall at the building site. Chapter 11 of the 2003
International Plumbing Code (IPC), Storm Drainage,
requires that the size of vertical conductors and
leaders, building storm drains, building storm sewers,
and any horizontal branches of such drains or sewers
be based on the 100-year hourly rainfall rate. Use
figures presented in that chapter or rainfall rates
derived from approved local weather data.
In climates with significant snowfall, design the

roof assembly to avoid ice dams on roofs that drain
to external gutter systems. See Roof and Ceiling
Assembly Design Goal 4 guidance.
Internal Roof Drainage Systems
The buildings design, appearance and location

influence the type of roof drainage system. Designers
may opt to use external drainage systems, internal
drainage systems or both.
Internal roof drainage systems consist of drains on the

roof surface connected to down pipes running through
the buildings interior and leading to storm sewers or
other discharge points. Internal roof drainage systems
are the most practical solution for large, low-slope
roofs. They are resistant to ice dam problems on lowslope roofs in areas of significant snowfall because
the drains are warmed by the down pipes passing
through the building. Internal drainage systems are
seldom used on high-slope roofs (greater than 3:12).
Figure 2-13 illustrates interior drain placement for a
low-slope roofing system.
External Gutter and Downspout Drainage Systems

Design external gutter and downspout roof drainage
systems in accordance with Chapter 1 (Roof Drainage
Systems) of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
Contractors National Association, Inc. (SMACNA)
Architectural Sheet Metal Manual. The SMACNA
manual provides guidance for sizing drainage
systems for 10-year and 100-year storms. Compare
net drainage capacity of design with local code
requirements.
Size and locate drains to remove maximum

rainwater and snowmelt flows effectively. Refer to
IPC Chapter 11, Storm Drainage.
Size gutters and downspouts to effectively drain

maximum runoff by determining the amount of
water the drainage system must handle given the
area of the roof to be drained, its pitch, and the
rainfall intensity. For specific information, see the
SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual or the
IPC requirements referenced in this section.
Ensure that features such as superstructures and

roof-mounted HVAC units do not obstruct the flow
of water from the roof to the drain.
Equip roof drains with strainers or other devices to
prevent leaves and other debris from clogging the
drain or the down pipe.
Locate drains at the center of bays between
columns so that any structural deflection will
produce slopes to the drain. Provide allowance in
the leader connection for any vertical movement
resulting from the structural deflection.
Connect all downspouts to sloped leaders, with a

5 percent6 inches per 10 feetminimum slope
that extends at least 10 feet from the foundation or
that meets more stringent local code requirements.
46
Figure 2-13 Plan Drawing Illustrating Interior Drain Location and Roofing Slope for a Low-Slope System
Design all roofs with at least a :12 pitch

to overcome low spots caused by expected
roof member deflection or construction within
tolerances.
Guidance 3: Design penetrations parapets and

roof and wall intersections to prevent the entry of
rainwater. Figures 2-14, 2-15 and 2-16 illustrate
rainwater control details for a gooseneck vent
penetrating a low-slope roof and for a low-slope roof
intersecting a parapet wall.
Locate down pipes in interior chases. Down pipes in

chases along exterior walls are more vulnerable to
condensation.
Drainage layers must maintain integrity at joints

and penetrations, where the enclosure is the most
susceptible to moisture problems. See Table 2-1 for
a list of penetrations commonly found in roofs and
for guidance on how to maintain integrity at those
penetrations.
Allow easy access to down pipes for periodic

inspection and repair by providing access panels or
utility closets.
For parapets or other architectural protrusions
above the roofline, provide a secondary method
for draining rainwater if the primary roof drainage
system does not function. Two methods are often
used:
yy The installation of scuppers through the parapet.
yy The installation of an additional system of roof
drains and down pipes.
47
Figure 2-14 Three-Dimensional Drawing Detailing Rainwater Control Continuity at Intersection of Goose Neck Vent,
Flashing and Roofing Membrane
Table 2-1 Maintaining the Integrity of Drainage Layers at Joints and Penetrations
NOTE: Continuity of the air barrier and insulation layer must also be maintained at these locations.
Common Roof Penetrations
Ways to Maintain Integrity of Rainwater Protection
Joints between roofing materials
Provide continuity by shingling or sealing
Roof edges
Provide capillary breaks by using overhangs, copings and drip edges
Joints between the intersection

of walls and roofs
Provide continuity by using flashing where a lower story roof intersects a

wall of a higher level and where the roof meets the wall of a dormer
Skylights and roof hatches
Provide continuity by using flashing, curbs and counter-flashing
Chimneys
Provide continuity by using flashing, crickets and counter-flashing
Air handlers and exhaust fans
Provide continuity by using flashing, curbs and counter-flashing
Outdoor air intakes and passive

relief vents
Provide continuity by using flashing and counter-flashing
Plumbing vents
Provide continuity by using flashing and counter-flashing
48
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 2: Design

roof assemblies to prevent condensation of water
vapor on cool surfaces within the dry portion of the
roof assembly, on the interior surface of the exterior
roof assembly or within interior wall, floor or ceiling
cavities.
Provide two-dimensional sections highlighting the

air barrier and connecting materials and methods
for each section.
Guidance 1: Design the roof and ceiling assembly to

be sufficiently airtight to limit water vapor migration
and heat transfer by air flow.

for providing insulation layer continuity:
Guidance 2: Select the overall insulation R-value to

meet or exceed ASHRAE 90.1 or International Energy
Conservation Code requirements.
yy At pipes, shafts, skylight vaults, light fixtures,

conduits and other penetrations through the air
barrier layer (See Table 2-1).
Specify air-sealing details to provide a continuous

air barrier from the center of the roof-and-ceiling
assembly to the roof-wall intersection. Use the pen
test (See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the
air barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the roof is part
of the whole building air barrier system.
yy At transitions between one insulating material

and another (e.g., where roof insulation meets
wall insulation).
yy At thermal bridges in the insulation layer (e.g.,
where steel members penetrate the insulation
layers).
Specify a whole building air leakage rate when

Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan
Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007) Standard
Test Methods for Determining Airtightness of
Buildings Using an Orifice Blower Door or the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Air Leakage Test Protocol
for Building Envelopes. For example, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers requires a maximum air leakage
rate of 0.25 cubic feet per minute per square
foot of air barrier surface (6 sides) at a pressure
difference of 75 Pascals.
Guidance 3: Collect the air barrier, the insulation

layer and the materials with the lowest water
vapor permeability (<2 perms) into an assembly of
consecutive, touching layers. NOTE: This does not
include the roofing or roof sheathing. Roofing and
sheathing may be in contact with these layersnonvented roof assemblyor separated by a space that
vents to the outdoorsvented roof assembly. Figures
2-17 and 2-18 illustrate condensation control in two
non-vented low-slope roof systems.
Use a layer of material in the roof or ceiling

assembly as the basis of the air barrier systems:
Step 1: Determine whether to use a vented or nonvented roofing system based on climatic and spaceuse considerations.
yy Interior gypsum board, foam board or spray

foam insulation, concrete, and OSB or plywood
deck are good selections to form the basis of
air barrier systems in roof assemblies. Include
specifications for all accessory materials required
to provide durable continuity of the air barrier.
Do not place mechanical equipment in vented attic

space.
Condensation on roof bottom sheathings that results
from night sky radiation is most easily avoided by
using unvented roof assemblies.
yy Fully adhered roofing membranes can be used to

make the air barrier in non-vented low-slope roof
systems.
Non-vented roofing is more resistant to fire caused

by wildfire embers.
yy Fluted steel deck is difficult to use as the basis

of an air barrier. (The flutes are difficult to airseal at the perimeter and joints.)
Step 2: Collect all the materials with low water vapor

permeability (< 2 perms) together on one side of any
vapor open cavity insulation layer. NOTE: Vented roof
and ceiling assemblies separate low-permeability
materials in the roofing-sheathing layer from lowpermeability materials in the ceiling, air barrier and
insulation layers by a vented space between them.
Both the roof and ceiling assemblies can dry to this
space. Apply either Step 3A or Step 3B.
yy A suspended T-bar ceilingclipped or not

cannot be used as an air barrier system.
for providing air barrier continuity at pipes, shafts,
skylight vaults, light fixtures, conduits and other
penetrations through the air barrier layer (See Table
2-1).
49
Separate water vapor control is required in climate

zones 5, 6 and 7.
Step 3A: Follow published guidance on combining

insulation, an air barrier, and materials of appropriate
permeablility for vented and non-vented roofing
systems in the relevant climate zone.20 Depending on
the insulation systems selected, apply the following
specific guidance.
yy Put materials with perm <2 (except roofing

materials) and the air barrier on the interior side
of the insulation layer.
yy Use interior class I or II vapor barrier in climate
zones 6 and 7.
If using insulation composed entirely of lowpermeability foam insulation (e.g., closed-cell spray
polyurethane foam or foam board insulation), note
that:
yy Use interior class III vapor barrier in climate zone

5.
yy In all milder climate zones, put the air barrier on
the inside or outside of the insulation layer. Use
no materials less than 2 perms in the assembly
excluding roofing.
Spray foam provides an inherent air barrier,

insulation layer, and vapor control for all climates.
It still requires specific detailing at transitions
between the spray foam and adjoining assemblies.
Foam board provides insulation and vapor
permeability control but requires air-sealing
details at the joints, penetrations and roof-wall
intersection. This can be achieved using a separate
air barrier system (e.g., wood panel or gypsum
board roof deck sealed to provide the air barrier) or
using the foam board as the basis of the air barrier.
If using a layer of high-perm insulation and a layer of

low-perm insulation together for non-vented roofs:
Caution: In special high-moisture areas (e.g., indoor

swimming pools) using closed-cell spray polyurethane
or foam board insulation, non-vented low-slope roofs
may need a vapor retarder with a lower perm rating
than that of the roofing membrane. Special analysis is
needed for high internal moisture load uses (See Step
3B). If using all open-cell spray foam ( lb./cu. ft.
spray):
Foam board insulation must have a separate air

barrier (e.g., roof sheathing or roofing membrane
or air-sealing details at the joints, penetrations and
roof-wall intersection).
All the low-perm materials (<2 perms) including the

foam insulation should be collected on the exterior
side of the high-perm insulation layer.
Closed-cell spray polyurethane foam insulation
provides an inherent air barrier.
Foam provides an inherent air barrier.
The temperature of the condensing surface should

be controlled using a ratio of low-perm R-value to
high-perm R-value. For ordinary indoor humidity
conditions, at least one-third of the overall R-value
should be provided by the foam insulation.
Separate interior vapor control is required in

climate zones 5, 6 and 7.
If using a layer of high-perm insulation and a layer of

low-perm insulation together for vented roofs:
yy Put materials (except roofing materials) with

perm <2 and the air barrier on the interior side of
the insulation layer.
All the low-perm materials (<2 perms) including the

foam insulation should be collected on the interior
side of the high-perm insulation layer.
yy Use interior class II or III vapor barrier.
Closed-cell spray polyurethane foam insulation

provides an inherent air barrier.
Applies to vented and non-vented roofs.
Foam board insulation must have air-sealing details

at the joints, penetrations and roof-wall intersection
or a separate air barrier (e.g., roof sheathing or
roofing membrane).
If using all high-perm porous insulation (e.g.,

fiberglass, cellulose) for non-vented roofs:
Use only in hot, dry climates.
A separate air barrier system is required.
Step 3B: Model the performance of proposed roof

assemblies using a hygrothermal software program
(e.g., WUFI or hygIRC). Use design conditions from
ASHRAE Standard 160-2009 for modeling. Note,
however, that the results of computer simulations
should be interpreted cautiously and in light of
If using all high-perm porous insulation (e.g.,

fiberglass, cellulose) for vented roofs:
A separate air barrier system is required.
20
See Straube (2011) for all climate zones, Lstiburek (ASHRAE April 2006) for all climate zones and CMHC Best Practice Guides for climate zones 6 and 7.
50
Figure 2-15 Moisture Control in an Unvented Low-Slope Roof Assembly with Structural CMU Walls
yy Or use vented roofs that slope to eave drainage

and avoid sources of heat in vented attics and
vented roof sheathing systems.
real-world construction practices. For example, most

computer models assume that walls are airtight and
that no water vapor is transported through them by
airflow. Therefore, for the model to be valid, the
assembly must be designed, installed and tested to
meet air tightness standards. Also, the performance
of any assembly depends on its orientation in regard
to solar load and wind direction during heavy rains.
Some, but not all, of the programs can model the
dynamic of rainwater absorbed by porous claddings
and vaporized into the assembly by the sun.
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 3: Roof

design considers maintenance for moisture control.
Guidance 1: Ensure that systems are easily
maintained and that maintenance plans are reviewed
with the owner.
Materials in the roof and ceiling assembly that will
be difficult or expensive to remove and replace
must have an expected service life at least as long
as the materials enclosing them.
Guidance 4: Control ice dams in climate zones 5, 6

and 7.
Provide a carefully detailed, tested air barrier in the
roof system (See Guidance 2). Locate the air barrier
in the same plane as or adjacent to the insulation
layer for all assemblies.
Design assemblies to shed rainwater by use of

flashings and lapping materials to drain. Do not
depend on sealants alone to control rainwater entry
in areas that will be difficult or hazardous to inspect
and repair.
Drain non-vented, low-slope roofs to interior drains

or use spray or board foam to insulate non-vented
roofs that slope to eave drainage. The required total
R-value can be met using foam insulation alone
or by a combination of foam insulation and highperm porous insulation materials (e.g., fiberglass,
cellulose or mineral wool). The foam insulation
must be located in contact with, but outside of, the
porous insulation.
Develop or require the contractor to develop

maintenance documents for the roofing systems
including warranty requirements, scheduled
inspections and maintenance, and appropriate
repair processes.
Develop a plan for both surface and subsurface
drainage that specifies:
51
Figure 2-16 Moisture Control in an Inverted Membrane Roof with Heavy Steel Frame and Light Steel In-Fill
yy Maximum rainfall or snowmelt assumptions.
Provide a list of critical details, an inspection

schedule and quality assurance tests of the roofing,
inner capillary break (e.g., roofing felt, self-adhering
bituthene membrane), flashing and drainage
elements of the roof systems; identify the sequence
of inspections and tests, the parties responsible
for them and the required documentation of the
results.
yy Drainage surface areas including shapes, slopes,

superstructures or other obstructions.
yy Estimated water flows.
yy The location and capacities of all conduits.
Provide drainage system maintenance plan
requirements.

requirements for the roofing, coping and flashing.
Verification of Roof and Ceiling Assemblies
Reference published roof assemblies designed

to manage water vapor and condensation within
the appropriate climate. Perform hygrothermal
modeling when documentation through previous
testing or modeling of a roof assembly in a
particular climate or for unusual space humidity
levels is not available.
Write a description detailing how the roof system

manages rain. Include this description in the basisof-design document.
continuity of drainage surfaces, capillary breaks and
flashing around penetrations from the center of the
roof to the intersection with the exterior walls.
Write a description detailing how the roof system

manages water vapor during cooling and heating
modes, as applicable. Drawings and specifications
must identify vapor migration control details
and the permeability and insulating values of all
materials.

materials that form the rainwater control come
three or more elements of the rain protection come
together. Sections must show continuity of capillary
breaks and flashing around penetrations and
interface with air barrier and insulation systems.

continuity of the insulation layers and air barriers
from the center of the roof to the intersection with
the walls.
52

materials that form the insulation layers and air
barrier come together and three-dimensional
drawings where three or more elements of the
insulation and air barrier come together.

Specify quality assurance programs for the
installation of the hygrothermal control elements of
the enclosure. Provide a list of critical details and
a schedule for inspecting the air barrier, insulation
and vapor control elements of the roof assembly.
Specify the sequence of inspections, the parties
responsible for the inspections, and the required
Specify a fan pressurization test in design

specification documents to assess the entire
building enclosure in accordance with ASTM
E779-10 Standard Test Method for Determining Air
Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization, ASTM E182796(2007) Standard Test Methods for Determining
Door or the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Air
Leakage Test Protocol for Building Envelopes.

critical to water vapor control.
yy Specify the target airtightness level.

system.
53
Plumbing Systems
Issue
Guidance 1: Reduce initial leaks by specifying testing

of supply lines, drain lines and fixtures.
Moisture problems associated with plumbing

equipment include:
Determine specifications for pressure tests of supply

and drain lines and fixtures to identify leaks in
plumbing.
Leaks in pressurized pipes and vessels, in

appliances that use water and in pipes that drain
wastewater.
Design specifications should require, at a minimum,

the testing of supply lines in accordance with
section 312.5 of the International Plumbing Code,
or relevant sections of other applicable local codes,
but they may require testing at higher pressures
depending on the requirements of the equipment
and plumbing system and the intent of the design.
Condensation on cold-water lines, chilled water

lines and toilets. The colder these surfaces are, the
more likely condensation will form.
Mold growth on partitions, ceilings and floors
enclosing spaces that are subject to repeated
wetting.
Design specifications should require, at a minimum,

testing the drain and vent side of the plumbing
system as required by the relevant building code.
For example, designs should specify a gravity test
of the drain and vent side of the system according
to sections 312.2, 312.3, and 312.4 of the
International Plumbing Code, or relevant sections
of applicable local codes. If all or a portion of the
drain side of the system will be pressurized during
operation, appropriate pressure testing must be
specified.
Once installed, plumbing is difficult and expensive to

replace and relocate, so good design is very important.
Moisture problems associated with poorly designed
plumbing can cause damage that can affect almost
any location in the building, including places that are
not often seen or inspected or are difficult to access.
Unnoticed mold growth can result from leaks, posing
a health risk to building occupants. Gaining access to
poorly designed plumbing for repair or replacement
can necessitate demolishing obstructions, which leads
to higher repair costs.
Identify the test method and the design test

pressure.
Goals
Specify when the tests should be conducted in

relation to the completeness of the plumbing
system and the closing of the cavities (e.g.,
while lines are exposed for inspection, but before
enclosing).
Plumbing System Design Goal 1: Design supply lines,

drain lines, and fixtures to prevent water leaks and
facilitate leak detection and repair.
Identify the appropriate testing party. Depending

on the scale of the project and the parties
involved, the appropriate testing party may be
a commissioning agent; a testing, adjusting,
balancing (TAB) contractor; a subcontractor to the
general contractor; or a plumbing contractor.
Plumbing System Design Goal 2: Design plumbing

systems to prevent condensation on cold water lines
and fixtures.
Plumbing System Design Goal 3: Select materials to
minimize mold growth in areas that are unavoidably
wet.
Specify how the results should be documented,

Guidance
Specify the remedies if any portion of the plumbing

system fails the test.
Plumbing System Design Goal 1: Design supply lines,

drain lines and fixtures to prevent water leaks and to
facilitate leak detection and repair.
Guidance 2: Design the plumbing system for easy

inspection and repair of components (e.g., pipes,
54
valves, traps, grease traps, tanks, controls, heaters,

filters and connections to appliances).
join other plumbing components such as valves,

gauges, pumps and tanks.
Require the inspection of condensation controls
for components that convey cool or cold water and
specify when in the construction sequence the
inspections must take place, the party responsible
for performing the inspections, the methods that
should be used to document the results of the
inspections and any remedies for failed inspections.
Place pipes and valves where they can be easily

inspected and repaired, where leaks will be seen
quickly, and where even a small leak will not wet a
cavity made from moisture-sensitive materials. Avoid
locating water lines and other plumbing components
in exterior wall or ceiling cavities insulated with
porous insulation. NOTE: If pipes must be located
in an exterior wall or ceiling, they must be protected
so that outdoor temperatures do not affect them and
outdoor air cannot leak in to them. In addition to
any required pipe insulation, place a layer of closedcell board or spray-foam insulation between the pipe
and the exterior sheathing or curtain wall. If board
foam is used, it must be air sealed at the joints and
edges and connected in an airtight way to the air
barrier system at all perimeter edges. The object is
to surround the pipe with warm interior air when it is
cold outdoors and with cool, dry, conditioned air in air
conditioning mode.
Plumbing System Design Goal 3: Select materials to

minimize mold growth in areas that are unavoidably
wet.
Guidance 1: In unavoidably wet areas, use materials
that tolerate repeated wetting and drying.
Identify areas in the building that will get wet
because of their use (e.g., entryway floors,
bathroom floors, tub surrounds, showers, locker
rooms, pool and spa rooms, and kitchens). Specify
materials that are highly resistant to the growth
of mold. Among these materials are ceramic tile,
glass, plastic resins, metals and cement-based
products.
Plumbing System Design Goal 2: Design plumbing

systems to prevent condensation on cold water lines
and fixtures.
For materials known to be vulnerable to mold

growth (e.g., untreated paper-faced gypsum
board and OSB), use products and paints that are
resistant to mold growth. Specify mold-resistance
testing criteria that are appropriate for these
materials (e.g., a score of 10 when tested using
ASTM D3273 Standard Test Method for Resistance
to Growth of Mold on the Surface of Interior
Coatings in an Environmental Chamber).
Guidance 1: Design the plumbing systems insulation

and water vapor controls so the pipes, tanks and
other equipment that convey or contain water cooler
than the dew point of the outdoor airor cooler than
the expected dew point of the air in the enclosure
where the equipment will be locatedare free of
condensation.
Specify the design temperature and humidity
conditions for the spaces that contain plumbing
components conveying cool or cold water (e.g.,
chilled water lines, cold water lines, toilets, cold
water storage tanks or water treatment tanks) and
the expected surface temperatures of these items
during the design condition.
Avoid specifying materials that provide nutrients

and sustain mold growth. Such materials include
untreated paper-based products and composite
wood materials.
Specify the required R-value of the insulation and

the permeability and location of the water vapor
control element to prevent condensation on the
surface of the insulation or on the surface of the
pipe or plumbing component.
Piping, Valves, and Controls
Verification of Plumbing Design
Confirm that drawings and specifications document

the location of pipes, valves and other plumbing
system components and the location, size and type
of access panels for inspection and repair.
Specify air-sealing methods and materials at joints

and seams in the insulation and water vapor control
elements.
Confirm that the pressure test requirements of

supply and drain lines, the specific responses
to success or failure, the testing schedule,
the responsible testing party and the required
documentation have all been specified.
Provide details showing the continuity of the

insulation and water vapor control where pipes pass
through walls, ceilings or floors and where pipes
Provide a list of critical details and a schedule for

inspecting the plumbing system including supply
55
Wet Spaces
lines, drain lines, air vents, plumbing fixtures,

appliances that use water, tanks and vessels.
Specify the inspection sequence, the parties
responsible for the inspections and the required
Confirm that the drawings and specifications

identify appropriate moisture-resistant materials for
use in wet locations including bathrooms, showers,
locker rooms, pool and spa rooms, and kitchens.
requirements for the moisture-resistant materials
used in the unavoidably wet areas.
Insulation and Vapor Retarders

Confirm that drawings and specifications include
the design conditions, condensation control
elements, inspection procedures, responsible
parties and documentation as required.

inspecting the moisture-resistant materials and
associated liquid-water-control elements specified
for use in unavoidably wet areas. Specify the
inspection sequence, the parties responsible for the
inspections and the required documentation of the
inspection results.

inspecting the plumbing system insulation and
vapor retarders, including supply lines and drain
lines. Specify the inspection sequence, the parties
responsible for the inspections and the required

requirements for the moisture-resistant materials
used in the unavoidably wet areas.
56
HVAC Systems
Issues
the cooling tonnage to remove the combined

sensible and latent loads. But overpowered cooling
systems have exactly the opposite effect. A large
cooling system removes the normal sensible load
very quickly. Then, to avoid over-chilling the space,
compressors are shut off or chilled water flow rate
is reduced before the coils can condense enough
moisture to control humidity. In nearly all cases,
oversized cooling systems do not solve humidity
control problemsinstead, they cause them.
Some of the moisture problems in buildings can

be caused or acceleratedor reduced or avoided
altogetherthrough the design and installation of the
HVAC system. The HVAC components that dehumidify
the ventilation air deserve careful attention because
outdoor air constitutes most of the annual humidity
load for nearly all buildings.
Common HVAC-related contributors to moisture
problems include:
Ineffective drainage of condensate collected inside

the HVAC system or condensation on the outside
of the systems cold and uninsulated surfaces.
Undrained and uncollected condensate leads to
water leaks, drips and subsequent moisture damage
and mold risk.
Inadequate dehumidification by the HVAC system

during humid weather. The resulting high indoor
air dew point can lead to condensation, nearcondensation and mold growth. Comfort problems
also are common when the indoor dew point is
high because the relative humidity is also high.
Occupants often demand lower thermostat settings
in an attempt to be more comfortable. This is
counterproductive. Lowering the thermostat
overcools the building, which increases the risks
of condensation, excess moisture absorption and
subsequent mold growth. Cold temperatures also
further reduce comfort and increase energy costs.
Failure to exhaust indoor humidity sources such

as showers, bathrooms, spas, pools and kitchens,
especially in residential buildings and sports
facilities. Humid air can migrate from these sources
to cold surfaces, leading to condensation or nearcondensation and subsequent mold growth and
structural deterioration.
Goals
Leaking return and exhaust air duct connections,

leaking indoor air handler compartments operating
under suction, and leaking return air plenums.
These leaks create suction in building cavities,
pulling humid outdoor air into the building where
it can condense moisture onto cool surfaces and
support mold growth.
HVAC System Design Goal 1: Keep the indoor air dew

point low enough to reduce the risk of condensation
on cool surfaces and the risk of moisture absorption
by organic materials.
HVAC System Design Goal 2: Seal all duct
connections to prevent hot, humid outdoor air from
being pulled into the building by leaking return air
duct connections, leaking return air plenums and
unbalanced exhaust. Sealed connections also prevent
condensation caused by supply air escaping through
duct connections into unconditioned spaces.
Leaking supply air duct connections and leaking

indoor air handler compartments operating under
positive pressure. When the weather is hot or
humid, these cold air leaks chill surfaces behind
walls and above ceilings, creating condensation and
supporting mold growth. During cold weather these
same leaks can force warm, humid indoor air into
cold cavities where it can condense and support
mold growth and corrode structural fasteners.
HVAC System Design Goal 3: Prevent condensate

from cooling coils from overflowing into drain pans
and prevent condensation on the external surface
of cold pipes, valves, ducts, diffusers and indoor air
handler cabinets.
Oversized cooling systems. When cooling

systems, rather than dedicated dehumidification
components, are expected to control humidity, the
traditional inclination of designers is to increase
57
HVAC System Design Goal 4: Limit indoor humidity

loads through effective exhaust ventilationvia duct
work with sealed connectionsfrom showers, tubs,
kitchens, pools, spas and other significant sources of
moisture. Balance the exhaust air with dry makeup
air to prevent the exhaust from pulling unconditioned
outdoor air through the building enclosure.
moving outward, rather than humid air moving into

the building. By providing a return air connection
with a damper, the system can keep the building
dry during unoccupied periods by recirculation,
without the need to either ventilate or to operate
the central cooling system.
Arranging the main cooling system so it can
sufficiently dry ventilation and return air to remove
all of the humidity loads even when thermostats
are not calling for cooling. This drying can be
accomplished by using a separate dehumidification
coil, or by a variable air volume cooling system. In
both cases, the cooling coil must stay constantly
cold and not re-set to a higher temperature during
periods of low sensible heat load. In a variable
volume system, keeping the coil constantly cold
will require reheating the supply air to some
zones. To comply with energy codes and ASHRAE
Standard 90.1, reheat energy should come from
heat otherwise wasted, such as rejected heat from
refrigeration condensers or heat from exhaust air.
Also note that to avoid losing dehumidification
capacity, reheat coils should be located well
downstream from dehumidification coils. Otherwise,
the energy radiating from a closely coupled reheat
coil will re-evaporate some of the condensed water
as it drips from the dehumidification coil.
Guidance
Building owners and HVAC designers will note that
this guidance is a necessarily brief summary of
several complex tasks. More detailed design methods
to achieve these goals are presented in the ASHRAE
Humidity Control Design Guide for Commercial and
Institutional Buildings.
HVAC System Design Goal 1: Keep the indoor air
dew point low enough to reduce the risks from
condensation on cool surfaces and from moisture
absorption by organic materials.
Guidance 1: For an air-conditioned building, design
the HVAC systems to include dehumidification
components and a control system that will keep the
indoor air below a 55F dew point during humid
weather.
Drying a portion of the blended return and

ventilation air with a secondary cooling coil or a
desiccant dehumidifier that operates in response
to a rise in the indoor dew point. In this alternate
arrangement, the air will follow a dual path: part of
it will be dried by the secondary coil or desiccant
dehumidifier and the rest will bypass the main
cooling coils unless there is a need for cooling.
Reheat or post-cooling usually is not required for
this arrangement. After the dry air blends back into
the supply, the blended mixture is generally warm
or cool enough for occupant comfort.
Indoor air held below a 55F dew point cannot

condense moisture onto cool ducts carrying
supply air at 55F. Nor will moisture condense on
surfaces chilled by that supply air as it leaves the
supply air diffusers. And only very small amounts
of condensation, if any, will form on incompletely
insulated chilled-water piping. A maximum 55F
dew point control level provides an appropriate safety
margin to reduce the impact of minor shortcomings in
the building enclosure design and construction, and it
minimizes the risk of condensation from the inevitable
minor air leakage through duct connections.
Guidance 2: Use the peak outdoor dew point design

conditionsnot the peak sensible heat design
valuesto estimate humidity loads when sizing
dehumidification components and systems.
Among the effective dehumidification techniques are:

Drying all the ventilation air in a separate,
dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) to a dew point
low enough to remove the internally generated
humidity loads. DOAS can also be designed to
have other significant risk-reduction benefits. They
can reduce ventilation air in response to reduced
occupancy, which greatly lowers annual humidity
loads, energy use and the risks associated with
moisture accumulation. During occupied hours,
dedicated outdoor air units can be used to provide
a slight excess of dry ventilation air, so most of the
air leaks in the building enclosure involve dry air
The largest sources of humidity load are nearly

always the ventilation air, the exhaust makeup air
and air infiltrating through the building enclosure.
These loads are at their peak when the outdoor
air is at a moderate temperature but a very high
humidity. At this peak outdoor dew point design
condition, the humidity loads are 30 percent to
100 percent greater than the humidity loads at the
58
Guidance 3: Limit the operation of any air-side

economizer to only when the outdoor air dew point is
below 55F.
hottest outdoor dry bulb conditions. So for sizing

dehumidification loads and determining component
performance, it is very important to use the
ASHRAE peak dew point design conditions and not
the peak cooling design conditions.
Air-side economizers have been responsible

for significant problems related to moisture in
buildings, especially schools and libraries that
require only moderate cooling during lengthy
unoccupied periodsa task well suited to cooling
with outdoor air. However, unless that outdoor air is
dry as well as cool, the flood of air brought in during
the economizer cycle adds a tremendous amount
of moisture to the building and its contents.
Controlling the economizer with an enthalpy control
does not solve the problem because the outdoor
Peak dew points along with their corresponding

humidity ratio values for major North American
and international locations are available in the
ASHRAE Humidity Control Design Guide. Those
data and values for many additional locations
also now appear in Chapter 14 of both the print
and electronic editions of the ASHRAE Handbook
2009Fundamentals, as shown in Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17 Peak Dew Point Data are Available in the Climatic Design Information Chapter of the ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals
NOTE: The print edition of the ASHRAE Fundamentals volume for 2005 did not contain these values, but they are available on the
accompanying compact disk. The printed edition of the 2001 Fundamentals contains peak dew point values for a more limited set of
locations, as does the 1997 edition. Be aware, however, that the ASHRAE Fundamentals volumes from 1993 and earlier do not contain
values for peak dew pointonly for the sensible cooling design extremes, which have much lower absolute humidity levels than the peak
dew point conditions.
59
Most buildings are not mechanically humidified

during the winter, but in some cases such
humidification is useful and necessary. When
the building is humidified, the designer should
remember the advice of humidifier manufacturers,
which is repeated in the ASHRAE Humidity Control
Design Guide. Namely, consider splitting the
required humidification capacity between several
units in stages, rather than install one single,
large unit. Humidifier manufacturers warn that
building moisture problems are sometimes caused
by humidifiers that are so large they cannot be
controlled at the lower end of their capacity. These
units can overload the supply air with water vapor,
causing condensation, moisture accumulation and
water leaks from ducts.
humidity can still be too high even when its

enthalpy is lower than indoors.
An air-side economizer is still a useful energy-saving
feature in less-humid climates. But the decision
to bring in outdoor air for cooling should be made
based on the outdoor air dew point as well as the
outdoor dry bulb temperature. A maximum 55F dew
point is a good rule of thumb. If the outdoor dew
point is above 55F, do not bring in extra outdoor
air for cooling, even if its dry bulb temperature or its
enthalpy is below the indoor value.
Guidance 4: Design the system to keep the indoor
dew point near or below 35F when the outdoor
temperature falls below freezing.
To limit the risk of damage from moisture and mold,
the basic requirement for humidity control in the
winter is to avoid condensation inside the cold
exterior wall. The most appropriate maximum indoor
dew point in the winter depends on the annual
duration and severity of cold weather at the site,
and on the design and construction of the building
enclosure and its glazing.
HVAC System Design Goal 2: Prevent hot, humid

outdoor air from being pulled into the building by
leaking return air duct connections, leaking return
air plenums and unbalanced exhaust. Prevent
condensation caused by supply air escaping through
duct connections.
Higher indoor dew points provide more comfort

during the winter, but lower dew points are better
for avoiding condensation on cold surfaces on and
inside exterior walls. A 35F dew point maximum
during winter weather is a prudent compromise
between these two competing goals for most
commercial and institutional buildings. That level is
at the lower boundary of the winter thermal comfort
zone as traditionally defined by ASHRAE Standard
55. And as noted in the ASHRAE Humidity Control
Design Guide, a 35F dew point is still high enough
to help limit uncomfortable electrostatic discharges
and eye irritation for the general population.
Guidance 1: Specify that all duct connections on the

supply and return air sides be sealed with mastic to
the standards established by SMACNAs HVAC Duct
Systems Inspection Guide for high-pressure duct work
(Seal Class A).
Ducts and their connections need not be built
to resist high pressures if they are not operating
under high pressure. However, all duct connections,
especially where ducts meet air handlers, must be
sealed tight with mastic. NOTE: Recent energy code
changes in several states have made this guidance
a requirement. The requirement is based on the
considerable energy cost savings and equipment
size reductions made possible by preventing air
leaks into and out of duct work.
Museums, swimming pool enclosures and hospitals

are exceptions; they all have much higher winter
indoor dew points for important reasons. Their
building enclosures demand very careful attention
to interior-side air tightness and vapor retarders on
the inside surface of the exterior walls in order to
limit their high risk of moisture problems due to
wintertime condensation.
Guidance 2: Specify that all joints and penetrations

of all return air plenums be sealed with fire or smoke
sealant so that the plenum is open to air flow only
from the inside of the occupied space it servesand
especially not open to inward leakage from exterior
walls, crawl spaces or basements.
For any type of building in an extremely cold

climate; the more hours below freezing, the
more important it will be to carefully analyze the
condensation potential of the exterior wall and
glazing designs and to install continuous air and
vapor barriers inboard of the buildings insulation.
Better insulated and more air-tight building
enclosures can tolerate higher indoor dew points to
improve comfort for occupants.
One classic problem area is an exterior wall where

the gypsum wallboard does not extend all the way
up to seal against the bottom of the floor or roof
above. Such openings to the inside of the exterior
wall must be plugged with backing material such
as glass fiber insulation and then sealed with
liquid-applied conformal film such as fire or smoke
sealant.
60
In commercial buildings, roof-mounted air

conditioning units are often mounted on curbs
above return air plenums. The joint between the
curb and the unit must be sealed tight because it is
effectively part of the duct system.
and outdoors and using that signal to control a relief

damper on small buildings and one or more relief
air fans on larger buildings. Such a pressure control
system makes it easier for the building operations
staff to reverse the direction of the pressure difference
for winter operation.
Fire codes sometimes allow vertical plumbing

chases to be used as return air ducts, a situation
that can be found in low-cost construction. The
volume of air that leaks into such chases is likely
to be extreme, however, and likely to come from
undesirable locations such as basements and
crawl spaces, loading the return air with humidity,
particulates and microbiological contaminants. To
avoid problems, the designer should insist that all
spaces used as air ducts be sealed and tested for
air tightness.
When outdoor air temperatures are below freezing

and indoor relative humidity must be maintained
above 35 percent, there are advantages to operating
under neutral or slightly negative air pressure so
humid indoor air is not forced into cold exterior wall
cavities, where it could condense moisture.
Note that some buildings such as hospitals,
museums, and high-rise buildings, as well as areas
such as walk-in freezers and indoor swimming
pools, require special care with respect to air
balance. Their unique and sometimes critical needs
for specific pressure differences between spaces
necessitates consultation with industry-specific
references for more detailed and appropriate
guidance.
In low-rise school, office and retail strip mall

construction, the joint between the exterior walls
and roof often includes an open soffit under the
eaves. A return air plenum that can draw air
through that soffit becomes, by accident, an alloutside air system. Any building that has a soffit
requires special attention from the HVAC designer
to ensure that return air is pulled from the occupied
space and not from outdoors.
HVAC System Design Goal 3: Prevent normal

condensate from cooling coils from overflowing drain
pans and prevent condensation on the outside of cold
pipes, valves, ducts, diffusers and indoor air handler
cabinets, as recommended by ASHRAE Standard
62.1-2007.
Guidance 3: Design the systems to manage indooroutdoor air pressure relationships. If a building
enclosure has been designed and constructed with
an effective air barrier, continuous insulation layers,
and rainwater control as required by this guide,
then for ordinary occupancies enclosure-related
problems are not very sensitive to indoor-outdoor
pressure relationships. In warm, humid climates (See
Climate Zone map, Figure 2-5) maintaining a slight
positive pressure during cooling conditions adds
extra protection against condensation in the building
enclosure.
Guidance 1: Specify that all cooling coils be

equipped with condensate drain pans that have these
characteristics:
The pan is long enough in the direction of air flow
to catch any condensate blown off the coil during
heavy condensing conditions.
The pan drains from its lowest point and slopes
towards that lowest point from two directions to
ensure there is never any standing water in the pan.
Any drain pan that does not have a condensate
pump is equipped with a trap on the condensate
drain line deep enough to ensure no water remains
in the pan drain when the fan is operating.
To create a slight positive pressure, add up all the

exhaust air volumes from all zones served by a single
system. Design the air conditioning system for those
zones so that the total of the dry makeup/ventilation
air exceeds the total exhaust from those areas by 5 to
10 percent. Balance the exhaust and ventilation air
flows during humid weather so that the building stays,
on average, under slightly positive air pressure (5 Pa
or 0.02" WC). Use dry ventilation air to accomplish
this slight positive pressure.
The trap is vented on the outlet side to ensure that

plug flow in the downstream condensate piping
does not siphon water out of the bottom of the trap.
The condensate drain line and trap are accessible
and detachable to allow cleanout with a brush.
Clearances around the duct work and duct access
doors allow for regular inspections and cleaning of
the condensate drain pan.
Maintaining an average positive air pressure can also

be accomplished more explicitly and automatically
by sensing the pressure difference between indoors
61
Guidance 2: Specify that all interior faces of duct

work or plenums located immediately downstream
from cooling coils be lined with smooth, washable,
water-impermeable material to prevent accumulation
of moisture and dirt on those surfaces. It is a prudent
rule of thumb to have an impermeable and washable
surface for at least the first 10 feet downstream of
dehumidification coils. Also specify that:
Many of these buildings have suffered frequent

mold problems as a direct result of leaking exhaust
duct connections. Such leaks create suction that
pulls humid air into the building, where its moisture
condenses or is absorbed into cool wall board and
onto ceiling tile and furnishings where the moisture
supports mold growth.
For exhaust ducts from commercial kitchens,
spas, pools, athletic building showers and other
hot, high-humidity spaces, require duct insulation
in order to avoid internal condensation. Specify
similar insulation for exhaust ducts from residential
bathrooms and kitchens in cold climates, because
the dew point in the exhaust air is likely to be above
the cool indoor air temperatures in the unheated
cavities and attics that the ducts pass through on
their way to the outdoors.
Any joints in the moisture-impermeable lining are

sealed watertight.
The outlet duct work or plenum is equipped with
a gasketed door large enough to ensure access
adequate for inspecting and cleaning downstream
duct surfaces.
Guidance 3: Design the component layout so that
filters are located either upstream of cooling coils or
far enough downstream so they do not collect droplets
of moisture stripped from the coil during periods of
heavy condensation. For coils intended principally as
dehumidification components, specify:
Design exhaust ducts to terminate outdoors and

not in unconditioned indoor areas such as attics or
crawl spaces.
Do not terminate the exhaust duct by directing
exhaust air through the ventilated soffit under
eaves. The hot and humid air will quickly rise and
re-enter the attic space through nearby vents in the
same soffit, leading to mold growth in the attic and
on the roofs inside surface.
Coil fin height no greater than 4 feet above the

bottom of the drain pan, face velocity below 400
feet per minute, and spacing of eight fins per inch
or wider to minimize water accumulation on the fins
and subsequent droplet carryover into the supply air
under heavy condensing conditions.
Maintenance access upstream of the coil through
one or more gasketed doors that are sufficiently
large to allow the full width and height of the coil
surface to be cleaned.
Verification of HVAC System Design

Cooling Season Dew Point Control
Explain in the design specifications the operation
of the air conditioning and dehumidification
equipment at design dew point conditions and the
expected humidity removal under those conditions,
expressed in pounds of water vapor removed per
hour.
HVAC System Design Goal 4: Limit indoor humidity

loads through effective exhaust ventilationthrough
duct work with sealed connectionsfrom showers,
tubs, kitchens, pools, spas and any similar significant
sources of indoor humidity.
Require that the supplier of the dehumidification

component or system provide written
documentation of the equipments performance
including pounds of water vapor removed per
hour, total air flow, and the temperature of air as
it leaves the devicewhen the system is operating
under peak outdoor dew point conditions. These
conditions will always be of reduced sensible heat
loads, so the suppliers submittals for the peak dew
point conditions will provide very useful snapshots
of the behavior of the entire systems operation
under part-sensible-load conditionstemperature
conditions that occur for thousands, rather than
dozens, of hours every year.
Guidance 1: Provide exhaust ventilation of strong

humidity sources (e.g., showers and bathtubs,
spas, cooking ranges, commercial dishwashers and
combustion devices), as recommended by ASHRAE
62.1-2007 and ASHRAE 62.2-2004. In addition:
Specify sealing of all exhaust air duct work
connections to SMACNA seal class A using mastic.
Pay special attention to the joint where the ducts
connect to the exhaust grille collars and to the
inlets and outlets of fan compartments. This sealing
is important for all exhaust ducts in all buildings,
but it is especially important for ducts that have
continuously operating exhaust fans, such as those
in the bathrooms of hotels and eldercare buildings.
62
Require that the dehumidification system be

tested, adjusted and balanced and that reports
from that process verify and document the systems
performance after the system is running. At a
minimum, measure and document the design
versus actual air flow through the device and the
temperature and humidity ratios of the air as it
enters and exits the device, then calculate the
equipments performance in pounds of water vapor
removed per hour.
Air Distribution
Minimal requirement: Require the general
contractor to inspect all sides of all joints between
ducts and air handlers and to provide a written
report that all sides of joints to and from air
handlers are sealed with mastic. Also require the
installer to certify that all other joints in the system
have been sealed with mastic.
Robust requirement: Require that the completed
system, including air handlers, be tested for
air tightness in accordance with SMACNA
requirements for commercial buildings or with the
Air Conditioning Contractors Association (ACCA)
recommendations for residential buildings. Require
a written report of measured air leakage values in
accordance with the recommendations of those
organizations.
Require that the economizer air-flow and damper

operation be tested, adjusted and balanced and
require reports from that process that will verify
and document the economizer air flow rate. The
Test, Adjust and Balance (TAB) report should also
confirm that the economizer damper has been seen
to open correctly and that the dampers and control
set points allow the economizer to operate only
when the outdoor air dew point is below 55F.
Require the HVAC contractor to inspect all sides

of return air plenums and provide a written report,
including photographs, that documents all joints
and penetrations are effectively sealed.
Winter Condensation Control

Design the installation surrounding any humidifier
in strict accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations for exterior insulation and for
unobstructed lengths of straight duct downstream
for complete vapor absorption. Also ensure that
the controls allow smooth modulation of humidity
production down to 20 percent of the equipments
peak design capacity.
Require that the written TAB report provide

assurance that all exhaust duct joints, and
especially their connections to exhaust grilles and
exhaust fans, have been inspected to confirm they
have been sealed with mastic.
Require that the air conditioning and exhaust
systems be tested, adjusted and balanced.
Include in the TAB process a pressure map of the
building during air conditioning and heating modes
documenting indoor-outdoor pressure differences
over the course of daily sequences.
Require that any humidifier and its control system

be tested, adjusted and balanced and that the
ductwork downstream be checked for condensation
during operation of the humidifier. Require reports
that measure and verify total air flow and the
temperatures and humidity ratios of entering and
leaving air.
Require reports from the TAB process that will

verify and document system air flows after the
system is running.
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simulation.)
Henderson, H., Shirey, D., Raustad, R. Understanding the

Dehumidification Performance of Air Conditioning Equipment
at Part-Load Conditions. Presented at the CIBSE/ASHRAE
Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland 1-24-26 September 2003.
(This technical paper presents analysis and data on
the degradation of dehumidification performance of air
conditioning equipment during partial-load conditions.
Controls and systems that contribute to this problem are
discussed.)
MOIST (MOIST is a hygrothermal modeling program available

as a free download from the National Institute of Science
and Technology [http://www.nist.gov/el/highperformance_
buildings/performance/moist.cfm]. Accessed November 6,
2013. The calculation kernel in MOIST is not as complex as
HygIRC or WUFI, but it is significantly better than simplified
steady state dew point-temperature profile calculations. It
provides a thermal network analysis, includes solar radiation
gains (but not rainwater or plumbing leaks), capillary
migration and partial-pressure-driven vapor migration. Like
WUFI and HygIRC, MOIST does not model airflow effects.)
HygIRC (A hygrothermal modeler from the Institute for Research

in Construction in Canada [http://archive.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/
eng/projects/irc/hygirc.html]. Accessed November 6, 2013.
HygIRC is a modeler that is actively supported by the IRC.
Like WUFI and MOIST, HygIRC assumes no air flow through
the assembly.)
National Asphalt Pavement Association. Online. Internet.

Available at http://www.asphaltpavement.org/.
(The National Asphalt Pavement Association is a trade
association that provides technical, educational, and
marketing materials and information to its members and that
supplies technical information concerning paving materials.)
International Code Council (ICC). 2003 ICC International Building

Code.
(Chapter 18 provides code requirements for soils and
foundations including requirements for excavation, grading
and fill around foundations. Section 1203.3.1 contains
requirements for ventilated crawl spaces.)
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). Building Envelope

Design Guide (Whole Building Design Guide). Online.
Internet. Available at http://www.wbdg.org/design/envelope.
php. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(Under guidance from the Federal Envelope Advisory
Committee, the NIBS developed this comprehensive guide
for exterior envelope design and construction for institutional/
office buildings. Sample specifications and sections are
included.)
International Code Council. 2003 ICC International Plumbing

Code.
(Chapter 11 provides code requirements for storm drainage,
including roof drainage requirements. Sections 312.2 to
312.5 specify a gravity test of the drain and vent side of
plumbing systems.)
International Code Council (ICC). International Energy
Conservation Code (IECC).
(The IECC addresses energy efficiency in homes and
buildings.)
Odom, J.D. and DuBose, G.H. Mold and Moisture Prevention.

National Council of Architectural Registration Boards.
Washington, DC, 2005.
(This manual is the 17th monograph in NCARBs Professional
Development Program. It contains substantial narrative
describing moisture and mold problems in buildings
and specific design and construction considerations for
enclosures and HVAC systems as they relate to moisture and
mold problems.)
Kanare, H. Concrete Floors and Moisture, Portland Cement

Association, Skokie, Illinois, cat. no. EB119, 156 pp., 2005.
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Attic Ventilation.
ASHRAE Journal 48: 36.
of attic ventilation in buildings.)
Rose, William. Water in Buildings: An Architects Guide to

Moisture and Mold. John Wiley & Sons, 2005. ISBN:
0471468509
(This is not a design guide, but rather a deeper look at water
and its behavior in regard to building materials, assemblies
and whole buildings. Illustrated with specific examples, it
explains the how and why of moisture control.)
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Basements. ASHRAE

Journal 48: 24
(This article identifies moisture control problems often
observed in basements and solutions to such problems.)
Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Drain Planes. ASHRAE
Journal 48: 30
of rainwater control in buildings, focusing on the use of
weather-resistant materials that provide shingled drainage
beneath siding materials.)
65
Association (SMACNA). SMACNA Air Duct Leakage Test
Manual. 1985.
(A companion to HVAC Duct Construction Standards - Metal
and Flexible, this manual contains duct construction leakage
classification, expected leakage rates for sealed and unsealed
ductwork, duct leakage test procedures, recommendations on
the use of leakage testing, types of test apparatus and test
set-up and sample leakage analysis.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. National Menu

of Stormwater Best Management Practices. Online. Internet.
Updated May, 2006. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/
stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm. Accessed November 6,
2013.
(This resource provides detailed information including
applicability, design criteria, limitations and maintenance
requirements on these and many other site drainage
methods.)

Association (SMACNA). Architectural Sheet Metal Manual
Fifth Edition. 1993
(The SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual provides
design criteria and details for roof drainage systems, gravelstop fascia, copings, flashing, building expansion, metal
roof and wall systems, louvers and screens and other metal
structures. Chapter 1 contains data, calculations and charts
for designing roof drainage systems.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Porous

Pavement (Post-Construction Stormwater Management in
New Development and Redevelopment). Online. Internet.
Updated May, 2006. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/
npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_
United States Environmental Protection Agency. PostConstruction Stormwater Management in New Development
and Redevelopment. Online. Internet. Updated May,
2006. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/
menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_measure&min_measure_
id=5. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This resource provides detailed information on postconstruction stormwater management including O&M best
management practices.)
Spray Polyurethane Foam Association. Spray Polyurethane Foam

for Exterior Subgrade Thermal and Moisture Protection.
(This publication is a technical guide to specifying closed-cell
spray foam polyurethane on the outside of basement walls as
thermal insulation and moisture protection.)
Straube, John. 2011. High Performance Building Enclosures.
Somerville, MA: Building Science Press (This book includes
the fundamentals underpinning the physics of heat, air and
moisture control in high-performance building enclosures and
practical design guidance to achieve them for a wide array of
enclosure assemblies in all North American climate zones.
There is a section on condensation control in wall and roof
assemblies.)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Source Water

Practices Bulletin: Managing Storm Water Runoff to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water. EPA 816-F-01-020. July
2001. Available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sourcewater/
pubs/fs_swpp_stormwater.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This fact sheet focuses on the management of runoff in
urban environments.)
Texas Water Development Board. The Texas Manual on Rainwater

Harvesting.
(This manual presents an interesting discussion on the history
of rainwater collection, harvesting system components, water
quality and treatment, system sizing and best management
practices.)
Water Management Committee of the Irrigation Association. Turf

and Landscape Irrigation Best Management Practices.
(The Irrigation Association is involved with public policy
issues related to standards, conservation and water use on
the local, national and international levels.)
WUFI (Hygrothermal modeling software to assess the water vapor
dynamics of wall and roof systems in numerous climates.
WUFI is one of the more complete treatments of water
vapor dynamics in assemblies. WUFI is available from the
Fraunhofer Institute of Building Physics [http://www.hoki.
ibp.fraunhofer.de/] in Germany. A limited version of WUFI
is available free from Oak Ridge National Laboratory [http://
www.ornl.gov/sci/btc/apps/moisture/].) Accessed November 6,
2013.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Alternative

Pavers (Post-Construction Stormwater Management in
New Development and Redevelopment). Online. Internet.
Updated May 2006. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/
npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Construction Site
Stormwater Runoff Control. Online. Internet. Updated May,
2006. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/
menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_measure&min_measure_
id=4. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This resource provides detailed information on constructionphase storm water management, including best management
practices.)
66
Chapter 3: Constructing to Prevent Moisture Problems
If a commissioning agent is involved in the design

and construction of a building, many of the quality
assurance procedures for moisture control and
associated measures could easily fall within the
commissioning agents scope.
Introduction
This chapter is for the people who turn design
documents into buildings. More attention is being
paid to moisture control during construction now than
ever before because of increased concern about mold
growth in buildings. In this chapter moisture control
issues are divided into two major topics:
During the initial meetings, the contractor can

develop a plan to:
Protect the building from, and respond to, moisture
problems during construction.
1. Control of water during the construction of the

building.
Implement the moisture control elements,

verification activities and commissioning activities
detailed in the drawings and specifications.
2. Effective implementation of the moisture control

requirements specified by the designers in the
construction documents and associated contracts.
Moisture control policies to protect the building

during construction and to ensure the design has been
effectively implemented should be in place before
construction begins. After agreement on moisture
control issues has been reached, the contractor must
implement and verify the moisture controls required
during construction and those required for the
successful operation of the building.
Erecting a building often involves several companies

providing services from multiple trades. The general
contractor has the primary responsibility and
contractual obligation for the buildings construction.
The physical work often is carried out by specialized
subcontractors such as landscapers, roofers, glazers,
concrete and masonry contractors, steel fabricators,
electrical contractors, insulation and waterproofing
contractors and mechanical contractors. Providing
moisture control during construction is largely
the responsibility of the general contractor and
the subcontractors. However, firms specializing in
construction management or building commissioning
may have responsibilities for moisture control.
Control of Moisture During Building Construction

Construction companies have always had to deal with
moisture problems at the construction site. Materials
and equipment get wet from:
Rain.
The concept of commissioning traditionally has been

applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems. Commissioning has been very
effective in reducing problems and increasing energy
efficiency and comfort. Over the past decade, this
process has been extended to entire electrical
systems; potable water, sanitary, drainage and
irrigation systems; power production and cogeneration
systems; the building enclosure; sustainable aspects
of the project; and the entire building design process
(ASHRAE Guideline 0: The Building Commissioning
Process, GSA The Building Commissioning Guide,
and the National Institute of Building Science [NIBS]
Total Building Commissioning Program).
Water used in materials that are installed wet.

Leaks in temporarily or permanently installed
plumbing.
Condensation in the building before it is enclosed.
Poor humidity control after the building is enclosed,
but before the HVAC system is operational.
As the site work begins and before the building
is enclosed, contractors may use temporary site
drainage, pumps, and dunnage and tarps to keep
the site and materials relatively dry. Many of the
materials used in the early phases of a project will not
be damaged if they get wet, although some will have
67
Implementing the moisture control features of the

design consists of two essential actions
to be dried before they can be used. For example,

foundation materials need to be dry before some
coatings and flooring can be applied.
1. Understanding the moisture control design

features in detail and ensuring their
constructability.
The sequence of activities plays an important role in

preventing moisture problems during construction
2. Ensuring the moisture control features are

effectively installed.
Moisture-sensitive and moisture-absorbing material

and equipment should be scheduled for delivery
when dry, protected storage is available.
Coordination between construction companies who

are obligated to control moisture in buildings as
specified in the construction documents and building
designers (architects and engineers) will enhance
moisture control in the building. The contractor
should review the moisture-control elements of
the enclosure and mechanical system designs and
discuss them with the designer(s) at the start of
the project. However, contractors, subcontractors,
construction management personnel, commissioning
agents, and owners frequently propose alternative
details, materials, or equipment. It is important to
note that these changes can lead to changes in the
moisture control requirements of the building and
must be included in moisture planning. This includes
proposals made during the bid process; during the
development and review of submittals; at initial
meetings between the contractor, designer, owner,
and construction management service; or during
meetings to review submittals, construction progress,
difficulties, and responses to problems that have
arisen. The contractor is urged to read Chapter 2 of
this document to become familiar with the moisture
control guidance for designers. The construction
documents can be compared with the design
recommendations of Chapter 2.
Wet, porous materials should be dry before

moisture-sensitive materials are installed or
moisture-sensitive coatings are applied.
Moisture-sensitive materials need to be protected
from the weather as they arrive on site. Measures to
keep rain away from the materials may also protect
them from damage by dust and wind.
It is preferable to enclose the building so it
is weather-tight before the moisture-sensitive
materials arrive. While this situation can be
planned for smaller projects, it may not be possible
for larger ones. In these instances, contractors
may provide temporary shelter for materials and
equipment stored on site. They may protect partially
completed work with tarps, temporary enclosures,
or temporary bulkheads at floor penetrations. For
example, gypsum board, brick, concrete block
and wooden materials can be wrapped in plastic,
covered by tarps or plastic and stacked on pallets
in well-drained areas. Some materials that need to
be protected, such as brick and concrete masonry
units, can be delivered wrapped in plastic.
The lower stories of high-rise buildings are often
being finished while the upper floors are still open
to the weather. This situation requires using upper
floors as temporary protection by making temporary
bulkheads at floor penetrations and draining floors
to the perimeter. Increasingly, contractors also use
dehumidification equipment to dry out buildings
that are enclosed, but not yet air conditioned.
Scheduling is an ever-changing target that requires

juggling the schedules of numerous suppliers, subcontractors, supervisors and inspectors. This already
daunting task can be further complicated by larger
issues, such as changes in markets or disasters in
other parts of the world, that might affect the price
and availability of supplies. It is crucial that the
materials required to control moisture in the enclosure
and the equipment required to control humidity in
the building arrive so they can be installed in the
correct sequence. For example, the drain plane or air
barrier within a wall must be installed before the wall
is closed in; otherwise, proper installation becomes a
matter of demolition and reconstruction.
In spite of the best efforts to keep material and

equipment dry, accidents still happen and things
do get wet. Brick and concrete block may have
absorbed water before they were delivered or while
they were stored at the site. Heavy wooden timbers
may have been milled and installed while still
green. The earthen floor of a crawlspace foundation
is a large area of soil exposed to the weather right
up until the overhead floor deck is installed. Some
materials get wet accidentally because of rain or
for other reasons. It is important to dry out any
moisture-sensitive materials as quickly as possible.
68
Insulation.
Whether the general contractor is coordinating

the installation of moisture control systems or a
subcontractor is installing them, it is crucial to have
a quality assurance program in place to inspect, test
and document the correct installation and functioning
of the moisture control elements. This may mean
the difference between avoiding or having a moisture
problem. Some examples of moisture problems resulting
from poor or no quality assurance practices are:
yy Insulation should be installed so that it makes

as complete a layer as possible (i.e., no voids in
cavity insulation, no uninsulated cavities).
Plumbing.
yy The location of plumbing lines should be
checked.
yy Cold water lines, chilled water lines and internal
roof drains should be insulated; pressure tests
should have been completed prior to installation
of insulation and enclosing finishes.
Missing flashing.
Flashing installed with laps reversed.
Flashing that stops short of becoming a through
flashing.
yy Access to valves should be available.

yy Wet rooms should be assembled using only
moisture- and mold-resistant materials.
Missing insulation.
Missing sealant.
HVAC.
Unsealed holes in the return plenum that cause

depressurization of wall cavities.
yy Condensate pans should be sloped and plumbed

correctly.
Condensate pan drain lines, internal roof drains,

or basement sump crocks installed at the highest
point rather than the lowest.
yy Access panels should be installed downstream

of the coils so the coils and ductwork can be
inspected and cleaned.
Impermeable flooring or moisture-sensitive flooring

installed on a concrete slab that is releasing too
much water vapor.
yy Ductwork and return plenums should be air

sealed and tested.
yy Duct insulation should be installed and the
ductwork sealed.
Inspecting moisture control elements as they

are installed is the most important aspect of
supervisionespecially in the areas where inspections
may be most difficult. In addition to QA officers
who are employees of the general contractor or
subcontractor, inspections may be made by third
parties such as construction management or
commissioning firms.
yy Chilled water and refrigerant lines should be

insulated and sealed.
Wet materials.
yy Materials that need to be installed wet or that
became wet accidentally must be dry before
cavities are enclosed (e.g., concrete, concrete
masonry units or porous insulation must be
dry before they are enclosed by gypsum board
walls; crawlspaces must be drained and ground
covering installed before OSB floor decking
is installed) or flooring (e.g., vinyl flooring on
concrete slabs) is installed on them.
The inspector must check that the specified materials

are on site and being installed so they will perform
their function. Sequence is often important in
effective installation. The following items must be
frequently and carefully inspected during installation:
The air barrier.
A number of tests may need to be performed to

demonstrate that a moisture control element is
working properly. Some of the tests are required by
code; some may be specified by the designers in the
construction documents; some may be required to
maintain a manufacturers warranty and some may
be performed by the contractor for its own assurance.
The tests include:
yy Air barrier materials should be installed so

they can be easily sealed at the joints and
penetrations.
yy Sealants that complete the air barrier should
be installed before access to the air barrier is
blocked.
Rainwater control.
Air tightness of the enclosure test (ASTM E779-10,

ASTM E1827-96 [2002] or ACE [2012]).
yy The shingling of the drain plane and the flashing

for roof, walls, windows, doors and other
penetrations should be correctly installed.
69
Air leakage and rain penetration tests on mockups

or in situ portions of the enclosure (ASTM E783,
ASTM E1105).
all items must all be recorded. Each inspection

and test must be documented with log entries,
photographs and checklists. The value of photographs
in documenting an inspection cannot be overstated.
Many industry associations offer quality assurance
guidance for building enclosure systems (ABAA,
NCRA, NFRC and RCI). Some offer certification for
those who provide enclosure consulting and quality
assurance services (ABAA, NFRC and RCI).
Water vapor emission test for concrete slabs before

installing flooring (ASTM F1869) or ASTM F2170).
TAB on exhaust airflows (ASHRAE).
Pressure test of water supply system (International
Plumbing Code Section 312.5).
Testing the drainage and vent air of plumbing
systems (International Plumbing Code Section
312.2, 312.3 and 312.4).
This chapter has seven subsections:

Pre-Construction Planning.
Site Drainage.
Drainage tests for condensate drain pans in air

conditioners. (There are requirements for slope, etc.
in ASHRAE 62.1.)
Foundation Construction.
Wall Construction.
Air pressure difference tests.
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Construction.
Duct leakage testing (SMACNA).
Plumbing System Installation.

HVAC System Installation.
Documentation of the inspection and testing results

may include the date, location, purpose of inspection,
results, deficiencies and proposed corrective actions;
70
Pre-Construction Planning
To protect a building from moisture problems during

construction and to ensure the designs moisture
control elements are properly implemented, the
contractor needs to incorporate moisture control
into the planning, scheduling and sequencing of
the project. The contractor also needs to coordinate
these activities with the owner and the owners
representatives (e.g., the design team, construction
management service or commissioning agent).
sensitive materials either must not be on site or must

be protected from the elements. Completely enclosing
the structure before moisture-sensitive materials
and equipment are delivered or are being installed
on lower floors may have a significant impact on the
schedule. The moisture control plan should address at
a minimum:
Providing construction site drainage: temporary
drainage, dewatering.
Providing protection from construction water and
from leaks from hoses and plumbing.
Goals
Making the enclosure or portions of the enclosure

weather-tight before the delivery or installation of
moisture-sensitive materials.
Pre-Construction Planning Goal 1: Develop a moisture

control plan to be used while the building is under
construction.
yy For smaller buildings, the entire enclosure may

be made weather-tight before sensitive materials
arrive at the site.
Pre-Construction Planning Goal 2: Review the

moisture control details in the construction
documents with the design team, construction
management and subcontractors.
yy For larger buildings, a portion of the enclosure

may be made weather-tight early enough to
store or to begin installing moisture-sensitive
materials.
Guidance
yy Before the top floor in high-rise construction is

reached and roofed, lower floor walls may be
made weather-tight and floor decks diked or
sealed at penetrations (e.g., stairwells, utility
chases and elevator shafts) and drained at the
perimeter.
Pre-Construction Planning Goal 1: Develop a moisture

control plan to follow while the building is under
construction.
Guidance 1: Establish with the owner and design
team the level of concern for moisture control during
construction and after turnover. In developing the
moisture control plan, the contractor can be guided
by the level of concern the owner and design team
express and by the level of concern implicit in the
construction drawings and specifications for the
designs moisture control elements, third-party
inspections, testing and commissioning.
Providing rain protection for work and for stored

materials before the building is closed in.
Preparing a list of materials that must be kept
dry, actions planned to protect them during
construction, and responses if they get wet.
yy Most finish materials (e.g., paper-covered gypsum
board and wooden paneling) and some porous
insulating materials (e.g., fiberglass and cellulose
insulation) must be kept dry.
Guidance 2: Plan the construction schedule and

the sequence of deliveries to meet the owners and
design teams moisture control objectives. Keeping
the building site, building materials and equipment
dry during construction requires extra planning,
effort, equipment and materials. When the entire site
is exposed to the weather and when the building is
under construction but not yet closed in, moisture-
Preparing a plan to store vulnerable materials so

they are protected from rain, snow and plumbing
leaks during construction (e.g., schedule delivery
after the building or a portion of the building is
weather tight; provide protection independent of the
building, such as pallets and tarps, shrink wrap or a
separate storage building).
71
yy Sequence the installation of these materials

when the building or a portion of the building is
weather-tight.
Pre-Construction Planning Goal 2: Review the

moisture control details in the construction
documents with the design team, construction
management and subcontractors.
Drying wet materials before finishing or enclosing.

yy Prepare a list of materials that can tolerate
wetting, but must be dry before additional
materials in the foundation can be installed; the
critical points by which they must be dry; actions
planned to ensure they are dry at those times;
and responses in the event they are wet at a
critical time.
Guidance 1: Review moisture control details in the

construction documents and discuss them with the
design team:
Review rainwater and subsurface water-control
details and specifications for the site with the
landscape and excavation contractors.
Trace rainwater control, air barrier and insulation
layer details for continuity; review enclosure testing
and commissioning requirements (e.g., air pressure
testing the enclosure).
yy Impermeable materials (e.g., anodized

aluminum, glass and extruded styrene foam
board) can tolerate a great deal of wetting, but
may need to be dry before sealants or adhesives
are applied.
Examine the water vapor dynamics of sections,

considering the design interior temperature and
relative humidity and the exterior climate for
condensation potential and for drying potential.
yy Some porous materials (e.g., exterior grade

gypsum board sheathing, plywood and oriented
strand board) can tolerate short-term wetting,
but they must be dry before coatings, tapes,
adhesives or interior finish materials are
applied. Obtain, read and follow manufacturers
instructions.
Review ice dam potential in sections and roof

plansair barrier, insulation level, roof venting,
drainage of snowmeltwhere buildings are prone to
ice dams.
yy Some porous materials (e.g., concrete, concrete

masonry units and brick) can tolerate a great deal
of wetting for extended periods, but must be dry
before coatings, tapes, adhesives or interior finish
materials are applied. For example, a water-based
emulsion used as a spray-applied drain plane
may not cure correctly if applied to saturated
concrete masonry walls. Installing paper-covered
gypsum board next to a wet concrete wall can
result in mold growth on the gypsum board.
Review the location of plumbing lines and chilled

water lines; check cold water and chilled water
lines for vapor barrier and insulation details; review
plumbing system commissioning and testing
requirements (e.g., pressure testing, start-up, owner
training).
Review enclosure commissioning requirements.
Review mechanical systems for:
yy Indoor humidity control.
Dehumidifying after closing in the building, but

before the HVAC system is operational.
yy Pipe and duct insulation and vapor control.

yy Air pressure relationship requirements (e.g.,
accidental depressurization of air-conditioned
buildings, rooms or cavities in hot humid or
mixed humid climates; accidental pressurization
of buildings in cold climates).
Commissioning and testing the enclosure, plumbing

and HVAC systems.
Responding to moisture and mold problems that
happen in spite of these efforts.
yy Location of air conditioning equipment within

thermal and air enclosures, drain pan slope
and positive drainage, insulation specifications,
adequate room around equipment for proper
installation of drains, and access panels.
yy Surveillance.
yy Emergency response.
yy Drying, clean-up and repair.
yy Clearance.
yy Mold-resistant materials in custodial closets,

bathrooms, toilets and other areas that will get
wet.
Guidance 3: Identify the parties responsible for

implementing each portion of the moisture control
plan.
Review mechanical system commissioning and

testing requirements (e.g., test and balance, duct
tightness testing, start-up and operator training).
72
Review moisture content test procedures before

installing or closing in porous materials (e.g.,
concrete).
Verification of Pre-Construction Planning

Written meeting notes, modified construction
documents, plans for controlling moisture problems
during construction, planned emergency responses to
moisture problems during construction, and lists of
the parties responsible for installation, supervision,
inspection, and testing of moisture control design
elements provide verification of the process followed
and the decisions made.
Present concerns, cautions and alternatives to the

owner and design team for discussion and final
disposition.
Guidance 2: Formalize the results of the discussions
and decisions made under Guidance 1 into changes
in the construction documents, shop drawings and
submittals.
Guidance 3: Schedule required inspection and testing
of moisture control elements (who, when, results
and remedies) so these activities can be completed
while moisture control details are exposed and can be
inspected.
73
Site Drainage Construction
Issue
Minimize potential for runoff:

Avoid clearing or grading stream buffers; forest
conservation areas; wetlands, springs and seeps;
soils highly susceptible to erosion; steep slopes;
environmental features; and runoff infiltration
areas.
Improper site drainage can cause water from rain and

snowmelt to damage the building and its components
during and after construction. Mistakes made in
constructing drainage systems can be difficult and
expensive to fix if they are discovered after structures
are in place. Repeated flooding caused by poorly
constructed drainage systems can lead to moisture
damage, high insurance costs and increased liability
for building owners.
Group construction activities into phases to limit

soil exposure. Limit activities to the current phase
to decrease the time soil is exposed.
Begin immediate efforts to stabilize exposed soils.
While the long-term goal is to establish permanently
stabilized soils, mulching, hydro-seeding or erosion
control matting may provide short-term protection.
Goals
Site Drainage Goal 1: Water from rain and snowmelt
does not damage the building or its components
Avoid cuts and grading of steep slopesgreater

than 15 percentwherever possible. If a steep
slope exists, diversions or a slope drain should be
used so all water flowing onto the slope is directed
away from the site to approved disposal areas.

does not damage the building or its contents after
construction.
Train construction staff in storm water management

practices.
Ensure positive drainage principles are met so water
drains from the site and away from the structure:
Guidance
does not damage the building or its components
yy Make certain water is moved away from the

building.
Guidance 1: Comply with National Pollutant

Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) requirements
for construction, as implemented by the relevant
authority: U.S. EPA, state government or local
government.21 Determine whether there are
applicable state or local erosion, sediment control
and storm water management requirements.
Obtain local erosion, sediment control and storm
water management permits, as necessary, prior to
construction.
yy Make sure obstructions around the building and

site (e.g., dirt and gravel stockpiles, silt fencing)
do not cause water to back up into the building.
yy Ensure water is not allowed to pond at low points

or in low areas, unless planned for.
Institute storm water management supervisory

roles and responsibilities by clearly describing
each contractors responsibilities. Specify who will
inspect the features and how often.22
does not damage the building or its contents after
construction.
Guidance 2: Comply with design requirements for

maintaining water management during construction.
If design requirements are not provided, comply with
the following recommended minimum.
See http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/authorizationstatus.cfm to determine whether EPA or your state is the relevant authority. See http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/
const.cfm for the federal requirements. Accessed November 6, 2013.
21
22
For more information see http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/ index.cfm?action=min_measure&min_measure_id=4. Accessed November 6, 2013.
74
Documenting grades and slopes for drainage

systems.
Guidance 1: Identify the water control elements

of the site design, such as finish grading and
sloping requirements, and the infiltration, retention
or detention controls. Work with the design team
to interpret and modify the drainage systems if
necessary.
Guidance 3: Ensure all temporary water control

systems, such as silt fences, have been removed.
Verification of Site Drainage Construction
Guidance 2: Ensure drainage systems are installed or

constructed as specified in the construction document
by supervising, inspecting and documenting
construction and installation of the site water control
elements. Examples include:
Create and use inspection checklists to document

construction and installation. The material in this
chapter can be helpful in identifying items to include
in such checklists.
Determining finished grade slope around the

building foundation by measuring the change in
height over distance.
75
Foundation Construction
Preventing high-humidity conditions when crawl

spaces are enclosed by the overhead floor deck by:
Issue
As the interface between a building and the
supporting soil, most foundation materials can
tolerate wet conditions for long periods of time
without deteriorating. However, the foundation must
be dry enough to permit the installation of damp-proof
coatings and materials used to form the insulation,
air barrier, vapor control and finish portions of the
foundation walls and floors. Failure to properly
construct a foundation can lead to problems that
are extremely difficult and expensive to fix once a
building is constructed.
yy Sloping the earth in the crawl space to direct

water to a disposal location; installing a vapor
barrier over the earthen floor as soon as possible.
NOTE: If the crawl space has a concrete slab, the
vapor barrier will be part of the slab detailing.
yy Monitoring the relative humidity to determine
whether dehumidification is needed; controlling
humidity in the crawl space to less than 65
percent RH using ventilation, if outdoor air dew
points are lower than 55F, or with dehumidifiers.
Foundation Construction Goal 1: Keep foundation

assembly materials dry during construction.
Designate someone to conduct concrete moisture

content or water vapor emission tests. Document
tests, results and remedies. Appendix C contains
an overview of testing the moisture content of
materials during construction.
Foundation Construction Goal 2: Construct

foundations to effectively implement the moisture
control systems in the design drawings and
specifications.
Foundation Construction Goal 2: Construct

foundations to effectively implement the moisture
control systems in the design drawings and
specifications.
Foundation Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation

and maintenance materials regarding continued
effective moisture protection for foundations.
Guidance 1: Install foundation rainwater control,

insulation, air barrier and water vapor control in
accordance with construction documents. Implement
quality assurance program for:
Guidance
Exterior drainage and foundation wall damp-proof

coatings.
Foundation Construction Goal 1: Keep foundation

assembly materials dry during construction.
Capillary breaks at footings and at the top of the

foundation wall.
Goals
Insulation, air barrier and water vapor control.
Guidance 1: Implement the moisture control plan for

the construction phase, which should cover:
Air barrier and thermal insulation systems.
Site drainage to control water in foundations during

construction.
Foundation Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation

and maintenance materials regarding continued
effective moisture protection for foundations.
Response strategies for water problems that occur

during construction (e.g., have pumps available for
emergency response to heavy rains).
Guidance 1: Provideor direct contractors,

subcontractors or manufacturers to provide
operation and maintenance information required to
maintain moisture control elements of the foundations
including:
Drying concrete and masonry walls and slabs before

installing interior wall insulation, interior gypsum
board wall covering and interior slab finishes.
76
Signs of foundation drainage or damp-proofing

failure.
log books, test results and photographs. The

parties identified in the construction documents
or contracts should conduct testing as required
by the design or for internal quality assurance.
Archive the installation documentation, checklists,
photographs, log books and test results. Provide
required incidental labor, materials and equipment
to support third-party testing.
Frequency of inspection.
Method of repairing problems.
Verification of Foundation Construction

Document quality assurance programs for the
installation of the hygrothermal control elements
of the enclosure. Document inspection quality
assurance testing and functional tests with field
Develop written operations and maintenance

information, as required by contract.
77
Wall Construction
Guidance 1: Install moisture control elements

designed to meet the criteria specified in the
construction documents. Implement quality
assurance programs for the hygrothermal control
systems. Provide required incidental labor,
materials and equipment to support third-party
testing.
Issue
Care must be taken during wall construction to
keep moisture-sensitive construction materials dry.
Moisture-sensitive wall materials that get wet during
construction may grow mold, corrode or deteriorate.
Walls must be constructed according to design
specifications to incorporate moisture and moldprevention measures.
Inspect and verify moisture, air and heat flow control

details at these vulnerable locations:
Goals
Cladding.
Flashing above and below windows, doors and
intake and exhaust openings.
Wall Construction Goal 1: Keep wall materials dry

Through-flashing details where a lower story roof,

balcony or deck intersects upper story walls.
Wall Construction Goal 2: Construct walls to

effectively implement moisture control systems in the
design drawings and specifications.
Building drain planes: weather-resistant-barriers,

felt-paper and spray-applied membranes.
Insulation layer: Inspect the insulation layer for
continuity.
Wall Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation and

maintenance materials regarding continued effective
moisture protection for walls.
Air barrier: Air seal and insulate wall and ceiling

areas that will be made inaccessible by interior
framing or fixtures. These areas include:
Guidance
yy Staircases, bathtubs, showers and cabinets

installed against exterior walls.
Wall Construction Goal 1: Keep wall materials dry

yy Soffits beneath insulated ceilings, where interior

walls meet exterior walls.
Guidance 1: Take the steps developed in the

moisture control plan to ensure that materials meant
to remain dry, stay dry. Examine and reject materials
that arrive contaminated with mold. Store materials in
a clean, dry area protected from water (e.g., covered
and raised on pallets). Test the moisture content of
porous materials (e.g., those that can easily store
a great deal of liquid water) before closing them in
cavities or applying adhesives or finishes to them.
yy Areas around elevator and stair shafts.

yy Air seal and insulate around windows and doors
before applying interior finishes.
yy Plan air-sealing activities (e.g., caulking and
foaming) so they can be performed and inspected
easily and efficiently.
Sequence delivery and installation of materials so
the critical elements of moisture protection can be
installed readily. For example, in a wall constructed
with a brick veneer/foam board insulation/sprayapplied membrane drain plane-air barrier/concrete
masonry wall, the membrane must be applied
before the foam board, and the foam board applied
before the brick veneer is installed. All these
materials must be on site and subcontractors must
be scheduled, or else a wall or portions of a wall
Guidance 2: Document moisture control efforts

undertaken during construction.
Wall Construction Goal 2: Construct walls to
effectively implement moisture control systems in the
design drawings and specifications.
78
Verification of Wall Construction
may end up without the spray-applied membrane or

foam insulation behind the brick veneer.

of the enclosure. Document inspection quality
photographs, log books and test results.
Wall Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation and

maintenance materials regarding continued effective
moisture protection for walls.
Guidance 1: Provide or direct contractors,
subcontractors or manufacturers to provide operation
and maintenance information required to maintain
moisture control elements of the wall assemblies
including:
Identifying signs of cladding failure.

Inspection frequency.
79
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Construction
Issue
control systems. Provide required incidental labor,

materials and equipment to support third-party
testing.
Construct roof assemblies according to design

specifications that incorporate moisture- and moldprevention measures. Take care to keep moisturesensitive materials dry during construction. Moisturesensitive roof assembly materials that get wet during
construction may grow mold, corrode or deteriorate.
Inspect and verify details to control moisture, air

flow and heat flow at these vulnerable locations:
yy Roofing slope, installation.
yy Flashing at roof edges, gutters, roof drains,
valleys, chimneys, dormers, skylights, equipment
curbs, pipe penetrations, structural support for
railing, signs, fences and screens.
Goals
Roof Construction Goal 1: Keep roof assembly
materials dry during construction.
yy Through-flashing details where a lower story roof

intersects upper story walls.
Roof Construction Goal 2: Construct roof assemblies

to effectively implement the moisture control systems
in the design drawings and specifications.
yy Roofing paper, peel-and-stick bituminous

membranes.
yy Insulation layer inspect for continuity.
Roof Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation and

maintenance materials concerning continued effective
moisture protection for roof assemblies.
yy Soffit and roof peak ventilation openings, air

sealing and insulation details for vented roofs
that pitch to eaves.
yy Air barrier:
Guidance
yy Air seal the joints between materials that form

the air barrier (e.g., foam board, gypsum board
thermal barrier and concrete plank or poured
concrete roof deck). NOTE: Fluted metal decks
are difficult to use as an air barrier and require
special detailing in order to be used as one.
Roof Construction Goal 1: Keep roof assembly

materials dry during construction.
Guidance 1: Follow the steps in the moisture control
plan to ensure that materials meant to remain dry,
stay dry. Examine and reject materials that arrive
contaminated with mold. Store materials in a clean,
dry area protected from water (e.g., covered and
raised on pallets). Test the moisture content of porous
materials (e.g., those that can easily store a great
deal of liquid water) before closing them in cavities or
applying adhesives or finishes to them.
yy Air seal between the roof air barrier material

and the wall air barrier material.
yy Air seal and insulate the edge of fluted
metal decks, parapet wall, equipment curbs,
skylights, gaps around elevator shafts and other
areas that will be made inaccessible by interior
framing, equipment hung from ceilings, pipes,
ducts and ceilings.
Roof Construction Goal 2: Construct roof assemblies

to effectively implement the moisture control systems
in the design drawings and specifications.
yy Plan air-sealing activities (e.g., caulking

and foaming) so they can be performed and
inspected easily and efficiently.
Sequence the delivery and installation of
materials so the critical elements of moisture
protection can be readily installed. For
example, if the air barrier in a low-slope roof
Guidance 1: Properly install the moisture control

elements designed to meet the criteria specified
in the construction documents. Implement
quality assurance programs for the hygrothermal
80
Verification of Roof and Ceiling Assembly

Construction
system is to be made using two layers of

foam board sheets with the joints staggered
and taped, it is critical that the correct tape
is on hand when the foam board is being
placed.

of the enclosure. Document inspections, quality
photographs, log books and test results. Provide
required incidental labor, materials and equipment
to support third-party testing.
Plan air-sealing efforts (e.g., caulking,

foaming and membrane installation) so they
can be accomplished and inspected easily
and efficiently.
Roof Construction Goal 3: Prepare operation and
maintenance materials concerning continued effective
moisture protection for roof assemblies.
moisture control elements of the roof assemblies. The
builders responsibilities should be spelled out in the
contracts and may include:

Signs of roofing and roof penetration failure.

81
Plumbing System Installation
Issue
installation so testing can be done before piping and

components are closed in. This may require separately
testing sub-sections of the plumbing systems.
Plumbing-related water problems can occur as

the result of leaks and other accidental releases
of plumbing water from charged systems during
construction. Delayed problems can occur because of
errors in installing water supply lines, drain lines and
appliances.
Guidance 2: Follow construction documents when

installing plumbing systems.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 1: Install water

supply lines, drain lines and appliances to prevent
pre- and post-occupancy leaks and to facilitate the
discovery and repair of problems during construction
and post-construction occupancy.
Guidance 3: Install plumbing so that it is easy to

access and repair. Orient valves, pipes and other key
components in locations where leaks will be easily
noticed and that are most accessible for inspection
and repair. Where appropriate, label key components
or affix instructions and diagrams to aid others
in accessing and repairing plumbing. These aids
may include diagrams of flow directions and valve
locations and functions.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 2: Install pipe

insulation and water vapor controls on cold water lines
and appliances.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 2: Install pipe

insulation and water vapor controls on cold water lines
and appliances.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 3: Install materials

that will minimize mold growth in unavoidably wet
areas.
Guidance 1: Install plumbing system insulation and

water vapor controls in accordance with construction
documents. Protect porous insulating and paperbased water-vapor-control materials from rainwater.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 4: Prepare

operation and maintenance materials concerning
continued effective moisture protection for plumbing
systems.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 3: Install materials

that will minimize mold growth in unavoidably wet
areas.
Guidance
Guidance 1: Install moisture- and mold-resistant

materials in unavoidably wet spaces in accordance
with design documents.
Goals
Plumbing System Installation Goal 1: Install water

supply lines, drain lines and appliances to prevent
pre- and post-occupancy leaks and to facilitate the
discovery and repair of problems during construction
and post-construction occupancy.
Plumbing System Installation Goal 4: Prepare

operation and maintenance materials concerning
continued effective moisture protection for plumbing
systems.
Guidance 1: Review construction documents and

prepare shop drawings and submittals that ensure
pipes are not located in exterior walls and ceilings
that contain porous insulation. NOTE: If pipes
must be located in an exterior wall or ceiling,
install a continuous, air-sealed layer of closed-cell
foam insulation between the pipe and the exterior
sheathing, curtain wall or roof deck. Schedule

plumbing systems, appliances, fixtures and moistureresistant materials used in wet rooms. Among the
topics that should be covered are potable water,
bathing and wash water, waste water, hydronic heating
82
systems, chilled water cooling systems, spa and pool

systems, washrooms, custodial closets and locker
rooms. The builders responsibilities for training
materials should be spelled out in the contracts and
may include:
performing tests. Use installation checklists and

provide signed documentation of all test results.
Pressure test water supply lines while they are
exposed for inspection (i.e., before they are
enclosed or insulated). At a minimum, pressure
test water supply lines according to section 312.5
of the International Plumbing Code or the relevant
sections of applicable local codes.
Signs of plumbing system failure and hydronic

heating and cooling system failure.
Test the drain and vent side of the plumbing system

when all lines are exposed for easy inspection and
repair in accordance with design specifications
and as required by relevant building codes. At a
minimum, gravity test the drain and vent side of
the system according to sections 312.2, 312.3
and 312.4 of the International Plumbing Code or
relevant sections of other applicable local codes.
Verification of Plumbing System Installation

Inspect installation of plumbing system insulation
and water vapor controls. Document inspections
with field log books and photographs. Quality
assurance is crucial to ensure complete coverage
with insulation and water vapor control on joints
and seams and where pipes interface with other
equipment (e.g., pumps, valves, tanks). Document
the inspections with signed checklists, log books
and photographs.
Inspect plumbing and surrounding fixtures located

in unavoidably wet areas to ensure the use of
moisture- and mold-resistant materials. Document
the inspections with signed checklists, log books
and photographs.
Inspect plumbing for acceptability of installation

and materials, for compliance with design
documents, and for access to lines before
83
HVAC System Installation
Issue
construction. Plan the required inspection and

testingwho, when, results and remediesso these
activities can be completed before the plumbing,
ductwork and other components are closed in. In
addition, plan the installation sequence so testing can
be done before system components are closed in.
Improper installation of HVAC systems can create

condensation and moisture-control problems.
Examples include:
Inadequate dehumidification and pressurization
performance of the HVAC system, which can lead to
occupant discomfort and mold growth.
Guidance 2: Take steps to ensure that equipment

and materials meant to remain dry, stay dry. Prepare a
list of equipment and materials that must be kept dry,
actions planned to protect them during construction,
and responses if they get wet.
Condensation on HVAC equipment components,

which can damage components, increase
maintenance costs, decrease component and
system lifespan and lead to mold growth.
Schedule the delivery of HVAC system components

so they can be protected immediately from
rainwater and plumbing leaks. Uninsulated,
galvanized ductwork can tolerate some wetting,
but air handlers, insulated components, electronic
components, chillers, compressors and controls all
need positive protection from weather and moisture.
Inadequate drainage of collected condensate or

other water, which can result in moisture damage to
the building and its contents and to mold growth.
Inadequate ventilation of indoor humidity sources
(e.g., showers, bathrooms, spas and kitchens),
which can lead to mold growth and deterioration.
Schedule the installation of HVAC components for

when the building or a portion of the building has
been made weather-tight.
Goals
HVAC System Installation Goal 1: Keep HVAC
equipment and materials dry during construction and
provide temperature and humidity control as required
during the close-in phase of construction.
Inspect insulated ductwork and components for

moisture damage and mold growth when they are
received and before they are installed.
Guidance 3: Control temperature and humidity during
the close-in phase of construction. Plan the transition
from unconditioned interior space to conditioned
interior space in conjunction with the designers and
owners:
HVAC System Installation Goal 2: Install HVAC

systems to effectively implement moisture control as
specified in the design drawings and specifications.
HVAC System Installation Goal 3: Prepare operation
and maintenance materials for continued performance
of HVAC system moisture control.
Identify situations and processes that will require

humidity control for installation and drying of
materials. For example, concrete slabs may need
to be dried before finish flooring goes down; belowgrade concrete walls may need to be dry before
interior insulation and finishes are installed;
and temperature and humidity may need to be
controlled before painting or varnishing takes place.
Guidance
HVAC System Installation Goal 1: Keep HVAC
equipment and materials dry during construction and
provide temperature and humidity control as required
during the close-in phase of construction.
Use the permanent HVAC systems to provide

required conditioning, if possible. Follow the
guidance in Duct Cleanliness for New Construction
Guidelines (SMACNA 2010).
Guidance 1: Plan when and how the HVAC

equipment will be energized and used during
84
If the permanent HVAC equipment cannot be

used, plan for temporary heating, cooling and
dehumidification. NOTE: Non-vented combustion
devices add a great deal of water vapor as well as
heat to a space and cannot be used to dehumidify.

moisture control elements of the HVAC system
components. The builders responsibilities should be
spelled out in the contracts and may include:
HVAC System Installation Goal 2: Install HVAC

systems to effectively implement moisture control
systems in the design drawings and specifications.
Implement quality assurance programs for the
hygrothermal control systems. Provide required
incidental labor, materials and equipment to support
third-party testing.
Requirements for filters, coils, condensate drainage

systems, ductwork, piping, insulation and vapor
barriers, pumps, valves, fans, belts, lubrication and
controls.
Guidance 1: Plan required inspectionswho, when,

results and remediesso they can be completed
before HVAC components, particularly the distribution
systems, are closed in.
Verification of HVAC System Installation
Methods of repairing problems.
Write a plan for moisture control in regard to

HVAC equipment and dedicated drying equipment
during construction. Use photographs, log books
and written reports to document moisture-control
activities, water problems and responses to water
problems.
Guidance 2: Install HVAC systems, condensation

collection and drainage systems, system insulation,
air barriers and water vapor controls in accordance
with construction documents.
Drain pans, drain pan outlets, traps and disposal.
Parties identified in the construction documents or

contracts should perform tests as required by the
design or for internal quality assurance. These tests
include:
HVAC ductwork including seams and sealing prior

to the installation of duct insulation.
yy Creating air pressure difference maps for each

mode of operation.
Insulation and vapor retarders on exposed surfaces

that are expected to be below the dew point of
ambient air (e.g., chilled water lines, refrigerant
lines, air conditioning air handlers and chillers),
especially at transitions (e.g., penetrations through
walls, floors and ceilings; support clamps; valves;
dampers; pumps; blowers; and gauges).
yy Testing for air duct tightness targetbefore

installation of ductwork insulation.
Access panels to allow inspection and maintenance

of HVAC components (e.g., air handlers, filters,
coils, drain pans and the supply duct near the air
handler).
yy Performing other tests and inspections required

by the commissioning plan.
Inspect the installation of:
yy Testing drainage of condensate drain pans in air

conditioners.
yy Testing, adjusting and balancing the HVAC
system as designed.
The tests and inspections should be documented

with field log books, moisture content and vapor
emission tests, and photographs.
Exhaust ventilation systems for duct sealing,

insulation and vapor control.

HVAC System Installation Goal 3: Prepare operation

and maintenance materials for continued performance
of HVAC system moisture control.
85
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials. 2003. Standard test
method for determining air leakage rate by fan pressurization.
E779-03. Pennsylvania. American Society for Testing and
Materials.
Mold Litigation Task Force of the Associated General Contractors

of America, Inc. 2003. Managing the risk of mold in the
construction of buildings. CONSTRUCTOR. http://www.agc.
org/galleries/conrm/may03_mold.pdf. Accessed November 6,
2013.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1996. Standard

test methods for determining airtightness of buildings using
an orifice blower door. E1827-96. Pennsylvania. American
Society for Testing and Materials.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2005.

Authorization Status for EPAs Stormwater Construction and
Industrial Programs: States, Indian Country and Territories
Where EPAs Construction General Permit (CGP) and MultiSector General Permit (MSGP) Apply. Washington, DC:
United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://cfpub.
epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/authorizationstatus.cfm. Accessed
November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines the relevant authorityU.S.
EPA, state, or local governmentfor compliance with
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System [NPDES]
requirements for construction in a given state.)

Engineers. 2004. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Standard 62.1.
Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
occupancies plus a number of design, operation and
situations.)

Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control. Washington,
DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://
cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.
November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines best management practices [BMPs] for
controlling storm water runoff at construction sites.)
International Code Council. 2003. ICC International Plumbing

Code. Sections 312.2 - 312.5. Washington, DC: International
Code Council.
(Sections 312.2 to 312.5 of these codes specify a gravity
test of the drain and vent side of plumbing systems.)

Stormwater Discharges from Construction Activities:
Overview. Washington, DC: http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/
stormwater/const.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines the federal requirements for complying
with National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
[NPDES] requirements for construction.)
86
Chapter 4: Operating and Maintaining Moisture-Controlled

Environments
Each section is concerned with regular inspection; the
cleaning, lubrication, repair or replacement that may
result from the inspection; and the documenting of
inspections and responses. Several of these sections
require the development of specific operation and
maintenance plans. The section-specific plans can be
assembled into a master moisture-control plan.
INTRODUCTION
The people who keep buildings workingthe HVAC
mechanics, carpenters, plumbers, electricians,
engineers, custodians and managersinherit the
good points and the bad points of the design and
construction.
This chapter consists of the following sections:
Site Drainage Maintenance.
Foundation Maintenance.
Wall Maintenance.
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Maintenance.
Plumbing System Operation and Maintenance.
HVAC System Operation and Maintenance.
87
Table 4-1 Troubleshooting Common Indoor Water Problems

SYMPTOMS
Mold growth
MOISTURE PROBLEM
Leaks in the building
enclosure due to problems
with rain and groundwater
controls
POTENTIAL CAUSES
DESIGN
Missing or poorly designed
details
CONSTRUCTION
Missing flashing or
building wrap
O&M
Failure to identify and
repair settled grading near
foundation
Incorrect sloping
Damaged sub-grade
drainage
Damaged flashing on
rooftop air handler curb
Missing shingles
Insufficient
dehumidification by HVAC
system(a)
Air conditioning equipment Failure to properly wire

oversized
humidity sensors
Chilled-water temperature
set-point too warm
Air conditioning equipment

not designed for sufficient
dehumidification at design
and part load
Economizer set-point that

allows introduction of
humid outdoor air
Continuously running
air handler regardless of
cooling demand
Condensation on dirty
surfaces inside HVAC
systems
Wet materials enclosed in

building assemblies
Poor condensate drain

design
Failure to clean HVAC

system cooling coils
Air handler inside surfaces

insulated or hard to clean
Clogged drain pan
Moisture-sensitive
materials shown touching
porous materials that are
likely to get wet
No values for moisture
content or emission given
in the specifications
Peeling paint
Wood decay
Corrosion
Leaks in the building

enclosure due to problems
with rain and groundwater
controls
Missing or poorly designed

details
Flooring placed on slab

while it is too damp
Vapor emission tests on
slab may not have been
conducted
Missing flashing or
building wrap
Failure to seal penetrations

during maintenance, repair
or installation of new
equipment
Failure to identify and

repair settled grading near
foundation
Incorrect sloping
Damaged sub-grade
drainage
Damaged flashing on
rooftop air handler curb
Missing shingles
Plumbing leaks
and spills
Improper design
Improper installation
during construction
Improper operations and
maintenance practice
Water travels to
materials that
cannot tolerate
wetting
Capillary action (water

wicks through porous
building materials such as
concrete or wood)
Locating water lines in

a space that reaches
freezing temperatures
Poorly designed shower
pan
Moisture barrier omitted
from building design
Drainage layer beneath
slab omitted from building
design
88
Defective pipe joining

Accidental penetration
of pipe by one or more
drywall screws
Moisture barrier
not installed during
construction
Drainage barrier
not installed during
construction
Failure to inspect
plumbing and repair
problems
Table 4-1 Continued

SYMPTOMS
Condensation
MOISTURE PROBLEM
Warm, moist outside air
enters enclosure through
cracks and holes during
warm, humid weather(b)
Warm, moist indoor air

leaves enclosure through
cracks and holes during
cold weather(c)
POTENTIAL CAUSES
DESIGN
Air barrier omitted from
building design
Building design did not
call for positive pressure
operation of the building
Air barrier omitted from
building design
CONSTRUCTION
Controls poorly
implemented during
construction (e.g.,
concrete block left out of a
soffit area)
Air barrier installed poorly
Holes cut in well-installed

Air barrier detailed for attic air barrier to permit
assembly is impossible to
passage of wire, conduit
install
or ducts
Building designed to
operate at positive
pressure in an extremely
cold climate
Vapor barriers installed

improperly in exterior walls
Vapor barrier specified

on both sides of a wall
assembly
Vapor barrier specified on
interior surfaces in hot,
humid climates
Non-vented or poorly
vented moisture sources
(e.g., swimming pools,
spas, aquariums,
dishwashers, combustion
devices, kitchens and
showers)
Delamination
Improper curing
Wet materials enclosed in

building assemblies
HVAC system design

omitted exhaust ventilation
for moisture sources
Insufficient exhaust
ventilation specified in
HVAC system design
Moisture-sensitive
materials shown touching
porous materials that are
likely to get wet
No values for moisture
content or emission given
in the specifications
O&M
Failure to reseal access

holes cut through an
assembly
Changes in HVAC
system operations cause
building to run at positive
pressurization
Unintentional vapor
barriers such as vinyl
wall covering, mirrors or
blackboards installed on
inside of exterior walls in
hot, humid climate (can
create a vapor barrier on
the cold side of the wall)
Vinyl wall covering, mirrors

or blackboards added on
inside of exterior walls in
hot, humid climate (can
create a vapor barrier on
the cold side of the wall)
Exhaust duct leaks
Broken belt in a fan
Poor balancing on
multiple-inlet exhaust
systems
Clogged exhaust grilles or

ducts
Exhaust dampers closed

Flooring placed on slab
while it is too damp
Vapor emission tests on
slab may not have been
conducted
This problem may also occur during the bidding, contract negotiation or value engineering phases of a project when, for example, different air
conditioning equipment is substituted for the equipment called for in the design.
(a)
The air leak may be due to holes in the enclosure made by occupants, contractors or maintenance personnel, or it may have been caused by changes
in the control sequence of outdoor air and exhaust systems.
(b)
(c)
The problem of indoor condensation can be greatly aggravated if there are large sources of humidity inside the building.
89
Site Drainage Maintenance
Definitions of the maintenance activities necessary

to keep each drainage feature operating as
intended. Examples include:
Issue
Failure to maintain drainage systems can lead to
unexpected flooding during events of heavy rain or
snowmelt, causing extensive property damage.
yy Cleaning debris from diversion systems to

prevent water flow from being obstructed.
yy Removing sediment from the bottom of swales
(See Appendix F for sample checklists).
Goals
Maintenance agreements and contacts. If

contractors are responsible for some or all of the
maintenance requirements, list the contractors
names, contact information and responsibilities.
Site Drainage Goal 1: Facility maintenance systems

and preventive maintenance plans effectively address
site drainage.
Site Drainage Goal 2: All runoff from parking lots,
sidewalks and other impermeable or low-permeability
surfaces is diverted to a designed drainage system.
Guidance 2: Develop and implement a preventive

maintenance plan to maintain parking lots, sidewalks
and other impermeable surfaces.
Site Drainage Goal 3: Future site development or

building modifications or additions do not interfere
with existing site drainage systems.
Read, understand and comply with the designers

inspection and maintenance requirements or best
management practices for impervious surfaces.
Guidance
Develop an inspection checklist and logbook (See

Appendix F for sample checklists).
Site Drainage Goal 1: Facility maintenance systems

and preventive maintenance plans effectively address
site drainage.
Site Drainage Goal 2: All runoff from parking lots,

sidewalks and other impermeable or low-permeability
surfaces is diverted to a designed drainage system.
Guidance 1: Develop and implement a preventive

maintenance plan for landscaping and engineered
structures. The purpose of the plan is to ensure that
all drainage systems serve the purpose for which they
were designed. The plan should include:
Guidance 1: Ensure that actions such as plowing

snow from sidewalks and parking lots do not obstruct
drainage or pile snow against the building.
Guidance 2: Inform all lawn-care subcontractors and
landscapers about drainage systems on the site so
their work does not interfere with the drainage. Have
them watch for drainage problems as they work.
An introduction and general information.

yy Name and contact information for persons
responsible for operation and maintenance.
Site Drainage Goal 3: Future site development or

building modifications or additions do not interfere
with existing site drainage systems.
yy A narrative overview describing the site and the

theory of operation of the drainage systems.
A definition of the inspection requirements for each
drainage feature.
Guidance 1: Make sure changes such as additional

parking areas (even dirt parking areas) do not
overburden existing system capacity or redirect runoff
into buildings. Even small projects such as adding
planters or walkways can affect infiltration capacity
and redirect runoff.
yy Inspection frequency should be specified (See

Appendix C).
yy What to look for.
90
Verification of Site Drainage Maintenance
Guidance 2: Persons charged with maintaining

drainage systems should participate in the design of
any development or building modification.
Keep and maintain records of all inspections,

including completed checklists. Include photographs
and test reports so that changes in conditions can be
verified.
91
Foundation Maintenance
Issue
Guidance 2: Inspect the interior of the foundation.

Inspect the foundation for changes in existing
cracks and for new cracks that might indicate water
problems.
Rainwater and snowmelt can cause unwanted

moisture intrusion through the foundation of a
building. Foundations are vulnerable to chronic
moisture problems from rainwater, ground water,
plumbing leaks, and condensation. Regular
inspection, particularly of areas not ordinarily
occupied, is critical to reduce the risk of serious
damage to the foundation and the risk of adverse
health effects to the occupants.
Check the condition and operation of the sump

crock, drains and pump.
Look for signs of seepage or wicking (e.g., water
stains, damp materials, efflorescence, peeling
paint or mold growth) on foundation materials and
interior finishes.
Check for musty odors.
Goals
Look for swollen, warped or moldy wooden

materials.
Foundation Drainage Goal 1: Foundation drainage

systems divert water away from the structure.
Determine the temperature and relative humidity.

Record the date, time and operation of mechanical
systems, the temperature and the relative humidity.
Guidance
Foundation Drainage Goal 1: Foundation drainage
systems divert all water away from the structure.
Look for stained carpet, sheet or vinyl composition

tile (VCT) floors with blisters and for bubbles
indicating adhesive failures as well as adhesives
oozing from joints between tile.
Guidance 1: Inspect the exterior of the foundation

and the surrounding landscape.
Look for condensation on pipes, tanks, toilets,

pumps, ducts, walls and floors.
Check whether the surrounding landscape diverts

water away from the building envelope. Note any
soil settlement or pooled rainwater.
Verification of Foundation Maintenance
Check the condition of roof drain leaders.
Document inspections and responses using a

checklist and work order system.
Inspect the foundation for changes in existing

cracks and for new cracks that might indicate water
problems.
Inspect the intersection and slope of sidewalks,
patios and pavements with the adjoining building
for potential seepage.
Look for newly sprouted or planted trees near drain
lines. Remove or prune as needed.
Check exterior plumbing fixtures, hoses and
irrigation lines for leaks.
Conduct inspections semi-annually and after heavy
rains or rapid melting of snow.
92
Wall Maintenance
Issue
Figure 4-1 Interior Wall Showing Water Damage and

Mold
Failure to properly inspect and maintain interior

and exterior walls can result in moisture problems
going unnoticed or unrepaired. Unnoticed damage to
walls can lead to a need to repair multiple building
components at high cost and can create health risks
associated with mold growth in the interior of walls.
Goals
Wall Maintenance Goal 1: Create and operate
verification and inspection systems to detect potential
moisture problems before harm is done.
Wall Maintenance Goal 2: Effectively maintain walls
to prevent moisture problems, as intended by the
design.
Guidance
Wall Maintenance Goal 1: Create and operate
verification and inspection systems to detect potential
moisture problems before harm is done.
Guidance 1: Conduct inspections, record the results

and make necessary repairs.
Guidance 1: Develop inspection checklists and

record-keeping systems.
Inspect walls periodically and after heavy winds and

rains. Conducting inspections during each season is
recommended.
Develop a wall assembly manual and logbook.

Include the type of wall, contractor information,
maintenance procedures, a record of inspections
and related items.
Check interior walls and ceilings for signs of water

damage or staining (See Figure 4-1).
Develop a wall assembly inspection checklist.

Use it as a guide for evaluating masonry units,
flashings and counter flashings, caps and drainage
assemblies.
Inspect exterior walls and roof overhangs:

yy Look for signs of moisture, cracking or
movement.
yy Look for cracked, loose or spalled units on brick
masonry walls.
Develop elevation drawings to map and locate

problems found during the inspections.
yy Inspect joints for deteriorated mortar.
Develop and keep inspection and repair records

for all exterior walls, including before and after
pictures to document results of maintenance and
repair activities.
yy Look for mold or algae growth.

yy Be aware that ivy growing on brick walls can
penetrate voids in mortar and may lead to
moisture penetration.
Wall Maintenance Goal 2: Effectively maintain walls

to prevent moisture problems, as intended by the
design.
93
yy Open weep holes by probing with a wood dowel or

stiff wire. NOTE: Care must be taken to prevent
damaging flashing when cleaning weeps.
Identify and repair problems before they cause

water damage to walls.
Incorporate the results of each inspection into the
users manual and logbook.
Inspect caulking and sealants at junctions of the

brickwork and other materials such as windows,
doors and expansion joints.
Verification of Wall Maintenance
Inspect flashings and counter flashings. Look for

loose flashing or missing fasteners, open ends or
lap joints, unsealed corners, and rusted or corroded
metal.
Incorporate completed inspection forms and

completed checklists into the users manual and
logbook.
94
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Maintenance
yy Installation contractor information.
ISSUE
yy Roof, ceiling assembly and drainage system

manufacturers.
Roof and ceiling assemblies can deteriorate due to

normal wear, severe weather, building movement,
and improper design, construction and maintenance.
Failure to correct roof and ceiling problems quickly
can cause additional damage to the building envelope
and the interior of the building. Uncorrected roof
and ceiling problems can also cause loss of occupant
productivity, damage to building contents and failure
of structural integrity.
yy Warranty information.
yy Record of inspections.
Prepare a map showing all roof and ceiling
assembly features such as scuttles, HVAC
equipment, drains, gutters, downspouts, scuppers,
vents and roof angle changes. Use this map
to locate items of interest observed during the
inspection. (See Appendix B for a sample map of a
roof and ceiling assembly.)
GOALS
Roof Maintenance Goal 1: Facility maintenance
systems and preventive maintenance plans effectively
address moisture control issues for roof and ceiling
assemblies.
Roof Maintenance Goal 2: Moisture does not

penetrate roof and ceiling assemblies or collect in
exterior elements, except as intended by the design.
Roof Maintenance Goal 2: Moisture does not

penetrate roof and ceiling assemblies or collect in
exterior elements, except as intended by the design.
Guidance 1: Inspect the roof and ceiling assemblies to

determine whether they are performing their intended
functions; to identify signs of weakness, deterioration
or hazards; and to identify needed repairs.
GUIDANCE
Frequency of Inspection
Roof Maintenance Goal 1: Facility maintenance

systems and preventive maintenance plans effectively
address moisture control issues for roof and ceiling
assemblies.
Inspect semi-annually or in accordance with

manufacturers requirements and as soon as
possible after heavy winds or rains.
Conduct special inspections after events such as
construction on the roof or adjacent roofs, rooftop
equipment installation, fire or vandalism.
Guidance 1: Read, understand and comply with the

manufacturers or installation contractors warranty
terms and conditions.
Prepare for Inspections
Guidance 2: Develop tools for routine inspection and

maintenance.
Review, learn and follow roof safety procedures.

Review past inspection reports, construction
documents and past maintenance and repair reports
before inspecting the roof.
Develop a roof and ceiling assembly inspection

checklist (See Appendix B for a sample). Use it as
a guide for observing and evaluating the roof and its
systems, equipment mounted on the roof, drainage
problems and traffic patterns.
Conduct Inspections
Develop a roof and ceiling assembly users manual

and logbook. Include such information as:
Use ladders to inspect steep roofs. Ensure all

ladders comply with, and are maintained and
used in accordance with, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 29
yy The type of roof, gutter, external downspout

system and internal drain and cover.
95
CFR Occupational Safety and Health Regulation

requirements.
down each downspout and leader to check for

blockage. If blockage is suspected in a downspout
running through the interior of the building, snake
out the downspout or use a mechanical auger.
Do not use water to try to flush out an interior
downspout suspected of being blocked. If a roof
drain is blocked by ice, do not try to open it by
chipping or breaking the ice. Ensure that all joints
are properly sealed. Inspect masonry weep holes for
signs of dripping.
Do not rest ladders against gutters. When on the

roof, take care to step on the flat portions of the
panels over structural members and not on sidelaps or standing seams.
Inspect interior walls and ceilings for signs of water
penetration (i.e., water damage or staining) or
structural distress. If possible, check the underside
of the roof deck. Look for water or insect damage,
deterioration of the deck, rusting, settling or other
physical damage. Inspect the interior surface
of exterior walls and roof overhangs for signs of
moisture, cracking or movement.
Look for ponding or standing water on the roof. Pay

particular attention to areas around scuttles, curbs,
skylights and other features that may impede roof
drainage. Another indication of a failed drainage
system is accumulated debris on the roof. Remove
all litter and debris from the roof surface. Standing
water can damage the gravel and the granule
or liquid coatings on roofs. Once these coatings
are damaged, sunlight can degrade the roofing
membrane. Look in the gutters for mineral granules
from shingles, which may indicate that the shingles
are worn. A small penetration can allow standing
water to seep under the membrane. Deflection
may indicate structural problems that must be
addressed.
Inspect exterior walls and roof overhangs for signs

of moisture, cracking or movement. Inspect exterior
grounds around buildings for signs of ponding,
which may indicate blockage.
Inspect the roof covering and edge for continuity.
Look for deterioration, damaged or loose laps and
seams, loose or missing fasteners, rust or corrosion,
physical damage to the roof covering, and the
accumulation of debris and vegetation. Look for soft
roof insulation and cracked, spalled or discolored
walls.
Include non-destructive tests such as infrared

thermography or other appropriate tests if moisture
intrusion is suspected.
Inspect for moisture infiltration. Pay attention

to areas where walls or parapets intersect roofs,
around rooftop HVAC units, and around skylights or
other roof penetrations. Check for missing or broken
weather seals on equipment housings and cracked
or missing caulking.
Record and report inspection findings.

Report immediately any unsafe working conditions
or potential system failures.
Inspect flashings at roof-wall intersections and at

curbs. Look for loose flashing or missing fasteners,
open ends or lap joints, unsealed corners and
rusted or corroded metal. If caulk or roofing tar
has been used as a temporary repair, inspect for
cracks. Also inspect flashings around curbs, access
hatches and rooftop equipment. Where deflection is
required, make sure that roof panels and flashings
move independently.
Special Considerations for Membrane Roofs

Pay particular attention to areas between roof
trusses and beams, which are likely spots for roof
deflection.
Inspect the roof membrane for moisture intrusion.
Pay particular attention to the joints between two
sheets of membrane and to changes in the angle of
the roof:
Inspect hips, ridges and valleys. Look for loose or

missing fasteners, open ends or open lap joints,
damage from foot traffic and corroded metal. In
valleys, check to make sure the roof covering is
secured at the valley edges and that there are no
obstructions blocking water flow.
yy Built-up bituminous membrane roofs: Look for

blisters caused by the expansion of air or water
vapor trapped beneath. Also look for cracks in
the membrane, splits, ridges and lifting of the
membrane at the seams.
Inspect the drainage system. Check gutters and

downspouts for loose or missing fasteners, loose
joints, corrosion and debris. Make sure sealants and
solder are in good condition. Check downspouts,
interior roof drains, scuppers and outlets to ensure
they are not blocked. If possible, shine a flashlight
yy Elastomeric membranes: Look for open seams,

shrinkage and backed-out fasteners. Inspect the
roof for damage after windstorms. Pay particular
attention to the membrane surface, roof edge
metal, flashings, gutters and downspouts.
96
yy Ballasted roof systems: Look for missing or

displaced ballast and insulation boards beneath
the roof membrane.
roof facing down the slope to avoid spraying water up

under the shingles.
Guidance 2: Repair as needed to meet or exceed
warranty requirements.
yy Adhered roof systems: Look for loose areas of

the membrane, displaced insulation boards
and tented insulation fasteners and plates. On
mechanically attached roof systems, look for cuts
in the membrane, displaced insulation boards
and tented roof fasteners and plates. Inspect for
loose flashing. Also inspect rooftop HVAC units
for loose or missing sheet metal components.
Develop a maintenance work plan to correct deficient

conditions in a timely manner.
Verification of Roof and Ceiling Assembly

Maintenance
Incorporate the completed checklist and map into
the users manual and logbook upon completion of
each inspection.
Special Considerations for Asphalt Shingle Roofs

Pay particular attention to the tops of the vertical
slots between tabs. This area is usually the last to dry.
Moss and lichen growth on asphalt roofs keeps the
roofing materials damp, so use a water hose and
nozzle to remove moss and lichen. Spray from the
Keep and maintain records of all inspections,

including the checklist. Include photographs and
test reports so that changes in roof conditions can
be verified.
97
Plumbing System Operation and Maintenance
A schedule of regular inspections and routine

maintenance tasks.
Issue
Improperly maintained plumbing systems can cause
flooding or condensation build-up. Since plumbing
is often located in areas that are not often viewed by
occupants, poor maintenance can lead to unnoticed
mold growth that can damage the building and its
contents, as well as pose health risks to occupants.
Detailed logs of all preventive and corrective

maintenance tasks, including all maintenancerelated work orders.
Necessary maintenance equipment, tools and
supplies.
Emergency response actions.
Goals
Procedures and equipment necessary to protect the

safety and health of inspectors and maintenance
workers.
Plumbing Maintenance Goal 1: Plumbing systems

are inspected and maintained to prevent flooding or
condensation.
System component manufacturers literature and

warranties.
As-built construction plans.
Guidance
Training of maintenance personnel.
Plumbing Maintenance Goal 1: Plumbing systems

are inspected and maintained to prevent flooding or
condensation.
Guidance 2: Inspect plumbing systems and

components. Make sure:
Inspections are performed according to the
timetable in the plumbing system inspection and
maintenance plan.
Guidance 1: Develop a plumbing system inspection

and maintenance plan. The plan should include:
The name, address and telephone number of the
person or persons responsible for inspection and
maintenance of the plumbing systems.
Inspection results are logged into the plumbing

system inspection and maintenance plan.
Work orders are prepared for maintenance
requirements found during the inspections.
Specific preventive and corrective maintenance

requirements, which can be in the form of
checklists. Inspection checklists should be
developed for:
Guidance 3: Maintain plumbing systems and

components by performing regularly scheduled
preventive maintenance and unscheduled
maintenance to correct problems discovered during
inspections. Regular maintenance will save money in
the long run.
yy Water supply and distribution piping, pumps and

valves.
yy Water usage equipment such as sinks and
drinking fountains.
yy Hot water heaters and storage tanks.
Verification of Plumbing System Operation and

Maintenance
yy Fire sprinkler systems, which should be

inspected in accordance with National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) standards or local
code requirements.
Completed inspection checklists.

Completed maintenance checklists.
yy Building drainage systems such as floor drains,

sumps and pumps.
yy Other facility plumbing systems and components
such as pipe insulation.
98
HVAC System Operation and Maintenance
Issue
range, etc.) and track performance to determine

whether that objective is being met.
Failure to adequately maintain HVAC systems can

lead to moisture problems including loss of humidity
control, condensation and overflowing drain pans.
Regularly scheduled inspections and maintenance
can prevent unexpected equipment failure and reduce
the equipments life-cycle cost. Properly maintaining
HVAC systems helps to ensure occupant comfort and
healthy indoor air quality.
Maintain records of all HVAC system installations,

inspections and maintenance, along with warranty
information and requirements.
Incorporate best practices for moisture control in
the inspection and maintenance of HVAC systems.
Particular attention should be paid to coils and
drain pans, humidifiers, cooling towers, the
introduction of humidity-laden air and the potential
for condensation. (See HVAC Operations and
Maintenance Goal 2 for more detailed guidance on
conducting HVAC maintenance inspections.)
Goals
HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal 1: Facility
maintenance management systems and preventive
maintenance plans effectively address moisture
control in HVAC systems.
Ensure that planners and schedulers assign

inspectors who are knowledgeable about the HVAC
and plumbing systems being inspected.
Schedule regular inspections at least semi-annually
or in accordance with manufacturers requirements.
Additional inspections should be scheduled as soon
as possible after heavy winds or rains or after any
construction or installations that could affect the
integrity of these systems, especially their outdoor
components.
HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal 2: HVAC

systems are maintained as intended by manufacturers
specifications and system design to effectively control
moisture.
Guidance
HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal 1: Facility
maintenance management systems and preventive
maintenance plans effectively address moisture
control in HVAC systems.
When developing work orders for moisture-related

maintenance tasks, include best practices and
checklists for detailed inspections and maintenance
tasks (See HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal
2) in the scope of work and instructions.
Guidance 1: Develop and implement facility

maintenance management systems and HVAC system
preventive maintenance (PM) plans, or review and
revise existing systems and plans, to control moisture
effectively. Maintenance management systems and
PM plans for HVAC systems should:
Incorporate best practices and checklists (See

HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal 2) into
training programs for inspectors and maintenance
personnel who deal with these drainage systems.
Give priority to moisture-control issues in preventive
maintenance, major maintenance and repair, and
capital renewal planning and budgeting.
Incorporate moisture control into the functional

objectives that guide the maintenance program
(e.g., as a stand-alone objective, as part of an
indoor air quality objective or as part of a reliability
or long-term cost-minimization objective).
HVAC Operations and Maintenance Goal 2: HVAC

systems are maintained as intended by the
manufacturers specifications and the system design
in order to effectively control moisture.
Develop a performance objective for moisture

control (e.g., number of unanticipated leaks, dollars
spent on leak repair, number of hours when indoor
relative humidity falls within the specified design
99
Control Sequence
Guidance 1: Maintain HVAC system components in

accordance with the manufacturers requirements
and the moisture control recommendations in
this guidance. At a minimum, the following HVAC
components should be inspected as part of a PM
program:
Make sure the clocks on all systems read the

correct time and date (if applicable); adjust if
necessary.
Check that equipment is turned off or energized
according to the control sequence. (Observe the
actual operation of fans, dampers and valves as well
as the operation of the control unit.)
Thermostats
Thermostats should be checked in the fall and
spring, shortly after switching to or from daylight
saving time, or whenever complaints about thermal
comfort are received.
Outdoor Air Intakes

Inspect the area around intakes for potential
contaminant sources such as dumpsters, garbage
cans, decaying organic matter and automobile
idling or parking areas. If there are contaminant
sources near the intakes, move them if possible.
If contaminant sources are not mobile, other steps
may be required to prevent the intake of airborne
contaminants. These steps may include relocating
intakes or instituting policy changes such as
prohibiting vehicle idling.
Checking Thermostat Operation and Calibration

If the thermostat is programmable, make sure
the time is set correctly and the thermostat is
programmed for the hours when the building is
occupied.
Place a calibrated thermometer next to the
thermostat. Place a paper towel or other material
between the thermometer and the wall to make
sure the wall temperature is not influencing the
thermometer reading.
Inspect the outdoor air intake louver and the debris

screen behind it. Check for signs of rain leaks and
clogged screens. If rainwater intrudes into the
outdoor air intake, modify as needed to prevent
entry. Remove grass clippings, leaves, dust and
other materials that obstruct the air intake. Take
care when doing this during the warmer months
because bees, wasps or other stinging insects
may have nested in the intake. NOTE: Do not use
a pesticide if insects are found in the outdoor air
intake.
Allow the thermometer to stabilize. How long this

takes will depend on the thermometer used.
Compare the thermostat and thermometer readings.
If the thermostat differs by more than 1F, there is a
problem and you should do the following:
yy Remove the faceplate and check whether the
thermostat is dirty. Carefully brush or blow away
any accumulated dust.
If outdoor air intakes are close to ground level,

ensure that all landscape plantings are at least 5
feet from the intake. Require lawns to be mowed in
a manner that directs the cut grass away from the
building and the intakes.
yy If contact points are accessible, clean them

with a soft cloth. Do not use sandpaper or other
abrasive materials.
yy If the thermostat has a mercury switch, check
that it is level. Be very careful not to break the
vial that contains the mercury.
Outdoor Air Dampers
yy Check behind the thermostat to make sure the

hole for the wires is caulked to prevent air within
the wall from influencing the thermostat reading.
Determine the outdoor air damper control sequence,

then change the parameters to force the dampers to
open and close. Do not rely on observing linkages;
watch the outdoor air dampers for movement. Make
necessary repairs to ensure dampers open and close
in accordance with the control sequence.
yy Allow temperatures to stabilize and compare the

thermostat and thermometer readings again. If
they still differ by more than 1F, replace the
thermostat.
Measure outdoor air volumes on a regularly

scheduled basis and whenever indoor air quality
problems arise. Either purchase equipment such
as balometers, anemometers, manometers and
pitot tubes to take these measurements, or hire a
qualified contractor.
100
Cooling Coils, Drain Pans, and Condensate Lines

Inspect coils, pans and condensate lines regularly
for cleanliness and to ensure the drain is operating
correctly. Clean or repair faulty drains as necessary.
Ensure that all traps have water in them. During
times of the year when the HVAC system is not
used, or when condensate formation is low, the trap
can dry out, allowing sewer gases or other gases in
the drainage system to be drawn into the HVAC unit
and distributed through the building. Fill empty
drain traps with water.
Closely inspect the ducts downstream from
the cooling coil for mold growth or signs of
condensation being blown off the coil. If mold is
found growing on hard-surface ductwork (e.g., sheet
metal) or closed-cell insulation, have the ductwork
evaluated by a mold remediation specialist or a
qualified duct cleaner. If mold is found growing on
internal porous duct insulation, remove and replace
the insulation because it cannot be effectively
cleaned.
Evaporative Cooling Equipment (Common in Dry

Climates)
Inspect the evaporative pad media regularly for
cleanliness, and even wetting, across the full face
of the pad. Replace clogged media to ensure that
supply air is not constricted and forced into highvelocity flow, which could pull water off the media
and into the air stream and ductwork downstream.
Similarly, make sure the water flow is even across
the full face of the pad (for effective cooling) and
not excessively high in any one spot, which could
also result in water droplets being pulled off the
media and into the air stream.
Ensure the overflow drain is operating correctly.
Clean out or repair the drain lines as necessary
to ensure that water does not collect in the sump
and overflow the edge of the pan. (Overflows can
otherwise leak into ductwork or into the building
itself.)
Ensure that the media is not contacting standing
water in the sump when the unit is not operating.
The sump overflow adjustment must be low enough
to prevent water from wicking back up into the
media and supporting microbial growth.
Check the controls to ensure that the evaporative
cooler does not operate when it is raining outdoors.
Otherwise, the unit could overload the incoming
air with humidity at a time when little evaporative
cooling needs to be accomplished. Needlessly

loading the indoor air with extra humidity can
lead to excess moisture accumulation, even in dry
climates.
Closely inspect the ducts downstream from the
evaporative cooler coil for mold growth or signs
of moisture being blown off the media. If mold is
found growing on hard-surface ductwork (e.g., sheet
metal) or closed-cell insulation, have the ductwork
evaluated by a mold remediation specialist or a
qualified duct cleaner. If mold is found growing on
internal porous duct insulation, remove and replace
the insulation because it cannot be effectively
cleaned. Before the equipment is placed back in
operation, locate and correct the problem that led
to the carryover of water droplets which supported
the mold growth.
Air Filters
Do not rely solely on pressure drop warning
equipment to determine the need to replace
filters. Clogged filters can be sucked out of their
frames and air may bypass the filter, resulting
in no noticeable pressure drop. Visually inspect
and replace air filters on a regular schedule. Turn
unit fans off when changing filters to prevent
contamination of the air. Be aware that some filters
may need more frequent replacement than others
because different areas of a facility may have
different airborne particle burdens.
Record the date of the filter change in the
maintenance manual and write the date of the
change on the filter, if possible.
Ducts and Supply Diffusers

Inspect ducts regularly, typically once a year or
whenever modifications have been made to the
ducts or the areas they serve.
Information about the potential benefits and
possible problems of air duct cleaning is limited.
The North American Air Duct Cleaners Association
(NADCA) recommends duct cleaning if there is
a significant build-up of particles, if the duct is
contaminated with mold spores and trace mold
growth, or if there is obvious mold growth. If mold
is growing in ducts lined with porous insulation,
the NADCA guidance recommends removing the
insulation. When cleaning ductwork, follow the
2006 NADCA guidance Assessment, Cleaning and
Restoration of HVAC Systems.
101
Inspect ducts for physical damage. Look for

crushed or disconnected ducts. Reconnect, repair
or replace as necessary.
unit and be distributed to the occupied areas of the

building.
Periodically inspect buildings that have return
air plenums for water-stained ceiling tiles, which
may indicate mold growth. If mold growth is found
or suspected, consult a qualified professional
to determine the extent of the problem and
remediation requirements.
Inspect all accessible duct seams and joints for

leaks and seal all leaks with appropriate materials.
Seal duct leaks with mastic, metal-backed tape
or aerosol sealant. Duct tape should not be used
because it dries out quickly and fails to hold and
because it cannot withstand high temperatures. All
sealing materials must comply with Underwriters
Laboratory Standard UL 181A; check the labels.
Guidance 2: Monitor temperature and humidity while

commissioning or recommissioning the HVAC system
to ensure humidity control is functioning effectively.
Inspect supply diffusers and the ceiling around

diffusers for dirt and dust that can indicate dirty
ducts or missing, inefficient or bypassed filters.
Note that dirt and dust patterns on supply diffusers
or ceilings do not necessarily mean the HVAC
system is the source of the dirt. The vortexes
created as air exits the diffuser can deposit dust
from the ambient air onto surfaces.
Penetrations in the return plenum may draw outdoor

air into the system. If it is hot and humid outside
this can cause condensation on chilled surfaces,
in internal building cavities, or in walls or ceilings.
Monitoring temperature and relative humidity in
the building, supply air, return air, and outdoor air
during HVAC commissioning or recommissioning
allows tracking of humidity sources. The absolute
humidity or humidity ratio can be calculated from
these data and mass balance can be made to
determine whether there is a source of humidity on
the return side of the system.
Send dirt and dust samples to an environmental

laboratory for microscopic examination to determine
whether the particles look like soot, lint, mold, sand
or something else.
Look for mold growth on diffusers supplying cooled
air to the space. Condensation caused by cooling
the diffuser below the dew point can support mold
growth. Clean as needed and determine what
actions are necessary to prevent condensation.
The dehumidification performance of the building

commissioning or recommissioning should be
tested when the building is occupied.
Verification of HVAC System Operation Maintenance

Return Air Plenums
Set inspections and routine maintenance efforts in

accordance with equipment warranty requirements.
Appendix E contains a sample HVAC inspection
checklist. Inspection records should be kept to track
the results and any subsequent repairs needed.
Return air plenums are spaces that do not have

ducts and typically are found above T-bar ceilings
suspended ceilingsand below the roof or floor
deck above. Dust, mold and other contaminants
within the space can migrate back to the HVAC
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials. 2003. Standard test
method for determining air leakage rate by fan pressurization.
E779-03. Pennsylvania. American Society for Testing and
Materials.

occupancies plus a number of design, operation and
situations.)
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1996. Standard

test methods for determining airtightness of buildings using
an orifice blower door. E1827-96. Pennsylvania. American
Society for Testing and Materials.
International Code Council. 2003. ICC International Plumbing

Code. Sections 312.2 to 312.5. Washington, DC:
International Code Council.
(Sections 312.2 to 312.5 of these codes specify a gravity
test of the drain and vent side of plumbing systems.)

Engineers. 2004. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Standard 62.1.
Atlanta.,GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
102
Mold Litigation Task Force of the Associated General Contractors
of America, Inc. 2003. Managing the risk of mold in the
construction of buildings. CONSTRUCTOR. http://www.agc.
org/galleries/conrm/may03_mold.pdf. Accessed November 6,
2013.
North America Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA). 2006.
ACR 2006 Assessment, Cleaning and Restoration of HVAC
Systems, National Air Duct Cleaners Association, Washington,
DC. http://www.nadca.com/sites/default/files/userfiles/
ACR%202006.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Authorization Status for EPAs Stormwater Construction and
Industrial Programs: States, Indian Country and Territories
Where EPAs Construction General Permit (CGP) and MultiSector General Permit (MSGP) Apply. Washington, DC:
United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://cfpub.
epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/authorizationstatus.cfm. Accessed
November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines the relevant authorityU.S.
EPA, state, or local governmentfor compliance with
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System [NPDES]

requirements for construction in a given state.)
Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control. Washington,
DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://
cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.
November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines best management practices [BMPs] for
controlling storm water runoff at construction sites.)
Stormwater Discharges from Construction Activities:
Overview. Washington, DC. http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/
stormwater/const.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This website outlines the federal requirements for complying
with National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
[NPDES] requirements for construction.)
103
Appendix A23 The Pen Test
The fascia forms a drip edge, channeling water

away from the cladding.
PURPOSE
By tracing the continuity of all the materials for
each control function, the pen test checks the
completeness of:
An air gap between the drip edge and the brick

veneer forms a capillary break, protecting the
materials beneath the coping from rainwater.
Rainwater protection.
Behind the brick veneer, air gap and foam board,

a self-adhering water resistant barrier (WRB)
applied to the gypsum sheathing forms a capillary
break between the damp brick and the inner wall
assembly.
The insulation layer.

The air barrier.
To verify continuity, create sections in which each
of these moisture-control elements is traced in a
different color to show that the design specifically
accounts for them. Contractors can then easily check
the sections against their experience with materials,
trades and sequencing. The sections will also provide
maintenance workers in buildings and grounds with
information useful in ordinary maintenance work or in
the event of a problem during building use.
The WRB laps over the vertical leg of a head

flashing, protecting the window from rainwater with
a drip edge and an air gap. Weep holes allow water
to drain from behind the brick cladding.
The window frame, sash and glazing form a
capillary break system that sits in a pan sill flashing
at the bottom of the window.
The pan sill flashing forms a capillary break
protecting the wall beneath from seepage through
the window system.
PROCESS
The pan sill flashing shingles over the WRB in the

wall beneath, which shingles over a flashing that
protects the bottom of the wall system.
Rainwater Protection Continuity

To demonstrate complete rainwater protection using
the section drawing, place a pen on a material that
forms a capillary break between the rain-control
materials that get wet and the inner portion of the
enclosure that must stay dry. Without lifting the
pen off the paper, trace from the center of the roof
around the walls, windows, and doors and along the
foundation to the center of the foundation floor.
The water-resistant barrier shingles over a flashing

that protects the bottom of the wall system where
the foam sill seal makes a capillary break between
the foundation and the bottom of the framed wall,
connecting with:
yy One inch of extruded styrene foam insulation
making a capillary break between the top of the
foundation wall and the edge of the floor slab.
Figure A-1 serves as documentation of rainwater

protection continuity. The following describes the
traceable capillary break in a sample section. Starting
at the center of the roof:
yy Polyethylene film immediately beneath the slab

forms a capillary break between the bottom of
the slab and the fill below. NOTE: If the bed of
fill beneath the slab consists of pebbles greater
than inch in diameter and contains no fines,
then it forms a capillary break between the soil
and the slab.
The roofing membrane is the first line of defense,

protecting the water-sensitive inner materials from
rain and snowmelt.
Tracing the roofing membrane from the center
of the roof to the edge of the roof, the roofing
membrane rises up the parapet wall where it flashes
beneath a metal coping, which also forms a metal
fascia.
23
Apply the same procedure to the insulation layer

(Figure A-2) and the air barrier (Figure A-3).
Figures A-1, A-2, and A-3 were updated in April, 2014.
A-1
Figure A-1 The Blue Line Traces the Elements of the Capillary Break in the Rainwater Control System for a Section
Through a Building
A-2
Figure A-2 The Red Line Traces Continuity of the Insulation Layer
A-3
Figure A-3 The Purple Line Traces the Air Barrier Components
A-4
Insulation Layer Continuity
Air Barrier Continuity
To demonstrate a continuous layer of insulating

material around a section, place the pen tip on the
insulating layer in the center of the roof and trace
from one insulating material to the next around to
either the bottom of the foundation wall or the center
of the foundation floor.
Continuity of the air barrier is demonstrated using

the same method used for rainwater control and
the insulation layer. For this example air barrier
materials and the sealants used to connect them are
identified from the center of the roof to the center
of the foundation floor. Self-adhering membranes
are used as examples in this section, but note that
wall air barriers may be formed using alternate air
barrier materials (e.g., fluid applied membranes,
flexible sheets, rigid foam board insulation, and spray
polyurethane foam).
Figure A-2 shows the continuity of thermal insulation

in a sample section.
Beginning at the center of the roof, trace through
foam insulation to the edge of the roof.
Up a layer of foam board insulation to the wooden
blocking at the top of the parapet wall.
From the center of the roof trace the air along

the self-adhering membrane on the gypsum roof
sheathing to the edge of the roof.
The wooden blocking connects to the top of the

exterior foam insulation board insulation and the
top channel of the light guage steel wall framing.
The self-adhering membrane continues up the

gypsum board sheathing on the parapet wall where
it connects to a transition membrane that spans the
top of the parapet wall.
The steel wall framing is filled with cavity

insulation, and the thermal bridge through the steel
is insulated by the exterior foam insulation.
From the transition membrane trace down the selfadhering membrane on the wall sheathing to an
intersection with the window head flashing at the
steel lintel.
At the window head the steel lintel is a thermal

bridge through the insulation system, the rough
opening around the window is sealed using backer
rod and sealant.
A transition membrane wraps from the bottom of

the steel lintel into the rough opening where it
connects to the window by sealant and backer rod.
The window jamb, sash and glazing system provide

insulation continuity to the pan sill flashing at the
bottom of the window.
The window system forms the air barrier to the pan

sill flashing where sealant makes the connection.
The exterior insulating foam sheathing and

cavity insulation carry the insulation layer to the
foundation.
The pan sill flashing carries the air barrier to the

self-adhering membrane on the lower wall.
Foam sill seal provides thermal insulation between

the bottom of the wall and the concrete foundation,
which carries thermal protection below grade to the
bottom of the foundation wall.
A transition membrane connects to the concrete

foundation.
Polyethylene film or the concrete slab itself extend
the air barrier to the center of the floor.
Vertical foam insulation applied to the interior of

the foundation wall completes the insulation layer.
A-5
Appendix B Roof Inspection Checklist

Parts of this inspection checklist are adapted from and used with the permission of the Government of The Northwest Territories Public Works and
Services Asset Management Division.
Before performing a roof inspection:

Review past inspection reports, construction documents and maintenance and repair reports.
Review, learn and follow roof safety procedures.
Use ladders to inspect steep roofs. Ensure all ladders comply with, and are maintained and used in
accordance with, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements in Title 29 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (29 CFR).
Building:__________________________________________________________________________________________
Address: __________________________________________________________________________________________
Roof Area or ID:____________________________________________________________________________________
Inspected by: _________________________________________________ Date: ________________________________
Item
Interior
Exterior
ID Number to be used to identify problem on roof sketch

G Good, no action needed
F Fair, monitor condition periodically, plan necessary repairs
P Poor, immediate action needed
N/A Not applicable
Interior Walls
ID G F P N/A
Water stains
1
Water damage
2
Other wall problems
3
Ceilings
ID G F P N/A
Water stains
4
Water damage
5
Other ceiling problems
6
Roof Deck
ID G F P N/A
Water damage
7
Rusting
8
Settling/deflection
9
Deck deterioration
10
Other roof deck problems
11
Downspouts/Leaders
ID G F P N/A
Missing pieces
12
Loose pieces
13
Evidence of blockage
14
Damaged joints
15
Split joints
16
Surface ponding
17
Other downspout/leader
18
problems
B-1
REMARKS
REMARKS
REMARKS
REMARKS
Roof
Drainage
System
Roof Features
Exterior Walls
Water stains
Water damage
Other wall problems
General Conditions
General appearance
Traffic problems
Unauthorized access
Ponding
Debris
Physical damage
Deflection
Compressed insulation
Other roof problems
Gutters
Missing pieces
Loose pieces
Damaged pieces
Split joints
Corrosion
Loose fasteners
Debris in gutters
Slope to downspout
Other gutter problems
Internal Roof Drains
Missing drain screens
Blocked drain
Other drain problems
Scuppers
Blockage
Other scupper problems
ID
19
20
21
ID
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
ID
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
ID
40
41
42
ID
43
44
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
Perimeter Edging/ Fascia/

Gravel Stop
ID
N/A REMARKS
Missing pieces
Loose pieces
Damaged pieces
Split joints
Corrosion
Loose fasteners
Other
Flashings
Missing pieces
Loose pieces
Damaged pieces
Split joints
Corrosion
Loose fasteners
Other flashing problems
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
ID
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
N/A REMARKS
B-2
Roof Covering
Roof-mounted Equipment
(HVAC, Signs, Skylights,
Etc.)
Flashings
Loose/missing access
panels
Condensate piped to drain
Contamination around
exhaust fans
Other equipment problems
Membrane Roofs
Bare spots in gravel or
displaced ballast
Cuts/punctures
Cracks/alligatoring
Blisters/fishmouths
Loose laps/seams
Ridging/wrinkling
Fastener back-out
Membrane shrinkage
Other
Shingled Roofs
Missing shingle(s)
Loose shingle(s)
Buckled shingle(s)
Curled shingle(s)
Missing tab(s)
Granular loss
Other shingle problems
Metal Roofs
Loose or damaged seams/
joint(s)
Loose panel(s)
Worn panel(s)
Damaged panel(s)
Loose fastener(s)
ID
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
N/A REMARKS
59
60
61
62
63
ID
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
ID
73
74
75
75
77
78
79
ID
80
81
82
83
84
Finish condition
85
Other metal roof problems
86
B-3
Use this graph paper to sketch the roof plan. Include north arrow and the location of problems found during the
inspection. Use the roof ID numbers on the checklist to identify specific problems.
B-4
Appendix C Testing Moisture During Construction
The moisture content of wood, wood products and

other porous materials is an important factor in
mold growth and other moisture-related problems. A
porous material susceptible to mold growth, such as
wood, oriented strand board (OSB), medium density
fiberboard (MDF) or untreated paper-faced gypsum
board, will experience mold growth if its moisture
content is too high. Damp porous materials that are
resistant to mold growth, such as concrete products
and treated lumber, may indirectly support mold
growth by wetting vulnerable materials that are in
contact with them. For example, untreated paperfaced gypsum board attached to damp lumber or
concrete may be the site of mold growth until the
damp materials dry.
by weighing the test sample while damp, drying

the sample using heat or desiccant salts, and then
reweighing the sample. Electronic meters with direct
reading scales or displays have been developed for
wooden materials. Their use on lumber is extensively
documented. ASTM D 4444-92 (Reapproved 2003)
Standard Test Methods for Use and Calibration of
Hand-Held Moisture Meters describes several types of
moisture meters, their use on wooden materials, and
quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures.
Knowing the moisture content of porous building
materials other than wood or wood products, such as
gypsum board and concrete slabs or concrete masonry
units, is also important. Some electronic moisture
meters have calibrated scales for materials other than
wood, for example concrete, brick and plaster. It has
become common practice in the building diagnostic
field to test materials other than lumber using
electronic meters and to report the results using the
scale for lumber. In this way, investigators report the
moisture content of gypsum board, MDF and OSB as
the wood moisture equivalent (WME). The California
Builders Guide to Reducing Mold Risk suggests an
upper limit of 16 percent WME for gypsum board
before finishing or installing cabinets. This limit
translates roughly to 0.9 percent moisture content by
weight for gypsum board.
Wood and wood products that contain a great deal

of moisture should not be used in construction until
their moisture content is below a certain percentage.
Unfortunately, research on this dynamic is mostly
confined to laboratory research and anecdotal reports
from forensic cases. The California Builders Guide
to Reducing Mold Risk suggests an upper threshold
of 19 percent moisture content for wooden materials.
To avoid problems with shrinking or expansion, wood
ideally should be installed at moisture content levels
as close as possible to the average moisture content
it will experience in service. The in-service moisture
content of exterior wood depends on the outdoor
relative humidity and exposure to rain and sun. The
in-service moisture content of interior wood depends
on the indoor relative humidity, which in turn is a
function of moisture sources, ventilation rates and
dehumidification. The in-service moisture content of
exterior and interior wood depends on the climate in
which the building is located and on the buildings
design and intended use. The U.S. Department of
Agricultures Wood Handbook recommends average
moisture content of 15 percent or less, with maximum
readings of 19 percent or less, to avoid dimensional
change problems.
The ability to measure material moisture content

after construction is valuable for diagnosing
post-construction problems such as water leaks,
condensation and mold growth. It is recommended
that builders and facility managers measure the
moisture content of materials during post construction
diagnosis and problem solving.
A second moisture dynamic, the emission rate of
water vapor from materials such as concrete floors,
can have a dramatic impact on flooring materials.
For example, floor covering manufacturers specify
the maximum water vapor emission rate of concrete
over which coverings such as tile and carpet can
be installed. Installing a covering on concrete that
exceeds the maximum emission rate may cause the
covering to fail, promote mold growth and void the
The moisture content of materials is usually expressed

as the percentage of the weight of water in the
material relative to the weight of the dry material.
In laboratories, moisture content can be calculated
C-1
manufacturers warranty. It is recommended that the

vapor emission rate of a floor be measured before
coverings are installed (even when the installation
occurs long after the building was constructed);
whenever lifting tiles, blistered sheet vinyl, or other
signs of floor failure are found; or when unexplained
high indoor relative humidity in ground-contact
spaces is encountered.
quantitative test that provides a measure of the

vapor, in pounds of water in a 1,000 square foot
area, emitted over a 24-hour period. The test
involves weighing a canister of calcium chloride
desiccant, placing the canister on the slab to
be tested, and covering the canister with an airtight plastic dome supplied with the kit. The test
typically is conducted for 60 to 72 hours. After
that time, the canister is reweighed and the vapor
emission rate is calculated. This test method is
accepted by most floor covering manufacturers.
ASTM E 1907-06a Standard Guide to Methods of

Evaluating Moisture Conditions of Concrete Floors
to Receive Resilient Floor Coverings identifies eight
methods of testing concrete slabs. The two most
commonly used methods are:
F 2170 Test Method for Determining Relative

Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using in situ
Probes. This method measures the head space
relative humidity in a hole drilled partway through
the concrete slab. It is gaining popularity in the
field and has been used in Europe for many years.
F 1869 Test Method for Measuring Moisture

Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete Subfloor Using
Anhydrous Calcium Chloride. This test is conducted
using commercially available test kits. It is a
C-2
Appendix D Air Pressure Mapping
Air pressure mapping is used to determine whether

air is moving through a building in a manner that
contributes to condensation problems. Unplanned
airflow will cause problems if either:
the other port (with no tubing) senses the pressure

in the room. The micromanometer reads the pressure
difference. The minus sign on the micromanometer
interface indicates that the room is under negative
pressure relative to the other side of the door.
Air is moving from the warm side of an exterior wall,

the ceiling, or the basement to the cool side.
Figure D-2 shows the pressure map of a building that

consists of a single room with an operating 100-cfm
exhaust fan. The room is depressurized 4 Pascals
by the exhaust fan. The exhaust fan is represented
by a box with an X in it and an arrow showing the
direction of airflow out of the building. The line with
an arrowhead on one end and a circle on the other
signifies that air is being drawn into the building from
outside.
Cold air is blowing from an air conditioning diffuser

into a space where humidity is high.
To generate an air pressure map of a building, use:
Floor plans showing the layout of each floor and
the location of air handlers, supply diffusers, return
grilles, and exhaust grilles.
A micromanometer and flexible plastic tubing to
measure pressure differences between indoor air
and outdoor air, rooms and corridors, room air and
plenum air, and room air and building cavities.
This procedure can be applied to more complex

buildings and airflows to document air pressure
differences between rooms, indoors and outdoors,
attics, basements, crawlspaces, utility chases and
wall and ceiling cavities. Figure D-3 illustrates a
pressure map of a more complex building when the air
handler is running, the exhaust fans in the bathrooms
are running, there is no wind, and all the interior and
exterior doors are closed.
A smoke bottle to determine the direction of air

flow.
As depicted in Figure D-1, use a micromanometer
to measure the pressure difference across a closed
door. Note that the tubing is run from one port of the
micromanometer to the far side of the door, while
D-1
Figure D-1 Measuring Pressure Difference Using a Micromanometer
Figure D-2 Pressure Map of a Building Consisting of a Single Room
D-2
Figure D-3 Pressure Map of a More Complex Building
D-3
Appendix E HVAC Inspection Checklist
Building:____________________________ Location:__________________________________Date:_________________
Equipment:_____________________________________ Manufacturer:_______________________________________
Other ID:______________________File # :___________________________ Prepared by:_________________________
Condition
Parameter
OK
Priority
Not OK
Notes
Outdoor Air Intake

Bird screen
Air flow unobstructed
No close-by pollutant sources
Mixing Plenum
Clean
Coils and Condensate Pans:
Clean, no corrosion
No odors
No microbial growth
Pans draining, traps filled
Humidifiers
Clean
No standing water or overflow
No microbial growth or mineral
deposits
Controls
Set points
Functioning
Fans
Clean, no corrosion
No excess vibration
Belts
No excess noise or vibration
No leakage
Pressurization
Filters
General condition
Installed properly (no bypass)
No odors/visible pollution
E-1
L, M, H
Appendix F Site Drainage Maintenance
Regular maintenance of site drainage systems

is necessary to ensure they perform effectively.
Failing to regularly maintain drainage systems
can lead to reduced performance or system
failure. To help provide proper maintenance, a site
drainage maintenance plan that describes specific
maintenance requirements and schedules should be
developed and used by the persons responsible for
drainage maintenance.
Detailed logs of all preventive and corrective

maintenance tasks, including all maintenancerelated work orders.
The maintenance plan differs from the checklists

provided in this appendix. The plan encompasses the
entire site drainage maintenance requirements, while
the checklists provide requirements for a specific
drainage feature.
Approved disposal and recycling sites and

procedures for the sediment, debris and other
materials removed from the drainage systems
during maintenance.
Necessary maintenance equipment, tools and

supplies.
Emergency action responses.
Procedures and equipment required to protect the
safety and health of inspectors and maintenance
workers.
System component manufacturers literature and

warranties.
Maintenance Plan Requirements
As-built construction plans.
The following site drainage maintenance plan

requirements have been adapted from the New Jersey
Storm Water BMP Manual (NJDEP04). Plans should
include:
In addition, the plan should address the training of

maintenance personnel in the operational theory of
site drainage and in maintenance and health and
safety procedures.
The name, address and telephone number of

the person or persons responsible for preventive
and corrective maintenance of the site drainage
systems.
Site Drainage Inspection and Maintenance

Recommendations
Specific preventive and corrective maintenance

requirements. These requirements may be in the
form of checklists.
The following inspection and maintenance

recommendations and checklists should be
augmented by state or local code requirements as well
as best management practices learned by persons
maintaining the site drainage system.
A schedule of regular inspections and tasks.
Dry Well Inspection and

Maintenance
F-1
Dry wells are to be inspected four times each year and after every storm that exceeds 0.5 inches of rainfall.
Whenever possible, dry wells are also to be inspected before a major storm. Inspection consists of measuring
infiltration rates and drain times by observing the water level in the test well. The actual drain time of the well
should be compared with the time it would take to drain the maximum design storm runoff volume. If significant
increases in drain time are noted, or if the dry well fails to dry within the design drainage time, maintenance is
required.
Dry well maintenance involves removing debris, trash or sediment that may have washed into the well. In
addition to the dry well, any roof gutters, sumps or traps connected to the dry well are to be inspected and
cleaned or repaired as necessary.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Dry Well ID/Location:________________________________________________________________________________
Inspected by:__________________________________________________ Date:_________________________________
ITEM
Roof
Gutters,
Leaders,
Sumps
and Traps
Test Well
Inspection
ID Number to be used to identify problem on site sketch

N/A Not applicable
ID
G
F
P
N/A REMARKS
Missing pieces
Loose pieces
Evidence of
blockage
Damaged joints
Split joints
Surface ponding
Cleaning required
Other problems
Water level
9
10
Obvious debris
F-2
F-3
Vegetated swales are to be inspected four times each year and after every storm that exceeds 0.5 inches of
rainfall. If swale vegetation consists of fast-growing grasses, the swales are to be inspected weekly. Whenever
possible, swales are to be inspected before a major storm. Inspection consists of looking for debris, evidence of
clogging and observable vegetation growth.
Vegetated swale maintenance consists of removing debris and sediment, maintaining the vegetation and
ensuring the swale drains within 48 hours.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Swale ID/Location:__________________________________________________________________________________

N/A Not applicable
ID G
F
P
N/A
REMARKS
Pea gravel diaphragm cleanliness 1

Grass or other vegetation
requires mowing
Trash/debris in inflow forebay
Erosion problems
Vegetation requires replacement
Swale does not drain within 48

6
hours requires rototilling or
cultivating
Bottom sediment built up to 25 7
percent of original design volume
requires sediment removal
Other problems
8
Vegetated Swale Inspection/Maintenance Sketch
F-4
F-5
Dry extension ponds are to be inspected twice each year and after every storm that exceeds 0.5 inches of
rainfall. If side-slope vegetation consists of fast-growing grasses, the ponds are to be inspected weekly.
Whenever possible, ponds are to be inspected before a major storm. Inspection consists of looking for debris,
sediment build-up, erosion and observable vegetation growth.
Pond maintenance consists of removing debris and sediment, repairing erosion, managing pesticides and
nutrients and maintaining the vegetation.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Pond ID/Location:___________________________________________________________________________________

N/A Not applicable
ID
G
F
P
N/A REMARKS
Erosion on pond banks
or bottom
Damaged embankment
Sediment accumulation
in the facility or forebay
Side slopes need
mowing
Pesticide and nutrient
management required
Ground cover requires
attention
Bottom sediment built
up to 25 percent of
original design volume
requires sediment
removal
4
5
6
7
Dry Extended Extension Pond Inspection/Maintenance Sketch
F-6
F-7
Wet ponds are to be inspected monthly and after every storm that exceeds 0.5 inches of rainfall. Whenever
possible, ponds are to be inspected before a major storm. If side-slope vegetation consists of fast-growing
grasses, wet ponds are to be inspected weekly. Inspection consists of looking for invasive species, debris, signs
of damage or erosion, sediment accumulation and the need for managing or harvesting wetland plants.
Pond maintenance consists of removing invasive species, debris, and sediment; repairing erosion; and managing
the vegetation.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Pond ID/Location:___________________________________________________________________________________

N/A Not applicable
ID G
F
P
N/A REMARKS
Invasive species
Erosion
Sediment build-up in pond

or forebay
Debris
3
4
Wetland plant management 5

required
F-8
F-9
Pervious pavement areas are to be inspected weekly and after every storm that exceeds 0.5 inches of rainfall.
Whenever possible, pervious pavement areas are to be inspected before a major storm. Inspection consists
of looking for debris, sediment build-up, proper drainage after a storm, surface deterioration or spalling and
observable vegetation growth.
Pervious pavement maintenance consists of removing debris and sediment and maintaining the vegetation.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Pavement ID/Location:_______________________________________________________________________________

N/A Not applicable
ID G
F
P
N/A REMARKS
Area requires
cleaning
Improper draining
Sediment build-up
Upland area
requires mowing or
reseeding
Surface
deterioration or
spalling
F-10
F-11
Areas paved with porous modular pavers are to be inspected weekly and after every storm that exceeds 0.5
inches of rainfall. Whenever possible, areas are to be inspected before a major storm. Inspection consists
of looking for debris, sediment build-up, proper drainage after a storm, surface deterioration or spalling and
observable vegetation growth.
Pervious pavement maintenance consists of removing debris and sediment and maintaining the vegetation.
Building:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Pavement ID/Location:_______________________________________________________________________________

N/A Not applicable
ID
G
F
P
N/A REMARKS
Area requires
cleaning
Improper draining
Sediment build-up
Adjacent area
requires mowing or
reseeding
Surface deterioration
or spalling
F-12
F-13
REFERENCES
D4263 Standard test method for indicating moisture in
concrete by plastic sheet method.
F1869-04 Standard test method for measuring moisture
vapor emission rate of concrete subfloor anhydrous calcium
chloride.
Claytor, R.A., and T.R. Schueler. Design of Stormwater Filtering
Systems. The Center for Watershed Protection. (CWP)
Silver Spring, MD. Prepared for the Chesapeake Research
Consortium, Solomons, MD, and USEPA Region V, Chicago,
IL. 1996.
Forest Products Laboratory. Wood handbook: Wood as an

engineering material. General Technical Report FPLGTR-113. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 1999.
James, William L. Electric Moisture Meters for Wood. General
Technical Report FPL-GTR-6. United States Department of
Agriculture Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. June
1988.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, (NJDEP04).
New Jersey Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual.
Trenton, NJ. April 2004.
Code of Federal Regulations (29 CFR). Title 29 Labor.

(Title 29 of the CFR outlines requirements of Occupational
Safety and Health Administration [OSHA] for workers, which
include standards for ladder use and maintenance.)
F-14
Appendix G Dampness & Mold Evaluation
2. A Visual Basic data entry application to enter

data collected from hard copy evaluation forms
for electronic record keeping and reports. Data
is stored in a Microsoft Access database. The
software may also be implemented on PC-based
tablets. The software is under development. Once
completed, the software will be made available at
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/indoorenv/mold.
html.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) has developed an observational
assessment tool for dampness and mold in buildings.
As of October 1, 2013, the tool was in review to
become an official NIOSH document. The goal of
the tool is to provide information for motivating
remediation, prioritizing intervention, and evaluating
remediation effectiveness.
The tool consists of:
For additional information or to receive a form and

instructions for use, contact moldsheet#[email protected]
(mailto: moldsheet#[email protected]).
1. A form used to evaluate signs of dampness, water

damage, mold growth, and musty odors in rooms
and areas throughout the building.
Figure G-1 NIOSH Dampness and Mold Assessment Form for Schools
G-1
Glossary
Term
Definition
Air barrier
Any material, combination of materials or manufactured assemblies that are intended, by

design, to control the movement of air across an exterior wall system or assembly.
Air handler
Equipment that includes a blower or fan, heating or cooling coils and related equipment
such as controls, condensate drain pans and air filters. Does not include ductwork,
registers or grilles, or boilers and chillers.
Alligatoring
Shrinkage cracking of the bituminous surface of built-up or smooth surface roofing,

producing a pattern of deep cracks resembling alligator hide.
ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Asphalt
A highly viscous hydrocarbon produced from the residue left over after the distillation of
petroleum. Asphalt is used to water-proof built-up roofs.
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials.
Ballast
An anchoring material such as rock, gravel or pavers used to resist wind uplift forces on
roof membranes.
Bitumen
A generic term for asphalt or coal tar pitch roofing.
Blister
A spongy raised portion of a roofing membrane as a result of pressure of entrapped air or

water vapor.
Built-up roofing
(BUR)
A continuous semi-flexible roof covering consisting of laminations or piles of saturated or

coated felts alternated with layers of bitumen.
Cant strip
A continuous strip of triangular cross-section fitted into the angle formed by a structural
deck and a wall or other vertical surface. Used to provide a gradual transition for base
flashing and horizontal roof membrane.
Capillary break
A slot or groove intended to create an opening too large to be bridged by a drop of water
in order to eliminate the passage of water by capillary action.
Chase
A groove or indentation cut into masonry to accommodate electric or plumbing lines.
Cladding
A panel applied to a structure to provide durability, weathering, corrosion and impact

resistance.
CMU
Concrete masonry unit.
Commissioning
Start-up of a building that includes testing and adjusting HVAC, electrical, plumbing
and other systems to ensure proper functioning and adherence to design criteria; also
includes the instruction of building representatives in the use of the building systems.
Coping
The material or units used to form a cap or finish on top of a wall, pier, pilaster or
chimney; a protective cap at the top of a masonry wall. It should be waterproof, weather
resistant and sloped to shed water.
Crack
A break in a roofing membrane as a result of flexing, often occurring along a ridge or

wrinkle.
H-1
Term
Definition
Cricket
A chimney flashing on the uphill side, resembling a small roof ridge, to divert rainwater
around the chimney.
Drainage or drain
plane
Any element exposed to weather or otherwise residing at the line between the wet and
dry zones of an exterior wall system or assembly.
Dry well
A deep hole, covered and usually lined or filled with rocks, that holds drainage water
until it soaks into the ground.
Eave
The protective overhang at the lower edge of a sloped roof.
Enthalpy
A measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the internal energy,
which is the energy required to create a system, and the amount of energy required to
make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and pressure.
EPDM
Ethylene propylene diene monomer, a synthetic rubber sheet used in single-ply roof
membranes.
Expansion joint
A deliberate separation of two roof areas to allow expansion and contraction movements
of the two parts.
Fascia
The finish covering the edge of eaves of a flat or sloping roof or roof overhang.
Fishmouth
An opening of the lapped edge of applied felt in built-up roofing due to adhesion failure.
Flashing
Connecting devices that seal membrane joints, drains, gravel stops and other places
where membrane is interrupted. Base flashing forms the upturned edges of the watertight
membrane. Cap or counter flashing shields the exposed edges and joints of the base
flashing.
Forebay
A small pool located near the inlet of a storm basin or other storm water management
facility. These devices are designed as initial storage areas to trap and settle out
sediment and heavy pollutants before they reach the main basin.
Gravel stop
A flanged device, normally metallic, designed to prevent loose aggregate from washing
off the roof. It also provides the finished edge detail for built-up roofing assemblies.
HVAC
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning.
Hygrothermal
Pertaining to heat and humidity.
Impervious
Not letting water or moisture pass through or be absorbed.
Micromanometer
An instrument designed to measure minute differences in pressure.
Modified bitumen
Asphalt with the addition of polymer modifiers to increase cold temperature flexibility
and warm temperature flow resistance and stability.
OSB
Oriented Strand Board. A type of particle panel product composed of strand-type flakes
that are purposefully aligned in directions that make a panel stronger, stiffer and with
improved dimensional properties in the alignment directions than a panel with random
flake orientation.
Parapet
The part of the wall assembly above the roof.
Plenum
Space between a suspended ceiling and the floor above that may have mechanical and
electrical equipment in it and that is used as part of the air distribution system. The
space is usually designed to be under negative pressure.
Ponding
The collection of water in shallow pools on a roof surface.
H-2
Term
Definition
PVC
A generic term for single-ply plastic sheet membrane (polyvinyl chloride). Seams are
fused by solvent or hot-air welding techniques.
R-value
The number of minutes (seconds) required for 1 Btu (joule) to penetrate one square foot
(square meter) of a material for each degree of temperature difference between the two
sides of the material. The resistance of a material to the passage of heat. The reciprocal
of conduction (1/c).
Scuppers
An opening for draining water, as from a floor or the roof of a building.
Section
A drawing showing the kind, arrangement and proportions of the various parts of a
structure. It shows how the structure would appear if cut through by a plane.
Shingle-wise
The overlapping of materials shingle style so that impinging water, such as rainwater, will
run harmlessly down and out.
Slope
The ratio between the measures of the rise and the horizontal span.
SMACNA
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association.
Soffit
The finish on the underside of the roof overhang.
Spall
A fragment, usually in the shape of a flake, detached from a larger mass by a blow, by
the action of weather, by pressure or by expansion within the larger mass.
Stem wall
The vertical part of a concrete or masonry retaining wall.
Sump crock
A hole designed to collect water and other spilled fluids.
Swale
A vegetated, open-channel management practice designed to treat and attenuate runoff

for specified water quality and volume.
TAB
Test, adjust and balance.
Tensiometer
An instrument used to measure the surface tension of liquids.
Vapor barrier
Material used to retard the movement of water vapor into walls and prevent condensation
in them; applied separately over the warm side of exposed walls or as a part of batt or
blanket insulation.
WBDG
Whole Building Design Guide.
Weep Holes
Small openings left in the outer wall of masonry construction as an outlet for water inside
a building to move outside the wall and evaporate.
H-3
EPA 402-F-13053 | December 2013 | www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Moisture Control
Guidance for Building
Design, Construction
and Maintenance

Moisture Control

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EPA 402-F-13053 | December 2013 | www.epa.

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance

Appendix A - The Pen Test........................................................................................................... A-1

Foreword: How to Use this Guidance

This document was developed by the U.S.

Who Should Read this Guide

Chapter 1 focuses on principles of moisture control:

Professionals who design buildings and produce

Chapter 1: Moisture Control in Buildings

To be successful, moisture control does not require

Moisture control is fundamental to the proper

Health Implications of Dampness in Buildings

Moisture causes problems for building owners,

Upper respiratory (nasal and throat) symptoms.

Moisture control consists of:

Dyspnea (shortness of breath).

Preventing water intrusion and condensation in

Lower respiratory illness in otherwise healthy

Limiting the areas of a building that are routinely

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/. Accessed November 6, 2013.

Prolonged damp conditions can lead to the

Details of the results of this review were published in

Chemical reactions with building materials and

After the publication of the IOM report, a study by

Water-soluble building materials (e.g., gypsum

Moisture Damage in Buildings

The following photos show some of the damage that

Figure 1-9 Interior plaster damaged by rain seeping around a window in a

Figure 1-12 Hardwood gymnasium floor warped by moisture in the cavity

Moisture Problems are Expensive

How Water Causes Problems in Buildings

Health problems and building damage due to

Mention water damage and the first image that comes

Absenteeism due to illnesses such as asthma.

Moisture problems are preventable. They do not

Increased insurance and litigation costs related to

damage begins after enough moisture accumulates to

Moisture Control Principle #1:

To diagnose or prevent a moisture problem, keep

Rain and melting snow, ice or frost.

2. Sources of moisture. Among them are rainwater,

Problem: Building Assemblies and Materials Get Wet

3. Transport mechanisms. They include liquid water

Moisture problems are common. By their very nature,

4. Common failures of moisture control elements and

Rain and snow get inside. Rainwater, surface water

Moisture Control Principles for Design

Water during construction causes problems.

3. Select moisture-resistant materials for unavoidably

Some materials are installed wet because water is

Prevent plumbing leaks by locating plumbing lines

Solution: Control Liquid Water Movement

Roofs. Asphalt or wooden shingles, metal panels

Keep rain and irrigation water from leaking into the

Figure 1-15 illustrates the concept of a drained

yy Exterior cladding, roofing and storm-water

Some roofing or siding materials absorb water (e.g.,