Chapter 5

Transport in plants
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
a explain the uptake of ions by active transport
in roots, and the role of the endodermis;

g relate the structure of sieve tubes and

companion cells to their function;

b describe the entry of water into plant roots in

terms of water potential;

h make drawings of sieve tubes and companion

cells from prepared microscope slides;

c relate the structure of xylem vessels to their

functions in transport and support;

label pertinent features in an electron

micrograph of a sieve tube and companion
cell;

explain how phloem loading in the leaves

occurs against a concentration gradient;

d make drawings from prepared slides of xylem

vessels;
e outline the ascent of water in plants, including
the roles of root pressure, capillarity, cohesion,
adhesion and transpiration pull, and the role
of stomata in transpiration;
f investigate the impact of environmental
factors, including light and air movements, on
the rate of transpiration;

Plant transport systems

Plant cells, like animal cells, need a regularsupply
of oxygen and nutrients. All plants are multicellular,
and some of them are very large. Most plants,
however, have a much more branching shape
than animals, and this provides a much larger
surface area:volume ratio for exchange with their
environment than in an animal of the same
body mass.
The requirements of plants differ from those of
animals in several ways, both in the nature of the
nutrients and gases required and the rate at which
these need to be supplied.
Carbon dioxide: Photosynthesising plant
cells need a supply of carbon dioxide during
daylight. They obtain this from the air. Aquatic
plants get carbon dioxide from the water that
surrounds them.

84

k discuss mass (pressure) flow as a possible

method of translocation, including
experimental evidence for and against this
hypothesis.

All living plant cells need oxygen

Oxygen:
for respiration. Cells that are actively
photosynthesising produce more than enough
oxygen for their needs. Cells that are not
photosynthesising have to take in oxygen from
their environment, but they do not respire at
such a high rate as mammals and so they do not
need such a rapid oxygen supply.
Organic nutrients: Some plant cells make many
of their own organic food materials, such as
glucose, by photosynthesis. However, many
plant cells do not photosynthesise and need
to be supplied with organic nutrients from
photosynthetic or storage cells.
Inorganic ions and water: All plant cells require
a range of inorganic ions and also water. These
are taken up from the soil, by roots, and are
transported to all areas of the plant.

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

The energy requirements of plant cells are, on
average, far lower than those of cells in a mammal.
This means that their rate of respiration and,
therefore, their requirement for oxygen and glucose
are considerably less than those of mammals.
Plants can therefore manage with a much slower
transport system.
One of the main requirements of the
photosynthetic regions of a plant is sunlight.
Plants have evolved thin, flat leaves which present
a large surface area to the Sun. This also makes it
easy for oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse into
and out of the leaves, reaching and leaving every
cell quickly enough so that there is no need for a
transport system to carry gases.
As a result of these differences between the
structures and requirements of a plant and a
mammal, it is not surprising that they have evolved
different transport systems. In fact, plants have two
transport systems, one for carrying mainly water
and inorganic ions from the roots to the parts
above ground, and one for carrying substances
made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other
areas. In neither of these systems do fluids move
as rapidly as blood does in a mammal, nor is
there an obvious pump. Neither plant transport
system carries oxygen or carbon dioxide, which
travel to and from cells and the environment by
diffusion alone.

a higher concentration in the soil than inside the

root hair cell, then it will be absorbed by facilitated
diffusion. This does not require any energy input
by the plant. If, however, the concentration of the
ion in the soil is lower than that inside the root hair
cell, then it must be absorbed by active transport
(Unit 1, Chapter 3, page 70). Specific transporter
proteins use energy, derived from the hydrolysis of
ATP, to move ions through the cell membrane, into
the cytoplasm.

Water transport
Figure 5.2 outlines the pathway taken by water as
it is transported through a plant. Water from the
soil enters a plant through its root hairs and then
moves across the root into the xylem tissue in the
centre. It then moves upwards in the xylem vessels
through the root into the stem and finally into the
leaves.

From soil into root hair

The roots of plants have very thin, single-celled
extensions of some of the cells that make up the
outer layer (epidermis) of the root. These root
hairs are a specialised exchange surface for the
uptake of water and mineral ions.

SAQ
1 Explain why plants do not need a transport
system to distribute oxygen or carbon dioxide.

Uptake of ions
Plants take up inorganic ions from the solution
that is present between soil particles. Ions
are absorbed into the root hairs (Figure 5.1),
transported across the root, and then into the
xylem. They then travel, in solution in water, to all
parts of the plant. The structure and function of
xylem tissue, and the way in which water moves in
it, is described on pages 8890.
The mechanism by which ions are taken up
by root hairs depends on their concentration in
the soil solution. If a particular type of ion is in

Figure 5.1 A root of a young radish showing the

root hairs.
85

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

6 transpiration of water
vapour through open
stomata into air

lower
water potential

5 evaporation of water
into leaf air spaces
4 water moves from
xylem to leaf cells

3 water moves up xylem

water
potential
gradient

2 water enters xylem

1 water uptake
near root tips

higher
water potential

Figure 5.2 An overview of the movement of water through a plant; water moves down a water potential
gradient from the soil to the air.
Each root hair is only about 200250m across,
but this is large enough for them to be visible with
the naked eye. There may be thousands of them
on each tiny branch of a root, so together they
provide an enormous surface area that is in contact
with the soil surrounding the root.
Soil is made up of particles of minerals and
humus. Between the soil particles there are air
spaces. Unless the soil is very dry, there is a thin
86

layer of water covering each soil particle. The root

hairs make contact with this water, and absorb it
by osmosis. The water moves into the root hair
because there is a lower concentration of solutes in
the soil than there is inside the root hair cell. The
water potential outside the root hair is therefore
higher than the water potential inside, so water
moves passively down the water potential gradient
into the cells (Figure 5.3).

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

water
movement

xylem vessel

phloem

dilute soil solution

higher water potential

more concentrated
solution in cytoplasm
and vacuole lower
water potential

pericycle
cortex
root hair

epidermis

water
Water enters root hair
cell by diffusing down
the water potential
gradient.

thin, permeable,
cellulose cell wall

endodermis

Figure 5.4 The pathway of water movement from

root hair to xylem.

Figure 5.3 Water uptake by a root hair cell.

Water can also enter the root without going into
a cell at all. It can seep into the cell walls of the
root hair cells, and then move through these and
other cell walls all the way into the centre of the
root.
SAQ
2 Summarise the ways in which a root hair cell is
adapted for its functions.

epidermis

root hair

partially permeable
cell membrane
cortex

stele

pericycle

xylem
phloem

From root hair to xylem

Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show the internal structure of
a young root. Water that has been taken up by the
root hairs travels across the cortex and into the
centre of the root. It does this because the water
potential inside the xylem vessels is lower than
the water potential in the root hairs and the cells
in between. Water moves passively down its water
potential gradient, from the edge of the root to the
xylem in the centre.
The water takes two different routes through the
cortex. The cells of the cortex, like all plant cells,

endodermis

Figure 5.5 Transverse section of a young root to

show the distribution of tissues.
are surrounded by cell walls made of many layers
of cellulose fibres criss-crossing each other. Water
soaks into these walls rather as it would soak
into filter paper, and then seeps across the root
from cell wall to cell wall, and through the spaces
between the cells, without ever entering a cell. This
route is called the apoplast pathway (Figure 5.6a).
Some water, however, enters the cells and moves
from cell to cell by osmosis, or through strands of
87

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

cytoplasm that make direct connections between
adjacent cells, called plasmodesmata (Figure 5.6b).
This is called the symplast pathway.
a

3
4
2
1
1 Water enters the cell wall.
2 Water moves through the cell wall.
3 Water may move from cell wall to cell wall, across
the intercellular spaces.
4 Water may move directly from cell wall to cell wall.

endodermis is through the cytoplasm of these

cells. This arrangement gives the plant control over
what inorganic ions pass into its xylem vessels, as
everything has to cross a plasma membrane on the
way in.
Although some inorganic ions move through
the cells of the endodermis passively, by facilitated
diffusion down their concentration gradient, the
majority are moved by active transport, up their
concentration gradient, through transport proteins
in the membranes of the endodermal cells. These
ions move into the xylem vessels next to the
endodermis. This decreases the water potential
inside the xylem vessels, causing more water to be
drawn into them by osmosis.

xylem
2

endodermis

1
1 Water enters the cytoplasm across the partially
permeable plasma membrane.
2 Water can move into the sap in the vacuole, through
the tonoplast.
3 Water may move from cell to cell through the
plasmodesmata.
4 Water may move from cell to cell through adjacent
plasma membranes and cell walls.

Figure 5.6 How water moves across a root:

a the apoplast pathway, b the symplast pathway.
The relative importance of these two pathways
depends on the species of plant and the
environmental conditions. In most plants, for most
of the time, the majority of water movement across
the root is by the apoplast pathway.
When the water reaches the stele (Figure 5.5),
the apoplast pathway is barred. The cells in the
outer layer of the stele, called the endodermis, have
a thick, waterproof, waxy substance called suberin
in their walls (Figure 5.7). This band of suberin,
called the Casparian strip, forms an impenetrable
barrier to water in the walls of the endodermis
cells. The only way for the water to cross the
88

band of suberin,
the Casparian strip

symplast pathway open

apoplast pathway closed

Figure 5.7 The Casparian strip.

Up through the xylem vessels

Water is carried from the roots all the way up to
the top of the plant inside xylem vessels. In a large
tree, the distance from the roots to the topmost
leaf could be tens of metres. Yet there is no pump
making the water move. What forces cause water to
travel up a plant?
To answer this question, we need to understand
what is happening to the water in the leaves,
because this is what drives the process. It is also
important to know something about the structure

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

of the xylem vessels, as this too helps to keep the
water moving.
We have already looked at the structure of
xylem vessels (Unit 1, Chapter 2, page 51). Xylem
vessels are made up of many long, narrow cells
called xylem elements stacked end to end. Xylem
elements began as living cells, with cytoplasm,
nucleus and cellulose cell walls. However, they then
differentiated into extremely specialised structures
and died. Xylem elements contain no living
material, and are just the empty shells of the cells
from which they developed.
Figures 5.8, 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11 show the
structure of xylem vessels. Each xylem element has
a wall made of cellulose and a substance called
lignin. Lignin is a very strong, waterproof material.
TS xylem vessel element
cellulose
wall

It is important not only in keeping water inside

the xylem vessels, but also in helping to support
the plant. The wood of tree trunks and branches is
made of xylem vessels.
The end walls of the xylem elements usually
disappear completely, so that the stack of elements
makes up a continuous tube, like a drainpipe,
reaching all the way from the roots, through the
stem and up to the very top of the plant. Figure
5.12 shows the position of xylem tissue in a stem.
There are usually several xylem vessels side by side.
Water can move sideways between them, and out of
the xylem vessel into the surrounding cells, through
pits in their walls. These are small gaps where no
lignin has been deposited, leaving just the cellulose
cell wall, through which water can easily move.

Types of lignified cell

wall thickenings

LS xylem vessel
lumen

lignified
cellulose wall

pit
remains of
end walls
of adjacent
xylem
elements

pit

vessel
element

lumen

spiral

annular

reticulate

pitted
10m

Figure 5.8 The structure of xylem vessels.

0.1mm

Figure 5.9 SEM of a longitudinal section through

part of a bamboo stem, showing xylem vessels.
The vessel at the top has a spiral band of lignin
around it. The one below is older and has more
extensive covering of lignin with many pits.

100m

Figure 5.10 Photomicrograph of a transverse

section of xylem vessels. They have been stained
so that the lignin appears red. The xylem vessels
are the large empty cells. You can also see smaller
parenchyma cells between them.
89

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

xylem vessels
with thickened
lignified walls

Figure 5.11
section.

lumen

parenchyma cell though

this contains cytoplasm in the
plant, this cytoplasm is often
not present in a stained slide
of xylem tissue

Drawing of xylem tissue in transverse

collenchyma
cortex
parenchyma
lignified fibres
(provide support)
phloem
xylem
pith

vascular bundle
epidermis

Figure 5.12 Transverse section through a young

stem to show the distribution of tissues.
SAQ
3 Use the scale bar in Figure 5.10 to calculate the
width of the lumen (space) inside one of the
xylem vessels.
4 Explain how each of these features adapts xylem
vessels for their function of transporting water
from roots to leaves.
a
total lack of cell contents
b
no end walls in individual xylem elements
c
a diameter of between 0.01 mm and 0.2 mm
d
lignified walls
e
pits
90

You can think of xylem vessels as being like

a group of drinking straws. To pull water up a
straw, you put your mouth over the top and suck.
Sucking means reducing the pressure. Because
you have reduced the hydrostatic pressure at the
top of the straw, there is a pressure gradient from
the bottom of the straw to the top. The liquid flows
down this pressure gradient, from the relatively
high pressure at the bottom to the relatively low
pressure at the top.
The liquid moves up the straw, and up through
xylem vessels, by mass ow. Mass flow is the way
that water moves in a river, or up a drinking straw,
or out of a tap. A whole body of water flows along
together. This is very different from diffusion or
osmosis, which rely on the random movements of
individual molecules.
The column of water in the xylem vessels holds
together because individual water molecules are
attracted to each other. This attraction is called
cohesion. The water molecules are also attracted
to the sides of the xylem vessels, and this is known
as adhesion. This gives them a tendency to crawl
up the inner surface of the vessel, a process
called capillarity. Cohesion and adhesion help
the whole column of water to flow up the xylem
vessel without breaking. Xylem vessels are very
narrow usually somewhere between 0.01 mm and
0.2 mm in diameter and this means that more of
the water is in contact with the sides of the vessel
than would be the case if the vessels were wider.
Adhesive forces are therefore relatively high, able
to overcome the downwards pull of gravity on the
water column, and helping capillarity to work.

From leaf to atmosphere transpiration

Figure 5.13 shows the structure of a leaf.
The cells in the spongy mesophyll layers are not
tightly packed, and there are many spaces around
them filled with air. The water in the cells seeps
into the walls, so these cell walls are always wet.
Some of this water evaporates into the air spaces,
so that the air inside a leaf is usually saturated with
water vapour.
These air spaces are in direct contact with the
air outside the leaf, through small pores called
stomata. If the air outside the leaf contains less

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

upper
epidermis
upper
epidermis

lower
epidermis

vascular bundle
xylem

vascular bundle
cuticle

nucleus

chloroplast

xylem

phloem

phloem

palisade
mesophyll

spongy
mesophyll

lower
epidermis
cuticle

air space

stoma

guard cell

Figure 5.13 The structure of a leaf.

water vapour than inside it, then there is a water
potential gradient from the air spaces inside
the leaf to the outside. Water vapour therefore
diffuses out through the stomata. This is called
transpiration (Figure 5.14).
As water evaporates from the cell walls of the
mesophyll cells, water moves into them to replace
it. This water comes from the xylem vessels in
the leaf. This removal of water from the top of
the xylem vessels reduces its pressure. The water
pressure at the top of the xylem vessel is therefore
less than the water pressure at the bottom, so water
flows up the vessel just like water up a drinking
straw (transpirational pull). Cohesion between
the water molecules keeps them moving together
without the column breaking, all the way up to the
top of even the tallest trees.
The continuous movement of water from
the roots, up through the xylem, into the leaves
and then out into the atmosphere is known as
the transpiration stream. Apart from the small
contribution made by root pressure, the plant does
not have to provide any energy at all to make it
happen. The main driving force is supplied by the
difference in water potential between the air and

the soil. The water moves down a water potential

gradient.
In some plants and in some circumstances
another force can contribute to the movement of
water in the xylem. This force is root pressure.
The process of active transport of ions through
the endodermis draws water into the xylem
vessels in the roots. This increases the hydrostatic
pressure inside the xylem vessels, pushing the
water upwards to regions where the hydrostatic
pressure is lower. If air humidity is very high and
rate of transpiration very low, root pressure can be
sufficient to move water in the xylem.
However, root pressure is nowhere near enough
to explain how water is forced to move all the way
up a tall tree, or even a large plant.
Though the primary role for transpiration is to
transport water and mineral ions from roots to all
other parts of a plant, there is one other benefit. In
hot conditions, the evaporation of water from the
plants leaves can have a very useful cooling effect,
in a similar manner to the evaporation of sweat
from your skin.

91

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

2
1

spongy mesophyll
cell
3

air space
in spongy
mesophyll

xylem
vessel

1 Water moves up the xylem vessels.

2 Water leaves a xylem vessel through a pit.
It may enter the cytoplasm or cell wall of
a mesophyll cell.

3 Water evaporates from the cell wall into

an air space.
5

4 Water vapour diffuses from the air space

through an open stoma.
5 Water vapour is carried away from the leaf
surface by air movements.

Figure 5.14 Water movement through a leaf.

Stomatal opening and closure

A stoma is a hole in the epidermis of a leaf,
usually on the underside, that is surrounded by
two sausage-shaped guard cells. When the guard

1 ATP-powered proton pump actively

transports H+ out of the guard cell.

Stoma closed
K+

H+
ATP
ADP + Pi

cells are turgid, they swell and open the stoma.

When they are flaccid, the stoma closes.
The diagram explains how this happens.

H+

Stoma open

2 The low H+ concentration and

negative charge inside the cell cause
K+ channels to open. K+ diffuses into
the cell down an electrochemical
gradient.
3 The high concentration of K+ inside
the guard cell lowers the water
potential ().
4 Water moves in by osmosis, down a
water potential gradient.

flaccid guard cells

92

5 The entry of water increases the

volume of the guard cells, so they
expand. The thin outer wall expands
most, so the cells curve apart.

stoma

turgid guard cells

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Anything that increases the water potential

gradient between the air spaces in the leaf and
the air outside, or that speeds up the movement
of the water molecules, will increase the rate of
transpiration. Generally, transpirational pull is the
most important mechanism for water movement
in xylem.
Humidity: Humidity is a measure of how much
water vapour is held in the air. In conditions
of low humidity that is, when the air is dry
there is a steep water potential gradient between
the leaf and the air. Transpiration rates are
therefore greater in low humidity than in high
humidity.
Temperature: An increase in temperature
causes an increase in the kinetic energy of
water molecules. This increases the rate of
evaporation of water from the cell walls into
the air spaces, and also the rate of diffusion of
the water vapour out of the leaf. An increase
in temperature therefore increases the rate of
transpiration.
Light intensity: Light does not normally have
any direct effect on the rate of transpiration
during the daytime. However, many plants close
their stomata at night, when it is dark and they
are unable to photosynthesise and so do not
need to use carbon dioxide from the air.
Air movements: The more the air around the
plants leaves is moving, the faster the humid
air surrounding them is carried away. This
helps to prevent the leaf becoming surrounded
by air that is saturated with water vapour, and
maintains a water potential gradient from the
air spaces inside the leaf to the air outside.
Transpiration therefore happens faster on a
windy day than on a still day (Figure 5.15).
Stomatal aperture: In many plants, stomata
close at night (Figure 5.16). In especially dry
conditions, the plant may close its stomata even
when light levels are ideal for photosynthesis,
to avoid losing too much water from its leaves.
There is often a compromise to be reached
between allowing in enough carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, and not letting out too much
water vapour.

Rate of transpiration

Factors affecting transpiration

Wind velocity

Figure 5.15 How wind affects transpiration.

dark

light

Rate of transpiration

light

Time

Figure 5.16 How stomatal closure affects

transpiration. Stomatal closure has occurred at
night in this plant.
The rate of transpiration is higher the greater
the aperture (Figure 5.17). However, if you look
at this graph, you will see that in still air, the
increase in the rate of transpiration is very little
at larger apertures, whereas in windy conditions,
the rate continues to increase even with larger
apertures.
Plant structure: Transpiration occurs from
the surface of leaves and green stems. For
plants that need to conserve water, reducing
the area of these surfaces will limit the rate of
transpiration. This can be done by dropping
leaves in dry seasons, having small leaves or
having no leaves (relying on green stems for
photosynthesis).

93

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

upper
epidermis

Rate of transpiration

moving air

still air

Stomatal aperture

Figure 5.17 The effects of wind velocity and

stomatal aperture on the rate of transpiration.
stomatal pit

anatomy: A number of structural features

Leaf
can reduce the rate of transpiration, even when
stomata are open. All of these features act
by trapping still air outside the stoma. This
increases the distance water has to diffuse before
it can be carried away in the mass flow of air
in the wind. The further the distance water has
to diffuse, the slower the rate of transpiration
(Figure 5.18). This is achieved by one or more
of the following; having stomata set in pits

stomata

lower
.
epidermis

Figure 5.19 A cross-section of an Oleander leaf

showing a pit on the underside where the stomata
are found. This reduces the rate of transpiration.
(Figure 5.19), having stomata on a leaf surface
that is on the inside of a rolled leaf, having
dense hairs on the leaf surface or having a thick
layer of wax on the leaf.
.

Hairless leaf on a windy day

water vapour

Hairless leaf in still air

Hairy leaf on a windy day

spongy
mesophyll cells

wind
stoma

diffusion of
water vapour

wind
thin layer
of still air

thick layer
of still air
large distance
for diffusion

wind
thick layer
of still air

large distance
for diffusion

Figure 5.18 The effects of wind velocity and leaf hairiness on the rate of transpiration.
94

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Comparing rates of transpiration

It is not easy to measure the rate at which water
vapour is leaving a plants leaves. This makes it
very difficult to investigate directly how different
factors, such as light or air movement, affect the
rate of transpiration. However, it is relatively easy
to measure the rate at which a plant stem takes
up water. A very high proportion of the water
taken up by a stem is lost in transpiration. As the
rate at which transpiration is happening directly
affects the rate of water uptake, this measurement
can give a very good approximation of the rate of
transpiration.
The apparatus used for this is called a potometer
(Figure 5.20). It is essential that everything in the
potometer is completely watertight and airtight,
so that no leakage of water occurs and so that no
air bubbles break the continuous water column.
To achieve this, it helps if you can insert the plant
stem into the apparatus with everything submerged
in water, so that air bubbles cannot enter the xylem
when you cut the stem. It also helps to cut the end
of the stem with a slanting cut, as air bubbles are
less likely to get trapped against it.
Potometers can be simpler than the one in
Figure 5.20. You can manage without the reservoir
(though this does mean it takes more time and

effort to refill the potometer) and the tubing can be

straight rather than bent. In other words, you can
manage with just a straight piece of glass tubing.
As water evaporates from the leaves, more water
is drawn into the xylem vessels that are exposed at
the cut end of the stem. Water is drawn along the
capillary tubing. If you record the position of the
meniscus at set time intervals, you can plot a graph
of distance moved against time. If you expose the
plant to different conditions, you can compare the
rate of water uptake.

Transport in phloem
The transport of soluble organic substances within
a plant is called translocation. These are substances
that the plant itself has made such as sugars,
which are made by photosynthesis in the leaves.
These substances are sometimes called assimilates.
The main substance transported in phloem is
sucrose.
Assimilates are transported in sieve elements.
Sieve elements are found in phloem tissue,
together with several other types of cells including
companion cells. Sieve elements and companion
cells work closely together to achieve translocation.

reservoir containing water

airtight seal
shoot of plant, with
its cut end in contact
with the water inside
the tubing

air/water meniscus

capillary tubing
ruler

water

Figure 5.20 A potometer.

95

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Sieve elements
Figure 5.21 shows the structure of a sieve element
and its accompanying companion cell. A sieve
tube is made up of many elongated sieve elements,
joined end to end vertically to form a continuous
column. Each sieve element is a living cell. They
are very narrow, often between 10 and 15 m in
diameter. Like a normal plant cell, a sieve element
has a cellulose cell wall, a plasma membrane and
cytoplasm containing endoplasmic reticulum and
mitochondria. However, the amount of cytoplasm
is very small and only forms a thin layer lining the
inside of the wall of the cell. There is no nucleus,
nor are there any ribosomes. Figure 5.22 shows
the appearance of phloem tissue through a light
microscope, and Figure 5.23 shows its appearance
using a scanning electron microscope.
Sieve element

Companion cell
plasmodesmata

sieve pore

sieve plate
mitochondrion
cellulose
cell wall
plasma
membrane

cellulose
cell wall
mitochondrion
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
plasma
membrane
vacuole

endoplasmic
reticulum
cytoplasm

tonoplast
nucleus
middle
lamella
cytoplasm

Note: Sieve elements have no

nucleus, tonoplast or ribosomes.

Figure 5.21 A phloem sieve element and its

companion cell.

96

phloem
parenchyma cell
sieve plate
material that is not
present in a living
plant a deposit
of chemicals the
plant uses to seal
damaged sieve
tubes (they were
damaged during
preparation of the
slide)
sieve element
part of a sieve
tube containing
cytoplasmic
material mainly
around the edges
companion cell
containing dense
cytoplasm with few
vacuoles

Figure 5.22 a Photomicrograph showing phloem

sieve elements (600), b drawing of phloem tissue.

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Companion cells
Each sieve element has at least one companion cell
lying close beside it. Companion cells have the
structure of a normal plant cell, with a cellulose
cell wall, a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a
vacuole and a nucleus. However, the number of
mitochondria and ribosomes is rather larger than
usual, and the cells are metabolically very active.
Also, the vacuole remains small and does not form
a large central vacuole.
Companion cells are very closely associated
with the neighbouring sieve elements. Many
plasmodesmata (strands of cytoplasm) pass
through their cell walls, providing a direct pathway
between the cytoplasm of the companion cell and
the cytoplasm of the sieve element.

Plasmodesmata

Figure 5.23 SEM of a sieve tube with a sieve

plate and a companion cell below it (4600).
Perhaps the most striking feature of sieve
elements is their end walls. Where the end walls of
two sieve elements meet, a sieve plate is formed.
This is made up of the walls of both elements,
perforated by large pores. These pores are easily
visible with a good light microscope. When sieve
plates are viewed using a transmission electron
microscope in longitudinal section, strands of
fibrous protein can sometimes be seen passing
through these pores from one sieve element to
another. However, these strands are produced by
the sieve element in response to the damage caused
when the tissue is cut during preparation of the
specimen for viewing. In living phloem, the protein
strands are not present, and so the pores are open
and present little barrier to the free flow of liquid
through them.

A plasmodesma (plural: plasmodesmata) is a

strand of cytoplasm that runs directly from
one plant cell to the next. In a tissue containing
closely packed plant cells, each cell may have as
many as 10000 plasmodesmata.
The electron microscope shows that the gap in
the cell wall is about 25nm wide at its narrowest
point. The plasma membranes of the cells run
right through this gap and are continuous with
each other. The membranes enclose cytoplasm
and endoplasmic reticulum. This arrangement
makes it easy for many different types of
molecules to pass directly from one cell to the
next, without having to cross a membrane.
The presence of these plasmodesmata means
that all the cells of a plant are connected, which
is a very different situation from that found in
animal bodies, where most cells have no large
pores in their plasma membranes connecting
adjacent cells. Most pores in animal cells just
connect with the extracellular solution.
Small molecules can diffuse freely, but it
appears that the pores can, at times, allow larger
molecules through, including small proteins.
Indeed, it has long been known that many plant
viruses can pass from cell to cell this way.

97

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

The contents of sieve tubes

The liquid inside phloem sieve tubes is called
phloem sap, or just sap. Table 5.1 shows the
composition of the sap of the castor oil plant,
Ricinus communis.
Solute

Concentration
/ moldm3

sucrose

Stylet penetrates a single sieve

tube in a vascular bundle.
Aphid stylet has pushed
between cortical cells.
epidermis
aphid mouthparts

250

potassium ions, K+

80

amino acids

40

chloride ions, Cl

15

phosphate ions, PO43

10

magnesium ions, Mg2+

sodium ions, Na+

nitrate ions, NO

plant growth
substances (e.g. auxin)

small traces

Table 5.1 Composition of sap in Ricinus

communis.

Anaesthetised
aphid removed:
phloem sap
exudes from
broken stylet.

SAQ
5 Which of the substances in Table 5.1 are
synthesised by the plant?

Figure 5.24 Using an aphid to collect phloem sap.

It is not easy to collect enough phloem sap to
analyse its contents. When phloem tissue is cut,
the sieve elements respond by rapidly blocking the
sieve pores. The pores are blocked first by plugs
of phloem protein, and then, within hours, by a
carbohydrate called callose. However, castor oil
plants are unusual in that their phloem sap does
continue to flow for a while, making it relatively
easy to collect.
Aphids are a good way of collecting sap. Aphids,
such as greenfly, feed by inserting their tubular
mouthparts, called stylets, into the phloem of plant
stems and leaves (Figure 5.24). Phloem sap flows
through the stylet into the aphid. If the stylet is cut
near the aphids head, the sap continues to flow. It
seems that the small diameter of the stylet does not
allow sap to flow out rapidly enough to switch on
the plants phloem clotting mechanism.
98

How translocation occurs

Phloem sap, like the contents of xylem vessels,
moves by mass flow. However, whereas in xylem
vessels differences in pressure are produced by
a water potential gradient between soil and air,
requiring no energy input from the plant, this is
not so in phloem transport. To create the pressure
differences needed for mass flow in phloem, the
plant has to use its own energy. Phloem transport
is therefore an active process, in contrast to the
passive transport in xylem.
The pressure difference is produced by active
loading of sucrose into the sieve elements at the
place from which sucrose is to be transported.
This is typically in a photosynthesising leaf. As
sucrose is loaded into the sieve element, this
decreases the water potential in the sap inside it.

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Therefore, water follows the sucrose into the sieve
element, moving down a water potential gradient
by osmosis.
At another point along the sieve tube,sucrose
may be removed by other cells. Root cells,for
example, may use sucrose delivered by phloem.
Sucrose will often be at a relatively low concentration
in these cells, because they are using it up. So
sucrose simply diffuses out of the phloem and into
the root cell, and water follows by osmosis.
So, in the leaf, water moves into the sieve tube.
In the root, it moves out of it. This creates a
pressure difference, with the pressure at the leaf
end of the phloem sieve tube being greater than
that at the root end. The pressure difference
causes the liquid inside the tube to flow from the
high pressure area to the lower one, by mass flow.
Any area of a plant from which sucrose is
loaded into the phloem is called a source. An area
that takes sucrose out of the phloem is called a
sink (Figure 5.25).
Source:
photosynthetic
organ, e.g. leaf
photosynthesis
sucrose

mass flow
between
source and sink

active loading
at source

companion
cells

sieve tube
unloading
at sink

Sink:
growing point
or storage
point, e.g.
fruit, root
respiration

sucrose

Sinks can be anywhere in the plant, both

above and below the photosynthesising leaves.
So sap flows both upwards and downwards. This
contrasts with the situation in xylem, where flow is
always upwards. Within any one phloem sieve tube,
however, the flow is all in one direction.
SAQ
6 Which of the following are sources, and which
are sinks?
a a nectary in a flower
b a developing fruit
c the storage tissue of a potato tuber when the
potato is just starting to sprout
d a growing potato tuber

Loading sucrose into phloem

In leaf mesophyll cells, photosynthesis produces
sugars. Some of these are converted into sucrose,
which can be transported in the phloem to other
parts of the plant.
Sucrose is soluble, so it dissolves in the water in
the cell. It can move out of a mesophyll cell and
across the leaf, by either the apoplast or symplast
pathway.
Sucrose is loaded into companion cells by
active transport (Figure 5.26). This is done in a
rather roundabout way. First, hydrogen ions are
pumped out of the cell by active transport, using
ATP as the energy source. This creates a large
excess of hydrogen ions outside the cell. They can
move back into the cell down their concentration
gradient, through a protein that acts as a carrier
for both hydrogen ions and sucrose at the same
time. The sucrose molecules are carried through
this co-transporter into the companion cell, against
the concentration gradient for sucrose. The sucrose
molecules can then move from the companion cell
into the sieve tube, through the plasmodesmata
that connect them.

glucose + fructose
starch

Figure 5.25 Sources, sinks and mass flow in

phloem.

Unloading sucrose from phloem

Unloading occurs in any tissue that requires
sucrose. It is likely that the sucrose moves out
of the phloem and into the tissue by facilitated
diffusion. Once in the tissue, the sucrose is
99

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Sieve element

Companion cell
plasma membrane

cell wall

An active H+ pump driven

by ATP lowers the level
of H+ in the companion cell.

cytoplasm of
sieve element

cytoplasm of
companion cell

The high level of H+ outside the

companion cell is used to drive sucrose
across the plasma membrane.
sucrose

sucrose

Figure 5.26

lower concentration
of sucrose

high
concentration
of sucrose

photosynthesis

lower concentration
of sucrose

The method by which sucrose is loaded into phloem.

converted into something else by enzymes. This

decreases its concentration and therefore maintains
a concentration gradient from the phloem into
the tissue. One such enzyme is invertase, which
converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.

Evidence for the mechanism of phloem

transport
Until the late 1970s and 1980s, there was
considerable argument about whether or not
phloem sap did or did not move by mass flow, in
the way we have described. The stumbling block
was the presence of the sieve pores and phloem
protein, as it was felt that these must have some
important role. Several hypotheses were put
forward, which tried to provide a role for the
phloem protein. It is now known that the phloem
protein is not present in living, active phloem
tissue, and so there is no need to provide it with
a role when explaining the mechanism of phloem
transport.
There is now a lot of evidence that phloem
100

sucrose

transport does occur by mass flow. The rate of

transport in phloem is about 10 000 times faster
than it would be if substances were moving by
diffusion rather than by mass flow. The actual rates
of transport measured match closely with those
calculated from measured pressure differences at
source and sink, assuming that the pores in the
sieve plates are open and unobstructed.
Experimental work has investigated the sucrose
hydrogen co-transporter in plant cells, and it is
understood how this works. There is also plenty of
circumstantial evidence that this takes place:
phloem sap always has a relatively high pH,
often around 8, and this is what you would
expect if hydrogen ions are being actively
transported out of the neighbouring companion
cell;
there is a difference in electrical potential across
the plasma membrane of companion cells,
which is more negative inside than outside; this
could be caused by the greater concentration of
positively charged hydrogen ions outside the cell
than inside.

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

SAQ
7 Draw a table and use it to compare the structure
of xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes. You
could include cell structure (walls, diameter, cell
contents and so on), substances transported and
methods of transport.

Transpiration and climate

Most of us are aware that cutting down
rainforests reduces photosynthesis, increasing
the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and
contributing to global warming. But fewer people
realise how transpiration can affect climate.
Aerial photographs, historical records
and data and computer models from NASA have
been used to look at the effects of changes in
land cover on climate in the USA. In the midwest, the natural vegetation was grassland, but
as this has been replaced by agricultural land,
the average temperature in those regions has
dropped by almost 1 C. This is because grass
does not transpire as much as crops. The extra
transpiration from the crop plants increases the
humidity of the air and has a cooling effect.

In contrast, when forest is removed to grow

crops, as has happened on the east coast of
the USA, the reverse effect is seen. Forest trees
transpire much more than most crop plants, and
so the air above the farmland often contains
less water vapour than the air above a forest. As
forest has been replaced by farmland, the climate
in these regions has become warmer.
There have also been effects on local rainfall
slightly more rainfall where there are forests,
compared to areas where forest has been replaced
by crops. But these are much less marked than
the temperature changes.
1700

1700 1910
C
>+0.6
+0.3 to +0.6
0 to +0.3
0.3 to 0
0.6 to 0.3
0.9 to 0.6
1910 1990

1910
Vegetation
forest
grass
desert
semi-desert
crops

1990

Change in average surface air temperature in July

between 1700 and 1910, and between 1910 and
1990.

Vegetation in 1700, 1910 and 1990.

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Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Summary
ions are absorbed into a plant through its root hairs, by facilitated diffusion or active
Inorganic
transport.
containing inorganic ions in solution, is transported in xylem vessels. The water moves
Water,
passively, down a water potential gradient from the soil to the air.
moves into the root hairs by osmosis, and crosses the root cortex by the apoplast pathway
Water
(between the cells) and the symplast pathway (through the cells).
Casparian strip blocks the apoplast pathway, so water must pass through the cells of the
The
endodermis. The membranes of these cells move inorganic ions by active transport. Water follows
by osmosis, moving into xylem vessels and helping to increase the hydrostatic pressure at their bases
(root pressure).
vessels are stacks of dead, empty xylem elements. These have no end walls, and their side
Xylem
walls are impregnated with lignin. Adhesion of water molecules to their walls and cohesion of water
molecules to each other help the water column inside xylem vessels to move upwards by mass flow
without breaking.
in the leaves provides the major driving force for water movement through the plant.
Transpiration
Water evaporates from the wet cell walls of cells inside the leaf, and then diffuses out through
stomata into the air. Water moves from xylem vessels into the leaf cells by osmosis. This lowers the
pressure at the top of the water column in the xylem so that water moves up xylem by mass flow,
down a pressure gradient.
is increased in conditions of high light intensity, high temperature, low humidity and
Transpiration
strong air movements. A potometer can be used to compare rates of transpiration.
that the plant has made, such as sucrose, are transported in phloem tubes. These are
Substances
made up of sieve elements, which are living cells with perforated end walls. Sieve elements have no
nucleus.
cells are closely associated with sieve elements. Some of them actively load sucrose into
Companion
a phloem sieve element, which reduces the water potential. Water therefore moves into the sieve
element by osmosis. At the other end of the phloem tube, sucrose is removed by cells that are using it,
and water follows by osmosis. This makes the pressure at one end of the tube less than at the other,
so the liquid inside the tube flows from the high pressure area to the low pressure area by mass flow.

102

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Questions
Multiple choice questions
1 The uptake of mineral ions from the soil into the root hair cells lowers the water potential of the
cell. Water then enters the cell. Which of the following correctly identifies the processes by which
the ions and water are taken up?
Ions

Water

active transport

active transport

active transport

osmosis

osmosis

osmosis

osmosis

active transport

2 Water moves across the root down a water potential gradient. Which of the following is responsible
for producing the water potential gradient?
A root pressure
B capillarity
C transpiration pull
D adhesion
3 The diagram below shows a cross-section of a root.
I

II

III
IV

Which of the following correctly identifies the structure that controls the amounts of mineral ions
taken into the xylem of the root?
A I B II C III D IV

Which feature of the xylem vessels allows them to transport water with little resistance?
A narrow lumen
B lignified walls
C pits
D lack of cell contents

continued ...

103

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

5 The photomicrograph below shows a longitudinal section through transport tissue in a plant stem.

Which of the following correctly identifies the structure labelled W and the tissue in which
it is found?
Structure W

Tissue

xylem vessel

xylem

xylem vessel

phloem

sieve tube

xylem

sieve tube

phloem

Which of the following correctly describes a feature of transport in phloem tissue?

A Movement of metabolites is only unidirectional.
B No salts are translocated in the phloem.
C Uptake of sucrose into the phloem is passive.
D Uptake of sucrose into the phloem requires ATP.

7 The movement of water through xylem vessels is affected by external conditions. A decrease in which
external factor would cause an increase in transpiration?
A temperature
B humidity
C light intensity
D wind speed

continued ...

104

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

8 The photomicrograph shows a longitudinal section of transport tissue in a plant stem.

What are the names of the structures labelled Q and R and the tissue in which they are found?
Structure Q

Structure R

Tissue

companion cell

sieve tube

phloem

xylem vessel

companion cell

xylem

sieve tube

companion cell

phloem

sieve tube

xylem vessel

xylem

9 The diagram shows a model which can be used to demonstrate mass flow.
tube T

concentrated
sucrose
solution

dilute
sucrose
solution
X

Y
water

rigid, partially
permeable
containers

X and Y are filled with sucrose solutions of different concentration, causing water to move in or out
of X and Y by osmosis or as a result of hydrostatic pressure. Sucrose solution then moves through the
tube T joining X and Y.
Which description of this is correct?
Water potential in X
compared with Y

Direction of movement of sucrose

solution in tube T

higher (less negative)

from X to Y

higher (less negative)

from Y to X

lower (more negative)

from X to Y

lower (more negative)

from Y to X

continued ...

105

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

10 Which of the following cause the ascent of water in the stem of a plant?
A osmosis, root pressure and capillarity
B active transport, capillarity and transpiration pull
C root pressure, capillarity, cohesion and transpiration pull
D osmosis, active transport and root pressure
Structured questions
11 The apparatus shown below can be used to measure the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot.

reservoir containing water

airtight seal
shoot of plant, with
its cut end in contact
with the water inside
the tubing

air/water meniscus

capillary tubing

water

a What is the name for this kind of apparatus?

[1 mark]
b Define the term transpiration.
[2 marks]
c i Identify four precautions that should be taken in setting up the apparatus to ensure
valid measurements can be obtained under the given conditions.
[4 marks]
ii Describe how the apparatus can be used to measure the rate of water uptake
in cm3min1.
[3 marks]
d Explain why the apparatus shown above does not accurately measure the rate of
transpiration in a plant.
[2 marks]
e A student investigated the effect of varying wind speed. Wind speed was varied
using a fan.
The results are recorded in the table below.
Distance of fan from
shoot/cm

Time taken for

meniscus to move
30mm/s

Time taken for

meniscus to move
1mm/s

Rate of movement of
meniscus/mms1

100

240.0

8.0

0.125

75

180.0

6.0

0.167

50

115.0

3.8

0.263

25

42.0

continued ...

106

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

i Calculate the rate of movement of the meniscus when the fan was at a distance
of 25cm. Show your working.
ii Plot a graph of the results to illustrate the effect of distance of fan on the rate of
movement of the meniscus.
f The results the student obtained for different light intensities are shown in the
table below.
Condition

[4 marks]

Distance moved in five

minutes / mm

room (daylight)

25.0

bright light

42.0

dark cupboard


g

[2 marks]

1.0

Using the data in both tables, describe and explain the effect of wind speed and
light intensity on the rate of water uptake.
Describe a control that should have been set up to compare the results obtained
in the students investigations.

[5 marks]
[2 marks]

12 The diagrams below show sections of two organs from a dicotyledonous plant.

organ A

organ B

a Identify organs A and B, giving a reason for each of your answers.

b i Copy each diagram and shade in an area in both organs to show where
translocation of assimilates occurs.
ii Name the tissue which is specialised for translocation.

[2 marks]
[2 marks]
[1 mark]

continued ...

107

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

c The micrographs below are a transverse section and a longitudinal section of the same
plant structure found in a vascular bundle.

II

magnification 1000

II

magnification 000 [when chosen]

i Identify structures labelled I to VI.

ii State how each of the structures IV, V and VI is adapted for its function.
iii Make a large drawing at magnification 1.5 of cells I, II and III.
iv Calculate the actual diameter of cell II between A and B in m.
Clothes lines can be made by tying wire to branches of trees. Bulging is observed
above the wire but the branches do not die. If the bark of the tree is removed from
the lower trunk, bulging occurs above the girdle and the tree eventually dies.
Suggest an explanation for these observations.

[3 marks]
[3 marks]
[3 marks]
[2 marks]

[4 marks]

13 The photomicrograph below shows part of a mature root of buttercup, Ranunculus,

viewed under high power.
W

magnification 195

continued ...

108

Chapter 5: Transport in plants

Rate of transpiration

a Identify the structures labelled W, X ,Y and Z.

[4 marks]
b Describe the role of W in the root.
[3 marks]
c Describe two features of xylem vessels that facilitate water transport.
[2 marks]
Water travels up xylem vessels from the root to the leaves. Most of this water is lost
by transpiration.
d List two functions of transpiration in the plant.
[2 marks]
Transpiration is affected by many external environmental factors as well as structural
features of the leaf.
e Identify one environmental and one structural factor that affect transpiration rates.
[2 marks]
f The graph below shows the effect of stomatal aperture on the rate of transpiration.
Describe and explain the relationship shown in the graph below.

moving air

still air

Stomatal aperture

g Some plants have leaves that contain sunken stomata and hairs.
Explain how these adaptations help the plant to conserve water.

[4 marks]
[3 marks]

Essay questions
14 a

b
c

Describe how water passes from the soil to the xylem vessels of the root. Illustrate
your answer with a diagram.
Explain how water travels up the stem and into the leaf of a mango tree.
Explain how water moves from the vascular tissue in the leaf to the atmosphere.

15 a Plants transport organic solutes from the source to the sink. Giving examples,
explain what is meant by the terms source and sink.
b i Describe how sugars produced during photosynthesis in the leaves are transported
to the roots by mass (pressure) flow.
ii The mass (pressure) flow mechanism of transport of solutes is one hypothesis
to explain the movement of organic assimilates. Critically assess the pressure
flow hypothesis.
c Explain how the root of a plant can act as both a source and a sink at different times.

[7 marks]
[5 marks]
[3 marks]
[2 marks]
[6 marks]

[5 marks]
[2 marks]

16 a The xylem transports water from the root to the leaves of plants. Describe and explain
how the cells of the xylem are adapted for this function.
[7 marks]
b i What do you understand by the term translocation?
[2 marks]
ii The phloem transports organic assimilates throughout the plant. Describe and
explain how the phloem is adapted to perform this function.
[6 marks]
109