Islam - Wikipedia

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Islam (/slm/;[note 1] Arabic: , al-Islm IPA: [alislam];[note 2]) is the

religion articulated by the Quran, a text considered by its adherents to be the
verbatim word of God (Allh), and, for the vast majority of adherents, by the
teachings and normative example (called the sunnah, composed of accounts
called hadith) of Muhammad (c. 5708 June 632 CE). It is the world's secondlargest religion[1] and the fastest-growing major religion in the world,[2][3][4] with
over 1.7 billion followers[5] or 23% of the global population,[1] known as
Muslims.[6] Islam is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion that upholds that God is
one and incomparable[7] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[8]
Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last prophet of God.[9][10][11][12][13]
The Kaaba in Mecca is the direction

of prayer and destination of
pilgrimage for Muslims all over the
world.
Muslims also believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a
primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[14][15][16] As for the Quran, Muslims
consider it to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[17] Religious concepts and practices include the five
pillars of Islam, which are obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every
aspect of life and society, from banking and welfare to the status of women and the environment.[18][19]
Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it quickly spread in the Arabian Peninsula and by the 8th
century the Islamic empire was extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Islamic Golden Age
refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century when much of the historically Islamic
world was experiencing a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.[20][21][22] The expansion of the Muslim world
involved various caliphates and empires, traders and conversion to Islam by missionary activities.[23]
Most Muslims are of one of two denominations:[24][25] Sunni (7590%)[26] or Shia (1020%).[27] About 13% of
Muslims live in Indonesia,[28] the largest Muslim-majority country, 32% in South Asia,[29] 20% in the Middle East,[30]
and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa.[31] Sizable Muslim communities are also found in Europe, China, Russia, and the
Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world.
1 Etymology and meaning

2 Articles of faith
2.1 Concept of God
2.2 Angels
2.3 Revelations
2.4 Prophets and sunnah
2.5 Resurrection and judgment
2.6 Divine will
3 Acts of worship
3.1 Testimony
3.2 Prayer
3.3 Charity
3.4 Fasting
3.5 Pilgrimage
3.6 Recitation and memorization of the Quran
4 Law and jurisprudence
4.1 Scholars
4.2 Schools of jurisprudence
4.3 Etiquette and diet
4.4 Family life
4.5 Economy
4.6 Government
4.7 Jihad
5 History
5.1 Muhammad (610632)
5.2 Caliphate and civil strife (632750)
5.3 Classical era (7501258)
5.4 Pre-Modern era (125820th century)
5.5 Modern times (20th centurypresent)
6 Denominations
6.1 Sunni
6.2 Shia
6.3 Sufism
6.4 Other denominations
6.5 Non-denominational Muslims
7 Demographics
8 Culture
8.1 Architecture
8.2 Art
8.3 Calendar
9 Criticism
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Citations
11.3 Books and journals
11.3.1 Encyclopedias
12 Further reading
13 External links
Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large
class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and
peace.[32] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[33][34] Islm
is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender".
Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb
form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". Believers demonstrate
submission to God by serving God, following his commands, and rejecting polytheism.
The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran.
In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction:
"Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam."[35] Islam, by its
own inner logic, embraces every possible facet of existence, for God has named
Himself al-Mu, the All-Embracing.[36]
Other verses connect Islm and dn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have
perfected your religion (dn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have
approved Islam for your religion."[37] Still others describe Islam as an action of
returning to Godmore than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[38] In the Hadith of
Gabriel, islm is presented as one part of a triad that includes imn (faith), and ihsn
(excellence), where islm is defined theologically as Tawhid, historically by asserting
that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctrinally by mandating five basic and
fundamental pillars of practice.[39][40]
The dome of the Carol I

Mosque in Constana,
Romania, topped by the Islamic
crescent
Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in non-Islamic Anglophone societies. As contact between Islamic and
non-Islamic societies increased, this term came to be regarded as pejorative, sometimes to the level of being a slur, and
has therefore fallen out of polite use, especially since the 1950s. The term is sometimes said to be offensive or insulting
because it suggests that a human being is central to Muslims' religion, and/or because it parallels the formation of
Christianity, and thus supposedly equates Muhammad and Jesus Christ. Some authors, however, continue to use the
term Muhammadanism as a technical term for the religious system (of Islam) as opposed to the theological concept of
that exists within that system.[41]
Faith (Iman) in the Islamic creed (Aqidah) is often represented as the six articles of faith, notably spelled out in the
Hadith of Gabriel.
Concept of God
Medallion showing the word

"Allah" (God) in Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul, Turkey.
Islam is often seen as having the simplest doctrines of the major religions.[3] Its most
fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawd (Arabic: ). God is
described in chapter 112 of the Quran as:[42] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God,
the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like
unto Him."(112:1-4 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses
/112-qmt.php#112.1-4)) Muslims repudiate polytheism and idolatry, called Shirk, and
reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus. In Islam, God is
beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.[43]
[44][45][46] God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most
common being Al-Rahmn, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahm, meaning
"The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[47]
Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being
by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is,"[48] and that the purpose of existence is to
worship God.[49] He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.[50]
There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."[51]
Allh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God,
while ilh (Arabic: )is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[52] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different
names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanr" in Turkish, "Khod" in Persian or ud in Urdu.
Angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic
word for angel (Arabic: malak) means "messenger", like its
counterparts in Hebrew (malkh) and Greek (angelos).
According to the Quran, angels do not possess free will, and
therefore worship and obey God in total obedience. Angels'
duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying
God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul
at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of
light. They are described as "messengers with wingstwo, or
three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He
pleases..."[53] Some scholars have emphasized a metaphorical
reinterpretation of the concept of angels.[54] Pictorial depictions
of angels are generally avoided in Islamic Art, as the idea of
giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted.[55] Muslims
therefore do not generally share the perceptions of angelic
pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western Art.
Additionally, another kind of being that is sapient in Islam is
called Jinn, who are believed to be invisible to humans and
include Satan.
Angels
An angel presenting
Muhammad and his
companions with a
miniature city. In the
Topkapi Palace Library,
Istanbul.
Islamic calligraphy of
the Archangel Israfil
(reflects upon how
angels are most
commonly represented
in Islam).
Revelations
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated
by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed
scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted
either in interpretation, in text, or both.[56] The Quran (literally, "Reading" or
"Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God
and is widely regarded as the finest literary work in the Arabic language.[57][58]
Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God
through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrl) on many occasions between 610 CE until
his death on June 8, 632.[59] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations
were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of
transmission was orally through memorization.[60]
11th-century Quranic manuscript
with vocalization marks.
The Quran is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236
yt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily
concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss
social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[61]
The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic
principles and values".[62] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's
life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis
is known as tafsir.[63] The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid.
Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are
necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.[64]
Prophets and sunnah

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: anbiy ) as those humans
chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets
were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations.
Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able
to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's
messengers preached the message of Islamsubmission to the will of God. The
Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam,
including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[65]
Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing
The Arabic word for prophets preceded
prophet (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world
by the honorific "peace be upon them".
(to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example
of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are
encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding
interpretation of the Quran.[66] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his
actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God
quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.
A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. Hadiths can be
classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called Sahih (Arabic: ) ,
"good", called asan
(Arabic: )
among others. Muhammad al-Bukhari[67] collected over 300,000
or "weak", called af (Arabic: )
hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book Sahih
al-Bukhari,[67] which is considered by many to be the most authentic source after the Quran.[68][69]
Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiymah (Arabic: ) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the
time of Qiymah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the
Qiymah are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Quran emphasizes
bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[70]
On Yawm al-Qiymah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to
Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's
weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Quran lists several
sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Arabic: kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Quran
makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and
compassion towards animals,[71][72] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and
bliss, with Quranic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam
place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[73]
Yawm al-Qiymah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dn (Arabic: ) , "Day of Religion";[74] as-sah
(Arabic: ), "the Last Hour";[75] and al-Qriah (Arabic: ), "The Clatterer".[76]
Divine will
The concept of divine will is referred to as al-qad wa'l-qadar (Arabic: ), which literally derives from a root that
means to measure. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.[77]
There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' (arkan al-Islam; also arkan
ad-din, "pillars of religion"), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework
for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (shahadah), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3)
almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan, and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.[78]
Both Shia and Sunni sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[79] Apart from these,
Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity (Sadaqah) and recitation of the Quran.
Testimony
The Shahadah,[80] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under
oath with the specific statement: "'ahadu 'al-l ilha ill-llhu wa 'ahadu
'anna muammadan raslu-llh", or "I testify that there is no god but God,
Muhammad is the messenger of God."[81] This testament is a foundation for all
other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in
prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the
creed.[82]
Prayer
Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor

Akbar with inscriptions of the Islamic
declaration of faith
Ritual prayers, called alh or alt (Arabic: ), must be performed five

times a day. Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a
personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salat is
compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on
circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of
verses from the Quran.[83] The prayers are done with the chest in direction of
the kaaba though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of
Jerusalem.
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic
name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings
Muslim men prostrating during prayer
dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between
in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.
the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque
(masjid jmi').[84] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a
place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. In Medina, Al-Masjid
al-Nabawi, or the Prophet's Mosque, was also a place of refuge for the poor.[85] Modern mosques have evolved greatly
from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[86]
Charity
"Zakt" (Arabic: zakh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help
the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those
in debt (or bonded labour) and for the (stranded) traveller.[87][88] It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to
voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty".
Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.[89] The
amount of zakat to be paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,[90] for people who are not poor.
Sadaqah means voluntary charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity.[91] Both the Quran and the
hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,[92] and have urged the Muslims to
give more as an act of voluntary charity.[93] The Quran says: Spend something (in charity) out of the substance which
We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you (63:10 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/063-qmt.php#063.010)). One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that God expects men to be
generous with their wealth and not to be miserly (Quran 107 :17 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran
/verses/107-qmt.php#107.001)).[94] Accumulating wealth without spending them to address the needs of the poor is
generally prohibited and admonished.[95] Another kind of charity in Islam is waqf which means perpetual religious
endowment.
Fasting
Fasting, (Arabic: awm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during
the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express
their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for
several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on
circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[96]
Pilgrimage
The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the ajj (Arabic: ), has to be
performed during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca.
Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to
Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a
day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert
plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of
Abraham; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in
the desert plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning
the Devil recounting Abraham's actions;[97][98][99] then going to Mecca and
walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe was built as a
Pilgrims at the Masjid al-Haram on
place of worship by Abraham; then walking seven times between Mount Safa
Hajj
and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was
looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into
a settlement.[100] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, can be undertaken at any time of the year.
Recitation and memorization of the Quran

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or the part of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran in the correct
manner has been described as an excellent act of worship.[101] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of
Ramadan.[102] In Islamic societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.[102] Those who
memorize the whole Quran is called hafiz who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment
Day.[101] Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it
during regular prayer.
The Shariah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that
are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.[103] The study of Islamic law is called Fiqh, or
"Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of
jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion,
known as bidah. Four fundamental evidence, codified by ash-Shafi'i, used are, in order of precedence: the Quran, the
Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas).
Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory (fardh) recommendanded (mustahabb), permissible
(mubah), not recommended (makrooh) and prohibited (haraam).
The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad
provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing how he practically implemented those rules in a
society.
Men reading the Quran
Many of the Sharia laws that differ are devised through Ijtihad where there is
no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad
regarding a similar case.[104][105] As Muhammad's companions went to new
areas,[106] they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same
ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt
comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not
conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different
communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick
expansion of the Islamic State.
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and
foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Quran defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes:
unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery.
The Quran and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as
rules for fasting, charity, and prayer.
Scholars
Imam teaches the Quran in Crimea,

(1850s, lithograph by Carlo Bossoli)
Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who
mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to
refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term
ulema (Arabic: )is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have
completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who
interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (Arabic: )and often issues judicial
opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (Arabic:
). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is
a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include shiekh,
mullah and maulvi. Imam (Arabic: )is a leadership position, often used in the
context of conducting Islamic worship services.
Schools of jurisprudence
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhab (Arabic: ). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi,
Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and sometimes hir while the two major Shia schools are Ja'fari and Zaidi. Each differ in their
methodology, called Usul al-fiqh. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the
decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by
extension do not have a madhab.[107] The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is
called ijtihad.[108]
Etiquette and diet

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu
`alaykum" ("peace be unto you"),

saying bismillah ("in the name of
God") before meals, and using only
the right hand for eating and
drinking. Islamic hygienic practices
mainly fall into the category of
personal cleanliness and health.
Circumcision of male offspring is
also practiced in Islam. Islamic
burial rituals include saying the
Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer")
over the bathed and enshrouded
dead body, and burying it in a
grave. Muslims are restricted in
The main Islamic madh'habs (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions
their diet. Prohibited foods include
pork products, blood, carrion, and
alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian,
with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal
food.[109]
Family life
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The
father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of
inheritance is specified in the Quran, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is
set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of
that of a man with the same rights of succession.[110] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and
acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift
(mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[111] The Quran (verse 4:3)[Quran 4:3 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.003)] limits the number of wives to four and only if a man could treat them with fairness
and equity. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a
recommendation.[112][113] Polyandry, a form of polygamy, where a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited
in Islam.[114] With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong
presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. The Nikah mutah is
practised by Shia Muslims. Sunni Muslims practice Nikah Misyar, a similar marriage arrangement. Sunni Muslims also
practice Nikah 'urfi.
Economy
To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade,[115] discourages the
hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (usury; the term is riba in Arabic).[116][117] Therefore, wealth is
taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is
forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.[118]
Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.[119]
Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic
banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor.
Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the
Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of
years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the
Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[120][121][122][123]
Government
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function
as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have
been taken to implement some of its tenets.[124][125][126]
Jihad
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power,
efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible
enemy, the Devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[127]
Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[128][129] Jihad also refers to one's striving to
attain religious and moral perfection.[130] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish
between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[131]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim/Muslim
combatants. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is
the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal
groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[132][133] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as
only a defensive form of warfare.[134] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the
rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[133] For most Twelver Shias, offensive
jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since
Muhammad al-Mahdi's[135] occultation in 868 AD.[136]
A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second
most sacred Mosque in Islam
Muhammad (610632)
Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets.[137] During the last 22 years of
his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations
that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). Muhammad's companions
memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.[138]
During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship
one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers.
This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam
were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan lite felt that Muhammad was
destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave
ideas to the poor and to their slaves.[139][140][141][142]
After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad's
relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as
Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad in
Medina established his political and religious authority. A state was established in accordance with Islamic economic
jurisprudence. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the
Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one communitythe
Ummah.[143][144]
The Constitution established:
the security of the community
religious freedoms
the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
the security of women
stable tribal relations within Medina
a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
parameters for exogenous political alliances
a system for granting protection of individuals
a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own
judges.[145][146][147]
All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst
themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624 - a
Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended
inconclusively.
The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (MarchApril
627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and
the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more
people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding
desert tribes under his control.[148] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and
by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[149]
The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as
the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would
constitute the sunnah.
Caliphate and civil strife (632750)

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would
succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and
close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. Under Abu Bakr the
Muslims expanded into Syria after putting down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an
episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[150] The Quran was
compiled into a single volume at this time.
Dome of the Rock built by Abd

al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the
end of the Second Fitna.
Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as
the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn
Ali. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulaf' ar-rshidn
("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[151] Under them, the territory under Muslim rule
expanded deeply into the parts of the Persian and Byzantine territories.[152]
When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as

successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the
Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After the first civil war (the "First
Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph Hasan ibn Ali signed a
peace treaty, abdicating to Mu'awiyah, beginning the Umayyad dynasty, in return that he not name his own
successor.[153] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim
community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A
minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the
Shia.[154] Mu'awiyah appointed his son, Yazid I, as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "Second Fitna"
broke out, where Husayn ibn Ali was killed at the Battle of Karbala, a significant event in Shia Islam.
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[155] Local
populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the
ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in
exceptionally speedy conquests.[156][157]
The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabiun,
followed by the Tabi al-Tabiin. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, "The Seven Fuqaha
of Medina",[158][159] headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr.[160] Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest
books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta,[161] as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[162][163][164]
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali),
poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[165]
Classical era (7501258)

During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted
Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry
of the Song Dynasty.[166]
This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[167] Public hospitals
established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the
first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,[168][169] and issued the first
medical diplomas to license doctors.[170][171] The Guinness World Records
recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest
degree-granting university.[172] The doctorate is argued to date back to the
licenses to teach in Muslim law schools.[173] Standards of experimental and
quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,[174] were
introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the
father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first
true scientist".[175][176][177][178] The government paid scientists the equivalent
salary of professional athletes today.[174] It is argued that the data used by
Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and that Al-Jahiz
proposed a theory of natural selection.[179][180] Rumi wrote some of the finest
Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America.[181][182]
Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).
[183][184]
The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq

from a manuscript dated circa 1200.
Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[185]

During the early Abbasid era, the major Sunni hadith collections were compiled by scholars such as Bukhari and
Muslim while major Shia hadith collections by scholars such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh were also compiled. The
Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi,
Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Ab anfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas
and al-Shafi'i respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the
principles of jurisprudence in his book ar-Rislah.[186] Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited
commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century,
respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while
others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[187]
Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it
upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to
dialectic.[188] Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the
Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for
nearly thirty months.[189] The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari.
Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and
avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement
that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism).[190] Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation,
largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the
Sufi ordera community of spiritual teachers and students.[191]
The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930,
the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the
Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.[192] The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.[193]
Pre-Modern era (125820th century)

Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended
into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago.[194][195]
Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[196] The
Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to
assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an
important center of Islamic study.[197][198]
The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s,
especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was
evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the
Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single
Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[199] The
Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in
1492. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the Mughal
dynasty in India.[200] The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and
the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[201][202]
Abdlmecid II was the last Caliph of
Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.
The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the Zaydis, named after
the great grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi
jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[203][204][205] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to
power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[206] The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for
the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi and
Ismaili sects.[207] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating
the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.[208]
A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's
Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts
such as those by Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify
Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the desecration of shrines around
the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina.[209][210] In the 19th century, the
Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
Modern times (20th centurypresent)

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas
through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants,
from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim
populations by percentage in the Americas.[211] The resulting urbanization and
increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas
and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and
1914.[212] Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as guest workers and largely
from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.
The flag of the Organisation of Islamic
There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate
Cooperation.
perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[213] Liberal Islam is a
movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of
secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and
they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[214] Women's issues receive
significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.[215]
Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,[216] and Communist
Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.[217] About half a million Muslims were killed in
Cambodia by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since
they stood out and worshipped their own god.[218] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist
governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.[219][220]
Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic
revival.[221] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[222] Islamist groups such as the Muslim
Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.[223] In Iran,
revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in
power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring.[224] The Organisation
of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa
Mosque in Jerusalem.[225]
Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.[226][227][228] In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing
increasingly common[229] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[230] With religious
guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather
than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[227]
It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world,
driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the worlds major religions, as
well as by people switching faiths.[231] Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing
faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.[232][233]
An overview of the major schools and branches of Islam.
Sunni
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%90% of all Muslims[26] and is arguably the
world's largest religious denomination.[234] Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of
the tradition [of Muhammad]".[3][235][236][237][238] These hadiths, recounting Muhammad's words, actions, and personal
characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books).
Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any
particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe
that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act
according to the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give
the people their rights.
Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni

hadith books.
The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found
in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought):
Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, established around the teachings of Ab
anfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. All four
accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or
she finds agreeable.[239] Ahl al-Hadith is a movement that deemphasized
sources of jurisprudence outside the quran and sunnah, such as informed
opinion (ra'y).
The Salafi movement claim to take the first three generations of Muslims,
known as the salaf, as exemplary models.[240] In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a salafi
movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.
The Barelvi movement, a revivalist movement of Sunni Islam with over 200 million followers,[241] emerged as part of
debate of how to redeem India from the British. The movement emphasizes primacy of Islamic law in all matters with
adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to Muhammad and has addressed leading issues for Muslims since
partition.[242][243] The Deobandi movement is an Indo-Pakistani reformist movement that is much influenced by the
Wahhabi movement.[244] The Barelvi and Deobandi movements of Sunni Islam accept the validity of all four Sunni
madh'habs.[245]
Shia
The Shia constitute 1020% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[27]
The Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala,

Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community,
Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as
his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result,
they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the
legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and
Umar ibn al-Khattab. Another point of contention is the cursing of figures
revered by Sunnis. However, Jafar al-Sadiq himself disapproved of people who
disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr and Zayd ibn Ali revered Abu
Bakr and Umar.[246][247] More recently, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani
condemned the practice.[248]
Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the Twelvers (the largest branch), Zaidis and Ismailis.
Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq who is
considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers and the Ismaili's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his
successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son Musa al-Kadhim as the seventh Imam. The
Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of
succession after him.
Other smaller groups include the Bohra as well as the Alawites and Alevi.[249] Some Shia branches label other Shia
branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat.
Sufism
Sufism, or tasawwuf (Arabic: ), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal
experience of God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical
Sufi scholars have focused on the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God by making use of
"intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[250][251][252] Hasan al-Basri was inspired by the ideas
of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by
Al-Ghazali. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and
Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism being based upon the tenets of Islam and the
teachings of Muhammad.[253][254][255][256]
Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia and South Asia. Central Asia is
considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in
fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their
different orders are the main religious sources.[257][258] Sufism is also strong in
African countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.
[259][260]
Sufi practices such as veneration of saints have faced stiff opposition from
followers of Salafism and Wahhabism, who have sometimes physically attacked
Sufi places of worship, leading to deterioration in SufiSalafi relations.
Mawln Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey
Other denominations
Ahmadiyya is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[261] that began
in India in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million[262] Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have
fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'.
The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of Kharijite and is practiced by 1.45
million Muslims around the world.[263] Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as
unbelievers.
Mahdavia is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith.
Yazdnism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh
Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.
There are also black Muslim movements such as the Nation of Islam (NOI), Five-Percent Nation and Moorish
scientists.
Non-denominational Muslims
Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do
not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[264][265][266][267] Prominent figures who refused to identify with a
particular Islamic denomination have included Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani,[268] Muhammad Iqbal[269] and Muhammad Ali
Jinnah.[270] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just
Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[259][271]
[272][273] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of
Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least
one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[259]
A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232

countries and territories reported that 23% of the
global population, or 1.57 billion people, are
Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 7590%
are Sunni and 1020% are Shia[31][235][274] with a
small minority belonging to other sects.
Approximately 57 countries are Muslimmajority,[275] and Arabs account for around 20% of
all Muslims worldwide.[276] The number of Muslims
worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to
551 million in 1970,[277] and tripled to 1.6 billion by
2010.[278]
The majority of Muslims live in Asia and
World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014).
Africa.[279] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia,
Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[280][281] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the
largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[282]
Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2%
of the population).[283][284][285][286] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International
Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[287] Islam is the second
largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[288] and is slowly catching up to that status in the
Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[31][289]
According to the Pew Research Center, Islam is set to equal Christianity in number of adherents by the year 2050.
Islam is set to grow faster than any other major world religion, reaching a total number of 2.76 billion (an increase of
73%). High fertility rates play a factor, with Islam having a rate of 3.1 compared to the world average of 2.5, and the
minimum replacement level for a population at 2.1. Age also plays a role in these numbers due to the fact that Islam
has the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total religion) of any major religion (Christianity's
is 27%). Sixty percent of Muslims are between the ages of 16 and 59, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest
percentage of any major religion). Countries such as Nigeria and the Republic of Macedonia are expected to have
Muslim majorities by 2050. In India, the Muslim population will be larger than any other country. Europe's domestic
population is set to shrink as opposed to their Islamic population which is set to grow to 10% of Europe's total.[278]
According to BBC News, the rates of growth of Islam in Europe reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due
primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.[290]
The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain
to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to
denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[291] Finally, "Islamic
civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early
Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[292] sometimes referred to as
"Islamicate".
Nasir ol Molk Mosque in Shiraz.
Architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic architecture is that of the
mosque.[293] Varying cultures have an effect on mosque architecture. For
example, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great
Mosque of Kairouan contain marble and porphyry columns from Roman
and Byzantine buildings,[294] while mosques in Indonesia often have multitiered roofs from local Javan styles.
Art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century
onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory
that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[295] It includes fields as varied
as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.
Great Mosque of Xi'an in Xi'an, China.
While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic
cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood
reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be
the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different
ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and
humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has
been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic
culture.[296]
Calendar
The phases of the moon form the basis

for the Islamic calendar.
The formal beginning of the Muslim era

was chosen, reportedly by Caliph Umar,
to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an
important turning point in Muhammad's
fortunes. It is a lunar calendar with days
lasting from sunset to sunset.[297]
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of
the lunar calendar, which means that
they occur in different seasons in
different years in the Gregorian
calendar. The most important Islamic
festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic:
)on the 1st of Shawwal, marking
the end of the fasting month Ramadan,
and Eid al-Adha ( ) on the
10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with
the end of the Hajj pilgrimage.[298]
The phrase Bismillah in 18th-century

Ottoman calligraphy in the Thuluth
style.
Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christians authors, many of
whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms.[299] Later
there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.
[300][301][302]
Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his
public and personal life.[302][303] Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are
also discussed by critics.[304][305] Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and
the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[306][307] In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's
influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[308] In classical Islamic law,
the penalty for apostasy (leaving a religion) in Islam is death.[309] However the Quran does not stipulate that the
penalty for apostasy should be death.[309]
Criticism of Islam
Challenge of the Quran
Glossary of Islam
History of Islam
Islam and violence
Islam and other religions
Criteria of True Prophet
Islam by country
Islamic economics
Islamic ethics
Islam and humanity
Morality in Islam
Islamic literature
Islamic mythology
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic studies
List of Muslim empires and
dynasties
List of notable converts to

Islam
Lists of Muslims
Major religious groups
Muslim world
Religious conversion#Islam
Scientific foreknowledge in
sacred texts
Timeline of Muslim history
Notes
1. There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the
s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced //, // or (when the stress is on the first syllable) // (Merriam Webster).
The most common are /zlm slm zlm slm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /zlm slm/
(American Heritage Dictionary).
2. /islam/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from [i]~[]~[e]. The second vowel ranges from
[]~[a]~[]~[]. In Northwestern Africa, they do not have stress or lengthened vowels.
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Books and journals

Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical
Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1).
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris.
ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.
Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group.
p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8.
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press.
ISBN 1-57003-471-0.
Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic
Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513398-6.
Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional.
ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.
Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
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Islam (https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/) at DMOZ
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Islam (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Islam (/slm/;[note 1] Arabic: , al-Islm IPA: [alislam];[note 2]) is the

The Kaaba in Mecca is the direction

1 Etymology and meaning

The dome of the Carol I

Medallion showing the word

Prophets and sunnah

Resurrection and judgment

Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor

Ritual prayers, called alh or alt (Arabic: ), must be performed five

Recitation and memorization of the Quran

Men reading the Quran

Imam teaches the Quran in Crimea,

Etiquette and diet

`alaykum" ("peace be unto you"),

Caliphate and civil strife (632750)

Dome of the Rock built by Abd

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as

Classical era (7501258)

The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq

Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[185]

Pre-Modern era (125820th century)

Modern times (20th centurypresent)

An overview of the major schools and branches of Islam.

Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni

The Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala,

Mawln Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232

World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014).

The phases of the moon form the basis

The formal beginning of the Muslim era

the end of the Hajj pilgrimage.[298]

The phrase Bismillah in 18th-century

List of notable converts to

Quran 35:1 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/035-qmt.php#035.001)

Esposito (2002b, pp. 18,19)

110. "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam

172. The Guinness Book Of Records. 1998. p. 242. ISBN 0-553-57895-2.

Books and journals

York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.

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