PERIODONTICS

PERIODONTICS

A. PERIODONTIUM: The functional unit of tissue supporting the tooth. Four components:
1. Gingiva
2. Periodontal Ligament
1

3.
4.

Cementum
Alveolar Bone

(Fedi Perio Syl)

1. GINGIVA from gingival margin to MGJ that increases in width with age. Has stratified squamous epith
and lamina propria (dense, fibrous CT predominantly collagen fibers)
a. Marginal (Free) Gingiva - 1.0-1.5 mm on facial and lingual. The unattached sleevelike portion of the
gingiva surrounding the neck of tooth, not directly attached to the tooth forming the soft tissue wall of
the sulcus. From the free gingival margin to the FG Grove
* Free gingival groove - A fine grove running parallel to the gingival margin dividing the free
gingival from the attached gingiva, present in 30-40% teeth. Often corresponds to the location of the
bottom of the gingival sulcus.
b. Attached Gingiva - Located from free gingival groove to MGJ
Tightly bound to tooth and bone by epithelium and CT or just tooth with dehiscence. Attached gingiva
is normally covered by keratinized or parakeratinized epith that has marked rete ridges
Keratinized, width = 0+ to 10 mm
Facially narrowest over the bicuspids, Mandibular lingual is narrowest at incisors
* Interdental groove - vertical groove parallel to long axis of adjacent teeth in interdental area of
attached gingiva
c. Interdental Papillae - gingiva that fills the interproximal space between adjacent teeth.
Concave faciolingually (saddle-like) depression called col (nonkeratinized, more susceptible to bacterial
breakdown)
d. Gingival Sulcus - space between tooth and free gingiva with Juntional Epithelium at base, 0.0-0.5 mm
histologic depth, 0.5-3.0 mm clinical depth depending on probe penetration
e. Junctional Epithelium - Approximately 1 mm in health
Nonkeratinized, attached to enamel in the normal situation by basement lamina and hemidesmosomes,
apical to sulcus, usually at CEJ. Proline/hydroxyproline secreted by epithelial cells bind JE to enamel or
cementum.
f. Connective Tissue - Approximately 1 mm between CEJ and crest of bone
Composed of lamina propria without submucosa Primary cell is the fibroblast
g. Alveolar Mucosa - thin, nonkeratinized epithelium lacking rete ridges
CT consisting of thin lamina propria and vascular submucosa
Predominantly elastic fibers, so is loosely bound
h. Gingival Fibers stabilize the attached gingiva to alveolar process and to the tooth, important in postorthodontic relapse:
1) Alveologingival from the bone of the alveolar crest into the lamina propria of the free and
attached gingiva.
2) Circular fibers within the gingiva that encircles the tooth in a ring like fashion
3) Dentogingival from cervical cementum to CT of free and attached gingiva.
4) Dentoperiosteal from cementum to the outer cortical plates of the alveolar process where they
insert into the alveolar process or muscle
* Gingival apparatus maintains the free gingiva & JE in close approximation to tooth
i. Types of Oral Mucosa:
1. Masticatory - Gingiva and mucosal covering of hard palate
2. Specialized mucosa - Dorsum of tongue
3. Lining mucosa - Alveolar and floor of mouth
j. Clinical Health:
1. Color Coral Pink
Varies according to: Degree of Vascularity
Keratinization
Pigmentation
Thickness of Epithelium
2. Contours thin, knife edge margins, papillae fills space when teeth contact.
3. Consistency - firm, tightly anchored
4. Texture - Keratinized with stippling in ~30-40%.
5. Tendency of Bleeding on Probing - Healthy gingival will display no bleeding
k. Vasculature of Gingiva
Abundant from alveolar bone, PDL, & supraperiosteal vessels.
Mainly from supraperiosteal branch of internal maxillary artery.

2. PDL: White collagenous CT fiber that surrounds the root of tooth attached to bone.
-

0.25 mm in width (0.10 to 0.25 mm) depending on age & function.

"hour glass" shape narrowest at mid-root.
Fibers course mainly in apicocoronal direction from cementum to bone inserting as Sharpey's fibers
Blood supply from apical area, interdental alveolar process, gingiva
Functions - sensory, formative, regenerative, nutritive, supportive

Fiber groups by location & direction:

1. Alveolar Crest From cementum (just apical to CEJ to rim of alveolus)
2. Apical From cementum at apex of tooth to bone forming the base of the alveolus
3. Horizontal Located just apical to alveolar crest and run perpendicular to the long axis of the tooth from
cementum to bone.
4. Interradicular found between roots of multi-rooted teeth running from cementum into the crestal bone of
the interradicular septum.
5. Oblique (Most Numerous) Run from cementum outwardly and coronally to insert into the bone.
6. Transseptal From one tooth to another.
3. CEMENTUM:
a. Continuing depostion throughout life
b. Relationship to CEJ
1. 60-65% Overlaps with Enamel
2. 30% Butt Joint
3. 5-10% Exposed Dentin
c. Cellular in apical 1/3 forms after tooth erupted
d. Primary Cementum Acellular forms with root formation and eruption (cementoid).
e. Secondary Cementum Cellular forms after eruption.
f. Functions
1. Anchors tooth to bone
2. Compensates for loss of tooth structure through wear by growth
3. Allows mesial drif
4. Allows PDL fiber rearrangement
4. ALVEOLAR BONE:
a. Components are:
1. Alveolar bone proper - cribriform plate lines each socket
2. Supporting bone - cortical plates & cancellous bone
b. Relationship to teeth
- Should be 2 mm apical to the CEJ to be WNL
- CEJ to CEJ but varies with tooth position & angulation, root form, crown form,
stage of eruption, & distance between roots
- Tooth position in the arch may have thick or thin alveolar process, dehiscence
and fenestrations.
Dehiscence More common in the Mandible (usually bilateral) Do not Scl x RP. Leave Sharpeys fibers alone
if healthy area.
Fenestration More common in the Maxilla.
*Biologic width - 3 clinical entities are:
1. Connective fibers
1 mm
2. Junctional epithelium
1 mm
3. Sulcus
1 mm
The potential minimum sum = 3 mm
Ref: Nevins & Skurow Int F Perio Rest Dent 4(3)31-47, 1984.
II. INFLAMMATION:
1. Gingivitis:
- inflammation of gingiva soft tissues (onset any age).
- gingival bleeding, color change to red or purple

- gingival pseudopockets may develop,

- may or may not progress to periodontitis
- reversible generally present with periodontitis
2. Periodontitis:
- inflammation of deeper structures plus destruction of periodontium, i.e. loss of CT
attachment to root surface.
- loss of bone adjacent to that area.
- then replacement of CT attaches to root surf by JE.
- apical migration of JE.
- coronal aspect of JE breaks down resulting in pocket formation.
- degeneration of CT attachment occurs before pocket formation.
Page and Schroeder model of pathogenesis of inflammatory periodontal disease: - 1976.
Histologic progression:
1. Periodontal health:
- G+ cocci, few spirochetes & motile forms
- no vasculitis present
- PMN's and lymphocytes are present as a normal feature
- Serum proteins and fibrin are contained within the blood vessels
- the junctional epithelium uniformly joins the CT with rete ridges, the CT is dense
and highly organized into tissue fiber bundles
2. Initial lesion (subclinical gingivitis):
- Starts with health and take away oral hygiene.
In 2-4 days get perivascular infiltrate of PMN's in JE.
vasculitis of vessels subjacent to JE
- exudation of fluid from the gingival sulcus
- increased migration of PMN's into the JE and gingival sulcus
- loss of perivascular collagen (5-10% of CT may be involved)
- no visible change.
3. Early lesion (clinically detectable gingivitis):
- the early lesion appears within 4 - 7 days following the beginning of plaque accumulation
- lymphoid cells make up 75% of total infiltrate
- fibroblasts show cytopathic changes possibly associated with interactions with lymphoid cells
- no apical migration of JE.
- localized loss of collagen fiber (60 - 70% of collagen fibers are lost in the inflamed area)
4. Established lesion (severe gingivitis):
- develops within 2-3 weeks
- may still be reversible as gingivitis
- acute inflammation
- may progress to advanced lesion but more often appear not to progress.
- lesion dominated by plasma cells.
- May/ may not have gingival pocket - coronal part of JE breaks down.
- apical part of JE intact.
- continued loss of collagen and CT substance
- no appreciable bone loss.
5. Advanced lesion (periodontitis):
- develops in years to decades
- formation of periodontal pockets.
- plasma cells dominate lesion.
- continued loss of collagen subjacent to the pocket epithelium
- extension of the lesion into alveolar bone and PDL with significant bone loss
- permanent destruction of deeper structures.

loss of attachment formation of periodontal pockets

periods of quiescence and exacerbation
< 50% of population progress to advanced lesion. periodontitis.

Histologic evidence of gingivitis after 2-4 days after stopping OH. Clinical evidence of gingivitis 21 days post
OH, Loe 1955. - since then other studies say 7-21 days.
III. DIAGNOSIS: Based on disease activity and rate of attachment loss
a. Three Models of Periodontitis
1. Continuous paradigm (traditional concept)
Plaque-induced, slowly progressive disease.
- continuous deepening of pockets.
- gradual loss of attachment.
2. Random burst (newer concept)
- bacteria induced disease.
- destruction of attachment apparatus progresses by recurrent acute episodic
bursts of activity.
3. Asynchronous multiple burst
- destruction occurred during a defined time
- disease goes into remission for an indefinite time
- Studies trying to observe attach loss:
- most sites showed no change.
- 3-4% of sites experienced attachment loss.
- 5-6% sites experienced attachment gain.
- done over short time.
- need to observe 2-4 mm of loss before calling it loss.
b. Overall definition of periodontitis:
- bacteria induced, slowly progressive disease with episodes of rapid attachment loss activity brought on by
alterations in host/parasite relationship.
c. Health vs disease: 3 stages:
1. periodontal health.
2. periodontitis inactive: inflammation but no attachment loss.
3. periodontitis active: inflammation with attachment loss.
d. When probing attach level need fixed reference, CEJ.
e. Host/parasite equilibrium factors affecting:
- alterations in environment:
- overhang, food impaction, restoration contours.
- major/minor illnesses (diabetes.
- altered emotional state; stress, depression.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF PERIODONTAL DISEASES (WWP 1989):
a. GINGIVITIS
1. Plaque associated gingivitis
- Most common periodontal disease
- Clinically characterized by redness, gingival bleeding, edema and enlargement
- Overgrowth of gram positive plaque
2. Acute narcotizing ulcerative gingivitis
-Acute, recurrent, necrosis of gingival papillae, spontaneous bleeding, pain, and fetor ors. Invasion by
spirochetes & fusiforms (Bacteroides intermedius)
3) Steroid hormone-influenced gingivitis
-Manifested by puberty, pregnancy, steroid therapy and BCPs
-Bacteroides enhances with elevated with elevated hormones
4) Medication-influenced gingival overgrowth
-phenytoin (seizure control), cyclosporin (immunosuppressive therapy, and

nifedipine
5) Desquamative gingivitis
-desquamation or sloughing of the epithelium leaving an intensely red surface
-oral manifestations of dermatoses-erosive lichen planus, benign mucous
membrane pemphigoid, and pemphigus vulgaris
- Can be caused by allergic reactions
6) Miscellaneous gingivitis
-blood disorders, nutritional deficiencies, tumors, genetic factors, mouthbreathing, diffuse bacterial and
viral infections.
b. PERIODONTITIS:
1) Adult periodontitis:
- most common form, plaque & calculus -related.
- onset in adolescence and continues for the life of individual.
- prevalence and severity increases with age, with no sex predilection
- usually horizontal bone loss.
- blood cell defects not commonly found.
- Bacteria vary (attached) Actinomyces israelii, A. naeslundii, and A. viscosus
- Unattached portion of subgingival plaque is spirochetes & gram (-) rods
2) Early Onset Periodontitis
A. Rapidly progressive periodontitis:
- Type A = younger, little plaque, neutrophil problems
- severe gingival inflammation & rapid CTA & alveolar bone support.
- onset = young adults puberty to age 35.
- 66% have depressed neutrophils chemotaxis response and monocytes.
- Type B = 26-35 yo, significant plaque & calculus, OK neutrophils
- Acute phase may have associated malaise, weight loss and depression.
- Can respond well to scaling and antibiotic therapy
- RPP related to: diabetes mellitus type I, Downs syndrome, Papillon-Lefevre, AIDS
- Bacteria = Bacteriodes gingivalis & B. intermedius, Wolinella recta.
B. Juvenile periodontitis, JP:
- characterized by severe angular bone loss in the first molar in otherwise healthy
adolescents. Lesions are often bilaterally symmetrical. (3-5X adult rate of loss)
- permanent 1st molars and sometimes incisors, usually bilaterally symmetrical
- My have genetic basis, and be inherited as an X-linked dominant trait.
- lack of plaque & clinical inflammation
- females 3:1, blacks > whites
- good response to curettage and antibiotic treatment.
- tetracycline 1gram/day 14-21 days (Slots).
before meals and at bedtime.
- Bacteria: Haemophilus (Actinobacillus) actinomycetemcomitans, B intermedius
- A.A.- gram (-) rod, non-motile, inhibits PMN chemotaxis.
- capnocytophaga- gram (-) rod.
- Prevotella- gram (-) rod, non-motile.
Localized, LJP:
- vertical bone loss 1st molars.
- horizontal bone loss incisors.
- mirror image defects 75% bilateral symmetry, furcations intact.
- peripheral PMN's defective 75% of cases.
- generalized, GJP:
- horizontal bone loss.
- may be same as rapidly progressive p.
- post juvenile periodontitis:
- dramatic decrease in rate of destruction
- affected sites clinically similar to adult p.
C. Pre-pubertal periodontitis: rare condition generalized or localized form

- onset after eruption of primary teeth.

- prevalence unknown.
- localized form:
- little or no gingival inflammation.
- age 4 or before.
- functional defects in either neutrophils or monocytes but not both.
- no hx of frequent infections.
- generalized form:
- acute, red, proliferative gingival inflammation.
- rapid destruction.
- peripheral WBC's increased.
- PMN defects, absent from gingival tissues.
- frequent infections, otitis media, skin, URI.
- refractory to antibiotic therapy.
- primary & secondary teeth affected.
3) Refractory periodontitis:
- disease in multiple sites with patients demonstrate attachment.
- any form of periodontitis which does not respond to treatment.
- probably an inadequate diagnosis resulting in inadequate therapy.
- same organisms as adult perio
4) Periodontitis associated with systemic disease
- HIV associated periodontitis
- rapid onset and progressive p.
- 6-12 mm bone loss in months.
- interproximal necrosis and cratering.
- marked edema and intense erythema of gingiva.
- acute pain and spontaneous bleeding.
- treatment:
- betadine lavage.
- scale and root plane.
- OHI.
- peridex.
- metronidazole 250 mg x 2-3 days (7 days).
Systemic diseases predispose to periodontitis:
- insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, IDDM.
- Down's syndrome.
- Papillon-Lefevre syndrome:
- early in life, doubtful infective origin, mimics JP.
- includes hyperkeratosis of palms and soles.
- teeth sparsity of cementum middle and coronal 1/3's.
- Crohn's disease
- neutropenia
- agranulocytosis
- leukemia
- Chediak - Higashi Syndrome
- all have in common defective neutrophil counts and/or function.
5) Necrotizing Ulcerative Periodontitis:
- progression of ANUG to include the attachment apparatus
V. EXAMINATION
1. Considerations in diagnosis of periodontal disease:
Active or inactive.
Sulcus vs pocket:
- sulcus, healthy attachment, plaque < threshold.

- pocket, diseased attachment, plaque > threshold.

2. Assessment methods:
- clinical = BOP, suppuration, color changes, probing depth changes, attachment level changes, gingival
crevicular fluid flow, temperature probe
- histological = difficult, invasive, multiple sites.
- microbiological = culture and sensitivity (where to sample?), ($70 per culture), DNA probe (species
specific DNA, limited to 3 species; AA, P. gingivalis & P.intermedius, phase contrast microscopy
(spirochetes & motile), Gram stain (morphology)
- immunological = PMNs, lymphocytes, antibody titers, complement fractions, lymphokines
- enzyme analysis
3. Organisms associated with different tissue conditions:
- healthy sulcus, gram (+) predominate.
- gingivitis, shift to gram (-).
- adult periodontitis, gram (-) anaerobic rods, 30-50% motile rods and spirochetes.
- JP, G (-) A.A., P. gingivalis, capnocytophaga, P. melaninogenicus & Porphyromonas
4. Clinical methods of direct observation:
- subgingival plaque and calculus.
- gingival inflammation.
- bleeding on probing (BOP).
- suppuration.
- loss of form.
- gingival retraction.
- pocket depth/probing depths.
CEJ-FGM = recession
FGM = Free Gingival Margin
CEJ-BP = attachment loss
BP = Bottom of the pocket
FGM-BP = Pocket depth
CEJ = Cementum Enamel Junction
5. Variables in measuring pocket depth:
- accurate probe gradations.
- diameter of probe, angle and force.
- degree of inflammation.
6. Histologic vs clinical pocket depth:
- histologic, probe coronal of JE.
- clinical, probe passes into JE and possibly CT.
7. Bleeding on probing:
- best clinical indicator of inflammation.
- Lange study:
- absence of BOP 100% predictability of health.
- BOP had 30% chance of losing 2 mm attachment.
- pockets 5 mm or more had high incidence of BOP.
What about PSR? Periodontal Screening And Recording
Code 0: Probes < 3.5 mm, no BOP
Code 1: Probes < 3.5mm, BOP
Code 2: Probes < 3.5mm, BOP, with calculus or defective margins
Code 3: Probing between 3.5mm and 5.5mm
Code 4: Probing > 5.5mm
Meaning of PSR Score: Indicated Care
Code 0: Preventive Care Indicated
Code 1: OHI and professional plaque removal
Code 2: above plus scaling, and correction of defective margins
Code 3: comprehensive periodontal examination and charting of affected sextants, or mouth, further tx
Code 4: comprehensive perio exam, including XRs, and charting to determine treatment plan

8. Radiographic evaluation:
- vertical bitewings good screening.
- width PDL, calculus, root proximity, over hangs.
- in health alveolar bone parallels CEJ.
- adequate radiographs.
- non-overlapping proximal contact.
- cusptips superimposition.
- furcations (furcation arrow Gher study).
-max molar ML furc is closest to sulcus (Oct80 DCNA)
-distal of molars access is most difficult
VI. TREATMENT PLAN:
1. Diagnosis of disease:
a. mild, moderate, severe.
b. AAP Classifications
Type I gingivitis with bleeding on probing (BOP)
Type II early periodontitis, BOP, with PD 3-4 mm
Type III moderate periodontitis, BOP, with PD 4-6 mm, furcation involvement, class I mobility,
angular bony defects, bone loss < 1/3 of root length
Type IV Severe Periodontitis, BOP, with PD >6 mm, bone loss > 1/3 root length, vertical or angular
bony defects, class II/II tooth mobility
c. causative factors:
- primary, only and always bacteria.
- secondary: overhang, root proximity, caries, anatomic abnormalities of teeth, etc.
- systemic: defects in PMN quality or quantity, uncontrolled diabetes, immunosuppressed.
d. factors that influence prognosis:
- levels of oral hygiene.
- interest and ability.
- age.
-systemic.
-tobacco
*smokers have higher incidence and more severe periodontitis.
*local stain allows more plaque formation.
*systemic manifestations: mild PMN dysfunction, peripheral vasoconstriction in periodontium.
- Nicotine:
*Decreases blood supply to tissue
*Decreases function of fibroblast with regard to wound healing
*Decreases phagocytosis of PMN
e. Smokeless tobacco:
- grit in tobacco abrasive.
- contains approx 100 irritants and toxins.
- mucobuccal fold leukoplakia effect.
- discoloration and abrasion of teeth over time.
- caries due to high sugar content.
f. mobility.
Tooth Mobility Classification
Millers Classification
Class I first detectable sign of movement
Class II movement of > 1mm in any direction
Class III movement of > 1mm in any direction and vertical depression or rotation
g. extension of max incisors:
- sinus location, may dictate respective or regenerative approach.
2. Treatment plan possibilities:
a None, patient does not want treatment.
b periodontal therapy.
c extraction.
3. Phases of treatment plan:

a non-surgical:
- laboratory test, medical/dental consults.
- eliminate pain/infection, address chief complaint.
- prepare tissues for surgery.
- remove etiological factors by mechanical means.
- increase oral hygiene.
- caries control, endo, extractions, ortho, occl adj.
- antimicrobial therapy.
- antibiotics.
- peridex.
- evaluation of oral hygiene.
- evaluation of response to factors listed above.
b. reeval appointment, confirm or alter remaining treatment plan.
c. surgical phase (corrective phase):
- may not be needed at this point.
- pt may not want surg.
- OH not adequate.
- sensitive teeth, high root caries rate.
- original sensodyne = strontium chloride.
- mint sensodyne = potassium nitrate.
d. remaining dental care:
- oper, prosth, final occl adj prn.
e. maintenance phase:
- monitor and reinforce hygiene.
- monitor the health of periodontium.
- scale and root plane on a regular basis as needed.
- reprobe, not necessary every year in non-active disease patient.
- up-date radiographs evry 2 yrs or as needed.
VII. NON-SURGICAL PHASE
Non-surgical therapy includes oral hygiene, oral rinses, antibiotic therapy, scaling and root planing.
1. Treatment Plan: goals of therapy.
- make tooth biologically acceptable to surrounding tissues.
- pocket elimination is minor goal.
- remove etiologic factors.
- correct deformities caused by etiologic factors.
- make maintenance of established health easier for patient.
- respective, make pockets shallower or regenerative.
- combination of both.
- prevent disease, reinforce OH.
- maintain health, function and esthetics.
- determine severity of disease.
A. ORAL HYGIENE:
a. May be most important part
b. How far does a toothbrush penetrate below the free gingival margin? 0.9mm
c. What is the Bass Method of brushing? Toothbrush bristles applied at a 45 degree angle with the bristles
toward the gingival sulcus. Brush moved in a rotary motion.
d. What is the Charters Method of brushing? Bristles are applied at a 45 degree angle coronally. Brush
moved in a rotary motion.
e. What is the size of a toothbrush bristle? .007 inch
f. Flossing is 80% effective in removing interdental plaque in the presence of an interdental papilla. Dental
floss penetrates how far subgingivally? 1.5 mm
g. In the absence of a interdental papilla Brushing/Flossing 55% effective, Perio-Aid 80%, Interdental
Brush 95% effective.
h. Establish co-therapist role of patient.
c. Nyman and Linde 1977:
- prior to surg did one-time session of OHI.
- did different surgical techniques.

10

- followed couple years.

- at follow-up did perio eval and checked level of OH.
- all pts with poor plaque control disease progressed.
- documented plaque removal necessary before surgery.
d. Linsey 1982:
- one time session OHI w/ no reinforcement.
- received nonsurgical periodontal therapy.
- 3 month maintenance.
- disease returned.
- conservative therapy with maintenance also requires good oral hygiene for success.
e. monitoring techniques, stain plaque at all appointments.
- need objective index.
- O'Leary plaque index:
- (total # teeth) x 4 = total tooth surfaces, FLMD.
- count # surfaces with plaque butting up to gingival margin.
- (# with plaque)/(total surf) x 100 = % plaque.
- lower is better.
- < 10% acceptable, > 10% inconsistent with health, do not continue to surgical phase.
- Modified OLeary based on # of surfaces without plaque, therefore more of a positive motivator, with a
higher percentage being better
B. MOUTHRINSES
Listerine, Peridex and PerioGard all acceptable by ADA. Other: Sanguinarine (Viadent), Oxygenating agents
(H2O2), Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Scope, Cepacol)
- adjunct not substitute.
- rinses penetrate 0.2 1.2 mm into the sulcus, surface tension and outflow of gingival crevicular fluid
decrease ability to penetrate without force.
- used with patient that need extra help:
immunocompromised patient.
post oral surgery or periodontal surgery.
orthodontic bands.
post radiation patient.
a. Listerine:
- phenolic related oils
- contains essential oils, including thymol, methyl salicylate, eucalyptol, and benzoic acid.
- mouthrinse with the highest alcohol content = Listerine 26.9%; Cool Mint = 21.6%
- 25- 35% reduction in gingivitis.
b. Peridex or Colgates PerioGard:
- active ingredient: .12% chlorahexidine gluconate.
- reduces plaque > than Listerine, 50 - 80% reduction in gingivitis.
- has substantivity because of (+) charge bonds to hard and soft tissue.
- lasts up to 24 hours in mouth.
- stains teeth and tongue brown.
- cause slight calculus formation.
- temp alteration of taste.
- should be last thing you do after brushing and flossing.
- use separately from fluoride rinses by 30 min
- Requires a prescription
c. Pre-Brushing rinses
-Plax-- the benefit of pre-rinsing with water has been established, however it does not appear to be enhanced
with this product. Plax is not ADA approved
FORCED IRRIGATION
a. Forced irrigation at the gingival margin penetrates 1.8 mm
b. Tip placed subgingivally penetrates 70% of the pocket depths in pockets < 6 mm deep.
c. Pressures of irrigating devices 60-90 psi
C. ANTIBIOTICS USE:

11

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Mechanisms of actions of antibiotics

1. Reversible inhibition of protein synthesis TCN, Erthromycin, Clindamycin
2. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis PCN, Cephalosporins
3. Increase in cell wall permeability Chlorhexidine, Triclosan
4. Inhibition of DNA synthesis Metronidazole, Ciprofloxacin
Systemic- mainly limited to refectory cases; cases where there is a systemic disease, eg AIDS; or cases
where A.a. is thought to be the causative organism, eg.,in juvenile periodontitis. Several regimens exist
with TCN, Amoxicillin, Augmentin, Cleocin, and Flagyl being the antibiotics of choice either
individually or in combination.
Specific indications:
1. Adult Periodontitis - antibiotics not indicated unless A.a is known pathogen, then TCN.
2. Juvenile Periodontitis - since A.a. is causative organism, use TCN.
3. ANUG - usually responds to conventional therapy, however metronidazole may be of use due to the
spirochetes and obligate anaerobes
4. Refractory Periodontitis-consider serial drug regimens after culture and sensitivity testing.
Doxycycline followed by either Augmentin (250 mg TID of each for 7 days) or metronidazole or
combination plus ciprofloxacin (500mg each BID for 8 days)
5. HIV-Related Periodontitis - consider metronidazole to enhance reduction of Gram (-) organisms
6. Additional Uses: Root surface conditioning
Use with graft materials
Use with GTR/GBR techniques
Acute periodontal conditions
Antibiotic Regimens
TCN 250 mg qid X 21 days
Doxycycline 100 mg daily X 21 days
Clindamycin 150 mg qid X 7 days
Metronidazole 250 mg tid X 7 days
Augmentin 250 mg tid X 14 days
Local delivery1. Actisite. A Tetracycline fiber developed by Goodson - a polymer fiber and ethyl acetate 25% saturated
with tetracycline. Placed without anesthesia using a blunt instrument like retraction cord packer.
-leave in place 1-2 weeks
-can use adhesive (in kit) to hold in place
-remove with cotton pliers
-not to take place of initial prep or anti-infective phase of therapy use only after traditional methods have
been employed.
-biggest use in refectory cases, ailing implants, or the perio abscess
**Six months following the fiber regimen the mean probing depth reduction was 0.73mm.

Attached gingiva, AG:

a. How much is enough, what are indications for grafting.
b. function is to anchor btw FGM and alveolar mucosa.
- dissipates forces from muscle fibers through alveolar mucosa.
c. width 0-9 mm, widest areas in max/mand incisors, narrowest in bicuspid area.
- ideal width Lange and Low 1972- 2 mm keratinized 1 mm attached.
- 1982 Dorfman if keep free of inflamm get by with 0mm.
d. Thickness:
- mean thickness 1.25 mm.
- on palate .1-.6 mm, mean .36 mm.
- recommended thickness of graft 1-1.5 mm.
- trying to transfer CT not epithelial component.
e. Restorative needs:
- Maynard and Wilson:
- put margin in sulcus need 5 mm, 2 mm free and 3 mm attached.
X. PERIDODONTAL PLASTIC SURGICAL PROCEDURES:
A. Frenum Procedures
B. Apically Positioned Flap
C. Pedicle Grafts

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1. Laterally Positioned Flap

2. Obliquely Rotated Flap
3. Double Papilla Flap
4. Coronally Positioned Flap
5. Semilunar Flap
D. Free Gingival (Soft Tissue) Grafts
E. Connective Tissue Grafts
F. Guided Tissue Regeneration in Conjunction with Coronally Positioned Flaps
------------------------------------MORE DETAIL---------------------------------------------A. Frenum procedures
- Henry (1976) Frenum contain no muscl e, just connective tissue
- Frenectomy
INDICATIONS: few, usually augmentation should be considered
Preventive problem with lip or tongue movement
Prosthodontic interferences
Orthodontics midline diastema
Purely esthetic problem

B. Apically positoned flap

ADVANTAGES
*Control amount of keratinized tissue
*Versatile pocket reduction
*Maximum bone coverage
*Minimal bone loss
*Access to root surfaces
DISADVANTAGES
*Limits the treatment of intrabony defects
C. Pedicle grafts Base of flap retains its own blood supply. Requires adequate donor site.
1. Laterally positioned
Lateral sliding graft Grupe and Warren (1956) Repair of Isolated gingival defects
Lateral sliding graft for multiple teeth Hattler (1967) Split thickness flap moved a tooth laterally;
papilla over mid-root
INDICATIONS
*Inadequate gingiva
*Esthetic concern
*Root Sensitivity
ADVANTAGES
* Single Site
* Maintain perfusion to graft
*Good color match
*Predictable root coverage
DISADVANTAGES
*Inadequate donor tissue
*Very prominent teeth
*Interproximal bone loss
*Active periodontitis
Wound Healing 7 days (new JE); 7-21 days (new CT attachment)
2. Obliquely rotated Variation on LPF
3. Double papilla Ross/ Cohen (1968) Adjacent papilla rotated over root and sutured
4. Coronally positioned Allen / Miller (1989) need 3 mm keratinized tissue over site.
INDICATIONS
*Inadequate gingiva
*Esthetics
*Root Sensitivity
ADVANTAGES
*Easier to treat multiple adjacent sites compared to other techniques

13

*Predictable root coverage

DISADVANTAGES
*Multiple surgical sites
*Multiple surgical procedures
5. Semilunar coronally positioned flap Tarnow (1968) Semilunar incision over root, tissue moved
coronally

D. Free gingival grafts

Used extensively to augment keratinized tissue and extend the vestibule
Generally poor results for root coverage
Sullivan & Atkins (1968) pioneers of this technique
P.D. Miller (1985)
vigorous root planing to flatten root surface
citric acid vigorously burnished into root
horizontal incisions at level of adjacent CEJs
butt joints with tissue adjacent to recipient bed
Thick grafts: 2-2.5 mm thick
Peripheral sutures to stabilize grafts
INDICATIONS
*Increase gingival width
*Cover denuded roots thick graft technique only
*Deepen vestibule
*Ridge Augmentation
ADVANTAGES
*Predictable
*Easy to perform
*Ample supply of donor tissues
*Treat multiple teeth simultaneously
DISADVANTAGES
*Two surgical sites
*Tissue color discrepancies
*Graft may be overly thick when mature
*Poor esthetics
*Quantity of donor material is limited

E. Connective tissue grafts

-indications include inadequate donor site for lateral pedicle, isolated wide gingival recession, multiple root
exposures and recession adjacent to an edentulous ridge that also requires ridge augmentation.
a.
-

Langer and Langer (1983): Flap Type

Partial thickness flap reflection
CT graft from palate placed into recipient site
Flap replaced to cover graft.

b. Raetzke (1985): Pouch Type

- Partial thickness envelope or pouch created
- CT graft from palate placed into pouch
INDICATIONS
*Inadequate donor site for lateral pedicle
*Isolated wide gingival recession
*Multiple root exposures
*Recession adjacent to an edentulous ridge that also requires ridge augmentation
ADVANTAGES
*Versatile techniques
*Esthetic root coverage
*Can treat isolated wide areas of recession
*Can use in areas with inadequate donor sites for pedicle grafts
*Donor tissue not limited by rugae

14

*Double blood supply to graft

*Easier to stabilize than thick FGG
*Less discomfort at palatal donor site
DISADVANTAGES
*Two surgical sites
*More difficult techniques for graft harvest
*May have inadequate CT in thin tissue
F. Guided Tissue Regeneration
ADVANTAGES
*Should yield a new CT attachement via a long junctional epithelium
DISADVANTAGES
*Technique still fairly new
*Potential for early membrane exposure and additional recession
*Difficult to establish necessary space under the membrane
Indications for augmenting zone of attached gingiva:
- Ericson & Linde 84 - subgingival restoration or ortho treatment may cause recession if little or no
attached gingiva is present and oral hygiene is not perfect.
- Improves plaque control.
- minimal AG that can't be maint free of inflamm.
- fixed or removable prosthesis placed in area.
- cosmetic or root surf sensitivity.
- ortho movement of teeth out of alveolus.
Miller's classification of recession based on root coverage predictability:
-Class I: Recession does not extend to or beyond the MGJ. No loss of interproximal bone or soft tissue.
-Class II: Recession extends to or beyond the MGJ. No loss of interdental bone or soft tissue
-Class III: Recession extends to or beyond the MGJ. Loss of interdental bone or soft tissue is apical to the
CEJ, but coronal to the apical extent of the marginal tissue recession.
-Class IV: Recession extends to or beyond the MGJ. Loss of interdental bone extends to the level of the
apical extent of marginal tissue recession.
** Total root coverage can be predicted in a Class I or II, only partial coverage in a Class III, and no
coverage is expected in a Class IV lesion
- Lateral sliding graft vs free gingival graft:
- if goal is root coverage use lat sliding flap.
- if goal is increasing zone of AG use FG graft.
- Citric acid on root surg:
- Hancock reported little difference in FG graft. shrinkage related to thickness of graft:
- primary contraction > with thick graft.
- Thin - less primary, more secondary.
- Thick - more primary less secondary.
- once scars down secondary contract > with thin graft.
- Biologic width, Ramjford:
- dimensional relationship btw crest alveolar bone.
- CT attachment 1 mm (1.07) length.
- JE 1 mm (0.96) length.
- Crown lengthening procedure:
- indications: root fx, root caries, root perforation.
- like to have 3 mm or more tooth above crest of bone.

15

- rationale:
- maintain healthy periodontium.
- better retention for crown.
- easier impression taking.
- procedures that lengthen crown:
- gingivectomy.
- apically positioned flap w or wo osteoplasty.
- orthodontics, forced tooth eruption:
- incise crestal fibers q2wks.
- may need crown lengthening also.
- retention 6 to 8 wks before crown prep.
XI Surgical Phase:
1. Rationale for perio surgery:
- < 3 mm pocket scaled ok.
- 3-5 mm pocket scaling effectiveness falls off rapidly.
- > 5 mm pocket scaling effectiveness not good.
- 1-3 mm closed scaling ok.
- 4-6 mm open flap more successful.
- > 6 mm open flap 50% successful.
2. New Attachment
- reunion of connective tissue or epithelium to a pathologically exposed root surface: may include new
cementum
3. Reattachment:
- reunion of connective tissue with a root exposed surface by incision or injury, but with viable PDL cells.
- not new attach but reattachment procedure.
- i.e. super crestal fibrotomy.
4. Peridodontal Regeneration techniques of new attachment:
- goal is to put back like it was.
- architecture and function of the periodontium is completely restored with new alveolar bone, new PDL and
cementum.
- i.e. bone grafts- percentage of success directly related to # of remaining osseous walls.
5. Periodontal Repair:
- reestablishment of continuity with out full restoration of architecture and function
XII. Wound healing:
- inflammation 1st 24 hours then over at 4 days.
- Epi starts 1st = .5-1.0mm/day of movement.
- needs to be near blood supply approx. .25mm away.
- migration and mitosis 24-36hours after clot formation 6- 12hrs.
- Connective tissue repone follows epi, 3-4 days.
- Bone: Osteoclastic (13 hrs to 3 days).
Osteoblastic (3-7 days with flap).
- Healing is under the function of cellular guides (genetic) you cannot accelerate, but can inhibit.
- Cells have to shut down their normal function and start repair.
Rates:
- Currettage Epit 3-7 days / CT - 7 to 15 days.
- Gingivectomy Epit 7-14 days / CT 14 to 35 days.
- Flaps Epit 7 days / CT 14 days.
- Pedicle flap Epit 10-14 days / CT 21 days.
- FGG Epit 8-14 days / CT 17 - 30 days.
XIII. Soft tissue new attachment procedures

16

1. Indications:
- severe periodontitis.
- advanced furcation involvement.
- may get some regeneration with flap curettage.
2. New attachment is goal.
a. closed curettage.
b. ENAP: Subgingival curettage with a knife.
- not for pockets that apical extent is below MGJ.
- incision to base of pocket.
3. Modified ENAP:
- incision to crest of bone.
- indications, suprabony pockets (5mm or less), max/mand anterior for esthetics.
4. Modified Widman: 3 incisions.
- 1st: .5-1 mm from FGM to crest of bone.
- 2nd: sulcular incision.
- 3rd: horizontal incision.
- minimal flap reflection not past MGJ.
- scale and root plane above healthy CT tissue.
- (original Weidman was full thickness apically positioned flap).
Indications:
Esthetics
Severe Periodontitis
Intra Bony Pockets
High Caries Rate
Root Sensitivity
Allows access to defects, access to roots w/ minimal recession.
Disadvantages:
May heal with soft tissue craters
5. Flap curettage:
- usually done secondarily to scaling.
- by definition means curettage of pocket with finger pressure on gingival unit.
- flap procedure for debridement(FPD) not to used in pockets less than or equal to 4mm.
- option in chronic adult periodontitis that do not lend themselves to regeneration or the pts option.
- indications, severe perio, advanced furcation.
- advantages, may get regeneration, improves interproximal attachment, facilitates root debridement.
- disadvantages no osseous recontouring.
6. Scaling:
- instrumentation to remove all supragingival uncalcified and calcified accretions and all gross subgingival
accretions.
7. Root planing:
- instrumentation to remove microbial flora on root surface or lying free in the pocket, all flecks of calculus,
and all contaminated cementum.
- remove endotoxin:
- complex polysaccharide in gram (-) bacterial cell wall.
- why? studies have shown that cultured fibroblasts will not grow on root surfaces contaminated with
endotoxin.
- Gross scaling alone resulted in endotoxin much greater than for those of healthy root surfaces.
- Root planning got endotoxin down to within one nanogram of noninvolved healthy tooth.
8. Hand Curette vs Ultrasonics:
- hand curette are better but not big difference.
- after scaling with hand curette 2 nanograms endotoxin left.
- ultrasonics 16.8 nanograms endotoxin left.
- control or untreated teeth had 106 nanograms left.
- ultrasonics 90% as effective as curette.
- do not know what threshold level of endotoxin is.
Resective techniques:
- apically repositioned flap with osseous recontouring.
- indications generalized mild to moderate periodontitis.

17

- major restorative plan do not wait long for healing.

- most predictable, economics/cheaper because less visits.
- results in minimal bone loss ( 0.4 to 0.6mm bone loss from flap reflection).
- contraindications:
- inadequate plaque control.
- compromise sound adjacent areas.
- inadequate attachment remaining.
- root caries.
- root sensitivity.
Severe isolated defects:
- bone grafts.
- ortho to extrude tooth.
- root resection.
- maintenance.
- extraction.
Generalized deep defects:
- new attachment procedure.
- modified Widman.
- flap curettage.
- resective procedure.
FURCATION MANAGEMENT
Anatomy of Maxillary Molar Teeth
a. Location of Furcation Entrance from CEJ
Mesial 3.6 mm
Buccal- 4 mm
Distal 5 mm
b. Location of Furcation Entrance
1) Mesial widest root extending 2/3 width of the crown buccally-lingually, hence the furcation
entrance is located more palatally and is more easily detected from the palatal side.
2) Distal located at midpoint of tooth in buccal palatal dimension, therefore can be detected from
either a buccal or palatal approach.
c. Concavities and Ridges interfere with root preparation and hygiene
- the width of the furcation is smaller than the curette 58% of the time
Anatomy of Mandibular Molar Teeth
a. Location of Furcation Entrance from CEJ
1) Buccal 3 mm
2) Lingual 4 mm
b. Surface Area of Attachment
1) Mesial Root 37%
2) Distal Root 32.4%
3) Root Trunk 30.5%
c. Internal Furcation Anatomy
a) Concavities present on the distal of the mesial root and the mesial of the distal root 100% of the
time
b) Intermediate bifurcation ridge cementum ridge that extends in a mesial-distal direction, present
73% of the time
c) Accessory Canals
d) Width of Furcation smaller than a curette 58% of the time
______
Anatomy of Maxillary Premolars Furcations
a. Bifurcated 37-56% of the time, trifurcated 4% of the time; the furcation location varies but tends to be
in the apical half of the tooth, resulting in a very long root trunk; invasion of this furcation by
periodontitis usually results in loss of the tooth.
b. If the tooth is single-rooted, a deep mesial groove is virtually always present; less

18

c.
______

Commonly a more shallow groove can be found on the distal surface of the root; these grooves are
extremely difficult and unpredictable to treat if they become periodontally involved.
As a rule, maxillary premolars with furcation involvement should be considered to
Have a poor or hopeless prognosis. Few of these teeth do well long term.

Etiology of Furcation Involvement

a. Primary Factor bacterial plaque
b. Contributing Factors
Amount of alveolar bone loss
Pulpal Pathology
Iatrogenic Factors
Factitial Injury
c. Predisposing Factors
Furcation Location
Cervical Enamel Projections (No Attachment) 17% Max Molars
- 29% Mand Molars
Thickness of Overlying Gingiva and Bone
Root Anatomy
Enamel Pearls
Incidence and Distribution of Furcation Invasion
a.
b.
c.

d.

Incidence increase with age

First molars most common
Buccal furcation most common usually due to toothbrush induced recession
Most common resesected root DB root of 1st maxillary molar

CLASSIFICATION
I.

Glickman Classification horizontal probing

1)Grade 1 incipient, pocket formation into furcation fluting, interradicular bone is
intact.
2)Grade 2 moderate, loss of interradicular bone but not through and through
3)Grade 3 through and through, gingival tissue occludes orifices
4)Grade 4 exposed, high and dry
II. Lindhe and Nymans Classification horizontal probing
1) Degree I - <3mm
2) Degree II - > 3mm
3) Degree III through and through
III.Tarnow & Fletcher vertical loss from the roof of the furcation apically
1) Subclass A vertical loss 0-3 mm
2) Subclass B vertical loss 4-6 mm
3) Subclaass C vertical loss > 6mm
Rationale for Furcation Treatment
a. Regeneration of lost attachment apparatus tx of choice but not always possible.
b. Access for oral hygiene
c. Access for root preparation
d. Pocket Elimination
e. Treatment of non-periodontic conditions
i. Root Caries
ii. Fractures
iii. Root Resorption
iv.Endodontic Complications i.e. perforations, broken instruments
FURCATION THERAPY
- extraction, scale root plane, odontoplasty, raise roof(tunneling), root resection, apical position flaps with
osseous surgery.
19

obliteration with IRM or amalgam.

Definitions
1. Root Resection. The separation of a root that may or may not include the retention of that root or the
removal with accomplanying odontoplasty.
2. Root Amputation: The removal of a root from a multirooted tooth.
3. Hemisection: The surgical separation of a multirooted tooth, especially a mandibular molar, through the
furcation in such a way that a root and the associated portion of the crown may be removed.
4. Root Separation: Splitting of a mandibular molar with the retention of both fragments. Ie. Bicuspidization
Hamps treatment based on degree of furcation involvement (Linde and Nymans furcation classification
system)
(1) Degree I furcation involvement scaling, root planing, furcation operation (to facilitate plaque control, full
thickness flap, odontoplasty to open the furcation entrance, osteoplasty to recontour bony defects)
(2) Degree II furcation operation, tunnel preparation, root resection, tooth extraction
(3) Degree III tunnel preparation, root resection, tooth extraction
Treatment options
1. Regeneration
Best in F or L grade II furcations associated with an intrabony component
Less success in M or D Maxillary Furcations
Unpredictable results in grade III defects
Combination of bone graft + membrane most predictable
Less recession, greater horizontal attachment gain with Guidor Vs. Goretex
2. Resection
1) Root Amp Usually Max Molars
2) Hemisection Usually Man Molars
3) Root Separation - Tx of grade III furcations with adequate bone support around both roots
4) Tunneling Create a grade IV furcation; requires horizontal bone loss and divergent roots
Indications for resection
Severe bone loss affecting one or more root
Grade II or III furcation involvements
Unfavorable root proximity with adjacent teeth
Root fracture, perforation, caries, or resorption of root
When required endo treatment of a particular root cant be performed
Contraindications for resection
Insufficient bone supporting remaining roots
Unfavorable anatomic situations (long root trunk, fused roots)
Lack of usefulness of remaining roots
Unable to perform endo treatment in remaining roots
Lack of usefulness of remaining roots
Large discrepancies in adjacent proximal bone heights
Expense or time constraints
Inadequate oral hygiene
Nonrestorability of remaining roots
Restorative Considerations
(1) Full Coverage is recommended if a root has been removed
(2) Root Resected teeth may be used as abutmens for fixed and removable prostheses. The length of the span
and the remaining support have to be considered when determining whether a particular tooth is suitable as
an abutment. Keep pontics narrow on FPDs.
Failures
1) Langer study 100 patients who had root resection evaluated 10 years after tx.

20

50% of the failures occurred between 5-7 years. Most failures due to:
a. fractures most common reason for failure
b. caries
c. endodontic complications
2) Basten Study 32 patients with 49 root-resected molars. Survival rate was 92% and
time was 12 years. The prognosis for root-resected molars may be
Better than previously believed.

mean survival

Failures of root resection.

- most failures due to fractures, caries, periodontitis, endo complications.
___________________________________________________
Indications for Osseous Surgery
- infrabony pocket not amenable to graft.
- open up furcation.
- Crown lengthening.
- obtain material for graft.
- for better flap closure.
- ledges, tori or irregularities.
Two wall bony defect most common
Three wall defect best results when using bone graft.
Surgical Therapy
Provide simplest therapy that is likely to provide clinical stability.
Periodontitis less prevalent than in past.
- incidence going down.
- because you have gingivitis does not mean will have periodontitis.
Regenerative procedures becoming more predictable.
- current emphasis on periodontology:
- eliminate etiology.
- correct defects by adding to periodontium.
Areas of regeneration:
1. Bone grafting:
- regeneration of bone does not necessarily mean new PDL, cementum, and CT attachment.
- can get bone regener and still have long JE attach.
2. Root conditioning:
- mechanical.
- chemical.
3. Guided tissue regeneration:
- gortex membrane.
- the purposeful selection of cell types that repopulate a wound with the intention of directing the healing
tissue composition.
Bone Grafting:
Gross, JS, Bone Grafting Materials For Dental Applications: A Practical Guide, Compend. Oct
1997;18(10):1013-1036.
1. Types of grafts:
autogenous - same person.
allograft - same species.
xenograft - different species.
alloplasts. - natural or synthetic materials
2. Bone growth potential of grafts.
- Osteogenic graft has viable cells which actually produce bone
- Osteoinductive graft stimulates/induces new bone growth.

21

Osteoconductive template or trellis for new bone growth.

3. Osteogenic:
- autogenous graft.
- the only osteogenic material is hematopoietic bone marrow.
- most adults intraoral marrow is fatty or fibrous.
- must go to hip or create hematopoietic marrow in oral cavity.
- plan tooth extraction for bone donor site.
- create pseudo extraction site.
- make "well" in bone, go back later to get hematopoietic bone marrow.
- how long after extraction before harvesting marrow?
- 1982 study said 8-12 weeks.
- 1989 study said 4 weeks.
** take bone sooner, it has little mature bone but lots of osteogenic potential.
4. Osteoinductive:
- these grafts induce bone to grow from surrounding area.
- does not have potential to grow bone by itself.
- autogenous grafts (from same person):
- osseous coagulum, bone blend.
- conductive but has some inductive potential.
- osseous coagulum conductive because it is mineralized.
- during healing demineralization occurs and some Bone Morphogenic Protein is released to get inductive
effect.
- allografts (from same species):
- freeze dried decalcified bone. DFDBA
- inductive due to bone morphogenic protein, BMP, left after decalcification.
- decalcification process gets rid of inorganic component leaves organic component.
- organic component releases BMP that has ability to induce bone growth.
5. Osteoconductive:
- acts as scaffold for bone formation.
- cannot make bone, cannot induce bone to form.
- most of bone grafts and all alloplastic grafts are osteoconductive.
autogenous:
- osseous coagulum, bone blend.
- has some inductive effect.
- most conductive hip marrow > DFDBA
alloplastic:
- bone substitutes.
- ceramics:
- most popular.
- hydroxyapatite or tricalcium phosphate.
- non-resorbable.
- polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid PLA/PGA:
- resorbable.
- in future may be carrier for genetically engineered proteins and growth factors which will be
Osteoinductive.
** Remember growing new bone does not necessarily mean getting new cementum, PDL, and CT
attachment.
Root Conditioning:
1. Growth factors:
- hot area in research.
- many cells have growth factors specific to them.
- hundreds exist.
- if could paint cementoblast growth factor on root surf may get cementoblast to migrate and proliferate.

22

- enhance one cell and retard another.

2. Citric acid:
- showed promise in animal studies.
- controversial in humans.
- still considered to be experimental.
- purpose is to decalcify root surface:
- direct antibacterial properties pH=1
- allows collagen to collagen healing between newly forming PDL and root surface.
- after flap replacement 1st thing in healing decalcification of bone occurs even without citric a:
- if utilized burnish on roots for 3-5 min
3. Fibronectin:
- occurs naturally.
- necessary for CT cells to attach to one another and to other objects such as root surface.
- no evidence that painting it on root surface in humans does any good.
- may be enough occurring naturally on root surf and do not need to add more.
- experimental.
Guided tissue regeneration:
- allows CT to participate in healing while preventing epithelial tissues.
- gortex:
- expanded porous Teflon membrane.
- used in osseous defect, furcation or interproximal.
Technique:
- flap, scale root plane, osteoplasty.
- flap gets no circulation from alveolar vascular bed.
- place gortex over defect, Teflon sutures.
- cementum, PDL, CT included in healing.
- epithelial tissues excluded from healing.
- allows more time for bone, CT, PDL to form.
- prevents rapid long JE formation.
- leave gortex in for 4-6 weeks.
- antibiotics for 3 weeks.
- peridex for 4 weeks.
- good success rate.
- Avoid flossing, and dont probe the area for at least 6 months.
Maintenance:
Shallhorn and Snider:
Compromised maintenance - when factors such as poor systemic health or poor plaque control prevent
corrective therapy
Preventive maintenance - in periodontally healthy individuals
Trial maintenance - to control disease while assessing borderline defects such as minimal gingiva or certain
furcation defects
Post treatment maintenance - to prevent recurrence of disease
- goal to maintain health by preventing recurrence of disease.
- monitoring, reinforcing OH, rescaling as required.
- necessary.
- If absent and OH poor case will be failure or disease will speed up after surgery.
- 50-70 articles, both clinical and microbiologic studies:
- show 4 month return to disease.
- 3 month recall is good maintenance interval.
- some need shorter interval if continue break down.
- others longer if no active disease.
- tailor maintenance to each individual.
- recall not successful if home care is poor.
- Bugs can repopulate in 2 to 5 months.

23

Classification of ridge defects: (Siebert)

Class I - Buccolingual loss of tissue with normal ridge height in an apico-coronal dimension
Class II - Apico-coronal loss of tissue with normal ridge width in a buccolingual dimension
Class III - Combination buccolingual and apico-coronal loss of tissue resulting in loss of normal height and
width
1996 World Workshop in Periodontics
NON-SURGICAL POCKET THERAPY: MECHANICAL
Based on existing data, one could argue that after the age of 20 years, 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm is a justifiable range
reflective of the mean annual rate of progression for untreated periodontal disease.
Depending upon the study, the most significant risk indicators have been tooth type, initial attachment loss or bone
height at baseline, moderate and severe gingival inflammation, presence of subgingival calculus, age and smoking.
Some studies indicate no correlation with one factor, but is true for multiple factors. Holds true for even younger
age groups.
Those patients who have their periodontal disease treated and receive continual supportive therapy will lose
significantly fewer teeth than patients that remain untreated. (3.5X)
Scaling = instrumentation of the crown and root surfaces of the teeth to remove plaque, calculus, and stains from
these surfaces.
Root planing = a definitive treatment procedure designed to remove cementum or surface dentin that is rough,
impregnated with calculus, or contaminated with toxins or microorganisms.
There is considerable evidence supporting scaling and root planing as an essential and effective component of
therapy for the inflammatory periodontal diseases.
The clinical benefits of scaling and root planing are derived from the removal of subgingival plaque and calculus
and disruption of the subgingival microflora and therefore a delay in the repopulation of pathogenic microbes.
However, subgingival flora has supragingival origins. Consequently, effective control of supragingival plaque
combined with frequent professional subgingival therapy is critical for long-term control of inflammatory
periodontal disease.
Measurable endpoints used in studies include: loss or gain of attachment levels, probing depth, gingival
inflammation, bleeding on probing, and changes in subgingival microbial flora.
Clinical attachment levels and scaling and root planing
Sites of 1-3 mm pockets lost attachment of -0.34 to -0.42 mm
Sites of 4-6 mm pockets had a mean gain of 0.55 mm
Sites of > 7 mm pockets had mean gain of 1.29 mm
Used to possibly explain attachment loss on facial surfaces of teeth due to trauma (toothbrushing) and when
treating adjacent sites.
Healing of periodontal tissues following scaling and root planing
Regeneration of the root-epithelial interface as a long-junctional epithelial attachment which precluded the
formation of a new connective tissue attachment.
Occurs within 1 to 2 weeks
Get gradual reduction of inflammation with < in inflammatory cell populations, < crevicular fluid flow, repair of
connective tissue matrix.
Factors affecting measurement of clinical attachment levels

24

Differences between duplicate recordings can vary between 1 to 2 mm.

Probing depth > by 0.3 to 0.6 mm in inflamed pockets.
Other factors: access and visibility, probe diameter, probing force and velocity, probe angulation, local anatomy,
presence or absence of easily defined land marks from which to take measurements.
Automated or pressure sensitive probes have not improved intra- or inter-examiner reliability.
Probing depth and scaling and root planing
Attachment level measurements are the major emphasis of researchers, but lack emphasis by clinicians.
Two reasons are problems in obtaining accurate measurements and the more important is that clinical attachment
levels may be statistically significant, they border on being clinically insignificant.
Due to problems of long-term maintenance, the practicing clinician more often relates to changes in probing depth.
Depending on the clinical parameters measured, one could argue that studies comparing scaling and root planing
with and without surgical access show that more conservative therapy has a long-term effect nearly equal to that
accomplished with surgical access. True for single rooted teeth but not multirooted. Get improvement in
multirooted teeth with continuous deterioration over time.
Some studies initially show a greater reduction in probing depth after surgery vs scaling and root planing, the
differences become insignificant over time. Nyman and Linde suggest it is not the modality of treatment that
matters but the thoroughness of surface treatment.
Gingival bleeding and scaling and root planing
Lang et al suggested that the absence of bleeding be used as a criterion for stability rather than using the presence
of bleeding on probing as a predictor of disease activity.
Subgingival microbial flora and scaling and root planing
Reported significant reductions in the percentage of motile microbes and spirochetes, Porphyomonas gingivalis,
and other gram -negative anaerobic microbes and a concurrent increase in the percentage of cocci and non-motile
microbes.
Several studies have demonstrated that microbial repopulation of subgingival pockets can be severely inhibited by
continual and effective oral hygiene. In contrast, the presence of a supragingival microbial plaque appears to
facilitate repopulation of subgingival pockets within 4 to 8 weeks, including high percentages of spirochetes and
motile rods.
Furcation and scaling and root planing
Molars with furcation involvement generally have a compromised prognosis.
19 to 57% of teeth with furcation involvement were lost in 15 years versus 5 to 10% of teeth without furcation
involvement.
Furcations, in general are less responsive and more difficult to adequately treat using mechanical root therapy.
The less favorable clinical response to mechanical non-surgical therapy, typical of molar furcation lesions, is
related to furcal anatomy, lack of access, and therefore, the persistence of a pathogenic microbial flora.
Effectiveness of scaling and root planing
Percentage of surfaces exhibiting residual calculus after scaling and root planing , by experienced operators, with
and without surgical access is as follows: 17 to 69% non-surgical and 14 to 24% with surgery.
> probing depth = > residual calculus, tooth position did not matter (ant vs post), no statistical difference between
furcations between closed (68%) and surgical access (44%).
Spent average 9 to 15 minutes per tooth scaling and root planing.
As with microbial plaque, clinical success or failure of scaling and root planing may be dependent on a critical
mass of residual calculus rather than total elimination.
Associated with the reduction in calculus volume below critical mass is the decrease in surface associated
microbial plaque and therefore a decrease in bacterial virulence factors e.g., accumulated organic acids, enzymes,
endotoxins, and various cell wall antigens.
CEMENTUM removal by scaling and root planing

25

Removal of all cementum is not a realistic goal.

Recent studies would challenge the validity of extensive cementum removal for the sole purpose of removing
endotoxin. New studies argue that endotoxins are superficially bound to the root surface and 99% can be removed
by gently washing or brushing for 1 minute. Recontamination will occur over a very short period of time anyway.
Amount of cementum removed during scaling and root planing.
Ascending order of mean root substance removal after 12 strokes: ultrasonic scaler 11.6 (m < sonic scaler 93.5 (m
< manual curet 108.9 (m, < rotating diamond bur 118.7 (m.
Root surface roughness and scaling and root planing
Instrument induced root surface roughness results in an increased surface free-energy, increased surface area,
promotion of microbial adherence and colonization and therefore plaque maturation, and compromised plaque
removal.
Manual versus power-driven instrumentation of root surfaces
Studies vary widely in results. Generally, in spite of contradictions concerning root surface roughness, one area of
agreement does exist: complete removal of microbial plaque and calculus is not accomplished by either manual or
power driven scalers.
1. Regardless of instrument choice, interproximal areas, furcas, cemento-enamel junction, and multirooted teeth in
general are most likely to exhibit residual calculus after treatment.
2. As probing depth increases, the power driven instruments become less effective due to limitations in design. New
designs are coming out that appear to be more effective.
3. When comparing the manual curet and ultrasonic instruments, the curet appears slightly more efficient but
requires more effort , time, and expertise. Again newer ultrasonic head designs appear to be overcoming this
problem.
4. A similar comparison between sonic and ultrasonic instruments indicates that sonic instruments to be more
efficient. The differences are probably not clinically significant.
5. The best results are probably obtained by combining sonic/ultrasonic instrumentation with manual scaling.
Subgingival microbial flora and sonic/ultrasonic instrumentation
All are comparable to hand instrumentation and each other
Removal of root bound endotoxins by scaling and root planing (manual and sonic/ultrasonic scalers)
All are equally effective. Collectively, new finding suggest clinicians may be over-instrumenting root surfaces
under the guise of root surface detoxification when this may not be necessary.
New designs in sonic/ultrasonic scalers inserts
Fiber-optic probe = significant reductions of calculus in 4 to 6 mm pockets (40% vs 5%)
Using antimicrobial instead of water for cooling and irrigation effect = some studies show chlorhexidine (0.02%)
has some > effect in pockets of 4 to 6 mm, most other studies did not show a difference between chlorhexidine and
water.
Sonic scalers fitted with plastic tips = showed that this produced a smoother surface than either manual curets, a
rubber cup with polishing paste, or the sonic scaler fitted with a metal tip.
Changes in clinical parameters following scaling and root planing with sonic/ultrasonic instruments
There is little difference in the clinical response between the various types of instrumentation.
NON-SURGICAL POCKET THERAPY: PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
Irrigation methods and delivery devices

26

It appears that both supra- and subgingival home irrigation is effective. It should be kept in mind, however, that
with any oral hygiene device, it is only as good as the operator, and beneficial results vary widely from patient to
patient.
Effect on plaque toxicity
May be beneficial due to 1) change in plaque composition, 2) flushing out of inflammatory factors, and 3) physical
change in tissue integrity. Irrigation may involve specific host-parasite alterations or mechanical stimulation of
gingiva may in some way be beneficial.
Penetration
Subgingival irrigation may penetrate more deeply than previously thought.
Since calculus impedes irrigation in deep sites, patients should be instructed to use irrigation after initial
debridement has been completed to obtain the most benefit from irrigation therapy.
It would appear that maximum results are obtained if the irrigant reaches the base of the pocket either by cannula
on a pulsed irrigator or by inserting a blunt irrigating needle on a hand held syringe at least 3 mm subgingivally.
Irrigating solutions
Water - Majority of studies concluded that water provided equal, and sometime superior, beneficial result when
compared to other test medicaments.
The implication is that the physiologic flushing of the pocket itself may comprise the primary therapeutic effect of
irrigation, regardless of the irrigant used.
Chlorhexidine - Has broad spectrum of topical antimicrobial activity, in addition to safety, effectiveness,
substantivity, lack of serious side effects, and lack of toxicity that has allowed it to be used extensively in dentistry.
CHX activity in the oral cavity is promoted by binding to plaque, salivary pellicle, oral mucosa, and hard structures
and its release for up to 24 hours makes it a highly substantive product.
Reversible side effects include staining of hard tissues and some dental products, altered taste sensation,
supragingival calculus accumulations, and less commonly, a mild mucositis.
The literature seems to support a range from 0.02% to 0.2% CHX as efficacious dosage for use in an oral irrigator
as a means of reducing gingival inflammation in specific clinical situations.
Ones study showed > effect with 2% CHX to enhance effect of SRP.
Daily home irrigation with water or CHX appears to be beneficial to maintenance patients. Conc are not firmly
established, but need higher conc to help in periodontitis than gingivitis.
Peroxides - May be helpful to < AA
Fluorides - 1.64% stannous fluoride may help in multiple treatments. Many studies did not agree.
Iodine - Seems to be effective, but combination with peroxide and fluorides seem to have the most beneficial effect.
Advantage is low cost and very low probability of bacterial resistance. Disadvantage is staining and allergy.
Phenolics - Has been shown to < plaque, bacterial cell counts and gingival bleeding.
Irrigation with antibiotics
Root substantivity - TCN - HCL The amount of antimicrobial activity retained is proportional to the conc of the
TCN used for irrigation. 5% = 12 days, 1% = 4 days.
However, found 5% TCN did not > effect of SRP versus SRP alone.
10% TCN over longer periods of time ( 5 minutes) did show continued therapeutic release for 1 week. Also showed
> attachment gain compared to SRP alone.
0.5% metronidazole showed no benefit over water alone.
Topical irrigation with non-steroidal anti-inflammatories
ASA - No better than water itself
Flurbiprofen, meclofenamic acid, ibuprofen - are being investigated for periodontal inflammatory use.
Zinc sulfate, Chloramine-T, - - showed less effect than even water.
Paradontax, Tetrapotassium peroxydiphosphate and oxygen - all showed to have an improved effect.
Ultrasonics and antimicrobials
CHX had mixed results, CHX plus doxycycline and povidone iodine alone or with doxycycline showed good
results.
Penetration was 100% in 86% of the pockets 3 to 9 mm deep.
Safety
Seems to be safe without deleterious effects

27

Irrigation may cause bacteremia; therefore the evidence does not support recommendations of irrigation for
patients at risk for infective endocarditis.
Summary
Water irrigation at the gingival margin reduces gingivitis, and the addition of antimicrobial agents has some
additional clinical efficacy over water irrigation alone.
Subgingival irrigation as an adjunct to conventional therapy in periodontitis sites has had mixed results. With the
exception of high conc of CHX (2%) or TCN (10%), the addition of the other antimicrobials have resulted in rather
unremarkable additional benefits beyond water or saline alone.
Prostaglandins: Implication in periodontal disease
Bacteria are essential causative agents of periodontal disease. However, in the past 20 years, research has shown
the pathogenesis of periodontal disease to involve the hosts inflammatory response. Bacteria and bacterial by
products can cause tissue damage and evoke inflammatory response producing metabolites from the breakdown of
arachidonic acid by the cyclooxygenase pathway. This gives rise to prostacyclin, thromboxane, and prostaglandins.
These metabolites have been implicated in a number of diseases, but in periodontics they have been associated with
gingivitis and bone loss. (prostaglandin E 2 is the major player)
They find higher levels of prostaglandin in crevicular fluids and gingival tissue samples of subject with periodontal
disease versus healthy individuals. (also in areas of radiographic bone loss)
Therefore, if NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin production they might < effect of periodontal disease.
Non-prostaglandin pathways in the breakdown of arachidonic acid may also be important. One, lipoxygenase
pathway may be important = hydrooxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE), especially 12-HETE and 15-HETE, seem
important mediators of inflammation in the tissues of patients with diseased gingiva and advanced periodontal
disease, respectively.
One study showed leukotrienes and HETEs were potent stimulators of bone resorption.
The role of NSAIDS in the control of periodontal disease progression
Three groups have been investigated
1. Pyrazolone compounds (indomethicin, phenylbutazone, and tolmetin)
2. The phenylproprionic acid derivatives - (Ibuprofin, fenoprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen)
3. Flurbiprofen and the oxicams - specifically piroxicam.
All have shown to < bone loss compared to control groups either by topical or systemic application.
No real studies yet on effective doses. May not be practical if high doses are necessary.
Also seem to be effective in bone loss around implants.
Triclosan inhibits the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways with similar efficacy.
Research concerns:
1) Which pathway is primarily responsible for the metabolites associated with periodontal progression, the
cyclooxygenase, the lipoxygenase, or a combination of the two pathways causing the most destruction
2) Which specific NSAID or combination is the most efficacious in halting periodontal disease.
Topical and sustained release antimicrobials
A variety of new supragingival antimicrobials aimed at controlling plaque and gingivitis include: a broad spectrum
adhesive antibiotic; sustained-release CHX and arginin varnishes; CHX polymeric coating; and cetypyridinium
chloride methacrylic acid copolymer.
Recently developed subgingival topical and sustained release agents for treating or maintaining periodontitis sites
include: gels containing CHX, metronidazole, clindamycin, TCN, and flurbiprofen; acrylic strips with CHX.
metronidazole, or TCN; antimicrobial ointments with minocycline; controlled release devices and bioresorbable
materials containing ofloxacin, doxycycline, TCN, CHX, and methylene blue; non-resorbable TCN-loaded
ethylene vinyl acetate fibers; and locally delivered antimicrobial microencapsulated minocycline polymer.
Some resistance has been seen to antimicrobials used. CHX caused no detectable changes. MET had variable
effects. TCN and doxycycline did show resistant organisms.

28

Locally administered antibiotics as a monotherapy has been shown in some studies to have a similar effect as SRP.
Monotherapy approach is questionable since use should be in recurrent or refractory cases which are preceded by
mechanical therapy or are applied in conjunction with SRP.
Monotherapy may extend maintenance visits.
The evidence supports the fact that when traditional therapies fail to arrest the disease, topical or locally delivered
sustained-released antimicrobial therapy generally has some effect, at least over a short period of time.
Locally applied antimicrobials should be regarded as an adjuncts to mechanical periodontal therapy in the
treatment of recurrent and refractory patients.
Systemic antibiotic
Refractory periodontitis is now that definition as described by van Winkelhoff = attachment loss despite optimal
subgingival debridement and performance of excellent hygiene by the patient.
TCN - Most commonly prescribed antibiotic used in periodontics
- Include TCN-HCl, minocycline, doxycycline, all of which inhibit most microorganisms that are believed to
be a factor in periodontics. Bacteriostatic in nature.
- TCN conc in the gingival crevice is 2 to 10 times that in serum which allows a high drug conc to be
delivered into the periodontal pocket.
- Good against AA
- Like most in this group, has important function in reducing collagenase activity.
Based on evidence available, it appears that the use of TCN in adult periodontitis is generally not warranted.
Has been used successfully with juvenile periodontitis. Various regimens have been used. Shows long term stability
and resolution of defects. Seems directly related to the control of AA. Seems important that family members,
including the family dog be treated, to avoid reinfection with AA.
Seems to work well with refractory periodontitis. Can show dramatic repair and regeneration of lost periodontal
tissues following systemic administration either alone or in combination with other forms of periodontal therapy in
severe adult periodontitis.
Suppression of AA with a 2-week dose of TCN prior to the standard prophylaxis for infective endocarditis has been
recommended for LJP patients at risk for infections.
Indications - Early onset periodontitis - LJP, GJP, RPP, and refractory cases.
- Debridement and surgery have failed to eliminate AA, systemic
treatment needed.
- Not justified in adult periodontitis
Contraindications - Children under 8, patients on low dose BCPs, renal or hepatic disease.
Long-term low-dose TCN - Big area of research now.
Doxycycline - Unlike TCN, can be given with food or dairy products since the decrease in absorption is only about
20% versus 50% with TCN
Both doxycycline and minocycline can be given to patients with renal dysfunction, unlike TCN, which is
eliminated essentially unchanged by glomerular filtration.
No indications for adult periodontitis
Seems to be useful in refractory periodontitis and if a patient still seems resistant adding metronidazole seems to
work in most cases.
Does not seem to help out in Juvenile perio
Chemically modified TCN
Hot area of research - Discovered that certain host-derived enzymes called matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) can
be inhibited by TCNs. The work is to enhance this activity of new TCN and < antibacterial effect, because these

29

new drugs seem to work just as well in inhibiting bone loss and gingival collagenolytic activity even though they
do not suppress the bacteria.
Minocycline
Seems effective against LJP but not GJP
Does not < AA like others.
Questionable choice for infections caused by AA.
Metronidazole
Serum and crevicular levels of MET have been shown to reach minimum inhibitory conc (MIC) levels for most
periodontal pathogens.
Is effective against 10 pure strains of oral spirochetes and were found to eliminate spirochetes from NUG lesions.
It is a direct-acting amebicide/trichomonacide that binds and degrades DNA in the organism.
Is the drug of choice for subgingival plaque consisting primarily of anerobic gram-neg rods and spirochetes.
It is bactericidal rather than bacteriostatic, which allows it to function effectively independently of the host defense
system.
May be of some help in severe adult periodontitis, especially administered 1 week post SRP.
Most effective in eliminated AA in Juvenile periodontitis, superior to rest of the TCNs.
Refractory periodontitis with or without other antibiotic combinations including ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin or
doxycycline, has been successfully treated for up to two years following periodontal debridement plus MET.
Ciprofloxacin
Broad spectrum bacteriocidal agent that inhibits DNA needed for replication.
Good against periodontal pathogens, but has minimal effect against streptococcal microbes. May facilitate the
repopulation of the pocket with a microbial flora more associated with periodontal health.
May interfere with growth patterns so do not use in young children and teenagers.
Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
May be effective with refractory periodontitis
Clindamycin
May be effective with refractory periodontitis
Combination therapy
MET/AMX, MET/TCN, MET/Spiramycin, MET/ciprofloxacin, Amx + Clavulante/DOX all proved to be effective.
Antibiotic therapy should be reserved for the situations that cannot be managed solely with mechanical therapy,
such as severe or acute infections, early onset periodontal diseases, and refractory cases.
NON-SURGICAL POCKET THERAPY: DENTAL OCCLUSION
While occlusal forces do not initiate periodontitis, results are inconclusive on the interactions between occlusion
and the progression of attachment loss due to inflammatory periodontal disease.
Periodontitis can be treated and periodontal health maintained without occlusal adjustment and despite the obvious
presence of traumatic occlusal forces.
A clinicians decision whether or not to use occlusal adjustment as a component of periodontal therapy should be
related to an evaluation of clinical factors involving patient comfort and function and not based on the assumption
that occlusal adjustment is necessary to stop the progression of periodontitis.
PERIODONTAL DISEASE: PATHOGENESIS
Introduction:
This is a new section in the World Workshop, and is based on data not only obtained from dental research
specifically, but also extrapolated from medical research and applied to the discussion on periodontal disease.

30

1,400 articles reviewed, 375 selected for inclusion in this section. The authors stated that they not only critically
evaluated the articles, their reviews were biased by their own beliefs regarding the pathogenisis of periodontal
disease, and the last section of this three part review is a self indulgent desire to accomodate all significant
findings into a unifying theory of pathogenesis, which they entitled the critical path model. The first section is an
overview of the pathogenesis of periodontal disease, and the second section focuses on the molecular and cellular
pathogenesis of periodontal disease.
Perspective and Overview:
began with the non-specific plaque hypothesis of the 50s, 60s, and 70-s
gone beyond the specific plaque hypothesis
current viewpoint that states the periodontopathic bacterial flora is necessary but not sufficient for disease, or
that periodontal diseases are specific mixed infections which cause periodontal destruction in the appropriately
susceptible host
only 9% to 16% of the variability of in disease expression can be explained by the levels of specific microbes
smoking can explain the same amount of disease expression, possibly raising the question as to whether
antismoking programs might prevent as much periodontal disease as anti-plaque programs (very controversial)
what this indicates is that there are many host and environmental factors which dramatically modify the
expression of disease
disease expression is a combination of host, microbial agent, and environmental factors
epidemiological studies have renewed the emphasis on host response in pathogenesis for three reasons: 1)
fundamental studies of inflammation have demonstrated wide variation in the magnitude of the inflammatory
response from one subject to another; 2) microbial parameters can only explain a relatively small amount of
disease incidence and prevalence; 3) studies of twins have suggested that overall about half the variation in
periodontal disease expression is controlled by genetic, not microbial, factors

periodontal disease has been shown as a risk factor for the developement of atherosclerosis, myocardial
infarction, and stroke, with the odds raised from 1.6 to 2.1 times that of individuals without periodontal
disease. It was postulated that the chronic systemic exposure to periodontal bacteria, endotoxin, and cytokines
may contribute to atheroma development and thromboembolic phenomena
periodontitis is also a risk factor for low birthweight pre-term delivery in pregnant mothers. Pregnant mothers
with severe periodontitis showed a 7.5 to 7.9 fold increased risk for pre-term LBW. Indications are that low
level challenges with P. gingivalis endotoxin, or non-disseminating subcutaneous P. gingivalis infections are
capable of dramatically suppressing fetal growth.
Molecular Signals and Cellular Processes:
possible explanation for the low magnitude of association of microbial flora with disease expression is that not
all strains of pathogenic organisms which belong to a specific genus and species posses the same virulence
traits
microbial virulence is determined by two specific traits: 1) virulence properties which enable the organism to
successfully colonize and compete in an ecological niche; and 2) traits which confer the ability to evade the
host
subgingival microorganisms have been shown to be assacharolytic and anaerobic or facultative, and are
capable of metabolizing the protiens within the gingival crevicular fluid, not requiring saliva and dietary
carbohydrates as a nutrient source
therefore, bacteria evade the antimicrobial activity of compliment and antibody by several mechanisms: 1) P.
gingivalis sectetes polysaccharide capsules which prevent complement protiens and antibody from binding to
its outer surface; 2) some strains release surface blebs containing bacterial antigens providing a binding site
for compliment away from the bacterial surface
antibody response is generally protective in nature, and it is theorized that, given the episodic nature of the
disease, a systemic or local challenge of organisms may boost the immune response, an event that would bring
the flora back under control. This may be brought on by scaling and root planing, essentially reimmunizing
the patient and enhancing the serum antibody response. It is not known how much of the positive effects seen
following scaling and root planing are a result of this reimmunization
inflammation of the periodontium is a protective host response to the microbial burden of plaque. The
junctional and sulcular epithelium are in constant contact with a high density microbial mass of approximately
10 to the 11th power becteria, which approximates the same bacterial density of the lower bowel. The
inflammation provides protection and mediates the destruction of the periodontal tissues

31

the supression of PGE2 synthesis with the use of NSAIDs greatly diminishes attachment and bone loss and
thereby attenuates periodontal disease progression. The therapeutic efficacy of these agents can be impressive,
comparing favorably with the efficacy of fluoride for the prevention of caries. They should be available soon
possibly as topical agents in the form of rinses, gels, or toothpaste

Critical Path Model of Pathogenesis and the Role of Risk Factors:

in the critical path model of pathogenesis, a virulent flora and the evasion of neutrophil clearance is a requisite
for disease aquisition and the individual host response plays a primary role in driving the severity of disease
expression
the patient which responds to the indigenous flora with an inflammatory process would provide the ideal
ecological advantage for the emergence for the black-pigmented organisms. This permits further proliferation
of these pathogens due to the changes in the environment and may explain the episodic nature of the disease
stress from physical, environmental, and social factors can cause a 2 log increase in bacterial density, leading
to impaired neutrophil clearance, an enhanced inflammatory response, and further promoting bacterial
overgrowth
PERIODONTAL DISEASE: MICROBIAL FACTORS
Introduction:
This section was researched in 2 ways; first a computer search was done using key words appropriate for the
microbial focus of this review. An example would be that the bacteria AA. was entered and the articles from the
last five years relating to this pathogen were reviewed. Second, a search was made of the key periodontal journals
for articles related to microbial topics. From this search, principal questions were addressed and the answers to
these questions are the topic areas for this section.
Conceptual Considerations:
Most periodontal disease is caused by bacteria in dental plaque. While the infectious etiology of periodontal
disease is generally accepted, there is still discussion as to the relative importance of individual bacterial species
within dental plaque. The non-specific plaque hypothesis was based on the assumption that a homogenous mass of
bacteria accumulates that exceeds the host defense capabilities, thereby causing periodontal disease. The specific
plaque hypothesis by contrast states that dental plaque isolated from periodontitis lesions are qualitatively distinct
from those isolated from healthy sites. This is the more accepted hypothesis. In order to implicate a particular
organism, it must meet certain specific requirements, including: 1) the presence of high numbers of the organism
in the periodontal lesion compared to either its absence or presence in low numbers in healthy sites. Also of
interest here is the critical threshold of the organism needed to see clinical signs of disease; 2) elimination of
these microorganisms from the site should result in clinical improvement; 3) there is a host immune response to
the microorganism including antibody formation or cell mediated immune resonses; 4) there is a production of
virulence factors that can be correlated with clinical disease; and 5) appropriate animal models demonstrate tissue
destruction in the presence of these microorganisms.
Approximately a dozen bacteria have been implicated in the formation of periodontal disease. prominent among
these mainly gram-negative bacteria are Aa., Bacteriodes forsythus, Campylobacter rectus, Fusobacterium
nucleatum, Prevotella intermedia/nigrescens, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Peptostreptococcus micros, and
Streptococcus intermedius. These have been determined through numerous longitudinal studies that, despite their
usefulness, have the distinct drawback of being unable to reliably culture the diseased site at the specific time
connective tissue attachment is lost. Therefore, the question remains if the species that is cultured are the actual
cause of the attachment loss or just a secondary invading factor. Some of these microorganisms are definitely
linked to the cause of the disease, and there is a move to change the nomenclature of periodontal disease to reflect
the causitive factor, such as Actinobacillary periodontitis. Others are not so closely linked to the disease but are
seen often enough to raise the level of suspicion. The three species most implicated are Aa., B. forsythus, and P.
gingivalis.
Another area of interest has been whether or not the bacteria involved are exogenous or endogenous. This might
alter treatment modalities depending on the orgin of the organism.
Bacterial culturing continues to be the gold standard of microbiological assays, although it is hampered by the
inability to culture non-viable or non-cultivable bacteria, providing false negative results. The use of synthetic
oligonucleotide primers in the polymerase chain reaction assay is capable of detecting a single organism, resuting
32

in the highest sensitivity of any of the assays currently available. 25 or more subgingival samples must be taken to
achieve a 95% confidence level that a subject is not infected with Aa. 6 or more random sites or 3 or more sites
with probing depths of greater than 5 mm are needed for the same accuracy with P. gingivalis and B. forsythus, and
4 or more sites with probing depths greater than 5 mm are needed for P. intermedia.
Since smoking has been implicated in periodontal disease, several studies were done to determine the changes, if
any, in the bacterial flora found in smokers versus non-smokers. One study could not demonstrate a difference,
although another did show among smokers a significantly higher level of P. forsythus (2.3 times higher), as well as
an increased risk of infection.
It is becoming increasingly clear that there is a significant difference within species of periodontal pathogens with
sime strains being much more virulent than others. Some stains of Aa. are capable of producing 10 to 20 times
more leukotoxins than other strains, and certain assays are now capable of reading the gene sequences of the
bacteria in order to determine which strain is present.
The Effects of Periodontal Therapy:
Scaling and root planing shows not a generalized reduction in the proportion of all plaque as might be expected.
Instead, there is an inverse relationship between the periodontal pathogens and those seen in healthy tissue, with
an increase in streptococci and other oral cocci. Aa. has been shown to be very difficult to eradicate, with sc/rp
actually increasing the relative population of Aa. in subgingival areas. Antibiotic therapy in conjunction with sc/rp
is indicated when treating Aa.
With the increased use of membranes in periodontal therapy, studies have been done to determine the effect of the
flora on the results. All membranes become completely penetrated within 4 weeks of placement, and those with
low levels of gram negative periodontal pathogens showed significantly improved surgical outcomes over those
with high levels. Use of metronidazole gels on the surgical sites has shown significant improvement compared to
untreated control sites.
Healthy dental implants have been shown to be surrounded mainly by gram positive cocci, whereas failing
implants are normally surrounded by gram negative anaerobes.
Transmission of Periodontal Pathogens Between Families:
The methods developed to fingerprint isolates of periodontal pathogens have been used to examine the
transmission of these pathogens within families. There is good evidence that periodontal disease is transmitted
between families. Despite these findings, re-emergence of periodontal pathogens after treatment was more likely
associated with an individuals own flora rather than that of their spouse. There is, though, little evidence that
periodontal disease is contageous. Periodontal pathogens appear to be transmissable only after long-term exposure,
and the exact mechanism of transmission remains to be established, although there is evidence that these
pathogens remain viable on toothbrushes.
MUCOGINGIVAL THERAPY
Note: Section 8 is well organized, and the Question and Answer section actually summarizes well the information
in the text using the same order as the outline below. Therefore, I did not prepare an exhaustive handout to avoid
repetition.
I.

Introduction- Definition of terms:

1. Mucogingival Defect a defect which probes apical to the mucogingival junction.
2. Mucogingival Surgery plastic surgical procedures disigned to correct defects in morphology,
position and/or amount of gingiva surrounding the teeth.
3. Periodontal Plastic Surgery surgical procedures performed to correct or eliminate anatomic,
developmental, or traumatic deformities of the gingiva or alveolar mucosa.

II.

Therapeutic Endpoints of Success

Increased gingival dimensions - i.e. increased gingival width, regardless of the number of mm is
considered a successful outcome..
Root coverage - gain of clinical attachment . Another variable is decreased root sensitivity.
Improved esthetics - subjective...based on the patient.
Improved ridge contour, elimination of aberrant frenulum, improved papilla form, etc.

33

III.

Indications/Contraindications for Mucogingival therapy

Augmentation of the Dimensions of Gingival Tissue
Root Coverage - Full coverage can be attained with Class I and II, Only partial coverage with Class III;
Class IV not amenable to Tx.
Recession classifications:
Class I - marginal recession coronal to the mucogingival (MG) line.
Class II - extends to or beyond MG line, but no loss of interdental bone or soft tissue.
Class III-

, with loss of interdental bone or soft tissue, but coronal to

the marginal recession.
Class IV - extends beyond MG line, with interdental bone or soft tissue loss apical to the
marginal recession.
Augmentation of the Edentulous ridge
Elimination of aberrent frenulum
Prevention of ridge collapse associated with tooth extraction
Crown lengthening
Exposure of teeth that are not likely to erupt
Loss of interdental papilla which presents an esthetic and/or phonetic defect
General Considerations
Plaque control - poor OH have less favorable outcome.
Smoking - light smokers (( 5 per day) same healing as non-smokers, but excessive smokers <
root coverage.
Age: no evidence that it affects outcome of surgery.
F. Contraindications: same as for any other periodontal surgery

IV.

Procedures that are Justified in Mucogingival Therapy

Augmentation of the Dimensions of Gingival Tissue- there is evidence that the most predictable
procedures for gingival augmentation are pedicle and free autogenous grafts of gingiva or masticatory
mucosa from the palate. Under ordinary circumstances, denudation procedures are not justified as a
means for widening the gingival zone.
Root Coverage Procedures- pedicle soft tissue grafts , free soft tissue grafts, or combination can be
considered justified in the tx of recession type defects.
Augmentation of the Edentulous Ridge

V.

Predictability of Root Coverage

Rotational Flaps
Coronally Advanced Flaps
Guided Tissue Regeneration
Full Thickness Free Soft Tissue Graft
Free Connective Tissue Graft

VI.

Role of Root Surface Modification in Mucogingival Procedures aimed at Root Coverage

Root Planing - evidence that it does effect the nature of the attachment.
Root Surface Conditioning- no evidence that citric acid or tetracycline helps.

VII.

Dento-Gingival Anatomy That is established Following Root Coverage Procedures

VIII.

Long Term Stability of the Healing Result Following Mucogingival Procedures

Augmentation of the Dimensions of Gingival Tissue
Root Coverage Procedures
Augmentation of the Edentulous Ridge
SUPPORTIVE PERIODONTAL THERAPY

I.

Introduction:
A.

Various Authors Have Described Recall/Maintenance

Therapy As:
-Periodontal Maintenance (Ferrari)

34

-The Maintenance Phase Of Periodontal Therapy (Ramfjord, Schick, Also Gottsegen)

-Maintenance Care (Ramfjord)
-Preventive Periodontal Maintenance (Allen)
-Periodontal Maintenance Therapy (Schallhorn)
-Post-Operative Maintenance Care (Schmid)
B.

Supportive Periodontal Therapy:

-The Preferred Term To Describe Recall/Maintenance Therapy.

-Avoids The Negative Psychological/Financial Connotations That Are Often Associated With
Recall/Maintenance Therapy As Perceived By Patients.
C.
Definition:
The Preventive, Diagnostic, And Therapeutic Measures Accomplished In An
Ongoing Program For Sustaining Periodontal Health.
-This Ongoing Preventive Program Operates At 3

Ii.

Levels.

1.

Prevent Inception Of Disease

2.

Prevent Progression Of Existing Disease

3.

Prevent Recurrence Of Disease After

Corrective Therapy.

Categories Of Maintenance (Schallhorn & Snider)

- Offer A Broad View Of Supportive Periodontal Therapy
A.

Preventive Maintenance Therapy In Periodontally

Healthy Individuals.

B.
Trial Maintenance Therapy To Control Disease While Assessing Borderline Defects Such As
Minimal Gingiva Or Furcation Defects.
C.
Compromise Maintenance When Factors Such As Poor Systemic Health Or Poor Plaque Control
Prevent Corrective Therapy.
D.
III.

Post Treatment Maintenance Therapy To Prevent Recurrence Of Disease.

JUSTIFICATION FOR MAINTENANCE

**Horning, G.M., et al.: The prevalence of periodontitis in a military population. JADA 121:616,1990.
-What is the prevalence of periodontal disease?

-Patients diagnosed and treated justify the need for

PERIODONTAL THERAPY.
A.

SUPPORTIVE

MAINTENANCE AFTER NON-SURGICAL THERAPY

-Maintenance(professional mechanical debridement) along with optimal patient hygiene

practices secure over time the results obtained with active non-surgical therapy.
B.

MAINTENANCE AFTER SURGICAL THERAPY

35

-It has been demonstrated that lack of maintenance care or infrequent plaque control will result
in recurrence of periodontal disease.
*Axelsson,P., and Lindhe,J.: The significance of maintenance care in the treatment of
periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 8:281,1981.
- This article demonstrated the significance of not obtaining regular supervised
maintenance following surgical therapy.
C.

MUCOGINGIVAL CONSIDERATIONS

-Minimizing inflammation through maintenance is effective in sustaining attachment levels

despite the width of the keratinized gingiva (Dorfman et al. 1980).
**Ramfjord,S.P.: Maintenance care for treated periodontitis patients. J Clin Periodontol 14:433437,1987.
- This article addresses the maintenance care of treated periodontitis patients.
IV.

TOOTH LOSS STUDIES

A.

UNTREATED DISEASE

-Studies by Loe,Becker,Buckley,and Crowley demonstrated that adults with untreated

periodontitis had an extremely high rate of tooth loss.
B.

TREATED PATIENTS

-Conversely, studies have shown that patients with periodontitis, even in the advanced stages,
who receive treatment accompanied with periodic maintenance care can maintain most of their teeth.
*Hirschfeld,L., Wasserman,B.: A long term survey of tooth loss in 600 treated periodontal
patients. J of Clin Periodontol 1978:5:225-237.
-Classic study of tooth mortality due to periodontal disease.
-Periodontal disease is bilaterally symmetrical.
-Patterns of tooth loss, Maxillary molars most susceptible,followed by mandibular molars. Most resistant
were the mandibular cuspids.
-With periodontal tx, get prolonged tooth retention
*Goldman,M.J.,Ross,I.F.,and Goteiner,D.: Effect of
periodontal therapy on patients maintained for 15 years or longer, a retrospective study. J. Periodontol 57:347353,1986.
-This study looked at tooth loss subsequent to periodontal therapy.
-Study also made light to the fact that tooth loss could be minimized with periodontal treatment and
routine maintenance.
C.

FURCATION INVASION

-It has been demonstrated that of all the teeth in the oral cavity, the molars are the most
susceptible to periodontal destruction and subsequent loss.
*Ross,I.,and Thompson,R.A.: Long term study on tooth retention in the treatment of maxillary
molars with furcation involvement. J Periodontol 49:238-244,1978.

36

-Disadvantages associated with surgical tx of furcations.

occurs.
V.

-Even with furcation involvement, teeth can be successfully treated and kept for years if maintenance
OBJECTIVES OF SUPPORTIVE PERIODONTAL THERAPY
THE PRIME OBJECTIVE OF SUPPORTIVE PERIODONTAL THERAPY IS:
-PRESERVATION OF THE HEALTH OF THE DENTAL AND ORAL SOFT TISSUES.

VI.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
A.

PATIENT NEEDS AT MAINT. APPT. VARY DEPENDING ON:

-Previous treatment
-Existing periodontal health status
-number of teeth present
-level of plaque control
-caries activity
-amount of calculus
-systemic considerations

B.

PROCEDURES INCLUDE:
-MEDICAL/DENTAL HISTORY REVIEW
*Pt. health not static,
*SBE Prophylaxis
-RADIOGRAPHIC REVIEW
*BWX at q maint. appt, not justifiable.
*BWX at maint. appts., only if clinical findings warrant.
*No clinical caries or high risk factors, BWX q 18 to 36 months.
-OCSE
-DENTAL EXAM
-PERIO EXAM
*Probing of all teeth, compare with previous charts and measurements.
*Measure attachment loss
*Bleeding assessment

-PLAQUE EVALUATION
*Evaluate patient participation in oral hygiene.
-PCI
-SCALING AND ROOT PLANING
*When periodontal health is satisfactory at maint. appt.,scal/prophy indicated, root
planing contraindicated-shallow pockets lose attachment.
-POLISHING
C.

MAINTENANCE INTERVAL:
-Depends on the state of the patient's periodontal health at the maintenance appt.
-Responsibility for maintenance, Dentist/Periodontist.
-Time interval- variable, depends on patient's needs.

*Listgarten,M. Schifter, C. Differential dark field microscopy of subgingival bacteria as an aid

in selecting recall intervals: Results after 18 months. J Clin Periodontol 1982:305-316.

37

VII.

COMPLIANCE WITH MAINTENANCE

*Wilson,T.,et al.: The results of efforts to improve compliance with supportive periodontal treatment in a
private practice. J Periodontol 1993,64:311-314.
-Review of compliance with periodontal patients.
-1000 pts. over 8 yrs., 16% had complete compliance.

VIII.

REEVALUATION AND RETREATMENT

A.

REEVALUATION:
1.

Every maintenance appt. should include a reevaluation phase.

2.
Compare probing depths, attachment levels, look for bleeding upon probing,
suppuration, mobility, radiographic changes.
*BOP indicates inflammation/disease activity.
*If probing depth increases 2-3mm, destruction is active.
3.

Progressive destruction: localized/generalized

*Localized breakdown may be due to local factors such as caries, overhangs, food
impaction, cracked tooth, or isolated poor oral hygiene.
alcohol abuse, and stress.
B.

*Generalized breakdown may be due to systemic factors such as diabetes, drug and

RETREATMENT:
1.
Chace's criteria for failure:
-increase in probing depths
-BOP
-Increasing bone loss
-Increasing mobility
2.

Reasons for failure

-Inadequate oral hygiene
-Inadequate root preparation
-Improper surgical technique
-Systemic factors

3.

Retreatment options:
-Scaling and root planing
-surgery
-antibiotics
Periodontal Implications: Medically Compromised and Older Adults

- age does not have an influence on healing of the periodontal tissues or on the incidence of recurrent disease.
- the well-controlled diabetic patient is similar to non-diabetic individuals relative to treatment planning and
expected response to therapy.
- medications associated with gingival overgrowth include anticonvulsants, cyclosporins, and calcium
channel blockers.
PREVENTION
Preventive periodontics - includes health promotion, treatment, and rehabilitation. Preventive measures are
subdivided into 3 categories as related to disease progression:
Primary prevention: promotion of optimum health or specific disease prevention.

38

Secondary prevention: usually accomplished by prompt and adequate treatment, based on early and accurate
diagnostic methods as well as effective therapeutic measures.
Tertiary prevention: preventive efforts applied during corrective therapy, with dual goals of disability limitation
as well as rehabilitation.
For effective preventive measures, it is necessary to recognize, identify, and eliminate or minimize both the
etiologic factors and the risk factors associated with the disease process.
Diagnosis: bleeding on probing is not sufficient to indicate a high probability of progression to periodontal
disease, although its absence is related to effective prevention.
Risk factors: it has emerged that the destructive periodontal diseases result from the interaction of
environmental, host, and microbial factors. Risk factors associated with the inflammatory periodontal diseases
include: bacterial plaque, calculus, age, smoking, and certain systemic diseases.
Evidence for the use of chemotherapeutic aids in prevention
Reports concerning the efficacy of chlorhexidine, prebrushing rinses, cetylpyridium chloride, and phenolic
compounds have appeared in the literature.
chlorhexidine, when applied as an oral rinse, continues to prove effective in both reducing and preventing
supragingival bacterial deposits and gingival inflammation. It was noted that chlorhexidine was least
effective in the interproximal areas where exposure to the agent was lowest
sodium benzoate prebrushing rinses have yet to demonstrate any long-term effectiveness. Short term
results using rinses containing cetylpyridium chloride as the active agent also failed to demonstrate any
long term effectiveness in plaque and gingivitis reductions; when cetylpyridium chloride was combined
wih a degradable controlled-release system, it was noted that significant plaque reductions occurred
stannous fluoride preparations may have some beneficial effect on plaque and gingivitis reduction, but
further long term evaluations will be required
sodium fluoride is only anticariogenic; stannous fluoride is both antibacterial and acts against root
sensitivity
reports continue to indicate the effectiveness of rinsing with a commercially available phenolic compound
that consists of a combination of essential oils, as an adjunctive measure to toothbrushing for the reduction
of both bacterial plaque and gingival inflammation
Triclosan has received substantial interest as a preventive agent to be incorporated in a toothpaste vehicle.
While triclosan alone has some modest effect, its effectiveness is enhanced when combined with other
agents such as zinc citrate, or with copolymer of methoxyethylene and maleic acid. Both of these
preparations have demonstrated significant reductions in bacterial plaque deposits and gingival
inflammation. The copolymer formulation has also shown promise as a prebrushing rinse.
Evidence for supportive periodontal treatment (SPT)
The need for and efficacy of SPT appears to be adequately documented. Determination of the ideal interval for
each patient should be based on: 1) their inital presentation, 2) factors determined during therapy, and 3)
response to initial therapy. Finally, parameters to predict which individuals will be compliant with SPT are yet to
be determined.

Introduction: Improved Clinical Decision Making Using the Evidence-Based Approach:

Periodontal Diseases: Epidemiology
I.
A fundamental prerequisite for any epidemiology study is an accurate description of the disease under
investigation. Unfortunately, there is no uniform criteria for the diagnosis of periodontal disease. Inconsistently,
studies have used gingivitis, probing depths, clinical attachment levels, and radiographically assessed alveolar bone
loss. There are no set threshold values for what makes a pocket "deep" or "pathologic", or how many areas of the
mouth need to be affected to be classified as perio disease.
2.
Early-Onset Studies: Studies tend to show less than 1% of adolescents with localized juvenile
periodontitis, and less than 0.2% with generalized JPD. White females>white males for localized JPD, opposite for
blacks. Blacks more frequently affected with GJPD.

39

3.
Adult Periodontal Diseases: Again, lack of uniform criteria makes comparisons difficult. Disease very
prevalent, but it would appear that <10% of adults in developed countries have advanced disease; increases
considerably with age, and peaks between 50-60 y.o. (decline due to increased tooth loss).
4.
Risk Factors: Smoking is true risk factor. Improved microbiologic testing indicates that certain
subgingival species (putative periodontal pathogens) are risk/etiological factors. Age possible risk factor? Diabetes
mellitus. HIV infection probably not, as originally reported (early studies were done on IEV patients presenting
with oral problems, so studies were probably biased).
5.
Periodontal Disease as a Risk Factor for Other Diseases: Appears to be a correlation between periodontitis
and coronary heart disease, suggesting there may be some common etiologic pathway. Periodontal disease appears
also to be a risk factor for pre-term low birth weight deliveries.
Periodontal Diseases: Diagnosis
I.
1989 World Workshop classification scheme of I. Adult Periodontitis; II. Early Onset Periodontitis; III.
Periodontitis Associated with Systemic Disease; IV. Necrotizing Ulcerative Periodontitis; and V. Refractory
Periodontitis. It is clear now that this framework needs revision.
2.
Screening is important to identify in a large population, those individuals affected by or at risk of
developing disease. A simple and accurate whole saliva test for periodontal disease is needed, but not as yet
available.
3.
Diagnosis of Specific Periodontal Diseases: Under current classification schemes, there are no consistent
microbiologic or host response features or patterns which are unique to a given type of periodontitis.
4.
Identification of Sites or Subjects at Increased Risk for the Progression of Periodontitis: Most of the
literature in the past decade concerning periodontal diagnostics has been on methods which might be able to
identify high-risk sites or subjects before extensive damage has occurred. No one method of testing has been
developed and validated as of yet.
5.
Treatment Planning: Again, no real good guidelines; rather individual clinician's interpretation of data.
Example: Study of 192 adults with radiographic bone loss, bleeding on probing, clinical attachment loss, and
pocket depths recorded. If treatment criteria was probing depths >4 mm, then 98% of the patients and 27% of the
sites would require treatment. If probing depths of >6mm was the threshold, 54% and 4. 1 % of the sites would
require treatment. If only BOP and radiographic bone loss was the criteria for treatment, 40% of the subjects and
2.5% of the sites needed treatment.
6.
Assessment of Inflammation: A. Gingival redness: a cardinal sign of inflammation and indicator that
tissue are not healthy. However low positive predictive value for periodontitis. Absence of redness excellent
negative predictive value. B. Suppuration: Neutrophil-rich variant of GCF. Pus unusual finding at sites with
gingivitis. Can be readily detected by coronal pressure on gingival surface. However, a consistent finding in
studies is that suppuration is only present in 3 to 5% of the sites with periodontitis. Poor candidate for dependable
diagnostic test for disease progression. C. Bleeding on probing: Widely regarded as a relatively objective sign of
gingival inflammation. Pressure with which probes are inserted highly affects prevalence of BOP. Literature
shows BOP not good predictor of disease progression on a site-by site basis. Low positive and very high negative
predictive value. However, evidence suggests that BOP is a good risk predictor for increased loss of attachment in
previously treated sites. D. Elevated gingival temperatures: There is general agreement that inflamed gingival
tissues exhibit a measurable elevation in temperature. More study is needed to confirm the usefulness of this
diagnostic tool. E. Gingival crevicular fluid: Although sites with periodontitis produce greater mean quantities of
GCF than gingivitis, the amount and content of the GCF collected varies greatly with the methods and conditions
under which it was obtained. Therefore, this is not a reliable predictor at this time. E. Supragingival plaque and
the progression of periodontitis: Presence of supragingival plaque is not a good predictor of progression, although
absence has a very high negative predictive value.
7.
Assessments of Damage to Periodontal Tissues: Periodontal probing: primarily used to measure probing
depth (PD) and clinical attachment loss (CAL). Deep pockets are a source of concern because they are potentially
difficult for the patient and therapist to clean. However, only a small percentage of monitored deep pocket sites are
at increased risk for progression. Never-the-less, statistical analysis confirms the conventional wisdom that a deep
pocket is an undesirable clinical finding. Three variables affect the probe penetration into the soft tissue: insertion
force, probe tip size and shape, and inflammatory status of the tissues. Insertion force is extremely variable, and it
has not been established that any particular given forc-e produces pain. It has been suggested that pain on probing
may be related to inflammation rather than the force of insertion. Controlled-force probes: Offer less tactile feel
and are harder to manipulate around calculus deposits. Most studies suggest greater reproducibility and correlation
between examiners using controlled-force probes. This probably makes their use valuable in research, but no great
advantages are noted for routine clinical use.

40

8.
Biochemical Markers of the Progression of Periodontitis: The search for a biochemical marker for disease
progression in the GCF has been one of the most active areas of research in the past decade. Potential markers
studied are: a. inflammatory mediators and products; b. host-derived enzymes; and c. tissue-breakdown products.
Many interesting correlations have been found, but no smoking gun yet.
9.
Microbiological Diagnostic Procedures: It is widely acknowledged that bacteria are a necessary component
for the development of gingivitis and periodontitis. A relatively small number of oral bacteria have been
implicated as important in the etiology of periodontal infections. Those usually studied as the "putative periodontal
pathogens" are Actinobaccilus actinomycetemcomitans, Porphrymonas gingivalis, Treponema Sp.,
Bacteroidesforsythus, Campylobacter rectus, Prevotella intermedia, Eubacterium sp., Peptostreptococcus micros,
Eikenella corrodens, Streptococcus intermedius, and Fusobacterium nucleatum.
10.
Problems Associated with the Use of Microbiological Procedures as Diagnostic Adjuncts for Periodontal
Diseases: A direct cause-and-effect relationship between specific bacteria and periodontal disease has not been
unequivocally demonstrated, unlike many other infections. Furthermore, usually multiple bacteria are involved
simultaneously in the periodontal disease process. Compounding the diagnostic problem, all presumed putative
periodontal pathogens have been isolated from clinical healthy sites as well as non-destructive gingivitis sites. It is
clear from research that the presence or absence of putative pathogens in dental plaque cannot be used to
discriminate between healthy and diseased sites. It is true though, that in most instances, putative periodontal
pathogens are found at greater levels and frequencies in diseased sites. Thresholds for diagnosis have not been
established, and appear to be host-dependent.
11. Types and Clinical uses of Microbiological Tests: A. Cultural analysis: The general consensus is that cultural
analysis is of no additional value in the treatment of most periodontal patients since they usually respond to
conventional therapy. It is potentially useful in refractory cases. It must be noted that it cannot be said with
certainty that bacteria obtained in culture contains the pathogens responsible for the patient's disease. It can be
useful in antibiotic selection due to sensitivity testing. B. Microscopic assessment: has been shown to be of little
clinical value. C. Nucleic acid probe analysis: Primarily DNA probes for identifying complementary sequences in
specific bacteria. Useful for research, but not of great value clinically. Probes have only been constructed for a few
of the putative pathogens. D. Detection of bacterial enzymes: Chairside BANA test which can detect BANApositive organisms. These include T. denticola, P. gingivalis, B. forsythus, and Capnocytophaga sp. Cannot infer
that the BANA-positive organisms are responsible for the infection. E. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests:
Relatively new test mainly of use for research. Theoretically capable of detecting a single organism.

HEAD AND NECK ANATOMY

TONGUE:
Filiform: most numerous, no taste sensation, covering epithelium is keratinized.
Fungiform: round reddish prominences, mushroom shaped, interspersed, taste sensation.(sweet and
salty)
Circumvallate: -12 in number located at the dividing V at the base of the tongue, contain numerous taste
buds (bitter taste).
Foliate: Edges of tongue, not well developed, taste sensation (sour).
INNERVATION
Taste: Ant 2/3 = Facial N. (Chorda tympani) 7
Post 1/3 = Glossopharyngeal 9
General Sensation:

Ant 2/3 = Trigeminal 5

Post 1/3 = Glossopharyngeal 9

Muscles of Tongue:

Extrinsic: styloglossus, hyoglossus, genioglossus, palatoglossus

Intrinsic: superior/inferior
All mm except palatoglossus innervated by Hypoglossal 12
Tongue will deviate to the damaged side.

SKELETAL:
Articulations: Periodontal ligament is a Gomphosis,
SINUSES

41

Maxillary sinus drains directly into ethmoidal infundibulum innervated by posterior superior alveolar
nerve. (BOARD QUESTION) Orifice of the max sinus is located at the most superior part of the sinus
and opens into the middle meatus of the nose (BOARD QUESTION)
Blood Supply to Oral Cavity:
Common carotid---External carotid (8 branches):
1) Superior thyroid,
2) Ascending pharyngeal
3) Lingual
4) Facial which crosses inf Mand anterior to the masseter giving rise to: inferior/superior labial
8) Maxillary: Divided into 3 parts:
1. Mandibular: Gives rise to inferior alveolar a.---mylohyoid a.---incisive a.
2. Pterygoid: Supply temporalis, pterygoids, masseter, buccinator mm
3. Pterygopalatine: Give rise to PSA, infraorbital, ASA, lesser/greater
palatine a.
BLOOD SUPPLY
Periodontium: superior or inferior alveolar artery gives rise to dental artery which branches into intraseptal
artery which supplies bony septum and the PDL, Terminal branches (rami perforantes) anastomose after
penetrating the lamina dura with the vessels in the PDL.
Gingiva: Supraperiosteal arteries, which are branches of supplying arteries to respective areas anastomose with
vessels from the alveolar bone and PDL.
Gingival Vasculature in health and disease
Hock and Nuki (71): In health there is a network pattern, With inflammation marginal vessels elongate
and become twisted, the network pattern is lost with loop formation, venules become 2-3X larger,
capillaries narrow.
Mrmann and Ciancio (77): Fluorecein angiography on 8 pts, flaps get blood supply from apical
portion, and collateral circulation from PDL is inadequate to maintain tissue vitality. Flap length to width
no greater than 2:1. Dont do too thin a split thickness flap, Don't make verticals longer than the
length of flap.
Brecx (92): No diff in surface area of blood vessels of inflamed and non-inflamed gingiva. During
fixation vessels may shrink.
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY OF GINGIVA
Shapiro (71): Lymphatic drainage of gingiva present in submucosa draining facial and lingual along
periosteum. Mandibular lymphatic vessels drain into submandibular nodes.
Venous Return From Oral Cavity:
Facial v.--- external jugular + anterior jugular ---- internal jugular joins subclavian to form
brachiocephalic v.
The internal jugular receives facial, lingual, pharyngeal.
NERVES OF HEAD AND NECK
Trigeminal 5: Efferents to branchiomeric mm, afferents of general sensation. 3 Divisions:
1. Ophthalmic V1: Superior orbital fissure, lacrimal n., frontal n., nasociliary n.
2. Maxillary V2: Foramen rotundum, greater/lesser palatine, infraorbital, PSA,MSA,ASA
3. Mandibular V3: Foramen ovale, auriculotemporal, inferior alveolar, lingual.
Facial Nerve supplies posterior belly of the digastric (BOARD QUESTION)
PERIODONTAL TISSUES
HOW DOES A TOOTH FORM?
At 28 days odontogenic epithelium and ectomesenchyme thicken to become the dental lamina. In growth to form
tooth buds: (enamel organ (ectoderm) + dental papilla (Mesenchyme + dental follicle (mesenchymal). Cap
stage is when enamel organ "caps" dental papilla. Proliferation of epithelium leads to the development of an

42

inner and outer enamel epithelium separated by the stellate reticulum. Bell stage when IEE and OEE meet
at the periphery of the forming enamel organ forming the cervical loop. Hertwigs epithelial root sheath
extends from here to form the root. IEE become ameloblasts which stimulate odontoblasts to form dentin,
then ameloblasts form enamel. Dentin is formed against the root sheath, perforations allow migration of
mesenchymal cells of the dental follicle to form cementoblasts and PDL.
Formation of the DGJ: Schroeder (71): Following enamel maturation and prior to tooth eruption the reduced
enamel epithelium lines the enamel surface. After eruption this epithelium changes from the primary
epithelial attachment to the junctional epithelium.
GINGIVAL EPITHELIUM
Epithelium Layers
Stratum germinativum/stratum basale: adjacent to basal lamina
Stratum spinosum: several cells deep, microfilaments, desmosomal attachment, increased tonofilaments,
intercellular junctions.
Stratum granulosum: Keratohyaline granules
Stratum corneum: No nucleus or organelles, thickest in areas of friction, keratinization
STIPPLING OF GINGIVA
Green (JP,62 1-1): Presence or absence of stippling is not a reliable indicator of either health or disease.
Stippling pattern was unique to individuals. Histo: Elevations and depressions of epithelium.
Karring and Loe (AOS,70 1-4): 3-D wax models, depressions/stippling coincided with intersections of
epithelial ridges. Ridges increase surface area, strength, and blood supply.
40 % of Adults . Size: width 100-4000um, depth 30-500 um (Rosenberg and Massler).
Orban (OOO,48): depressions limited to the epithelial layer and was elevated from beneath by
particularly high connective tissue papillae. Stippling was an adaptation to mechanical irritation and
disappeared with inflammation when extends past free margin to attached gingiva.
Owings (JP,69): intersection of the epithelial ridges due to a decrease in metabolic activity at the central
portion.
Rosenberg (JP,67): Epithelial protuberances: pts have this, 10% were large and increased in number.
Thought to be epithelial proliferation only, with no relationship to underlying structures, stippling due to
very small depressions in attached gingiva. Triangular subpapillary interradicular area.
COL

Holmes (JP,65): 16 dental students, interdental papillae are concave, stratified squamous will not
regenerate to the original height or contour.
Cohen (BDJ,59) thought it to be more vulnerable to disease because REE.

FREE GINGIVAL GROOVE

30-40% of adults, mostly in the Mand premolars and incisors, corresponds to the level of the apical base
of sulcus.
Orban (OS,48): Marked epithelial ridge- groove and ridge arising from functional impacts
Ainamo (JP,66): arrangement of supra-alveolar fibers running from the cementum
BLOOD SUPPLY OF DENTO-GINGIVAL UNIT
Cohn (JP 54 1-18) Blood supply - 1) supraperiosteal, 2) PDL (main supply from interdental), 3)
interdental. Occlusal trauma not likely to injure periodontium.
Egelberg (JPR,66 1-19): In health gingival vessels deep and layered with not many loops, when inflamed
these vessels are -replaced by a vascular bed that is loop-like and lies closer to the crevicular epithelium.
Nuki and Hock (JP,74 1-21): dogs and cats at 21 day gingivitis model, capillaries the first affected by
increase in vessel width and length as well as loop formation.
Bavitz (OOO 94 1-23) There can be an extra artery in the floor of the mouth. Watch out if you perforate
the lingual cortex when preparing an implant site. 59.7% had large branch of submental A. perforating
mylohyoid, 52.6% missing or insig sublingual A. with lg. Perforating submental A present.
Nuki and Hock (JPR,81): Brushing increased capillary blood flow rate.
Brecx Nuki (JPR,92): 26 pts, gingivitis study, histo revealed no diff between inflamed and non-inflamed
gingiva, speculated that changes were from prior disease and changes are thus irreversible.

43

Matheny, Johnson et al. (JP,93): Video microscopy, with increasing age found: increase in new vessels,
decrease in vessels with active blood flow, decreased blood cell velocity with age.
Matheny et al (JP,93): Same type study as above but with experimental gingivitis. Results were the same
as those seen with aging.
MUCOGINGIVAL JUNCTION
Attached Gingiva
keratinized*
stippled
distinct rete pegs*
thick lamina propria
few elastic fibers*
indistinct periosteum
immovable
minimal glycogen deposits*
* seen in Lozdan article

Alveolar Mucosa
non-keratinized*
unstippled
indistinct rete pegs*
thin lamina propria
numerous elastic fibers*
distinct periosteum
movable
abundant glycogen deposits*

Lozdan (JPR,69): There is an abrupt change in the amount of elastic fibers at the mucogingival
junction. No transition zone.
Stanford (JP,76): 30 biopsies, used Mallory's CT stain, Weigert's elastic stain, PAS (glycogen)
Intermediate zone (600-1800 um), most apical rete ridges of attached gingiva and most coronal rete ridges
of alveolar mucosa. Make horizontal incision 1 mm coronal to avoid entrapment of intermediate zone
leaving potential band of mucosal type tissue.
TISSUE SPECIFICITY
Karring (JPR,71 1-16): Monkey study, transposed tissues, grafted tissues to buccal mucosa. Specificity
of tissues is genetic in CT.
PIGMENTATION
Perlmutter (JP,86 1-17): 2 pts, some racial pigmentation excised in both, some returned in one pt. while
the other had no repigmentation at 8 years. Note: Not the # of cells but how much melanin is produced.
Pigmentation may be from long-term minocycline use.
Farnoosh (IJPR 90): 20 cases , 20 months only two with slight repigmentation which were heavy
smokers, de-epithelialization with high speed and large diamond burs.
Langford Hyperpigmentation is associated with HIV, induced by Ketoconazole and adrenal insufficiency
(BOARD QUESTION)
Grayish blue pigmentation of the gingiva can be associated with lead poisoning. Other symptoms
emotional difficulties, listlessness, (BOARD QUESTION)
EPITHELIUM MISC:
Baumgartner (JP,66 1-2): Color can establish the presence of gingivitis, but not severity.
Levin and Cutwright (JP,77 1-10): Histo of retrocuspid papilla, acanthosis, elongated rete pegs, thinning
of epithelium, vascular.
Hirschfeld (AJOOS,47): retrocuspid papillae, origin: encircling plexus of erupting deciduous or
permanent tooth that anastomose at the corner of the arch. Erosion of the lingual plate allows this . The
papilla blanch with pressure.
EPITHELIAL :
Valderhaug and Zander (Periodontics,67 2-27): Range from 27-41m in distance to root, most
numerous in cervical areas of the root, closest to root at apex.
Spouge (JP,84 2-29): ER's may act as a thin edge of a wedge to facilitate apical migration of JE during
pathology, horizontal cords of cells, may be activated forming lateral periodontal cysts, pocket formation?
Thesleff (JPR, 87 2-30): May be epidermal growth factor receptors on ER especially in pathologic
conditions.
Filipowicz (JP 82 16-20) Proliferation of epithelial elements other than crevicular could be implicated in
isolated periodontal defects (lateral periodontal cysts)

44

FIBER UNITS MISC:

Cohn (AOB,75 1-5): Transalveolar fibers, fibers join roots of adjacent teeth or the same teeth traversing
the bone, never seen in haversion canals, possible functional adaptation to occlusion.
Gillespie (JP,79 1-7): With moderate to advanced bone loss and support, the supracrestal fibers give the
teeth support and when severed in surgery render the teeth more mobile. Keep in mind when consent the
patient for surgery.
Arnim and Hagerman (JADA,53 1-9): circular fibers, give the gingiva tone, anchored in cementum or
alveolar crest, are soon lost during inflammation but regenerated in health.
Fullmer et al (JOP,74 2-2): Oxytalin fibers, functionally like elastic fibers, increase in size and # in
response to stress.
TASTE SENSATIONS
- circumvallate- (12) lateral wall contains bitter taste buds
- foliate- lateral tongue ridges (more pronounce in non-human mammals)- sour taste
- fungiform- " fungus like" sweet in anterior and salty in the lateral
- filiform- no taste associated
BIOLOGIC WIDTH
Gargiulo (JP 61, 2-4): 30 human jaws, histo, with age increase in recession, decrease in sulcus depth
with apical migration of the sulcus.
Sulcus
EA
CT (most stable)

Average
0.69 mm
0.97 mm
1.07 mm

Range
0-5.36 mm
0.08-3.72 mm
0-6.52 mm

Average Range
0.61-1.76 mm
0.71-1.35 mm
1.06-1.08 mm

Vacek, Gher (IJPRD 94): Histomorphometrics on 171 tooth surfaces of cadavers

Average
1.32 0.80 mm
1.14 0.49mm
0.77 0.29 mm
2.95 1.70 mm

Sulcus
EA
CT (most stable)
LOA

Range
0.26-6.03 mm
0.32-3.27 mm
0.29-1.84 mm
0.60-8.73 mm

Tal (JCP 89, 21-23) Effect of violation of biologic width, width restored with recession and bone loss.
Dog study, Class V amalgams placed at alveolar crest
FRENUM
Henry (JP 76, 1-6) No muscle in Max ant frenum.
RETICULAR MANDIBULAR GINGIVAL RIDGES
Giunta (JP 86, 1-8) Ridges similar to lichen planus.
WIDTH OF ATTACHED GINGIVA
Bowers (63 1-11): Facial. 1-9mm (narrowest Mand cuspid/1st pre), health consistent with less than 1
mm, but areas with no attached gingiva were inflamed. Buccal and Lingual tooth position, high frenum
and muscle attachments affected amount of AG. Found an increase in width from primary to secondary
dentitions.
Tenenbaum (86 1-15): 331 kids (3-15) 30 pts/age group, saw no change in width from primary to
permanent dentition, but did see an increase in the permanent dentition related to decrease in pocket
depth.
World Workshop says that no one can agree on how much AG is necessary, use your best judgment
Ainamo & Loe (66 1-14): X-sectional study, width of attached gingival increases with age
Voight (78): Lingual attached gingiva, 1-8mm, more in 1st & 2nd molar (4.7mm), less in anterior (1.9
mm). When going from primary to permanent dentition AG decreased.
Andlin-Sobocki (93): 96 kids, aligned teeth, saw width of KG over 2 years.
How much is necessary?
45

Lang & Loe (72 1-12): 80% areas 2 mm KG (1 mm AG) healthy, 2mm keratinized, 1 attached,
necessary for inflammation persisted even in light of good oral hygiene.
Miyasato et al (77): Dental faculty, dental students, areas of minimal width of KG were no more prone to
inflammatory changes.
Wennstrom (JCP 87 1-13) If good OH, lack of attached gingiva does not result in recession
EPITHELIAL ATTACHMENT (THE DENTOGINGIVAL JUNCTION)
FORMATION: (TEN CATE) - Reduced enamel epithelium, formed from all the layers, ameloblasts cannot
divide after mineralization, it forms a basal lamina with hemidesmosomes forming the primary epithelial
attachment. When the cusp enter the oral cavity, the proliferating cells of the outer layers of the REE fuse
with the oral epithelium and together they desquamate the remainder of the ameloblasts. The replacing
cells are now termed Junctional epithelium and attach to the enamel in the same way the reduced
ameloblasts did. This attachment is called the secondary epithelial attachment.
Historical concepts of ATTACHMENT:
Gottlieb (1921): "epithelial attachment", primary and secondary enamel cuticle
Orban (DCNA 60 1-25): Used metal and mylar strips to prove there is epithelial attachment to enamel.
Agrees with Gottlieb.
Waerhaug (DCNA60 1-26): Epithelial cuff, stuck blade, celluloid strip to junctional epithelium
Kobayashi (JPR 76 1-24): Electron microscope study of junction. Lamina lucida, lamina densa,
sublamina lucida, fine filaments hemidesmosomes
KERATINIZATION:
Caffesse, Nasjleti (JP,79 1-38): Simple study where gingival epithelium is inverted to face tooth/replace
sulcular epithelium. The results at 21/28 days showed re-establishment of the sulcular epithelium.
Suggesting that the sulcular environment influences.
Caffesse, Karring (JP,77): Same study as above using eversion instead of inversion. What was sulcular
epithelium became keratinized. Suggests that environment may play a role in the non-keratinization of
the sulcular epithelium.
Caffesse (JP,82 1-40): 4 monkeys, control, IV tetracycline + prophy, Prophy alone, TCN alone:
Reduction of inflammation permits the sulcus to keratinize. Mechanical stimulation is important for
keratinization.
Squier (JP,81 1-39):Keratinization of SE may be detrimental due to increased permeability of keratinized
callus, causes lack of differentiation and loss of hemidesmosomal attachment of JE." A pointless pursuit"
Takata (JP, 88): JE in not an effective barrier to extrinsic substances. Used Colloidal gold (lectin) traced
with EM
Skougard (AOS,65): JE turnover between 4.6-10.9 days, higher than oral epithelium.
Fry & App (JP,78): Intrasulcular toothbrushing can cause keratinization of the sulcular epithelium to
some degree. **facial only
WOUND HEALING & regeneration of the Epithelial attachment:
Listgarten (JP, 82 1-35): rats, 10 days to 12 month sacrifice, as the LJE, which remained constant,
moved coronally, the area was replaced by CT. Creeping attachment
Listgarten (JPR 73 1-34) demonstrated attachment to calculus with very good oral hygiene.
Braga and Squier (JP 80 1-30): JE after surgery originates from oral epithelium. JE originally forms
from reduced enamel epithelium. 3 monkeys, external and internal bevel incisions, biopsies 5,10,15, & 20
days EM, external bevel healed 5 days and internal bevel healed 10 days probably due to debris and
coagulum,.
Taylor & Campbell (JP ,72): Marmosets, blade in sulcus.
10 min - Bacteria and cell debris in wound site
1 days - Cell debris & bacteria gone, hemidesmosomes absent, leukocyte infiltrate.
2 days - Gap filled with leukocytes, new JE cells are found, rudimentary hemidesmosomes
3 days - attachment is evident in the lower two-thirds of the wound; mature hemidesmosomes
5-7 days - Complete restoration of the EA is evident.
Listgarten (JPR ,72): Monkeys, gingivectomies, EM 12 days, 3,4,& 7 weeks. JE completely
reestablished in 12 days

46

ADHESION OF EPITHELIAL ATTACHMENT

Hydrogen bonds- molecular dipoles forming attractive forces
Ionic attraction/repulsions - Ca ++ is suggested to be a "cross-linking" molecule between forces of
repulsion
van der Waals forces - momentary dipoles generated by moving electrons
PATHOBIOLOGY
Muller-Glauzer (JP,82): Pocket epithelium: Biopsies of ligature induced perio in dogs, sulcus showed:
irregular rete ridges, highly vascularized/ infiltrated PMNs/plasma cells, microulcerations, Relative
permeability is PE>JE>OE.
LJE vs. CT attachment
Junctional Epithelium Resistance To Periodontal Breakdown
Magnusson, Runstad (JCP 83 32-11): LJE has similar characteristics as regular JE. Monkeys, ligature
induced perio, OFD, tissues biopsied and compared to controls. Similar histologic values, no difference in
attachment levels
Beaumont, O'Leary (JP 84 32-12): LJE/CT attachment equal in disease resistance. Beagles, ligature
induced perio, 14 days OFD with 60 day healing, controls brushed daily w/ 2 wk prophy, both groups 4-20
ligature perio phase, animals sacrificed, probing similar, no difference in attachment levels.
Barrington anti-LJE
BOWERS DOESNT LIKE LJE, PREFERS TO REGENERATE ATTACHMENT
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Components:
Cells: (5%)- Fibroblasts make up 65% of all CT cells, also mast cells, PMN's, macrophages, lymphocytes,
plasma cells
Fibers: (60%)- Mainly Collagen fibers, but reticular and elastic fibers also
Ground substance (35%)- protein-polysaccharide macro-molecules made up of proteoglycans and
glycoproteins, function in cell to cell and cell- matrix interactions. Fibronectin is a good example.
Prominent Proteoglycans
Dermatan sulfate in gingiva/PDL, (BOARD QUESTION)
Chondroitan sulfate in bone/cementum (BOARD QUESTION)
Factoids:
Nobuto (JPR,89): SEM, Morphological features of tissue are determined by the vascular architecture
within the tissue.
Polson et al (JP, 81 2-14): Inflamed CT increases at the expense of the overlying epithelium which
decreases a proportionate amount.
COLLAGEN In healthy gingiva, collagen accounts for 60% of total protein. Tensile strength is a function of the
amount of crosslinking by lysine residues. (BOARD QUESTION)
TYPE 1:
TYPE 2:
TYPE 3:
TYPE 4:

Skin, dentin, tendon, ligaments, bone fascia, uterus

Hyaline cartilage, cornea.
Skin, arteries, muscle, lung, liver.
Basement membrane

Prockop et al (NEJM,79 2-3):

3 polypeptide chains, alpha chains,1000 amino acid, single left, triple helix right handed.
biosynthesis: Fibroblast is main cell responsible but other cells include osteoblasts, odontoblasts, epithelial
cells and chondrocytes.
Formation: production alpha chains on surface of RER, intracellular peptides (procollagen) extra
-globular peptides, becomes tropocollagen
1) Hydroxylation (intracellular) (gly-x-y) x=proline, y=hydroxproline requires O 2, Fe+
+,
Alpha ketoglutarate, Ascorbate (Vit C)
2) Glycosylation (carbohydrate addition) in golgi, triple helix formation. procollagen

47

3) Secreted extracellularly where endopitidases cleave the propeptides forming

tropocollagen
4) Collagen fibril, spontaneous aggregation of tropocollagen, fibrils coalesce to become
fibers which result in bundles.
Fibroblasts:
Mariotti and Cochran (JP, 90): PDL fibroblasts differ from gingival fibroblasts in proliferation rates and
macromolecule synthesis with human PDLF confluent in 6 days vs. 4 days for GF when looking at #'s and
cell cycle analysis.
Ogata (JP 95 2-32) PDL fibroblasts have different characteristics than gingival fibroblasts
Disease:

Narayanan and Page (JBC,76 2-13): Fibroblasts from normal tissue synthesized type I collagen (7090%), and type III collagen (5-30%). Fibroblasts from diseased tissue synthesized type I collagen and
unusual collagen type I dimer. unable to produce type III.
Page and Ammons (AOB,74 2-9): with inflammation there is an interference with the high level of
collagen production and turnover, rather than from destruction of previously existent collagenous
substances.
Barnabell ( 76): Chronic Pdtis = decreased synthesis and normal degradation = net loss collagen.

Collagen Synthesis/Degradation in health and disease:

Mammalian collagenase: 75% from N terminal and 3/4 pieces of double helix
Bacterial collagenase: Acts along entire Gly-x-y triplet to form small peptides.
Christner Collagenase
Host origin
Derived from diseased PDLs not healthy PDLs
Cleaves , 3/4
Produced by fibroblasts and epithelial cells
Selvig (JPR, 68 2-1): Nonbanded fibrils appear to be related to the decomposition of collagen
(collagenolysis) both in health and disease.
Chavrier et al (JPR,84 2-5,6): 2 patterns, #1 dense bundles of thick collagen fiber mostly type I which is
stable, Pattern # 2 is Type I
and III collagen which III dominates and is more loosely arranged and
found near the BM, blood vessels, and easily remodeled the ratio of Type I:Type III is 7:1
Defects of Collagen Synthesis
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome: Decreased rate of Type 3 synthesis.
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Marfans Syndrome.
PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT (PDL)
Functions of PDL:

Formative (eruption nutrition)

Supportive (main purpose)
Sensitive

Factoids:
Coolidge (JADA,37 2-17): Hourglass shaped
Dimensions of the PDL
11-16 yrs: 0.21 mm
Hvy fxn: 0.18 mm
32-50 yrs: 0.18 mm
No fxn: 0.13 mm
51-67 yrs: 0.15 mm
embedded: 0.08 mm
Rippen (JPR 76, 2-21): Collagen turnover in PDL is very high occurring the whole width, the variation
in rate is determined upon tooth movement. normal function the apex is more, heavy function the cervical
portion is more.
Pitaru and Melcher (JPR 87, 2-16) PDL fibers orient perpendicular to demin root surface and parallel
to nondemin dentin surface. Dentin surface may influence morphology of PDL
Fullmer (JOP 74, 2-2): Oxytalin fibers, increase in size to functional stress.
Johnson (JPR,92): Elauvin fibers, provide elasticity, oxytalin fibers resist mechanical stress

48

PDL Fibers:
Smukler, Dreyer (JPR 69, 2-20): Alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, and apical fibers. Oblique fibers
more numerous.
Pitaru and Melcher (JPR 87, 2-16) character of dentin surface may influence morphology of PDL. In
non-demineralized surfaces fibers orient parallel to the surface but if the surface is demineralized the
fibers orient perpendicular to the dentin surface.
Pneumonic for remembering fiber anatomy:
Bone has big bundles
Sementum has small strands
Radiographically " widened PDL space"
Van der Linden (JP 70, 2-18): Increased width of PDL by x-ray may not always be inflammation, it may
be due to anatomy or radiograph exposure
increased root radius
wider PDL
increased exposure time wider PDL
increased kVp
narrower PDL
jaw thickness
No influence on PDL
horizontal angulation
narrowing of PDL in crestal area
Nerve Endings:
Lambrichts et al (JPR ,92): Free nerve endings- mostly stem from unmyelinated fibers (pain and heat )
Ruffini-like fibers- mostly found in the apical part of the PDL (slowly adapting mechano-receptors)
Lamellated corpuscles- extremely edocytic and are in close contact with each other (rapidly adapting
mechano-receptors.

INTERMEDIATE PLEXUS:
Yes:
No:

Sicher (OS, 59 2-22): functional reorientation of the principle fibers, allows changes to occur without
total loss of old fibers, and tears during traction occurs here as unsplicing of the bundles.
Zwarych & Quigley (JDR, 65 2-23): mice, histologic sections molars, intermediate plexus did not exist
and that the principal fibers were continuous from the alveolar bone to the cementum. Fiber bundles
which attached to the alveolar bone were large in diameter but less numerous than those inserting into
cementum.
Melcher & Correia (JPR,71 2-25): Rats erupting molars, fibers go whole distance, some remodeling of
fibers of the PDL and are most active in the half of the ligament adjacent to alveolar bone. No evidence of
Intermediate plexus.
Sevdja (JP 73 2-25) Scanning SEMs of the PDL. Two fiber groups, supporting and buttressing

EPITHELIAL RESTS:
Valderhaug and Zander (67 Periodontics, 2-27): Range from 27-41m in distance to root, most
numerous in cervical areas of the root, closest to root at apex.
Spouge (JP 84, 2-29): ER's may act as a thin edge of a wedge to facilitate apical migration of JE during
pathology, horizontal cords of cells, may be activated forming lateral periodontal cysts, pocket formation?
Thesleff (JPR 87, 2-30): Epithelial rests have many receptors that bind Epidermal Growth Factor
(EGF).
Filipowicz (JP 82, 16-20) Proliferation of epithelial elements other than crevicular could be implicated
in isolated periodontal defects (lateral periodontal cysts)

49

BONE
Types of Bone
Woven bone: developing or fetal bone, seen in wound healing, less oriented matrix, not weight bearing,
highly cellular, highly labile. Also called spongy bone, forms in grafts at 2 months (gelatinous)
Lamellar bone: Organized, replaces woven bone. (4 months in a graft).
Bundle bone: Contain Sharpey's fibers insertions of tendons and ligaments (BOARD QUESTION),
lacks lamellation of mature bone
Composite: woven bone lattice filled with lamellar bone - primary osteon.
Endochondral has cartilaginous precursor this is the way most bones are formed
Intramembranous no cartilaginous precursor. Most facial /skull bones and clavicle
Urist (67): The bone induction principle: Induction is cellular differentiation due to physiochemical effect of one
tissue on another, for bone this is usually an undifferentiated perivascular mesenchymal cell differentiating
into osteoblasts, chondroblasts.
Reddi et al (Ortho Clin N Am 87, 35.3): 3 phases of bone induction:
1. Chemotaxis by fibronectin, BMPs
2. Mitosis (proliferation of mesenchymal cells)
3. Differentiation (cartilage formation, vascular invasion, bone differentiation).
Sequence in rats:
1 min:
release of PDGFs, binding of plasma fibronectin to implant matrix
1 hr:
chemotaxis of PMNs, release of proteolytic Es (collagenase, elastase
3-18 hr: release of chemotactic factors for fibroblasts
1 day:
chemotaxis and attachment of fibroblasts
2 day:
protein & nucleic acid synthesis, release of non-PDGFs
3 day:
mesenchymal cell proliferation, Type III collagen
5 day:
diff of chondroblasts
7 day:
syn cartilage & Type II collagen
9 day:
calcification of cartilage, vascular invasion, Type IV collagen around capillaries
10-12 days:
formation osteoblasts, bone mineralization, Type I collagen
12-18 days:
osteoclasts, release of collagenase
21days: bone differentiation
ALVEOLAR CREST RESORPTION:
Ritchey and Orban (JP 53, 3-1): In the absence of disease alveolar bone levels follow a line parallel to
the CEJs. Bone 1-2 mm apical to CEJ. (BOARD QUESTION)
Boyle (JP 73 3-2): Reduction in alveolar crest height with age is 0.017 mm/yr., statistically significant,
clinically insignificant.
Pietrokovski and Massler (JPD 67, 3-19): After extraction, greater resorption took place on the buccal
vs. lingual
Roberts: 30% loss in first 4-5 yrs, dependent not only on disuse atrophy but bone metabolism for patient.
Sennerby (AOS 88, 25-12): Implant therapy greatly reduces bone resorption distal to fixtures compared
to complete dentures
DETECTION OF CRESTAL RESORPTION
Hausmann (JP 90 3-3): Traditional radiographs inaccurate for diagnosing crestal resorption, advocates
subtraction radiography, single and dual photon absorptiometry and radiopharmaceuticals
Jeffcoat (JP 92 3-4): Use of subtraction radiography and automated probe results in most accurate
detection of attachment loss. Direct digital radiography uses 90% less radiation (BOARD QUESTION)
Fixott-Everett grid incorporated into film or taped on film pack
Schei Ruler measures percentage of bone lost as a proportion of root length
Problems with conventional radiography
1. bone loss undetected until 30-50% of mineral lost
2. foreshortening, elongation
3. poor film processing
4. variations in exposure
5. two dimensional picture of three dimensional teeth

50

FENESTRATIONS AND DEHISCENCES:

Elliot and Bowers: (Periodontics, 63 3-6): Incidence 20%. Fenestrations 3X more common in max,
Dehisc 2x more common in Mand, Bilaterally, Max 1st molar, Mand canines Dont root plane
fenestrations and try to keep incisions away from fenestrations.
Edel (JCP, 81 3-7):
Mand Max
Fenestrations
5.4
17.7
Dehiscence
5.5
2.1
LAMINA DURA
Manson (JP 63, 3-8): Lamina dura is radiographic artifact, white line in which X-rays pass
tangentially, wooden models.
Greenstein et al (JP 81, 3-9): Presence or absence of crestal lamina dura not related to clinical evidence
of BOP, PD or AL.
Lang & Hill (77): Lamina dura clarity affected by: convex, concave root surface, root curvature, CEJ
level and alveolar bone thickness. PDL thickness affected by horizontal and vertical angulation.
Rams et al (JCP 95, 3-10): Lamina dura correlated with the absence of disease. Presence in health or
periodontal stability. Absence of LD does not necessarily mean disease
Diseases which cause a loss of lamina dura: Hyperparathyroidism, Paget's, Scleroderma, Gaucher's.
Diseases which cause thickened lamina dura:
EXOSTOSES
Larato (JP 72, 3-11): Mexican skulls, 30% exhibited palatal exostoses, greatest in tuberosity region.
Nery (JP 77, 3-12): Varied racial skulls, 40.5% had palatal exostoses, some racial variation, highest
incidence in 40-55 year olds
Differential for mandibular Tori (Benign Tumors)
Torus mandibularis, multiple exostoses, osteoma, buttressing bone (Glickman)
OSSEOUS DEFECTS
Manson (JCP 76, 3-13): Most common defect was the interdental crater, 1/3 of all defects, 2/3 of all
mandibular Great diversity of defects due to type of bone, vascularity cortical plates etc.
Tal (JP 84, 3-14): Studied African mandibles. Craters most common defect (84%) lingual wall higher. 2
wall most common. Bowers disagrees that two wall craters are the most common defect
Tal (JP 84, 3-16): Frequency of intrabony defects increases with increasing interproximal distance.
Significance when between 2.1-4.1 mm, no longer significant when 4.6 mm. 2 defects if 3.1 mm.
Horizontal loss if bone crest narrow.
Richardson, Chadroff, Bowers (JP 90, 9-8): Apical extent of calculus is found 1/2 the total depth of
defect. The mean distance between the base of the calculus and base of the defect was found to increase
with the depth of the defect.
Karn (JP 84, 3-15) Proposed classification system for osseous defects, crater, trench, moat, ramp plane.
Heins & Wieder (JDR 76, 3-17): Minimum distance (0.1 to <4 mm) at coronal or middle third
>0.5 mm: 90% cancellous bone + lamina dura + PDL
<0.5 mm: lamina dura without interposed cancellous bone + PDL:
<0.3 mm: no bone, roots connected by PDL.
Heins (JP 88, 19-23) As the interradicular width increases, the interproximal bone margin tends to be in a
more apical position.
SUBPONTIC OSSEOUS HYPERPLASIA
Ruffin, Waldrop, Aufdemorte (OOO 93): Cause is multifactorial, like Tori and exostoses are
considered to result in part from genetic predisposition, functional stimulation (occlusal stress), mild
chronic irritation. Surgical removal may be indicated for prosthetics, esthetics, and phonetics, biopsy,
interference with oral hygiene. reoccurrence has been known to occur.
Wasson (JPD 91, 3-18) Same findings as above

51

REMODELING:
-Made up of filling cones, cycle takes approx. 120 days, 240 days for complete mineralization. (10
months)
-Vascular dependent- can revasculate dead bone
-Each foci caries its own blood supply
-osteoclasts cells are of intravascular origin
-osteoblasts cells are of perivascular origin
-Rate can be worked out by double TCN labeling and looking at the distance vs. time.
-Trabecular bone is like 1/2 of filling cone.
- as we get older we are not as efficient in remodeling of bone
- hyperthyroidism, remodeling is quick but only 85%
Mineralization:
- Primary, 70% Ca++ initially reaching the collagen from the outside, and mineralizing inward
- Secondary, from inside out and takes up to a year to fully form.
- The mineralization is dependent on the load at that particular time.
TURNOVER:
- 20 to 30% in alveolar bone annually, cortical bone 2-10% / year.
METABOLISM EFFECTS ON BONE:
Osteoporosis: Low bone mass with fracture or symptoms
Osteopenia: no symptoms yet but loss of mass.
Osteomalicia: Vit D deficiency, Side Effects of Dilantin and Tegretol
Renal Osteodystrophy: Kidney failure
Hyperparathyroidism: Adenoma stimulates bone resorption
Thyrotoxicosis: Hyperthyroidism
Pagets disease: Osteoclast malignancy.
Osteopetrosis: Osteoclast deficient function.
Pathological Bone Resorption
Baylink (JPD 74 3-21) Systemic factors in alveolar bone loss. ORALS QUESTION!!!!!
Decreased formation: excess glucocorticoid hormones (Cushings Syn. Or drug Tx).
Increased resorption: hypophosphatasia (serum P, vit. D, PTH, Estrogen/androgen deficiencies).
Hypophosphatemia: Decreased serum phosphorous and excess vit D, high PTH secretion.
Cushing's Syndrome: Excess glucocorticoids decrease bone production, increase in bone resorption,
4.0% skeletal loss/yr.
Estrogen: decrease in coupled bone, increase bone resorption, Calcitonin deficiency
Rheumatoid Arthritis Treated with steroids, can lead to increased bone resorption
Osteoclasts
Sterrett (JCP 86 3-22) Osteoclasts arise from blood born monocytes. Have ruffled border when activated.
Located behind osteoblasts. Activated by PTH.
Role of Periosteum:
Kostopoulos, Karring (JCP 95): Bone-forming capacity of outer fibrous layer and inner (cambium) layer,
rats. Leaving the periosteum on bone provided more bone using GTR principles, confusing the issue of
the inner layer being the osteogenic layer.
Enzymatic Bone Resorption
Endotoxin, prostaglandins, lysosomal enzymes
Williams, Jeffcoat (JCP 88 3-23): Ibuprofen can inhibit alveolar bone resorption in beagle dogs above therapeutic
dosages. Interferes with host inflammatory response
Yazdi (93): At 50 mg/kg dosages, ASA, ibuprofen, and Acetaminophen can enhance DFDBA bone grafts in rats.
"Positive Bone Factor"
Glickman (49): When the formative ability of bone outweighs the destructive factors, net bone production.

52

CEMENTUM
Origin Cementoblast precursors in the PDL are derived from alveolar bone marrow cells (BOARD QUESTION)
Function: anchorage to bone via periodontal ligament (Sharpeys fibers),repair process of resorption lacunae,
regeneration.
Composition: HA
61% wt 33% vol.
Organic 27% wt 31% vol.
water
12% wt 36% vol.
Type I and III collagen while bone only Type I
Comparison to bone: Cementum is more permeable, doesn't undergo extensive remodeling, avascular, no lymph,
no innervation
Origin: dental papilla and dental follicle.
TYPES OF CEMENTUM
Coronal (over enamel)
Afibrillar (No collagen fiber network)
Intrinsic (Cementoblast)
Acellular (Cervical 1/3)
Radicular (over root)
Fibrillar (Collagen fibers in network)
Extrinsic (PDL fiber bundles)
Cellular (Apical)
Primary (Formed before eruption)
Secondary (Formed after eruption)
1) Acellular extrinsic fiber cementum (AEFC): Extrinsic fibers are Sharpeys fibers laid down be PDL, found at
the cervical 1/3 of the root and have a thickness range 30 to 230 microns (hair is about 50 microns). This
is not the type found in regeneration but the type you root plane off.
2) Cellular, Mixed Stratified Cementum (CMSC): found in the apical regions, molars and furcation areas, much
more complex in make-up, thickness range 100-600 microns, characteristic is cells seen cementocytes
which are about 60 microns deep, this cementum is seen in successful regeneration.
3) Cellular, Intrinsic Fiber Cementum (CIFC): This is known as repair cementum, ex. resorption defects,
identical to CMSC without Sharpeys fibers.
4) Acellular Afibrillar Cementum (AAC): called coronal cementum, it is found only on enamel, no cells or fibers,
contains HA crystals.
5) Intermediate Cementum: is cellular debris found between dentine and cellular root cementum. Usually found
in apical 1/2
CEMENTUM THICKNESS
Zander & Hurzler (58): Cementum thickness increases with age.
0.095 mm at 20 yrs
0.155 mm at 40 yrs
0.215 mm at 60 yrs
Bower: Cementum thickness:

Coronal:20-50 m
Apical:

150-200 m

DISEASED CEMENTUM
Stahl (JP 75, 5-3): Exposure of cementum shows increased mineralization, demineralization, or presence
of refractile granules which may represent areas of collagen regeneration. Repair cementum is cellular,
acellular cementum may not regenerate.
Selvig (JPR,77): Exposed cementum becomes hypermineralized zone is 40-100um deep.
CEMENTOENAMEL JUNCTION
Schroeder and Scherle (JPR 88, 5-5 ): CEJ Relationships of 1st premolars: SEM study
Cementum overlap:
45%
Edge to Edge:
30%

53

GAP:
25%
9-17% longer than circumferance.
Thorsen (1917): Cementum overlap:
60%
Edge to Edge:
GAP:

30%
10%

DISEASES AFFECTING CEMENTUM

Periapical cemental dysplasia
Florid osseous dysplasia
Cementoma
Hypercementosis
Gardner's Syndrome
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
Paget's Disease (cotton wool)
Prepubertal, LJP, GJP: (hypoplasia)
Hypophosphatasia (may result in total lack of cementum) (BOARD QUESTION)
Papillon-Lefevre Syndrome
Cementum Repair:
Middelton and Bowers (JPR 90): see regeneration bone grafts DFDBA, forms on dentin or old
cementum.
Lindskog & Blomlof: New cementum was primarily acellular, accompanied with bone resorption.
MISC:

Chondroitin sulfate: The principle glycosaminoglycan in cementum.

Sharpey's Fibers: Mineralized principle fibers of PDL embedded in cementum and bone.
Sommerman et al (JPR 91): Bone sialoprotein II identified in cementum & mediates fibroblast
attachment.
Vacek and Gher (93): Cementum anomalies.

ANALGESICS
IBUPROFEN: Proprionic acid; analgesic and antipyretic; less GI problems than aspirin; serum half life is 2
hours. totally excreted by kidneys; can cause anaphylaxis; fluid retention and blurred vision possible;
hepatic and kidney damage possible; aseptic meningitis; no increased bleeding tendency, except with
patient on coumadin; maximum daily dosage is 3200 mg.
ACETAMINOPHEN (TYLENOL): Extra strength tablets: 500 mg, No more than 8/day; analgesic effect
comparable to aspirin; antipyretic effect through hypothalamic heat regulating centers, allergies are rare;
take no longer than 10 days; metabolized by the liver; can cause liver damage. Overdose treated with
Mucomyst (acetylcystine).
Alendronate
Brunsvold, Chaves, Kornman (JP, 92) Alendronate (Biphosphonate ) used to treat osteoporosis, using 0.05mg/kg
significantly retarded the progression of periodontitis as measured by bone density. Inhibits osteoclast
activity.
Vicodin/Lortab: Hydrocodone: Narcotic analgesic, stimulate opiate receptors in CNS.
ASA action: Blocks cyclooxygenase pathway preventing prostaglandin synthesis. Analgesic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, binds to platelets inhibiting function for 7 days, inhibits platelets by blocking thromboxane
(BOARD QUESTION) increasing bleeding time.
Board questions
Vogel (92): Pain reduction best with 600 mg Motrin post op
400 mg dose of Motrin has peak blood levels 1-2 hours after administration
Toradol (ketorolac) can be toxic to kidneys.

54

Membrane Phospholipids

Phospholipase A2

Activated by trauma , hormones, etc.

Glucocorticoids block at this point

Cyclooxygenase pathway
ASA, NSAIDS act here
PGE2 Prostaglandins
PGI2 Prostacyclines
PGD2 PDF2a

Arachadonic Acid

Lipoxygenase pathway

Leukotrienes (LTB4) Chemotactic for PMNs

SRS-A: Slow Reacting Substance of Anaphylaxis.
Thromboxane

EMERGENCY DRUGS
DRUG
Diazepam (Valium)

INDICATION FOR USE

Status epilepticus, anxiety

DOSE
10 mg in 2 ml syringes, 5mg/min

Hydrocortisone Sodium
Succinate (Solu-Cortef)
Naloxone (Narcan)
(reverses Fentanyl)
Flumazenil
(reverses Versed)
Phenergan
(promentazine)
Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Acute adrenocortical
insufficiency
Narcotic reversal

100mg/2ml or 50mg/ml

ROUTE/ACTION
IM/IV
IM irritating
Give IV over 30 Secs

0.2-0.4mg q 2-3 min up to 10 mg

pure narcotic antagonist

Benzodiazepine reversal

0.6-1 mg

IV

antiemetic

12.5-25mg

IM/IV/ oral

Bronchospasm, low BP,

etc.
mild allergy

0.3-0.5mg

IM/Sub Q/ (IV MI only) alpha

1,2 agonist
deep IM/IV

Vent arrhythmias
decreases pulmonary
congestion

.5 mg/kg q 8-10 min up to 3mg/kg

0.5 mg/kg up to 2 mg/kg

Morphine
Nitroglycerin

Ischemic chest pain

angina

Sodium Nitroprusside
(Nipride)

Emergency Tx of HTN

Propranolol

Emergency Tx of HTN

2-5 mg q 5-30 min

0.4mg/tab 1 tab q5 min up
to 3 tabs
50 mg powder, reconst with
H2O to 250 cc
(0.5g/kg/min)
1-3mg q 5 min max 0.1mg/kg

Benadryl
(diphenhydrami
ne)
Lidocaine
Furosemide (Lasix)

50-100mg

IV
inhibits reabsorption of Na
and Cl, K+ wasting, direct
venodilator
IV
IV slow drip
IV

Emergencies
Allergic reaction: IV/IM Benadryl (diphenhydramine) 50mg/ml, IM/sub Q Epinephrine 0.3 - 0.5 mg,
Benadryl PO
Histamine release: Benadryl 50mg/ml
Intraarterial injection: distal to fingers, 2-10 cc 1% procaine (vasodilator) to decrease pH, take to
hospital
Infiltration: cutaneous edema, warm moist towel, procaine
Hypoglycemia: 50% dextrose 50 mg, IM 1mg glucagon, 0.3 -0.5 mg epinephrine

55

Hyperglycemia: Emergency
Nausea: IV Phenergan (promethazine) 25 mg, Reglan 10 mg
Syncope: set back, O2, Ammonia, ABCs
Anaphylaxis: 50 mg Benadryl, 0.3 - 0.5 mg epinephrine, EMS , O 2
Overdose: Symptoms: cyanotic, belly breathing ,TX: ABCs, 0.2 mg Romazicon , 0.4 mg Narcan,
maintain for several hours
Seizure: Clear area, lightly control, after 5 min administer IV Valium 5-10 mg.
Angina: O2, Nitroglycerin 0.4 mg, every 5 min 3X, coronary vasodilator, relaxes afterload of the heart, if
MI then 10 mg morphine IM/IV, 50 mg Demerol, N2O/ O2
PHARMACOLOGY
TOOTH FORMATION ANOMALIES
Gemination: 1 bud becomes 2 crowns with 1 pulp chamber
Fusion: 2 buds form 1 tooth
Concrescence: fusion of roots only
CERVICAL ENAMEL PROJECTIONS
YES: Masters & Hoskins (JP 64 9-21): Classified CEPs as grade I, II and III. Most common in mandibular
1st molar. CEPs associated with furcation involvement
Hou & Tsia (87): CEP associated with more furca involvement in a diseased population. 72% of molars
have this to some degree. Bone loss found on 90% of these teeth
NO:
Leib Berdon, Sabes (JP 67, 9-22): CEPs: maxilla: I>III>II, Mand. I>II>III. No correlation between
CEP presence and furca involvement. 22% maxillary molars and 25% mandibular molars, 4% are class
3s.
Cementum Anomalies of DEJ
Vacek and Gher (IJPR, 93): Cadavers, Cementum anomalies were found 11.5% of surfaces with 25% of
specimens with a variation of cementum surface, the variations were 94.4% at the area of transeptal fiber
attachment.
Haney... Wikesjo (JP 92): Cemental tear should be considered as differential diagnosis in isolated rapid
periodontal breakdown.
BIFURCATION RIDGE (crosses from M-D roots at midpoint of furcation)
Everette (58): Described it. (64): Prominent in 47%, visible in 29%, lacking in 27% of mandibular 1st
molars.
Burch and Hulen (74): 76% of mandibular molars had an intermediate bifurcation ridge.
Gher & Vernino (JADA 80, 18-17) 8% mandibular 1st molars.
PALATOGINGIVAL GROOVES
Everett and Kramer (72): 2.8% prevalence of max lateral distolingual groove (BOARD QUESTION)
Kogon (86): 4.6% prevalence of palatogingival groove, 54% on roots, 43% < 5mm, 47% 6-10mm, 10%
> 10mm.
Withers and Brunsvold (JP 81, 9-28): PGG prevalence 8.5%, 2.33% incisors (4.4% of all laterals, 0.28%
of all centrals). Palato-gingival groove is associated with poorer perio health.
Hou and Tsai (93): 30% max laterals; 6% centrals with PGG. Direct relationship between depth and
location of PGG with GI, PI & development of periodontal pockets.
Gher & Vernino (JADA 80 18-17) 3% max laterals with PGG
ROOT ANATOMY ROOT LENGTH AND SURFACE AREA
Gher and Vernino (JADA 80 18-17):
1) Max 1st premolars (56% with 2 roots), (BOARD QUESTION)
2) Buccal furcation groove prevalence 78%, deep depression middle 1/3 of single rooted
premolars
3) MX molar concavities, MB (94%), DB (31%), P (17%). Prominent depression on the distal
surface of the MB root

56

4) Root surface area of MX 1st molar. DB root smallest surface area, MB=P. MB root has large
surface area and is usually better aligned for occlusion than palatal root.

5) MN 1st molars, Mesial and distal concavities on both roots, more pronounced on mesial root,
6)
7)

thus there is more surface area on the mesial root. Remember this when doing a
hemisection. Concavities make furcations tortuous.
Concavities become shallower with age due to increased cementum deposition.
Intermediate bifurcation ridge 78% of MN 1 st molars, crosses from mesial to distal roots at
midpoint of furcation

Levy and Wright (JP 78, 19-18): If of root attachment height is lost it equals 61.5% of attachment
surface area lost. If 5.72 mm of attachment is lost, only half of attachment remains. Important for crown
to root ratio. Valid for premolars not necessarily molars
Herman and Gher (JP 83, 19-19): Surface area of Max 1st molar. Important in root resections
Surface Area
Root trunk
32%
MB root
25%
DB root
24%
Palatal root
19%
Wheeler: 3, 4, 5 mm - M, B, D location of furcation entrances on MX 1 st molar
Bosworth (87): Concavities ranged from 67% for max. laterals to 100% for mandibular teeth, greatest
incidence on the mesial.
Greenstein (1990): Average molar root length: 13 mm
Levy & Wright (1978): Average length bicuspids is 14.5 mm
Klock (93): Linear measurements underestimate attachment area for single roots: linear loss=44%,
actual area 49.2; multiple roots: 30 linear, actual area 35.1.
ROOT TRUNK LENGTH
Ochsenbein (1986):
Short
Med
Long

Mand
3 mm
4 mm
5 mm

Max
2 mm
3 mm
4 mm

Wheeler: 3, 4, 5 mm - M, B, D location of furcation entrances on MX 1 st molar

ROOT FUSION
Ross and Evanchik (JP 81, 9-26): 29% of all molars had fused roots, 35% Max, 24% Mand, May effect
prognosis. Max > Mand: 3rd > 2nd > 1st.
Hou and Tsai (JCP 94): Chinese pop, max 2nd molar (39.7%) and 28.1% Mand 2nd molars
FRENUM
Henry & Levin (JP 76, 1-6): NO muscle. in superior labial frenum
Gartner & Schein (91): 40 histo specimens, found skeletal muscle in 35% of specimens, dense irregular
collagenous CT.
Ross, Brown (90): 40 pts , 37% had muscle
EXOSTOSES
Larato (JP 72, 3-11): Mexican skulls, 30% exhibited palatal exostoses, greatest in tuberosity region
Nery (JP 77, 3-12): Varied racial skulls, 40.5% (BOARD QUESTION) had palatal exostoses, some
racial prevalence, highest incidence in 40-55 year olds
Differential for mandibular Tori (Benign Tumors):
Torus mandibularis, multiple exostoses, osteoma, buttressing bone (Glickman)
TORI

Kerr, Colby atlas oral pathology: Palatal Tori 20%, mandibular Tori 8% (range 1.5-14.3%)

57

Brunsvold (J Pros 95): 2 cases of recurrence of Tori removal. 11 yr. 60% recurrence by volume. 14 yr.
65% recurrence by volume.
CERVICAL ABRASION:
Bergstrom & Eliason: 35 % incidence of abrasion,
Ervin and Bucher (44): 1250 pts, 66% had some abrasion, more abrasion opposite dominant hand.
Definitions:
Abrasion: loss of tooth structure via mechanical means i.e. toothbrushing
Attrition: loss of tooth structure due to wear on function and parafunctional habits
Erosion: loss of tooth structure due to chemicals such as acids and dietary sources
ABFRACTION:
Lee & Eakle (JPD 94): Idiopathic cervical erosion. Wedge shaped lesions due to occlusal stress.
Chipping occurs between enamel and dentin due to differences between their tensile strengths.
G...?
FENESTRATIONS AND DEHISCENCES:
Elliot and Bowers: (Perio 63, 3-6) Fenestrations 3X more common in max, dehiscence 2x more
common in Mand, Bilaterally, Max 1st molar, Mand canines. Important in determining placement of
vertical incisions. Gorman and Bowers Recession (18-6)
Edel (JCP 81, 3-7)
Mand Max
Fenestrations
5.4
17.7
Dehiscence
5.5
2.1
ABSCESSES
Nabers (Perio 64, 16-12): Tx abscesses early, better healing than chronic conditions
Della-Russo (IJPRD 85, 16-14): Post prophylaxis abscess, may be indication of inadequate Sc. RP,
access flap necessary.
Dewit, Cobb, Killoy (IJPRD 85, 16-15):100% of specimens had fungi invading tissues in an acute
abscess. Sparse number of bacteria. Should you prescribe anti-fungal instead of antibiotic?
Hafstrom, Renvert, Dahlen (JP 94, 16-16): Pg and Pi found in significant amounts in abscesses. Aa,
Fn., Cr found in small numbers. (BOARD QUESTION)
Newman and Sims (JP 79, 16-13): Bacteria in abscesses mostly G- anaerobes, diverse organisms,
mostly Bacteroides Melaninogenicus. Used advanced anaerobic culturing techniques
LATERAL PERIODONTAL CYSTS
Filipowicz (JP 82 16-20) Proliferation of epithelial elements other than crevicular could be implicated
in isolated periodontal defects. Differential diagnosis gingival cyst of adult, primordial cyst, inflammatory
cyst from accessory canal. Histologically LPCs can be distinguished by plaque like thickening on cystic
epithelium.
FACTITIAL INJURIES:
Hasler (JP 68, 16-17) Put factitial injuries in differential diagnosis when unusual cases present.
Pattison (83): Most cases involve children less than 12 years old (78%). Usually occurs in the gingiva.
Stewart (JCP,76): Minor: locus of irritation over pre-existing lesion Habits Major: more severe & wide
spread, emotional disorder.
Yukna (91): Described cocaine periodontitis.
Roberts (87): Anorexia Nervosa/Bulimia: Bulimia seen in 20-50% of anorexic pts. Strong predilection
for females. Findings: Parotid enlargement, erosion of max palatal surfaces. Psychiatric Eval prior to
reconstruction.
MOUTH BREATHING
Wagaiyu, Ashley (JCP 91, 9-32) Mouth breathing associated with increased plaque and gingival
inflammation
mouth breathing, lack of lip coverage
= Gvtis on labial aspect
mouth breathing, lack lip coverage
= Gvtis Max palatal anteriors

58

Jacobson (73): Dehydration aggravates gingivitis, more prevalent in anterior than posterior, more in
maxilla than mandible.
RADIOLOGY
RADIATION: EXPOSURE Standard international units
Roentgen (R) is unit of radiation exposure measured in air. now expressed coulomb per kilogram = 3.88 X 10 3 R
Rad- unit of absorbed radiation, 100 ergs in 1 gram of absorber. now 100 rads = 1 Gray (Gy) 1 joule/Kg
Rem- unit dose equivalent, Quality factor (biologic effect) x Rad, get biologic effects of exposure. now 1 Sievert
(SV) =100 rem
Stafne, Oral Roentgenographic Diagnosis Text. Saunders 75: Maximum permissible dose: average occupational
exposure is 5 rem/yr. (50mSv); non-occupational exposure is 0.5 rem/year (5mSv), 3 FMX/ year to be
under non-occupational exposure.
White et al (JADA,79: 98:553): FMX = 15.4 mrem marrow effect, rectangular cone reduces exposure 60%
example is a patient who would be exposed to FMX and pano every four months would have the same
bone marrow risk as pt in Denver with no x-rays.
skin cancer 200,000 mrads,
Bengtsson (78): risk of dental radiographs causing cancer is 1 in a million, genetic risk is 9 in a billion.
1 CT= 4 rads, 1 tomo 30-40 mrads/slice, FMX=4 rads, Pano=600 mrads, 1PA=200 mrads.
1CT=1FMX
White (92): Rate of fatal cancers is 2.5 /million FMX, 0.21/million Panos.
Effective dose equivalent for an FMX is 84 Sv or 8.4 mrem, for Pano is 6.7 Sv. Chest x-ray = 60Sv.
1 FMX (E speed, rectangular) is equivalent to 1 day of background radiation (Bitewings: 7 hrs and for Panos: 12
hrs).
1 yr. of background radiation equals 300mrem.
Effective Dose Equivalent (dose from limited body exposure as if it were uniform whole body dose) is the best
measure to indicate risk.
RADIOGRAPHIC DISTORTION
Sonick (94): Comparison of distortion in PA vs. Pano vs. CT using acrylic resin templates with gutta percha in
cadaver mandibles. Distortion: CT 1.8%, PA 14%, Pano 23.5%
Todd, Gher (JP 93): Linear tomo vs. CT in identifying IAC. It is hard to identify IAC with LT- in only 6/22 LT
could the IAC be identified. Difference of 8.7 mm between the IAC locations using LT and CT. The CT
proved superior to LT in identifying the IAC.
RADIOGRAPHIC DEFECT DETECTION
Rees et al (OS 71 18-2): Proximal osseous defects and F+L furcas are accurately identified. (BOARD
QUESTION) What % of defects are detected by xrays??
Lang & Hill (JCP 81 18-2): Radiographs are helpful adjunct, clinical probing is needed for diagnosis.
Radiographs show interproximal defects, but don't show true topography. Also Goldman Stallard (73)
MAXILLARY DEFECT DIVERSITY
Manson (JCP 76 3-13): Great diversity of defects in maxilla. Attributed to cancellous trabeculation,
cortical plates and vascularity.
RADIOGRAPHS AND DIAGNOSIS
Bender & Seltzer (JADA 61, 18-1): Lesions are not visible on radiographs until the cortex is
perforated. Lesions in cancellous bone only are undetectable. Trabecular pattern comes from cancellous
bone adjacent to cortex.
Ritchey and Orban (JP 53 3-1): In the absence of disease alveolar bone levels follow a line parallel to
the CEJs.
Greenfield (81): Angulation of 3.6 to 5.5 was 95% accurate in measuring alveolar bone height.
Akesson (92): Panorex vs. bitewings vs. PA vs. probing, in determining bone loss, all underestimate bone
loss, PA 13% of true value, panos have lowest accuracy
Goodson, Haffajee, Socransky (JCP 84, 18-7): Attachment loss precedes radiographic evidence of
crestal bone loss.

59

Steffensen & Weber: The more radiographically acute the defect angle, the greater the resolution with
therapy.
Tonetti, Williams, Pini Prato, Cortellini (JP 93): When using digitized radiographs only bone gains
were usually underestimated (55%) presurgically, while post-surgical (re-entry) underestimated
35%,overestimated 17.5% but when combined with probing attachment (1.5 mm+) the agreement
approached 100%.
Hausmann et al (JP 91): mean radiographic CEJ to alveolar crest in health is 1.11mm (BOARD
QUESTION) with range 0.4 to 1.9mm on bite-wings. Healthy areas do not have CEJ-crest distances
greater than 2 mm. (BOARD QUESTION)
RADIOGRAPHIC CALCULUS DETECTION
Buchanan: Calculus detected only 44% of the time. False positives only 7.5 % High (+) predictive value,
low - predictive value
FURCATION ARROW
Hardekopf (JP 87 18-4 ): Dry skulls, maxilla only; their presence suggests furcation involvement. ("Arrow
of Lawrence"). 50% Positive predictive value. Absence of arrow does not mean absence of furcation defect.
Presence of an arrow is strongly suggestive of presence of furcation involvement.
NUTRIENT CANALS
Patel and Wuehrhrmann (OS 76): Nutrient canals were found in 42.5% of pop., hypertension , > 60%
blacks, adv. perio cases.
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA-Stepladder appearance of bone.
Crawford (JP 88 14-9): Sickle cell disease does not influence periodontitis.
Large marrow spaces are the predominant dental manifestation of sickle cell anemia. (BOARD
QUESTION)
LAMINA DURA
Manson (JP 63 3-8): Lamina dura is radiographic artifact, white line in which X-rays pass tangentially,
wooden models.
Greenstein et al (JP 81 3-9): Presence or absence of crestal lamina dura not related to clinical evidence
of BOP, PD or AL.
Lang & Hill (77): Lamina dura clarity affected by: convex, concave root surface, root curvature, CEJ
level and alveolar bone thickness. PDL thickness affected by horizontal and vertical angulation.
Rams et al (JCP 95 3-10): Lamina dura correlated with the absence of disease. presence in health or
periodontal stability. Absence of LD does not necessarily mean disease
Diseases which cause a loss of lamina dura: Hyperparathyroidism, Paget's, Scleroderma, Gaucher's.
Diseases which cause thickened lamina dura:
PDL
Van der Linden & Van Aken (JP 70, 2-18): Radiographic PDL affected by root shape, exposure time,
kV, bone morphology and horizontal angulation, phantom models made of wax, aluminum, plaster of
Paris.
LESIONS THAT ALTER PDL
Widened PDL: Osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma and scleroderma
Loss of PDL: Hyperparathyroidism, Central Giant Cell Granuloma, Paget's disease, Scleroderma and
Gardners Syndrome..
PDL THICKNESS
Coolidge (JADA 37, 2-17): Hourglass shaped. Average: 0.18 mm, decreases with age, increases in heavy
function. 0.21 young, 0.18 mid, 0.15 old
Pihlstrom & Ramfjord (JP 71, 17-4): In non-function, thinning of PDL, (BOARD QUESTION)
Atrophy of PDL fibers, osteoporosis of bone increased cementum thickness
Van der Linden Radiographic PDL affected by root radius, length of exposure, KVP, root concavities,
horizontal beam angle.
CEMENTUM THICKNESS
Zander (JDR 58, 5-1): AVE 0.076 mm <20 yrs, 0.215 mm 51-76 yrs, increases with age

60

Bower: 20-50 m CEJ, 100-200 m apex

SUBTRACTION RADIOGRAPY/CADIA
Bragger (88): Digitization of standardized x-rays, compared Grey levels on a computer, sensitivity 82%,
specificity 88%.
Hausmann: Subtraction radiography more sensitive than conventional radiographs.
Bragger (91): Subtraction radiography of GTR sites, continue to calcify at 12 months, attach gain before
radiographic changes.
Bragger (92): CADIA of sites treated with GTR in 25 pts, at 12 months there was increased density
compared to controls.
SINUS CONSIDERATIONS
Lane & O'Neil (JP 84, 18-8): Periodontitis can cause chronic sinusitis in rare cases.
Moskow (JCP 92, 12-3): Human block sections, periodontitis in maxillary molars can cause thickening
of the maxillary sinus mucosa.
Engstrom and Egelberg (JP 88, 18-5) Perio patients with thick sinus membrane were treated, one year
later perio health was better and sinus membrane was thinner (BOARD QUESTION)
INTERROOT DISTANCES
Heins & Wieder (JDR 76, 3-17): Minimum distance (0.1 to <4 mm) at coronal or middle third
>0.5 mm:
90% cancellous bone + lamina dura + PDL
0.3-0.5 mm:
lamina dura without interposed cancellous bone + PDL:
<0.3 mm:
no bone, roots connected by PDL. (BOARD QUESTION)
Heins (JP 88, 19-23) As the interradicular width increases, the interproximal bone margin tends to be in
a more apical position.
Heins (JP 88, 19-22) Narrow interradicular spaces are not pre-disposed to bone loss compared to wider
IP spaces.
Kramer (IJPRD 1987, 19-21): Close root proximity decreases the prognosis (not a strong study) Type
of defect depends on local blood supply. 1) More difficult to treat and 2) more vulnerable to breakdown.
RESORPTION
Andreasen (75): Resorption types: Ankylosis, Replacement resorption cementum, Inflammatory
Gold and Hasselgreen (92): External inflammatory resorption, peripheral inflammatory root resorption.
Karring (84): Placed root segments in prepared sockets in monkeys, direct contact with bone and CT led
to complete resorption, whereas epithelium protected from resorption.
Post Ortho: Trosello (79): 16-17% incidence in Ortho pts vs. 2.3% for controls.
OSSEOUS DEFECTS
Manson (JCP 76 3-13): Most common defect was the interdental crater, 1/3 of all defects, 2/3 of all
mandibular Great diversity of defects due to type of bone, vascularity etc.
Tal (JP 84 3-14): Studied African mandibles. Craters most common defect (84%) lingual wall higher. 2
wall most common.
Tal (JP,84): Frequency of intrabony defects increases with increasing interproximal distance.
Significance when between 2.1 to 4.1mm, no longer significant when 4.6mm . Two defects if greater than
3.1mm.
Richardson, Chadroff, Bowers (JP 90, 9-8): Apical extent of calculus is found 1/2 the total depth of
defect. The mean distance between the base of the calculus and base of the defect was found to increase
with the depth of the defect.
DIAGNOSIS
ADA PERIODONTAL DISEASE TYPES:
TYPE 1: GINGIVAL DISEASE
Inflammation of the gingiva characterized by changes in color, gingival form, position, surface appearance and
bleeding or exudate. Gingivitis Types:
A. Plaque associated gingivitis

61

1. Chronic Gingivitis
2. ANU Gingivitis
3. Gingivitis associated with systemic disease/ medications.
(Hormone, Rx-induced, HIV-G)
B. Gingival manifestations of systemic diseases and mucocutaneous lesions.
1. Bacterial, viral, fungal. i.e. herpes
2. Blood dyscrasias i.e. acute monocytic leukemia
3. Mucocutaneous diseases i.e. lichen planus, pemphigus
TYPE 2: EARLY PERIODONTITIS
Progression of gingival inflammation into the deeper periodontal structures and alveolar bone crest, with slight
bone loss. There is usually a slight loss of CT attachment and alveolar bone.
TYPE 3: MODERATE PERIODONTITIS
A more advanced stage of above, with increased destruction of periodontal structures and significant bone loss,
accompanied by an increase in tooth mobility. Furcation involvement may be found in multi-rooted teeth.
TYPE 4: ADVANCED PERIODONTITIS
Major loss of alveolar bone support accompanied by increased tooth mobility. Furcation involvement is likely.
TYPE 5: REFRACTORY PERIODONTITIS
Those patients with multiple disease sites which continue to demonstrate attachment loss after appropriate therapy.
May continue to be infected with periodontal pathogens regardless of debridement thoroughness.
At what point do you have periodontitis?
Histologically: Page and Schroeder (76): Combined histo of dogs, humans: Established lesion had
proliferation and migration of JE with early pocket formation.
Clinically: Disease activity is with 2 mm probing attachment loss. Haffajee et al (83): Comparison of
data analyses for detecting changes in attachment level.
AAP DISEASE CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Adult periodontitis
2. Early onset
A. Prepubertal Localized/Generalized
B. Juvenile Localized/Generalized
C. Rapidly Progressing
3. Periodontitis associated with systemic disease
4. Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis
5. Refractory periodontitis
Ranney (Perio 2000, 19-1) Disease classifications doesnt have refractory but does have abscess
1. GINGIVITIS
Gingivitis Plaque, bacterial
Nonaggravated
Systemically aggravated
sex hormones
drugs
systemic disease
Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
Unknown systemic determinants
HIV related
Gingivitis, non-plaque related
Associated with skin disease (pemphigus, lichen planus, epidermolysis bullosa)
Allergic (plasma cell) glossitis, gingivitis, angular cheilitis (BOARD QUESTION)
infectious (Candida albicans)

62

2. PERIODONTITIS
Adult
Non-aggravated
Systemically aggravated
neutropenias
leukemias
Lazy Leukocyte
AIDS
Diabetes mellitus
Crohns Disease
Addisons Disease

Due to
Steroid intake

3. EARLY ONSET PERIODONTITIS

Localized Early Onset
neutrophil abnormality
Generalized early onset
neutrophil abnormality
immunodeficient
Early Onset related to systemic disease
LAD leukocyte adhesion disorder
Hypophosphatasia
Papillon-LeFevre
Neutropenia
Leukemia
Chediak-Higashi
AIDS
Diabetes Type I
Trisomy 21
Histiocytosis X
Ehlers Danlos Type VIII
Early Onset Systemic Determinants Unknown
4. NECROTIZING ULCERATIVE PERIODONTITIS
Systemic determinants unknown
HIV
Nutrition
5. ABSCESS
Suzuki (DCNA, 88 10-1) Classification of periodontal diseases
Gingivitis
Plaque associated
ANUG
Steroid hormone-influenced gvtis
Medication-influenced gingival overgrowth
Adult Periodontitis
Rapidly Progressive Periodontitis Type A
14-26
Females more affected than males
Generalized lesions
Minimal tooth associated materials
Depressed neutrophil chemotaxis
Rapidly Progressive Periodontitis Type B
over 26 years old
no sex predilection
generalized lesions
plaque and calculus present
caries rate variable

63

neutrophil chemotaxis normal or depressed

Juvenile Periodontitis
12-26 years old
females more than males
first molar and incisor lesions
minimal tooth associated materials
low caries rate
depressed chemotaxis
Pre-pubertal periodontitis
under 14 years old
sex ratio equal
localized or generalized
minimal tooth associated materials
depressed chemotaxis
AP
RP-A
RP-B
JP
Age
35 yrs
14-26
26-35 yrs
12-26 yrs
yrs
Sex ratio
1:1
2-3:1
?
3:1
F:M
Lesions
variable generalized generalized
1st
molar /
incisor
TAM
yes
min.
yes
min
Caries rate
variable
variable
variabl
low
e
PMN
normal
depressed
norm.
depressed
cheomotaxis
or dep.
Lymphocytes normal
depressed
normal
increased
(AMLR)
(NS)
Genetic
?
yes
?
yes
implications

POST-JP
26-35 yrs

PP
12 yrs

3:1

1:1

1st molar /
incisor

gen. or loc.
mixed
dentition
min
low

yes
variable
?
increased
(NS)
yes

norm. or
dep.
?
yes

DISEASE TYPES
1. ADULT PERIODONTITIS: Age 35, slow onset, all teeth involved, gingiva inflamed fibrotic, irregular bone
loss, host response normal, plaque and calculus evident.
2. EARLY ONSET:
Prepubertal periodontitis:
Page (JP 83 10-36):
1. Onset after eruption of primary teeth,
2. Prevalence unknown, but probably rare,
3. Genetic basis for some types
4. Generalized Form
a. Extremely acute inflammation present with proliferation of gingiva
b. There is very rapid destruction of the alveolar bone and gingiva
c. Profound functional defects of peripheral blood neutrophils and monocytes are seen,
neutrophils absent from gingival tissue.
d. Peripheral blood white cell count is markedly elevated
e. Otitis media and skin and upper respiratory infections are frequent findings
f. Periodontitis may be refractory to antibiotic therapy
g. All primary teeth are affected; the permanent dentition may or may not be affected
5. Localized form
a. Only some teeth are affected; pattern of involvement not yet determined
64

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Gingival tissues may exhibit little or no inflammation

Destruction is not as rapid as in the generalized form
Functional defects are present in either neutrophils or monocytes but not both
Recurrent otitis media is not a frequent finding and usually there is no history of frequent
infections
The disease is amenable to treatment by curettage and antibiotic therapy.

Watanabe (JPR 90, 10-37) GPP is oral manifestation of Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency (LAD)
Ishikawa (JP 94, 10-30) Report of two patients with Papillon-Lefevre syndrome. High Aa, one patient
had all primary teeth extracted. Treated with ofloxacin.
Epstein (PPAD 95, 10-??) Treatment of LPP patient with S/RP Augmentin and Metro successful
Generalized form: Neutrophils and Monocytes affected (Leukocyte adhesion defect).
Localized form: neutrophils or Monocytes affected (suppressed chemotaxis)
LAD is associated with a deficiency in adhesins
Mouynet et al (JCP,95): Leukocyte adhesion receptor expression on peripheral PMN does not appear
useful for helping to establish a differential expression study between the different forms of periodontitis.
Takahashi (JP 95): Majority of EOP pts do not show significantly different lymphocyte profiles than AP
& healthy pts. Cell dysfunctions are not always seen in EOP pts.
Gunsolley (JP 95, 10-31): Longitudinal assessment of EOP. LJP is treatable by mechanical periodontal
therapy wheras SP (Severe Periodontitis) (probably RPP) will go downhill regardless of choice of therapy..
Waldrop, Hallmon, Mealy (JCP,95): PP and LAD, Cementum SEM, resorption lacunae, aplasia,
hypoplasia (hypermineralized), BL: Alteration in cementum formation and maturity is secondary etiology
of early onset disease.
LJP: Onset 12-26yo, females more than males, rapid progression, 1st molars/incisors, gingiva normal, minimal
local factors, craters, bone loss.
Possible Causes Multifactorial etiology
Plaque (Aa isolated frequently) P ging (High prevalence of antibodies to Aa in LJP patients)
Host hyperresponse
Host hyporesponse PMN defects, immature PMNs macrophage chemotactic defect (77%), (BOARD
QUESTION) genetics possible,
Cemental hypoplasia
History:

1923 Gottlieb: Diffuse atrophy of alveolar bone. Cementopathy

1938 Wannemacher: "Paradontitis marginalis progressive"
1940 Thomas and Goldman: "Paradontosis"
1942 Orban and Weinmann: Supported paradontosis as a distinct entity b/c more degenerative than
inflammatory in origin.
Everett (64): Believed there was an occlusal component, treatment with occlusal adjustment.
1969 Butler: Introduced term "juvenile periodontitis"
1971 Baer: "Periodontosis", Continued above thinking, b/c destruction more than local factors. Criteria:
Age 11-13 yrs, females: males 3:1, familial background, minimal local factors, distinct radiographic
pattern, lack of involvement of primary teeth.
Baer, Kaslick (JP 78, 10-1): States Greek suffix "-osis" means abnormal or diseased, not degenerative.
The authors feel that particular clinical forms should be specified to provide adequate subclassifications of
individual conditions.
Sugarman (JP 97): Precocious periodontitis.
Evian, Amsterdam M, Rosenberg (JCP 82, 10-4): (Penn Study) Possible link between LJP and
trauma from occlusion. LJP pts do experience occlusal trauma in orthodontics.

Prevalence: Overall 0.2-0.5%

65

Bial and Mellonig (JP 87, 10-17): Radiographic study. 50,000 male naval recruits (17-32 yrs),
examined FMXs, preval = 0.36%, 75% black. 70% molar/incisor pattern.
Melvin, Sandifer, Gray (JP 91, 10-20) In 5,000 naval recruits prevalence was 0.76%. BM:BF 2:1,
female:male 1.1:1
AAP Position Paper (92): LJP = 0.50%, GJP = 0.10%.
Loe (JP 78, 6-8): LJP like lesions in 1% of 15 y.o. Sri Lankans
Loe, Brown (JP 91, 10-19) LJP in US, based on NIDR study 1986-87 ages 14-17 (11,007 students).
LJP = 0.53% (adolescents). Blacks > whites. Black males > black females White females > white males.
GJP = 0.13%, ILPA (Incid Loss Perio Attach) = 1.61%.
Hart (JP 92, 10-11): 3 observations crucial for arguing for X-linked dominant transmission of JP:
(1) female:male ratio of approx. 2:1,
(2) absence of father to son transmission of JP, and
(3) a segregation ratio of 0.39, suggesting dominant transmission with reduced penetrance.
Studies have shown that females are more likely to seek treatment than males and this introduces a bias
into studies. Two studies (Boughman 86, Saxby 87) have clearly demonstrated male to male transmission
for JP. In itself, the segregation ratio is equally compatible with either autosomal or X-linked dominant
inheritance. The interpretation of X-linked rather than autosomal inheritance rested on the validity of the
first two observations which are shown to be unsupported.
Horning (JADA 90, 6-26): LJP in military population .5%.
Familial:
Cogen R, Wright (JP 92, 10-21): Racial distribution, 2-3:1 (black to white), seen at earlier age than
once thought, looked at deciduous and mixed dentition x-rays and found evidence for LJP before puberty
Sjodin (JCP 93, 10-24): 52% of pts with LJP displayed evidence of disease in their primary dentition
(BOARD QUESTION)
Agarwal (JPR 94, 10-25): Altered PMN function in LJP may be due to increased levels of TNF and IL1 not an inherited defect.
Mombelli, Gmur, Gobbi, Lang (JP 94, 8-19): In individuals with Aa in multiple, deep sites, treatment
and eradication is more difficult.
Caslik and Chasens: LJP burnout
Shapira (JP 94): Pts with GJP demonstrated elevated HLA A9, B15. These were not elevated in LJP pts,
indicating a different genetic background.
Lopez, Umeda (JP 92, 10-29) Reported on consanguineous family with high prevalence of generalized
prepubertal periodontitis and LJP.
Vincent (JP 94): A.a. is probably the starter in JP and RP, but a P.g. and Fn. favored environment is
established later on.
Page (85): X-Linked dominant,(Hart 92 also believed) later Page found evidence that it was autosomal
recessive.
Suzuki (88): Found a familial pattern to LJP.
Saxon: Autosomal recessive
Microbiology:
Newman & Socransky (JPR 77, 8-29): Samples from sites with advanced LOA had increased
proportions gram (-) anaerobic rods vs. flora in control.
Fine, Goldberg, Karol (JP 84, 10-6): Less caries in LJP/GJP pts. Bacteria of LJP may inhibit caries.
Suggested an inverse relationship between G (+) (caries) and G (-) initiating JP.
Wilson (JP 85, 13-15): GJP - P ging Aa
Slots et al (JPR 82): A.a. found in 26/27 patients, TCN-HCL systemically can suppress A.a.
Zambon (JCP 85): LJP elevated serum antibodies to A.a. Invades the tissues
Gonzalez et al (JP 87): Yeast may have a pathogenesis role in LJP.
Gunsolley (JP 94, 10-33): P.g., not A.a., is predictive of future attachment loss.
Vincent, Suzuki, Falkler, Cornett (JP 85, 10-13): ELISA, 35 controls, 50 JP, 42 AP & 55 RPP. B ging,
F nuc showed increased Ab in AP, JP and RPP. Aa showed increased activity in sera of JP and RPP but not
AP patients.
Aa
B ging
F nuc
JP
76%
66%
20%

66

RPP
RPP 20
RPP 20
AP

25%
100%
11%
0%

89%
93%
78%
79%

26%

29%

Aa may facilitate early destruction in JP and RPP, favoring the growth of microbes like B ging and F nuc
in more advanced stages of these diseases.
Transmission between family members:
Alaluusa, Askainen (JP 91): When child was positive for Aa, either mother or father also positive
evidence for parent - child transmission
Gunsolley, Zambon et al. (JP 90): Prevalence of Aa detection in family members of GJP portends was
49%, of LJP portends was 69%.
Transmission of A.a.:
Christersson (JP 85, 8-32): Evaluated possibility of Aa being transmitted from site to site in an
individual by the perio probe. Found that Aa was inoculated into healthy sites, but that it didnt live for
long.
Preus, Olsen (JPR 88): Aa from the pet dog .
Defective PMN's:
Ciancio, Genco (77): Defective chemotaxis and phagocytosis of PMNs in LJP.
Singh, Golub (JP 84): First in vivo confirmation of in vitro findings of chemotactic response of crevicular
PMN's in LJP
Suzuki et al (JP 84, 10-8): Pts with JP have abnormalities in PMN chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and spore
germination
Suzuki, Park, Falkler (JP 85, 10-9): AMLR depressed in GJP, but returns to normal one year after
therapy, JP pts have increased AMLR and this didn't change with therapy
DeNardin et al (JP 90): Reduced binding to fMLP receptor of chemotactic defective PMNs in LJP
Van Dyke, Agarwal: (JP 86, 10-27): PMNs may be immature rather than defective. Chemotactic defects
are familial
Cementum Hypoplasia:
Gottlieb (1923): Cementopathia. Diffuse atrophy of alveolar bone.
Lindskog, Blomhof (JCP 83, 10-5) Cemental hyposplasia found on roots of teeth affected by LJP.
These teeth may lack adequate Sharpeys Fibers, predisposing to bacterial invasion. May be genetic.
HORNING FAVORITE!!!
TREATMENT of LJP
Surgery:
Lindhe (JCP 84, 10-7) Treated LJP patients with TCN, surgical elimination of pockets, S/RP,
maintenance q3mo. Five years later, inflammation resolved, gain in attachment, and refill of bone.
Combined treatment with antibiotics, root planing and surgical removal of granulation tissue was equally
effective in AP (post-JP?) and JP subjects.
Mabry, Yukna, Sepe (JP 85, 10-23): LJP pts, split-mouth, TCN mixed in FDBA + systemic vs. no
TCN, significant bone fill 2.8mm, and resolution of defects using local and systemic TCN with FDBA.

Defect Fill
% Defect Resolve
Decreased PPD

Sys TCN
FDBA/TCN
2.8 mm
72.7%
2.9 mm

Sys TCN
Debrid
1.4 mm
51.2%
2.7 mm

FDBA
1.9 mm
48.4%
3.1 mm

Debrid
1.0 mm
46.1%
2.1 mm

Gunsolley, Zambon, Mellot (JP 94, 10-32): Sig reduction of Pg after S/RP and sig reduction of Aa after
surgery. Suggests that additional therapeutics (antibiotics) might be useful in treating pts with SP (Severe
periodontitis- probably RPP).

67

DiBattista (JP 95, 10-24): 7 pts with 1st molars randomly assigned to 1) OFD, 2) e PTFE, 3) e PTFE +
root conditioning, 4) ePTFE + DFDBA. 12 month re-entry. No statistical significance was noted among
tested groups. Surgical debridement alone in conjunction with systemic antibiotics is as effective as
regeneration techniques in LJP patients.
No Antibiotics:
Christersson, Slots, Rosling, Genco (JCP 85, 10-12): S/RP,S/RP with curettage, S/RP with MWF not
that effective in removing Aa. Antibiotics needed!! Supports bacterial invasion.
Wennstrom, Wennstrom, Lindhe (JCP 86, 10-15): Antibiotics not essential 5yr, LJP (14-19 y.o.) and
post-LJP (>19 y.o.), split-mouth study, Sx (MWF) and non-Sx Tx. Both treatments equal and effective.
Improvement over 2 yrs, then LOA . Swedish prophies done, (borderline surgery) (BOARD
QUESTION) What kind of surgery was done?
Waerhaug (JP 77): 21 pts (12-24yrs) treated with gingivectomy, pocket elimination, S/RP, Hemisection,
10% loss of teeth from 1-27 yrs. The plaque front migrates apically 2-5 m/day in JP vs. 0.2- 1m/day in
AP.
Antibiotics:
Slots and Rosling (JP 83): 3 wks of S/RP does not reduce subG levels of Aa in LJP lesions. 3 weeks of
TCN necessary to eliminate Aa, 6 LJP pts
Mandell, Tripodi, Savitt, Goodson, Socransky (JP 88, 10-16): 4 LJP pts, regimens of therapy: (1)
local TCN delivery via monolithic fibers, (2) systemic doxycycline (100mg/day X 14 days), (3) full
thickness flap surgery and doxycycline. Doxycycline + Sx, effective in controlling disease and eliminating
Aa. Actisite alone ineffective in eliminating Aa, due to tissue invasion of Aa.
Novak, Polson, Adair (JP 88): Tetracycline only (no surgery or S/RP) in early LJP was effective, 250
mg 4x day for 3-6 weeks. Few patients, short study, no culturing.
Kornman and Robertson (JP 85, 10-10): 8 JP pts,
S/RP alone no effect
S/RP w/ TCN effective in mafority of Aa (+) and BPB (+) sites
Sx w/ TCN effective for all Aa (+) and BPB (+) sites.
All sites initially had Aa averaging 33.8% of the total cultivable flora. Decrease in Aa was an excellent
predictor of clinical success. Suggests microbiological diagnosis helps select treatment and monitor its
effectiveness. Inability of SRP alone to resolve JP may be due to tissue invasion by Aa.
Mandell, Socransky (JP 88, 10-18): Initial preparation in LJP is unnecessary and disease and Aa levels
can be controlled with surgery + doxycycline. (initial prep can be useful to decrease the microbial load
and monitor patients oral hygiene before surgery). Mandell ,Socransky (JP,88): Initial preparation in
LJP is unnecessary and disease can be controled with surgery + doxycycline.
Evans, Yukna (JP,89): Use of TCP, HA, FDBA with TCN was effective at re-entry.
Everette and Baer (64): Treatment with selective occlusal adjustment and orthodontic extrusion.
Christersson, Zambon (JCP,93): With TCN treatment only, Aa was reduced by not eliminated in all
cases, Aa has high negative predictive value thus a good endpoint to therapy.
Maintenance:
Gunsolley, Zambon (JP 94, 10-33): Sites infected with A.a. and P.g. had PD increase of 0.65mm. P.g.
and not A.a. may be predictive of attachment loss. Keep pts on short maintenance.
GJP

Hormand, Frandsen (JCP 79, 10-3): Female to male ratio decreased with age, suggesting that females
were affected earlier and were exposed to the disease process longer. The number of involved teeth
increased w/ age, following a pattern that was almost exclusively localized in younger patients becoming
more generalized with age. The authors suggested that the generalized form is not a "contamination" of
JP sites by overlying AP, due to the amount of destruction and symmetrical involvement.
Firalti, Gurel, Cebeci (JCP 96, 10-41): Slight elevation in the CD4/CD8 ratio for GPP patients
compared to controls.

68

RAPIDLY PROGRESSIVE PERIODONTITIS:

Page (JP 83 8-34 10-31):7 Case Reports of Rapidly Progressive Periodontitis.
1. Age of onset between puberty and 35
2. Lesions generalized, no consistent pattern of lesions
3. some patients may have had LJP previously
4. Severe and rapid bone destruction, may stop spontaneously
5. During acute phase, tissues acutely inflammed.
6. Microbial deposits variable.
7. 83% have neutrophil or monocyte defects
8. May have systemic manifestations including weight loss depression and malaise
9. Some are remarkably responsive to treatment
Suzuki (88):
Type A: 14-26yo, generalized lesions, depressed chemotaxis, minimal
etiology, decreased AMLR, (autologous mixed lymphocyte reaction) genetic
implications.
Type B: 26-35 yo, generalized lesions, plaque and calculus, AMLR,
WNL, normal/depressed chemotaxis
DiMurro (JP 87, 10-32): P ging may inhibit PMNs, blame the bug!
Kamma (94): 73 RPP lesions. Pg, Fn. seen in greater than 90% of lesions. Pi seen in 88% and Bf in
53%.
? Differential Between GJP and RPP Type A:
GJP= Age 12-26, increased AMLR, no chemotaxis defects, low caries
RPP= Age 14-26, decreased AMLR, chemotactic defects, variable caries rate
Crawford (1975): First to describe RPP
Katz: (JCP 88, 13-23) Hypothesis that RPP and rheumatoid arthritis are similar diseases. HLA-DR 4 is
increased in RPP. Altered T cell ratios in RPP.
TREATMENT of RPP:
Kornman: Metronidazole + Augmentin or Amoxicillin is beneficial to treat RPP.
Van Winklehoff: Perform initial therapy quickly i.e. in 2 days to 1 week and place pts on antibiotic
regimen for 1 week. Regimen consists of 500mg metronidazole b.i.d. + 375mg amoxicillin t.i.d. If
amoxicillin allergy, give cephalosporins.
PERIODONTITIS ASSOCIATED WITH SYSTEMIC DISEASE
Predisposing to periodontitis in children and adolescents
Down's Syndrome, Type 1 Diabetes, Papillon-Lefevre Syndrome, Chediak-Higashi syndrome
(AutoRessesive, lysosomes clump, PMN have poor chemotaxis.), Nutritional disorders, hypophosphatasia
(mineralization),
Granulocyte disorders- Agranulocytosis (decrease in #), chronic neutropenia, cyclic neutropenia, Lazy
leukocyte syndrome, Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) seen in PPD, described by Waldrop (87):
Deficiency or complete absence of cell surface glycoproteins (MAC-1, LFA-1, p150,95) on neutrophils
and monocytes. TX: extraction soon, bone transplant, Implants
ACUTE NECROTIZING ULCERATIVE GINGIVITIS Not a communicable disease
ANUG Criteria:
Barnes (JP 73, 16-3):
1) BOP (95%),
2) blunted interdental papilla (94%),
3) pain (86%),
4) pseudomembrane (73%),
5) fetor oris (84%)
6) young (<21yrs),
7) smokers,
8) poor oral hygiene.
69

Shannon (JP 69, 16-2): Stress is a factor in ANUG, measured by steroid levels in urine
Horning (JP 95, 16-8): Staging of ANUG 1-7, common symptoms pseudomembrane, fetid breath, pain,
bleeding, poor OH, inadequate sleep, poor diet. 14% were HIV positive, (BOARD QUESTION) 52% of
cases involved the tip of papilla only
Cogen (JP 83, 16-6): possible inherited PMN defect in ANUG
MacCarthy (JCP 91): An association between attachment loss and ANUG
Micro:

Listgarten (JP 65, 8-12 16-1): Four Zones: superficial to deep 1) Bacterial Zone, 2) Neutrophil Zone, 3)
Necrotic Zone, 4) Zone of Spirochetes
Loesche (JP 82, 8-13): TX of specific bacteria T.d., Pi., selenomonas and Fusobacterium. Metronidazole
(250 mg tid for 7 days )
Falkner (JCP 87, 16-11): Predominant micro gram negative rods Pg and Fn. and small spirochetes.
Averages - age 24, smokers, white, male Common symptoms pain, bleeding, cratering (BOARD
QUESTION)
Zambon, Slots (82): Bi predominant organism
Sabiston (JCP 86, 16-9) ANUG possible viral origin CMV. CMV and ANUG have many similar
characteristics age, higher prevalence in HIV positive patients.
King: Innoculated self with spirochetes from pt with ANUG, but didnt come down with disease for a few
when he had a cold and immune system was down.
Swenson: innoculated dogs and gave immunosuppresive drugs, dogs didnt get ANUG until they were
almost dead from immunosuppression.

REFRACTORY PERIODONTITIS: Disease after appropriate therapy.

Haffajee and Socransky (JCP 88, 8-35): Clinical, microbiological, immunological, findings in
refractory patients. Elevated levels of clusters:
I.
B forsythus, F. nuc, Capnobacter rectus
II.
S. intermedius, P.g, P. micros,
III.
S. intermedius Fn., P.g
Magnusson et al (JCP 91, 8-36): 17/21 elevated serum antibodies to A.a., P.g., E.c.
Oshrain (JCP 86, 13-17) Altered chemotaxis in refractory periodontitis
Meador and Lane: 20% of patients may undergo disease recurrence despite appropriate therapy.
Listgarten (JP 93): Antibiotic resistance was particularly notable for Fusobacterium, Capnocytophaga,
Staphylococcus, A.a., C.r.
Fine (JCP 94): In pts resistant to conventional periodontal tx, a cultural microbial analysis coupled with
antibiotic sensitivity testing may result in resolution of different cases.
Walker Uses Augmentin and Cleocin for refractory patients (BOARD QUESTION)
Lee Refractory patients have elevated levels of IL-1 (BOARD QUESTION)
MacFarlane Refractory perio with smoking and PMN phagocytic effects (BOARD QUESTION)
ABSCESSES
Nabers (Perio 64, 16-12): Tx abscesses early, better healing than chronic conditions. Study is
justification for doing early surgery. HORNING FAVORITE!!
Della-Russo(IJPRD 85, 16-14): Post prophylaxis abscess, may be indication of inadequate Sc. RP,
access flap necessary.
Dewit, Cobb, Killoy (IJPRD 85, 16-15):100% of specimens had fungi invading tissues in an acute
abscess. Sparse number of bacteria. Should you prescribe anti-fungal instead of antibiotic?
Hafstrom, Renvert, Dahlen (JP 94, 16-16): Pg and Pi found in significant amounts in abscesses. Aa,
Fn., Cr found in small numbers.
Newman and Sims (JP 79, 16-13): Bacteria in abscesses mostly G- anaerobes, diverse organisms,
mostly Bacteroides Melaninogenicus. Used advanced anaerobic culturing techniques
OSTEOMYELITIS

70

Parrish (JP 89 16-23) Osteomyelitis is an infection that extends into the medullary cavity of the bone. It
is an extension of an abscess. Osteomyelitis will require antibiotics for resolution. Important to culture
abscess especially if there is no response to treatment. Bone scan may be helpful.
DISEASE ACTIVITY/ NEW DIAGNOSTICS
SENSITIVITY/SPECIFICITY
When is there disease, how do you evaluate new tests?
Contingency Table

Test
A

Disease
Sensitivity: a/ (a+b) x 100 When disease is present, how often is test + (Positive in Disease), few false negatives,
evaluate a test
Specificity: d/ (d+c) x 100 When disease is absent, how often is test - (Negative in Health)
Pos. predictive. value: a/(a+c)x100 When test is positive, how often is disease present.
Neg. predictive. value: d/(d+b) X 100 When test is negative, how often is disease absent.
Diagnostic accuracy: How often a test is right a+ d / a+b+c+d
Incidence: Number of cases during a specific time duration. (BOARD QUESTION)
Prevalence: Number of cases at one point in time. Disease Prevalence is the critical factor for PPV(+) & NPV (-).
(BOARD QUESTION)
Note * Effect of Prevalence on Predictive value:
Disease Prevalence
Pv (+)
50%
99%
5%
83.9%
2%
66.9%
1%
50%
0.1%
9%
Type 1 error: Significance when there is no significance (False +).
Type 2 error: No significance when there are significant findings/ differences (False -).
Receiver Operator Characteristic Curve Changing thresholds changes sensitivity and specificity
Risk Probability of developing a disease
Attributable Risk Additional risk of developing disease when patient has certain risk factors
Blomqvist (JCP 86, 6-19): Regression towards the Mean: Bias caused when subsequent determinations are
closer to mean values. The further the initial difference the more likely it will be closer to the mean. Use
controls, repeat initial measurements to decrease.
Egelberg (JCP 89 6-29): Effect of regression towards the mean minimal in deep pockets, take two measurements
anyway.
Osborn (JCP 87 6-20): Debated using sites or the patient as a computational unit
Fleiss (JP 87 6-21): Inappropriate to use individual site as the unit of analysis in study of perio
Hujoel (JPR 88 6-27): For many studies statistical methods inappropriate.
NEW DIAGNOSTICS
Periocheck:

Proteolytic enzymes (neutral proteases) in GCF.

Bowers (91): Not an accurate indicator of disease activity.

Perioscan:

Loesche (90) BANA (benzoyl-arginyl-napthylamide) hydrolase for nonspecific proteases

with trypsin like activity (only bacteria Pg, Bf, Trep Denticola, and possibly
(92)capnocytophaga)
Hemmings (JCP 97 110-114) Periocheck and Perioscan not accurate in predicting
clinical assessment of periodontal disease

71

Perioguard:

Chambers (91): aspartate amino transferase based (released from destroyed tissue).

DNA probes

Melvin, Assad, Miller & Gher (JP 94, 19-10) DNA vs. ELISA. Each test detected certain
organisms more readily. Both had high sensitivity and specificity varied widely. DNA detected
organisms at levels 1,000 xs lower than ELISA.
Savitt: More sensitive than culture limited bacteria Aa, Pi, Pg
DNA probe can detect organisms at concentrations of 1,000 organisms (BOARD
QUESTION)

ELISA detects organisms based on cell surface antigens (BOARD QUESTION)

Periotemp:

Haffajee (JCP 92 19-5) Hot shallow pockets with bleeding on probing were at high risk for loss
of attachment.
Diseased sites had temperatures .5-1.0 degree higher than healthy sites. (BOARD
QUESTION)

Prognostic:

(Elastase)

Periotest:

Schulte (92): Periotest Values (PTV) correlate to bone loss, test doesn't require fixation,
accelerates metal rod and "taps" tooth, then measures deceleration -8 to +50 values.
-8 to
+9
Miller's 0
+10 to +19
Miller's 1
+20 to +19
Miller's 2
+30 to +50
Miller's 3

Periodontometer, odontometer?
Models of disease activity: Largely depends on your threshold or cut off for determining attachment loss
Loe (JP 78 6-7) Attachment loss in Sri Lankans is continuous.
Socransky (JCP 84 11-5) Reasons why the continuous loss theory is invalid
1. Attachment loss rates are too fast or too slow compared to observed attachment loss
2. Large number of sites that appear to not be progressing
3. Disease does not progress in all lesions in animal studies.
4. Disease can be brought under control.
Goodson (JCP, 82): Continuous (Jeffcoat, 91), Random Burst (Haffajee,83), Asynchronous Multiple burst
(Socransky,84)
Yang (92): Constant, Gradual, Random fluctuation, Multiple burst, Single burst, Random walk
Jeffcoat and Reddi (JP,91): Alabama probe (accuracy 0.02mm) longitudinal study supports continuous
(76%), Bursts (12%), Exacerbations/Remissions (12%)
Lindhe and Haffajee (JCP 83 6-9) Two populations, American and Swedish, no treatment 3.9% of sites
lost 2 mm of attachment, showed sites with advanced AL are not more prone to further loss. Implied
disease is not continuous
Cohen and Ralls (JPR 88 6-28) One third of detected bursts could be due to probing error.
GCF
Brill (AOS 57 5-5) Fluorescein study. Crevicular epithelium permeable, dog study
Bissada et al (JP 69 5-27): GCF has circadian periodic pattern, increases from 6 am to highest rate at 10
p.m.
Orban (JP 69 5-29): GCF flow was not associated with gingivitis.
Hancock and O'Leary (JP 79 5-30): GCF indicates presence, not severity of gingivitis.
Offenbacher: GCF PGE2 used to predict attach loss with high sensitivity, spec, predictive values >90%.
RIA difficult to do chairside.
Tsuchida: Periotron: GCF flow rates
Eley & Cox (92): GCF proteases, Cathepsin B, elastase, trypsin, dipeptidyl peptidase all may be
correlated to Att. Loss pre/post Tx.
Goodson: GCF replaces itself in 1:25 sec
Indicators of Periodontal Disease Activity in GCF

72

Bacteria and their products: Darkfield/phase contrast analysis, GCF and plaque for endotoxin, hydrogen sulfide,
butyrate, polyamines, enzymes, bacterial collagenase, leukotoxin (Aa).
Host cells and their products: PMN counts, acid hydrolases, neutral proteases, lactoferrin, acid and alkaline
phosphatase, lysozyme, -galactosidase / glucuronidase, proteolytic enzymes (Cathepsin D, elastase,
collagenase)
Host factors: Antibodies, complement cascade, prostaglandins, cytokines.
Products of tissue Injury: GCF levels of lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferrase (marker for tissue
destruction released by activated macrophages BOARD QUESTION), polyamines, glycosaminoglycans,
B-Glucuronidase (marker for CT ground substance breakdown).
Offenbacher: GCF PGE2 used to predict attach loss with high sensitivity, spec, predictive values >90%.
RIA difficult to do chairside.
Lamster et al (JPR 91): PMN response is associated with active periodontal disease in pts with Adult
periodontitis, as evidenced by the high levels of -Glucoronidase and a-2-macroglobin. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Lamster (JCP 94): 140 txd patients on maintenance and 10 untxd patients with AP. An increase in glucuronidase was seen with increasing PD and also with increasing BOP. -glucuronidase levels may
correlate with periodontal status. (BOARD QUESTION)
Gustafsson (JCP 92 19-6) Elevated granulocyte elastase activity in the GCF could be an indicator of
patients at risk for periodontitis.
Page (JP 92 19-8) GCF tests - no one test the magic marker
Collagenase responsible for much tissue destruction
Cathepsin intracellular cysteine proteases which degrade extracellular matrix.
Neutral Proteases
Alkaline phosphatase associated with bone metabolism and neutrophilic granulocytes
-Glucuronidase level of enzyme correlated with inflammation, pocket depth and alveolar bone loss
Arylsulfatase, same as Glucuronidase
Aspartate Aminotransferase released by dead or dying cells
Cytokines IL-1, TNF implicated in severe destruction.
Prostaglandins PGE2 strongly associated with attachment loss.
Antibodies to periodontopathic bacteria
PREDICTING ATTACHMENT LOSS:
CLINICAL PARAMETERS
NO:
Badersten (90): Non-molars, 39 pts, used PI, BOP, Supp, PD. PI +BOP not very predictable 30%, PD
most predictable.
Goodson, Tanner, et al (82): Existence of periodontal pockets alone cannot substantiate the existence of
active disease
Jenkins (88): Plaque, gingival inflammation, and pocket depth are poor predictors for attachment loss.
Lindhe, Haffajee, Socransky (JCP,83): data did not support that sites with more advanced attachment
loss are more prone to additional destruction. Results showed that 11.6% had LOA > 3 mm over 6 years
(untreated), but looking further into the results one finds that 37% had LOA > 2 mm, and 78% LOA > 1
mm. Also showed 33% sites having LOA in 1st 3yrs had further LOA in nest 3 yrs.
Pontoriero, Nyman, Lindhe (JCP,88): Angular bone defects do not appear susceptible to
recurrent breakdown.
Haffajee, Socransky, Goodson (JCP 83 7-22) Examined many different clinical parameters for
sensitivity and specificity for disease activity. No parameter had high sensitivity and specificity.
YES:

Haffajee (88): 33 active sites several years, most sites having significant LOA had greater PD and LOA
initially
Claffey (91): Diagnostic predictability (sensitivity) was greatest in sites with residual PD and bleeding
frequency > 75%.
Lindhe (JCP,89): Sites in older patients were more likely to exhibit progression of disease. Sites with
previous attachment loss were at a higher risk for further disease progression. Most breakdown
interproximal, progression in small number of subjects.
Albander (90): Sites previously exposed to loss of periodontal support are more likely to undergo further
loss of support.

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Machtei et al (93 JP): 51 subjects, 581 sites, 1 yr. measured quarterly with Florida probe. Deep sites
(>7mm) had significantly > mean loss (1.03mm) compared to moderate (4-7 mm) loss ( .34mm ) and
shallow (0-4mm) loss (.1mm)
Grossi (JP,95): Smoking, Age, Diabetes, Pg, B.f. are associated with attachment loss, inverse with
allergies, kidney problems.
Beck et al (JP 94 6-23): Piedmont study, elderly population , 3 yr. longitudinal , findings: during two 18
month periods AL and pocket depth are related to probability of future breakdown in individual sites. AL
during one period related to AL in subsequent periods. Supports episodic theory of AL.
Why Treat a 7mm Pocket?
YES: Lindhe (89): Sites with previous attachment loss and interproximal were at a higher risk for further
disease progression.
Grbic (92): 75 pts, 6 month monitoring, sites with 4-7mm attachment loss had greatest incidence of
attachment loss. sites with > 8mm attachment loss regardless of age had increased risk of AL.
Deas (91): 21 pts, CADIA vs. PAL over 9 months: Initially deeper sites had more probing attachment
loss. No changes radiographically. Non-disease related density changes were related to technical
variations.
Bannerstein (90): 5 yr. >7mm 53% LOA, Increase attachment loss 1 mm 76% LOA
Claffey (90): 3 yr. > 7mm 50% LOA, Increase attachment loss 1 mm 66%, + BOP 87% LOA
Vanooteghem (JCP 87, 30-20): monitored sites > 7mm 2 yrs, 1.5 mm + of LOA 42% non-molar sites
and 44% furcations.
Lindhe, Socransky, Nyman et al (JCP,82): "Critical probing depths" as a result of regression analysis
when using the following treatment groups: Do nothing < 2.9 mm > S/RP < 4.2 mm > MWF. Treatment
of shallow sites results in loss of attachment.
Wolff (JCP 93): Odds ratio for the following bacteria in >5mm. P.g. (3.9) A.a. (3.0) E.c. (2.7)
NO:
Jenkins (88): Plaque, gingival inflammation, and pocket depth are poor predictors for attachment loss.
.
RADIOGRAPHIC
Deas (91): 21 pts, CADIA vs. PAL over 9 months: Initially deeper sites had more probing attachment
loss. No changes radiographically. Non-disease related density changes were related to technical
variations.
AGE Highest risk factor for attachment loss:
Grossi (JP 94): odds ratio 1.72 for (35-44), 9.01 for (65-74). If >45 y.o., diabetic, mod-heavy smoker, and
Pg, Bf + 30xs higher risk of LOA
Grbic (91): increases with age with 60-69yr 89% LOA, previous loss < 4.0 19%, 4-5 50%, >5
85%
Machtei (94): studied AL changes over 1 yr. period in 3 different age groups (28-40, 41-50, 51-64). 3
mo measurements via
Florida probe revealed no greater rate of LOA as age increases. More LOA is
seen in older individuals which suggests that LOA is due to the result of accumulated LOA over a
lifetime and not due to increased rate of destruction.
MICROBIOLOGY
Bragd et al (87): Recovery of Aa, Pg, and Pi together from a site had a 85% sensitivity and specificity
for
predicting future disease activity. Also Slots (88).
Wennstrom (OIOB 87): Sites after tx lacking P.g., P.i., and A.a. showed no further breakdown. These
results indicate a good negative predictive value---when these bacteria are absent, the areas tend to remain
stable.
Preus (JCP 95): Looked at Sri Lankans. P.i. 76%, P.g. 40%, A.a. 15% presence. 11% of the pts had no
disease, 14% with gingivitis, 59% moderate AP, 16% severe AP. P.g. and P.i. were significant in moderate
and advanced cases but not in gingivitis or healthy cases. A.a. was not seen in non-diseased sites. BL:
Lack of the big 3 may indicate a good NPV (stable sites).
Vertical Defects:
Papapanou, Wennstrom (JCP 91): 10 yr. retrospective study. Angular vs. horizontal patterns of bone
loss as predictors for future bone loss. 201 pts. Radiographs taken 10 yrs apart. Angular defects
classified according to depth. Tooth loss was 13% in horizontal defects, 22% in 2mm deep defects, 46%

74

in 2-4mm defects, and 68% in >4mm defects. As predictors of >2mm bone loss: 8% sensitivity, 94% spec,
28% PPV, 77% NPV.
PROBING
Dependent on: Force, Angulation, Tip Diameter, Health of Periodontium
Probing Force:
Freed (JP 83 7-10): Evaluated different peoples probing forces, found a wide variation. Interexaminer
range 5 - 135 grams, mean 44 grams, greatest in posterior, distal, and when searching
van der Velden (JCP,78): 0.75N most reproducible Chamberlain (85): same 0.75 N
Proye: variation in force 15g-50g resulted in mean PD change from 0.7-0.9mm, 32% increase in BOP
with increased force
Chamberlain: change in force .25N-.50N changed PD 0.8-1.3 mm & .25-.75N changed 1.2-2.0 mm
Lang increased BOP can be elicited from healthy tissues if > 0.25 N used (BOARD QUESTION)
Angulation:
Persson (JPR 91): Line angle probing underestimates disease.
REPRODUCIBILITY OF PROBING MEASUREMENTS
Van der Velden (JCP 80 7-03): Repeated probings with light forces do not increase BOP, heavy forces do
increase BOP. In inflamed tissues probe was .18 mm occlusal to coronal part of CT. (Differs from
Armitage)
Van der Velden (JCP 80 7-05) Standardized probing of .75 N does not lead to a more reproducible
pocket measurement. Tactile sense is lost with automated probe.
Abbas (JPR 7-9) Intensive standardization training was less important than bleeding on probing in
increasing reproducibility.
Badersten (JCP 84, 7-11): Certain teeth/areas more reproducible than others, incisors better than
posterior teeth, buccals better, shallow better, and after therapy probing, stents improve reproducibility.
90% reproducibility with 1 mm. Stent > CEJ after training
Wang et al (JP 95 7-12): conventional (UNC) vs. automated force controlled probe (Interprobe). The
reproducibility differences were smaller for the manual probes vs. the electronic probe. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Van der Zee (JCP 91 7-14) Variations in probe tip diameter and markings are source for probing error.
Pihlstrom (JP 92 7-15): Calibration between examiners needed, automated probes don't really improve
intra and inter- examiner reproducibility as much as once thought, The UNC probe is manual probe of
choice, use the same probe for all exams.
Kalkwarf (JP,86): Manual vs. pressure controlled probing force, controlled force more objective, intraexaminer reliability 100% both, pressure controlled have tendency to read deeper in > 6 mm PD.
STENTS
PRO Badersten (JCP 84, 7-11): Stents improve reproducibility compared to CEJ, certain teeth/areas more
reproducible than others.
Clark (JCP 87 6-18): Measurements using stent more reliable than subG CEJ readings.
CON Watts (JCP 87 6-22): Stent and no stent not that different especially in the buccal area, lingual harder to
measure.
AUTOMATED PROBES
Gibbs et al (JCP 88 18-10): The Florida Probe, standard deviation of 0.28mm with stent, 0.58 mm
without stent, 0.82mm conventional probe
Jeffcoat et al: The Alabama probe, controlled force probe which record location of CEJ (BOARD
QUESTION)
Wang (JCP 95, 7-12): No sig advantage of automated force controlled probe then conventional manual
probe.
Probe penetration in Health and Disease
Armitage (JCP 77 7-1): 25g, beagles, Health 0.39 short apical JE, Gingivitis: 0.10 short JE,
Periodontitis: 0.24 past JE into CT

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Polson (JCP 80 7-06): In health, 25g, 0.25 coronal to CT, 0.70 apical to base of sulcus
Glavin and Loe (67): greater variation in PD in inflamed tissues vs. healthy tissues
Robinson & Vitek (71): strong correlation between GI and probe penetration.
Spray (78): healthy CT fibers act as a "hammock" to prevent probe penetration
Caton, Greenstein, Polson (JP,81): Inflamed tissues less resistance to probe penetration. > probing
depths with visible signs of inflammation, Probe tip remained in JE whether inflamed or BOP.
Aguero et al (JP 95 7-07): Gingival inflammation didnt influence probe position relative to the base of
the pocket, but is located below the most coronal aspect of the CT attachment. (.15mm)
Probe penetration Before/After Therapy
Fowler (JCP,82): humans. .50N, disease: Probe extended into CT and was apical to bone crest in 7 of 12
specimens. Treated:
0.73mm coronal to base of JE, Untreated 0.45 mm apical to JE.
Magnusson (JCP 80 7-2): Humans, used metal strips to determine penetration into tissue. non-treated:
0.29mm into CT (past JE), Treated: 0.31mm coronal to CT (within JE)
Listgarten Decreased probings after therapy due in part to decreased penetration of tissues
Bacteria Transfer with Probe
Barnett (JP 82 7-08) : Bacteria is transferred with probe as seen with SEM. Cultivable?? BOWERSprobably pertains more to pts who are immunosuppressed.
Christersson (85): Probing techniques can transfer Aa with immediate colonization, however, 3 weeks
later Aa cannot be sampled.
Critical Probing Depths
Lindhe (JCP 82 18-23) Overall patients OH more important than probing depths.
If PD<CPD lose attachment after therapy
If PD>CPD gain attachment after therapy
CPD
Root planing
3 mm
Surgery 4 mm
Ramfjord and the Michigan studies came to the same conclusions
PROBING FURCATIONS
Moriarty (JCP 88 6-24): Reproducibility of probing measurements decreased with increasing pocket
depth and degree of root separation. Probe penetration in the furcation results in tissue damage i.e.
penetration into the connective tissue. Penetrating 2.1 mm, thus need more probing sites (4).
Moriarty (JCP 89 7-13) Histo of probes in furcations revealed penetration of probe into CT and often on
to bone.
Zappa (JP,93) : Overestimates using the Ramfjord and Hamp classification system.
Mealey (JP,94): Post anesthesia probing improves horizontal and vertical diagnostic accuracy compared
to standard probing. Tendency to underestimate 1-1.5 mm before anesthesia. (BOARD QUESTION)
BONE SOUNDING TRANSGINGIVAL PROBING
Renvert (81): difference between bone levels by transgingival probing and surgical measurement 0.3 mm
Ursell (JCP 89 18-11): difference between transgingival probing & surgical measurements mean 0.12
mm. very few vertical defects measured
MISCELLANEOUS
Newton = A unit of force which produces an acceleration of 1 meter/ second on a mass of 1 kilogram.
Pond = (500 ponds = 5 Newtons)
Conclusions: Post-treatment reductions in PD and gains in AL may be related primarily to improvement in tissue
quality rather than quantitative alterations in CT and JE levels.
BLEEDING ON PROBING
Gingival Index: Loe & Silness (JP 63 6-1): 0,1,2,3: 0 = health, 1= visual inflammation but no bleeding upon
stimulation, 2 = bleeding when sulcus rubbed with blunt instrument, 3 = spontaneous bleeding.

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Diagnose Gingivitis:
Visual, Tissue manipulation, Eastman, GI, BOP
BOP and Inflammation:
Greenstein, Caton, Polson (JP 81 7-16): Histo, sites with BOP had greater inflammation than sites
without BOP
Davenport (JP 82 7-18): Bleeding sites have greater % infiltrated CT & plasma cells, less mononuclear
cells, had thinned or ulcerated areas, tortuous strands of rete pegs in CT.
Caton (JP 88 7-31): When sites changed from bleeding to non-bleeding there was a reduction in the
amount of inflammatory cells. Increased collagen, fibroblast and endothelial cells. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Baab (JCP 86, 8-7) (DDFM) Cultured bacteria in bleeding and non-bleeding sites. Bacteria not
significantly different. Spirochetes more related to PD, AL, and GI than BOP. Used means of GI PI and
Bleeding Index.
CORRELATION WITH GINGIVITIS:
Polson (81): Histological study, correlates periodontal inflammation with bleeding after stimulation of
gingival sulcus.
Meitner (79): BOP is an earlier indicator of gingivitis than visual signs
Chaves et al (JCP 93): Probing depth > 4mm correlated high with GI, but GI and BOP in shallow PD
low.
CORRELATION WITH BACTERIA:
Armitage (JP 82, 7-19): BOP correlated with increased spirochetes & and other motile species.
Listgarten (JCP 81, 7-17): DDFM may be helpful in identifying patients at risk for attachment loss, later
they reversed themselves and said it wasnt helpful.
DISEASE ACTIVITY:
Claffey: Deep pockets with BOP are best predictor of AL, long term monitoring necessary.
Kaldahl and Kalkwarf (JCP,89): 15-80 % of sites changed BOP status during the study, not reliable as a
predictor of attachment loss.
Lang (JCP 86 7-27): Measured AL, BOP at successive appts. 4/4 times BOP: 30 % chance of AL. 1/4
times 3% chance of AL, Sensitivity 56%. Prevalence of AL 0.85 BOP is a limited but useful indicator for
diagnosis.
Chaves (91): 5 year longitudinal study: high specificity and predictability (93 %) for absence of BOP as
indicator of no AL.
Lang et al (JCP 90 19-2): If bleeding is not present, predicts future health. If bleeding is present, it
doesnt necessarily indicate disease. BOP had 98% neg. predictive. value and 6% pos. predict. value (pts
2-5 yrs in maintenance).Adult perio pts
Joss, Adler, Lang (94): 4.5 yr. supportive therapy study of sites with > 2mm LOA. 2/3rds of sites losing
>2mm had BOP 30% of the time. Only in 1/5th of those sites losing attachment did the sites bleed less
than 20% of the time. Therefore, most sites
that lose attachment will usually bleed at one time or
another, but BOP is not a good predictor of LOA.
Conclusion:

1) BOP has very low positive predictive value (+)

2) BOP has very high PV(-)
3) Must determine prevalence of disease parameter
4) High Specificity: Absence predicts health: Chaves (91), Lang (90)
5) Low Sensitivity: Poor predictor of periodontal disease Kaldahl, Lang.
6) More of a measure of inflammation, rather than disease activity.
7) Absence of BOP is a good indicator for maintenance of periodontal stability.

RELATED TO PROBING FORCE:

Proye: Increased probing force = increased BOP. 25g to 50g change .7 to .9 increase & increase in BOP
Lang (JCP,91): Probing force greater than 25N causes false + due to tissue injury. Korayiannis (92):
Confirms findings.

77

Mombelli ( ): Probing forces of 25g (.25N) necessary for detecting tissue changes before and after
therapy.
Chamberlain (85): 0.25 N probing force does not reach base of deeper pockets. .25N to .50N (.8 1.3mm) & when .25N to .75N (1.25-2.0)
Van der Velden (80): 0.75 N gives more reproducible BOP.
Do Deeper Pockets Bleed More?
YES
Chaves (JCP,93): Positive correlation with increasing pocket depth and BOP with Florida Probe and 20g
probing force. GI scores correlated with plaque index.
Sherman (90): Deeper pockets have an increased incidence of BOP.
Suppuration:
Passo (88): variety of histologic presentations, associated with severe inflammation but see little
information, nonsupporating
sites often have as much in not more inflammation, usually a greater
area of inflammation & more PMN's
Kaldahl (JP,90): low sensitivity (0-7%), High specificity (97-100%) With Pv(+) as frequency of
suppuration increased so did chance of loss of attachment if 8/8 times 50% had loss of
attachment, Pv(-) (85-86%) thus stability without suppuration.
Haffajee

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ENDO-PERIO
Simon & Glick (JP 72 20-6):
1 ENDO: Blownout furcation with no adjacent bone loss. Responds to ENDO tx only.
1 ENDO 2 PERIO: Prognosis depends on periodontal therapy.
1 PERIO: Perio without endo symptoms
1 PERIO 2 ENDO: Perio to apex and possible accessory canal.
True combined: Endo and Perio meet along root. RARE
Bender and Seltzer (OS 63 72 20-1/5): Pulpodontic - periodontic syndrome (periodontal lesions produce
degenerative pulpal changes)
Langland (JP 74 20-9): Inflammation from lateral canal will damage pulp, but necrosis wont occur until the
apical foramen is involved
Simring & Goldberg (JP 64 20-2): Retrograde periodontitis.
Abou-Ross (JPD 82 20-15) Stressed pulp theory. Dental procedures stress pulp so may require endo. A fibers
destroyed before c fibers.
Bergenholtz, Nyman (JP, 84 20-26): Pulp necrosis developed more frequently in teeth which following periodontal
treatment, were used as abutments (15% v. 3%).
Rubach (OS, 65 20-3): EPT value with 2 dentin, but not diffuse calcifications, denticles or age.
Tal (GD 84): Clinical Features

Vitality
Usual Area of Swelling
Pain
Probing
Sinus Tract Location
Radiograph
Local Factors
Etiology

Pulpal Lesions

Periodontal Lesions

Non-Vital
Vestibule
Intermittent Throbbing
Narrow, Isolated Defect
Mucosa
Localized bone loss
Variable
Deep Caries or Restoration

Vital
Attached Gingiva
Dull, Continuous
Generalized Defect
Attached Gingiva, Sulcus
Generalized Bone loss of area
Calculus
Possibly Non-restored

TREATMENT:
Harrington (DCNA 79 20-13): The true combined lesion occurs when independent periodontal and
periapical lesions are present but not communicating. Overall prognosis depends on periodontal therapy
which should be performed following endodontic therapy.
ACCESSORY CANALS IN MOLARS:
Prevalence of accessory canals depends on how the tooth was prepared (etched) and how the dye was put in (under
pressure or vacuum)
Burch 76%,
Vertucci (OS, 78): 46%, 80% D canal, 20% M canal, greater dist from pulp floor-furca incidence
lateral and furcation canals
Gutman (JP, 78): 28%, 25.5% furca only, 10.2% lateral root surface.
Lowman & Burke (OS, 73 20-8): 59% incidence after S/RP. 55%max, 63% Mand 1. Endo lesion
treated first, 2. Wait 10-12 weeks before initiating perio treatment.
Seltzer, Bender (OS, 63 20-1): lateral and accessory canals were located primarily in the bi - and
trifurcated regions in molars. Periodontal tissues may have degenerative effect on pulp.
Rubach (JP, 65 20-4): 45% of teeth exhibited lateral canals with majority located at the apex, stated that
pulpitis can be caused by periodontal origin 8% of pulpitis or necrotic canals associated with periodontal
lesions.
MICROBIOLOGY OF CANALS/PERIODONTITIS
Kipioti (OS 84 20-14): Bacteria in caries free necrotic teeth with advanced periodontal disease resembled
the bacteria in the perio pocket. Suggests that endo is caused by perio.

79

Jansson (JCP 95): Monkeys. Infected teeth had 20% more pocket epithelium and healthy teeth had 10%
more CT coverage. Roots were devoid of cementum but surrounded by healthy periodontium. BL:
Endodontic infections in periodontally prone pts may augment periodontitis propagation.
Kerekes (90): Cross infection with perio bacteria can cause pulpal pathology
ENDO LEADS TO PERIO (Generally a well accepted hypothesis - experimentally demonstrated, intuitively
acceptable, clinically evident):
Seltzer, Bender (JP,67): dogs &monkeys, mechanical pulp exposures to demonstrate that periodontal
lesions were initiated and perpetuated by inflamed or necrotic pulps. Periodontal lesions can be initiated
and perpetuated by inflamed or necrotic pulps.
Jansson (JP, 93 20-11): PA lesion vertical bone loss, increased PD.
Jansson (JCP, 93 20-12): PA lesion increased radiographic bone loss, increased PD, weak
study, slightly widened PDL = endo infection no vitality testing.
PERIO LEADS TO ENDO (Generally a less well accepted hypothesis - difficult to demonstrate
experimentally, may be related to the inability to define endodontic health at any one moment):
Kipioti (OS, 84 20-14): See above
Kobayashi (IEJ, 90): 15 teeth (Dx as non-vital via EPT) associated with advanced perio lesions, access,
bacterial culturing and microscopic analysis: The occurrence of micro-orgs common to both sites in study
suggests that the periodontal pocket may be a possible source of root canal infection.
Rubach (JP, 65 20-4): Pulpitis/necrosis can occur as result of periodontal disease involving accessary
canals. 45% teeth access. canals.
Jansson (JCP 95): See above
CRACKED TOOTH SYNDROME Cracked tooth associated with cold sensitivity and localized vertical bone
loss.
Cameron(JADA 76 20-24): Pain on pressure or thermal sensitivity. Mandibular 2nd molar most
frequently involved (40%). Look for wear facets, steep cusps and deep fossae. Cameron (JADA,76): 75%
cracked teeth on vital teeth.
Gher et al (JADA, 1987 20-28): 90% fractures were posterior teeth. 79% of fractures were vertical, 69%
had endo comleted (71% had endo started).
Hiatt (JP 73 20-22) Mandibular 2nd molars most frequently fractured (BOARD QUESTION)
VITAL ROOT RESECTION
Endo prior to amputation is the treatment of choice.
Pro:
Smukler (JP 76 20-16): Endo 2 weeks post amputation without adverse clinical/ histo effects
Pro:
Haskel (JP 80 20-18): Wedge procedure, 10 pts, 26 vital root amps, 3 cases 1-5 month tested vital, 8
cases tested vital for 3 years. Vital root resection can be a final procedure. 66% vital @ 3 years.
Con:
Gerstein (JP 77 20-17) Vital root resection is only an interim measure. High risk procedure.
Langer (81): 100 pts, 10 yr. follow-up, 38 failed (84% after 5 years), 47% of failures due to fracture.
66% success with vital root resections MN molars highest failure rate due to fractures. (BOARD
QUESTION) Most failures 5-7 years post surgery.
HEALING WITH RCT TREATED TEETH
Morris (JP 57 20-19): Healing of CT occurs equally with cementum vital/non-vital, Dentin: No
regeneration to dentin of non-vital teeth.
Diem and Bowers (JP 74 20-20): Monkeys, Non-diseased teeth, 4 treatment modes: Vital, Pulpectomy,
RCT with CPCP paperpoints, and RCT with gutta percha. Notch at base of defects. Saw regeneration of
cementum regardless of pulpal status. Surgically created defects.
Dunlap et al (JP,81): Growth of fibroblasts occurred on root planed teeth of vital and non-vital teeth.
Method similar to Aleo studies.
Breault (JP 95 20-21): in vitro. Fibroblast attachment was reduced when exposed to formocresol or
warm gutta percha without sealer. (BOARD QUESTION)
Prichard (JP 83): Recommended that prior to perio surgery, endo tx should consist of instrumentation
only. Then following healing after perio surgery, complete obturation of the canal could be performed.
Sanders (JP 83): Only 33% of endo txd teeth demonstrated complete or greater than 50% bone fill with
autographs and FDBA. 65% of vital teeth revealed complete or greater than 50% defect fill.

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ORTHODONTICS
HISTO of Tooth Movement:
Reitan (AJO 67 22-1): Orthodontic Movement: Increases vascularization and bone resorption, PDL
compression, disruption of the blood supply, hyalinization, and bone necrosis. Hyalinization is a bad
thing, caused by excessive orthodontic force. Slows down tooth movement.
During initial period of tooth movement hyalinization of fibrous tissue and undermining resorption of
bone occurs on the pressure side thus widening PDL space. During the secondary period the fiber bundles
on the tension side will be stretched and resist further tooth movement. Relapse is caused by muscle
function and rearrangement of alveolar fiber system.
MALALIGNMENT
YES: Buckley: (JP 72 22-3) 954 Irish factory workers, Periodontal disease increased with age but not with
increasing malalignment
Artun (JCP 87 22-27) Small increase in attachment loss in malaligned MN ant teeth. Malocclusion is a
modifying factor in periodontal disease.
Griffiths, Addy (JCP 81, 9-29): Plaque accumulation greater in malpositioned teeth, dental students
had cleaner teeth. Plaque depends more on position of segment than presence of malaligned teeth. Max
ant had < plaque that Mand ant. More difficult to clean, but not more disease.
NO:

Ingerval (77): Dental students in study: plaque, not malalignment, cause of perio.

Tissue response:
GINGIVA:
Zachrisson (AO 72 22-4): Inflammation occurs 1-2 months after start of orthodontics despite good OH,
but resolves 1 month after therapy. No permanent damage. Patients aged 11-15. Histologically
inflammatory infiltrate increased during active therapy and resolved after debanding.
Ericsson (JCP 72 22-15): Ortho can move plaque subGly and allow formation of pockets
Prichard (JP 75 22-10): 4 bicuspid extractions, sequelae: tissue clefting, open contacts, 66% incidence of
periodontal disease in these pts.
Trosello (JP 79 22-16) Most gingival conditions for ortho treated patients are the same as for non-ortho
treated patients i.e. plaque, inflammation, sulcus depth, tissue bunching, gingival clefting recession.
Ortho treated patients did have more MG defects and root resorption than non-ortho treated patients.
Batenhorst (JP 74 22-8): Moved teeth facially, teeth accidentally extruded, width of attached tissues
increased, MGJ did not change. Epithelial attachment stayed at CEJ except on the facial. Epithelial
attachment on the facial was longer and more apical. Bone apposition around the tooth except on the
facial. Alveolar dehiscences developed when teeth moved facially.
Ten Cate (AJO 76 22-14) Fibroblast involved in CT remodeling. Synthesizes and degrades
collagen
BONE:
Polson: (JP 84 22-22) Examined patients 10 years after ortho, ortho had no effect on alveolar crest levels
except on the distal surfaces of molars where there was more bone in orth treated patients, get LJE when
teeth moved into defects.
Karring (82): Incisors moved out of bone then returned to socket allowed bone to reform
Fenestrations/Dehiscences:
Wingard/Bowers (JP 76 22-13): Facial tipping does not routinely result in bony dehiscences
RESORPTION:

Trosello (JP 79 22-16):

Prichard:

16-17% incidence in ortho patients

2.3% in non-ortho patients
55% incidence.

TREATMENT MODALITIES:
FORCED ERUPTION
Ingber (JP 74 22-9): Forced eruption for treatment of intrabony defects or teeth fractured subGly improves crown root ratio. Can be used for fractured teeth, teeth treatment planed for extraction to
regenerate bone
EXTRUSION OF IMPACTED TEETH
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Kokich (DCNA 93 22-20) Technique article. Most commonly impacted MX tooth is the canine,
comprises 2% of ortho patients. Usually palatally positioned. Central incisor second most commonly
impacted tooth. Techniques - Gingivectomy, APF, closed flap technique.
MOLAR UPRIGHTING
Newman (79): Molar uprighting, Brown also.
Simon (JPD 84 22-21) Uprighting technique article
Brown (JP 74 22-6) Molar uprighting will decrease pocket on mesial surface of molars.
FIBEROTOMY
Edwards (AJO 70 22-2) Supracrestal fiberotomy indicated after de-rotations. Improves
retention
CORTICOTOMY
Gantes (JP 90 22-29) Corticotomy facilitated orthodontics caused minimal perio changes, reduced ortho
treatment time. Not a common procedure in orthodontics
MUCOGINGIVAL CONCERNS PRIOR TO ORTHO (?Graft Prior to Ortho)
YES: Coatam (JP 81 22-19): FGG is indicated if there is no attached gingiva prior to starting ortho treatment.
If its not done it could lead to gingival clefting. Orthodontic therapy can cause changes in the width of
keratinized gingiva, and those patients with 0mm of keratinized gingiva had 28% incidence of cleft
formation. Study examined only incisors and canines.
Artun (JCP 86 22-27): Orthodontic correction of labially erupted canines resulted in teeth with less
attached gingiva and more recession than untreated canines.
Trossello (JP 79 22-16): Incidence of MG defects was twice as high in ortho treated patients compared to
controls.
Foushee (JP 85 22-24) Patients receiving orthognathic surgery had decreased width of attached tissue
due to contraction of scar tissue. Graft before surgery.
NO:

Wennstrom (JCP 87 22-26): Monkeys, gingival recession is not affected with orthodontic tooth
movement. Buc-Ling thickness more important

SPONTANEOUS REPOSTIONING
Manor (JCP 84 22-23): 2 pts case reports perio surgery may result in spontaneous repositioning of
migrated teeth, ortho post surgery.
PATHOLOGICAL TOOTH MOVEMENT?
TenCate (76): Orthodontic tooth movement is a pathologic process from which the tooth recovers.
Physiologic tooth movement: Tooth eruption, or movement with orderly remodeling and therefore no
damage to the PDL.
INTRUSION
Steffensson and Storey (IJPR,93): Case study, small forces of 5-10 grams, attachment didn't follow
tooth, specific sites and periodontal health of the area required.
Ericsson: (JCP 77 22-15) Intrusion with poor oral hygiene can move bacteria subGly which can lead to
attachment loss.
IMPLANTS AND ORTHODONTICS
Kokich - Implants used as anchorage for complex orthodontic movement. Fixtures restored with crowns
after orthodontic treatment completed.
MICROBIOLOGY AND ORTHODONTICS
Diamanti-Kipioti (JCP 87 22-28) There is an increase in periodontopathic bacteria with sub-G banding.
Pocket depth also increases. (BOARD QUESTION)
RESTORATIVE PHASE
Changing Concepts in Periodontics
Ramfjord (JPD 84 21-1) Refutes perio myths
1. Crevices >3 mm are progressive periodontal lesions

82

2. Surgical sculpting to resemble horizontal atrophy is necessary to prevent further loss of attachment
3. Complete plaque control is required
4. Furcation involvement signifies a poor prognosis treat furcas with hemisection or root amputation
5. The deeper the pocket the poorer the prognosis
6. Advanced periodontitis cannot be stopped
7. Healing after scaling and root planing is enhanced by soft tissue curettage.
8. Less than 1 mm of attached keratinized tissue will continue to lose attachment
9. Blanching as a result of lip pull indicates a need for MG surgery
10.
Teeth with increased mobility need splinting and occlusal adjustment.
Biological width
Gargiulo (JP,61): 30 human jaws, histo,
Sulcus Ave. 0.69 mm range 0 - 5.36
Ave. range 0.61 -1.76
EA avg. 0.97 mm range 0.08-3.72 Ave. range 0.71 - 1.35
CT Ave. 1.07 mm range 0-6.52
Ave. range 1.06 - 1.08
Ingber (Alpha Omegan 77, 21-2): Review. Ave. distance crown margin:alveolar crest 3 mm for
preservation of alveolar health.
Vacek, Gher (IJPRD,94): Histomorphometrics on 171 tooth surfaces of cadavers
Sulcus Ave. 1.32 0.80 mm range 0.26 - 6.03 mm
EA
Ave. 1.14 0.49mm range 0.32-3.27 mm
CT
Ave. 0.77 0.29 mm range 0.29-1.84 mm
LOA Ave. 2.95 1.70 mm range 0.60-8.73 mm
Notables:1) No correlation between LOA and CT or biologic
2) Although there was variability in CT it was the least variable
3) Epithelium attachment was greater on tooth surfaces adjacent to restorations
4) CT and EA were greater in the posterior segments.
Tal (JCP 89 21-23) Effect of violation of biologic width, width restored with recession and bone loss.
Dog study, Class V amalgams placed at alveolar crest
Cohen: Coined the term biological width, 2.04 to bone
Ramfjord: Refutes biological width, says tissues will adapt.
Maynard, Wilson (JP,79): Margins should be kept in the crevicular physiologic dimension.
Wagonberg, Langer (IJPRD, 89): 5-5.25 mm of tooth structure above the osseous crest is required.
Ante's law: The abutment teeth should be of the same or greater root area as edentulous teeth being replaced.
Nyman (81 21-14): Refutes Ante's law. Of 60 bridges, only 5 met this requirement yet all remained
functional (5-8yrs)
Lundgren (JCP,91): Reduced periodontium can be restored with good plaque control. OK to tie implants
to natural teeth
Shortened Dental Arch:
Kayser (IJPRD 89): Premolar occlusion OK; < 4 occlusal units per arch questionable, Premolar or
equivalent make 1unit, molar 2 units.
Overhanging Margins:
Jeffcoat (JP 80 21-6): 100 pts, correlation between Med and Lg overhangs and bone loss. Small
overhangs did not result in increased alveolar bone loss.
Lang (JCP 83 21-8): Crossover design, inlays with overhangs, more BOP and increased Bacteroides
sp.
Rodriguez-Ferrer (JCP 80 21-7): Effect gingival health b/c of plaque retention. Remove as part of
initial therapy.
Pack (JCP 90 21-9) 56% prevalence of overhangs very high. 64.3% PDv> 3 mm, 32% BOP.
Brunsvold and Lane (90): 33% of Pts have 25% of restorations with overhangs
Spinks (86): Diamond tips and curettes the best for removal
Wang et al (JP,93): Molars with crowns or proximal restorations had higher % of furcation invasion and
more attachment loss, but only greater mobility if great among of attachment loss.
Supra vs. SubG Margins:

83

Silness (JPR 70, 21-11): Margins below the gingival crest showed greater amounts of plaque, gingivitis,
and probing depth, supraG is more appropriate. Choice between full and crown not as important as the
supra-sub gingival margin choice
Silness (71): Full coverage crowns had larger amounts of plaque, more severe gingivitis, and increased
PD
Valderhaug (JDR 76 21-13): shows the same in 5 year study.
Increased pocketing:
1.2 mm Ave ALOSS subG
0.8 mm Ave ALOSS at gingiva
0.06 mm
Ave ALOSS supraG
Dragoo and Williams (IJPRD 81 21-21,22): Addresses tissue reaction to restorative procedures, place
retraction cord prior to preparation, placement of subG margins with existing periodontitis may exacerbate
the disease, electrosurgery causes extensive damage to epithelium and connective tissue, Loe and Silness "
injuries are reversible as long as the lesions can heal against a clean tooth surface.
Tarnow (JCP 86, 21-22): SubG margins recession and limited gingival inflammatin.
Tal (JCP 89 21-23) Effect of violation of biologic width with amalgam, width restored with recession and
bone loss. Dog study, Class V amalgams placed at alveolar crest
Flores de-Jacoby (89): Support for supraG margins, subG crowns margins had increased motile rods and
spirochetes,
Silness and Roystrand (JCP 84, 9-24): Healthier if space b/w ant teeth. Also had less fillings. Proximal
gingival health related to plaque retention. Pts with restorations had more disease than those without.
Maynard (79): SupraG crown margins have less clinical signs of inflammation, X-sectional study
Crown Contour:
Sackett (JP 76 21-12): overcontouring the buccal, axial third of the tooth may be a factor which
predisposes the gingival tissues to inflammatory disease.
Crowl (JPD,90): Emergence Profiles of restoration affects the effectiveness of oral hygiene.
Acid etched resin bonded bridge:
Thayer et al (IJP, 93): 5 to 15 year study, Caries rate 6%, success was 81% without trauma. 61% with
trauma.
Priest (IJPRD,95): 77 resin bonded bridges 1-11yr duration. 39% became dislodged. Major factors
concerning dislodgment were the luting agent and the prep design.
Mucogingival Concerns:
Stetler and Bissada (87): SubG margins need 2 mm of attached gingiva
Maynard and Wilson (79): Minimum of 3 mm of attached gingival, 5 mm Keratinized tissue before
restorative. Wait 6 weeks before impressions and prosthetic surgery.
Amalgam restorations and caries:
Albander et al (JP,95): In adolescents, 227 pts, defective restorations and caries had significant effect on
gingival inflammation at that site and the proximal adjacent area. lower bone height was associated with
these areas.
Composite Restorations and Porcelain Veneers:
Blank (JPD 78 21-20): Well finished composites do not adversely affect the health of the gingiva
Dragoo (IJPRD 97 75-87) Possible attachment to glass ionomer composite hybrid (Gerestore Dyract)
Kourkouta (JCP 94): Gingival health with porcelain veneers. No sig. reduction in GI. Decrease in PI.
Larato (72): Composites have more inflammation
Overdentures:
C. Becker, Kaldahl (IJRPD 84, 21-32): Overdenture concept to protect periodontium
Lauceillo & Ciancio (85 21-33): Longitudinal study, good results, stressed maintenance
Renner et al (JPD 84 21-31): 4 yr., 36% developed root caries, mobility mixed, tissues usually bleed,
tissues edematous.
Jorgensen (JCP 94 21-30): 40 pts. Pts who wear their overdentures day and night had more
periodontitis and caries than those who did not wear their overdentures continuously.
Johnson (OS 74 21-34) Vital root submergence in monkeys. Vitality remained unchanged.

84

Combination Syndrome: Loss of maxillary teeth with remaining mandibular teeth, leads to resorption of
maxillary arch, and supereruption of the mandibular anterior teeth.
Removable Partial Dentures:
Bissada (JP 74 21-17): 68 pts with 3 types of RPDs, Metallic bases were more favorable with less
inflammatory responses. Keep margin of RPD 5-6 mm away from gingival margin.
Bergman et al (JPD 85 21-19): Compared well maintained patients with RPDs to controls, found that
subjects had similar plaque, gingivitis and mobility. (BOARD QUESTION)
Orr (92): Partials margins should be at least 3 mm from the gingival margin for oral hygiene.
Gerstein, King (JP 84): Use of removable partials for splinting in tx of mobility, helps with oral hygiene
& preserves tooth structure.
Chandler (JPD 84, 20-17): Increased inflammation in gingiva apical to clasp arms at 8 & (years recall
compared to 1 & 2 year recalls, no significant increase periodontal breakdown or caries.
Root Submergence:
Bowers (IJPRD 88, 21-35): Technique described, healing usually completed by 3 months.
Johnson (JOS 74, 21-34): Vital root submergence is possible and maintains bone.
SUBPONTIC OSSEOUS HYPERPLASIA
Ruffin, Waldrop, Aufdemorte (OOO, 93): Cause is multifactorial, like Tori and exostoses are considered
to result in part from genetic predisposition, functional stimulation (occlusal stress), mild chronic
irritation. Surgical removal may be indicated for prosthetics , esthetics, and phonetics, biopsy, interference
with oral hygiene. reoccurrence has been known to occur.
Wasson (JPD 93 3-18) SAA
Implants to Natural Teeth:
Biana, Ericsson, Lindhe (JCP 95): 10 beagles. 6 month loading of bridge of natural tooth to implant,
Histo revealed no alteration of gingiva or periodontal tissue.
CANTILEVERS
Lundgren, Laurell (87): excellent long-term prognosis. May be due to perfect occlusal contact, no
working or non-working side contacts, and optimal retention.

85

Etiology / Risk Factors

Epidemiology
Prevalence - the total number of cases of a disease in existence at a certain time in a designated area There is a
point in the v of prevalence just as prev is a point in time.
Incidence - The rate at which a certain event occurs. The number of new cases of a specific disease occurs during a
certain period.
INCIDENCE OF PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Marshall-Day (55): 1st epidemiology study, Gingivitis Male > Female (88% vs. 80%) declines in late
teens then increases through adulthood, Periodontitis: Males>Females, bone loss and mobility increased
with age, after 35 tooth loss rapid.
Van der Velden (91): Incidence at 15 yrs = 5%, at 60 yrs = 80% (2 mm attachment loss). Cross
sectional:
Brown (JP 89 6-30): Measured only 6 teeth at mesial line angle, large n= 2600, US pop. 15% healthy,
36% of adult population had periodontitis (> 4mm pocket depth)., 8% advanced periodontitis (at least one
pocket > 6mm ) (BOARD QUESTION)
NIH Study of Oral Health (1987 6-14) Bad study, underestimated prevalence of periodontal disease in
America. Problems include: populations excluded, multiple examiners, no radiographs, randomly
selected quadrants to probe, sites chosen that normally dont break down, could not angle probe, estimates
admittedly conservative, very low BOP estimates, very low pocketing rates only 1% had a 6 mm probing.
Poorly written.
Horning (JADA 90 6-16) Military population, 37% gingivitis only, 33% early periodontitis, 14%
moderate periodontitis, 15% advanced periodontitis, .5% LJP, .5% necrotizing gingivitis. Predominantly
young male, all had radiographs, no healthy category, full mouth circumferential probings. PD more
common in Filipinos. (BOARD QUESTION)
Johnson (JCP 88 6-26) Perio is a disease which affects only a minority of the population worldwide.
Prevalence of severe perio 7-15%.
GINGIVITIS INCIDENCE
AAP Position statement (92): 18-64 y.o., 47% male and 39% females with at least 1 site with BOP.
Brown, Loe (JP 89 6-30): 50% have gingivitis.
UNTREATED PERIODONTAL DISEASE PROGRESSION
Loe (JP 78 6-7): The natural history of periodontal disease: Pts before 40yrs of age, longitudinal study of
development and progression of perio in Sri Lankans and Norwegians, supports continuous progression.
Attach loss Norwegians: 0.07-.13 mm/yr., Sri Lank 0.3mm/yr
Loe (JCP 86 6-12): Wide variety of rates of progression, RP 8%, MP 81%, NP 11% in Sri Lankans
Becker (JP 79 6-8): 30 diagnosed but untreated periodontitis pts, recalled 10 yrs, perio is progressive and
rapid if untreated. mean tooth loss 0.36 per year. Molars most frequently lost.
Lindhe and Haffajee (JCP 83 6-9) Two populations, American and Swedish, no treatment 3.9% of sites
lost 2 mm of attachment, showed sites with advanced AL are not more prone to further loss. Implied
disease is not continuous. (BOARD QUESTION) 2-3% of sites lose >2.5 mm of clinical attachment
FAMILIAL PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Proband is the 1st individual of a familial pattern with the disease.
Michalowicz 91: 100+ Identical twins, found correlation between siblings. Monozygotic twins of
different environments.
Page: LJP X-Linked dominant transfer
Hart (92): Due to limited incidence of male to male transfer, the genetic transfer of LJP may be
autosomal.
Suzuki: Genetic link to RPP
Boughman (92): LJP and GJP, + antibody status not related to siblings with disease (phenotypic transfer
pattern not expected
mechanism.
AGE AND PERIODONTAL DISEASE
INCIDENCE:
Gilbert (92): 65 yr. or more pts, not a deep pocket disease, but attachment loss is extremely common,
62% of seniors have some evidence of attachment loss.

86

EFFECTS ON TISSUES
Boyle (JP 73 3-2) Statistically significant loss of bone with increasing age, clinically insignificant
Matheny Older patients have increased vessels and BP, decreased vessels with active flow and oxygen
saturation
Van der Velden (JCP 84 14-16) gradual breakdown of periodontium with age but the cause of this might
be either age or cumulative effect of longer exposure to periodontitis, The epithelium becomes thinner, less
keratinized and shows increased cell density. CT becomes denser, coarsely textured and exhibits fewer
cellular elements, decreased osteoblasts at bone/PDL interface. Continual cemental apposition. Gradual
recession.
Ten Cate (69): With increasing age, there is decreased ground substance of collagen, decreased collagen
turnover.
Tonna (76): Age effects on regenerative capacities of bone and cementum are minimal (BNL mouse
model)
RESPONSE TO THERAPY:
Lindhe (JCP 85 14-17): Studied age on healing after periodontal surgery and found no significant
difference between three age groups (<40, 40-49, > 49 ). Similar changes in Attachment levels, PD, and
degree of gingivitis seen in all pts.
Abbas (84): Compared healing of older vs. younger pts, Wound healing was longer in patients more
susceptible to disease (it was the younger population). Healing time was also increased with extent of
disease.
Greenwell (89): Regenerative therapy should be used on all geriatric pts who are not medically
compromised.
World Workshop (89) " The elderly patient with moderate alveolar bone loss has a better prognosis than
the younger patient with the same amount of gingival and osseous destruction."
Aging Female/ Osteoporosis:
Norderyd et al (JP,93): Estrogen supplement in the 50-64 yr. old presented with less gingival bleeding
than controls
von Wowern (JP 94): 12 osteoporotic females and 14 normal females with the same PI, GI, and BOP
were examined. The osteoporotic women had greater LOA as well as decreased bone mineral content of
the mandible and forearm. Suggests that osteoporotic women may be more at risk for LOA.
Klemetti (JCP,94): Individuals with high mineral content in skeletal bone seem to retain their teeth with
deep periodontal pockets.
Summary: no clear cut link between osteoporosis and periodontal disease.
PLAQUE AS AN ETIOLOGY
HOW DOES PLAQUE FORM AND WHAT BACTERIA ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ITS FORMATION?
Studies basically indicate the following basic sequence in plaque formation:
pellicle formation G+ colonization Filament colonization G- and spirochetal colonization
CHRONOLOGICAL PLAQUE DEVELOPMENT
SupraG: Gram + (actinomyces and streptococci) attach very quickly to salivary proteins of the pellicle,
thus if you clean often you repeat the attachment process. Actinomyces viscosis big player in supraG
plaque
- Intrinsic growth rate/death influenced by a) oral hygiene
b) Gram (-) produce inhibitory factors
c) PMN's, specific antibodies
d) food
- Gram (-) Anaerobes, microaerophillic are fed by gram (+) bact. extracellular products and tissue
breakdown products,
-when you starve they will elicit more tissue breakdown for food,
- influenced by PMN's, Ab, and O2 levels
Listgarten (JP 75 8-14): Epoxy resin crowns, light and EM study: 1. 1 mm pellicle with G+ cocci
attached. 2. filamentous bacteria attached to tooth. 3. Inner cocci were replaced with filaments. 4.
Spirochetes associated with outer surface and sulcular epithelium.
Theilade (66): Plaque matures in 14 days.

87

Loe, Jensen, Theilade (JP 65 8-01):

Experimental gingivitis. Developed in 15-21 days without
oral hygiene resolved in 7 days (BOARD QUESTION)
Phase I: (2 days), gram + cocci and rods w/ 30% gram (-) cocci and rods
Phase II: (1-4 days), Increase in # fusobacteria and filaments
Phase III: (4-9 days), Spirilla and Spirochetes (Gingivitis)
Vrahopoulos (92): SubG plaque layers:
1) Nearest Cementum- densely packed Gram (+) cocci perpendicular to the root
2) Superficial layer- Mainly gram (-) rods and cocci
3) Middle layer- Gram (+) filaments and spirochetes
4) Loose pattern- Corn cob formation, Rosettes, "test tube brushes" mainly spirochetes
Offenbacher et al. (JCP 88 8-10): Colonization sequence needed for successful colonization. Small
spirochetes needed for colonization of medium spirochetes and mediums needed for large.
Conrads, et al (JP 96, 8-5): Pg and Aa not present in health, P nigrescens is found in health and Pi is
found in disease.
PLAQUE FORMATION (INFLUENCE OF TOOTH TYPE/GINGIVITIS)
Quirynen (91): Plaque formation was faster in patients with higher gingival indexes. Plaque forms
faster on upper
premolars/molars, and lower front teeth. Also increases during the night.
Ramberg (JCP,95): plaque forms faster adjacent to gingivitis.
1st Bacteria to form on Pellicle: Strep sanguis
ATTACHED PLAQUE:
SupraG: Strep mutans, S. sanguis, S. mitis, S. salivarius, lactobacillus, actinomyces
SubG: S mitis, S. sanguis, Eubacterium, Bifidobacterium, A viscosus, A naeslundii, Propionibacterium,
Bacterionema matruchotii.
UNATTACHED PLAQUE:
SubG: Pg, Pi, Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Capnocytophaga, Selenomonas, Campylobacter,
Actinobacillus.
IS IT THE AMOUNT OF PLAQUE OR THE SPECIFIC "BUGS" WHICH ARE IMPORTANT?
Today's philosophy incorporates components of both the specific and non-specific plaque hypotheses, as well as the
idea that plaque alone is not the only variable associated with periodontal disease.
Theilade (JCP 86 8-07): Combined theories, because you cannot eliminate one organism and cure
periodontal disease (specific). Also not all plaque causes the same amount of disease.
Socransky and Haffajee (JP,92): Disease is caused by " Specific bacteria of the right clonal type with the
essential genetic elements in sufficient numbers for that host with appropriate additional species in the right
environment"
Is plaque amount important? Not necessarily. Sri Lankans had gobs of it and 11% had no progression of
disease.
SPECIFIC vs. NON-SPECIFIC Plaque Hypothesis
Loesch (Oral Sci Rev 75): described the non-specific plaque hypothesis (NSPH) and the specific plaque
hypothesis (SPH).
NSPH: caries and periodontal disease result from the elaboration of noxious substance by the entire plaque
flora, while
SPH: suggests that only certain plaque cause infection because of the presence of a pathogen(s) and/or a
relative increase in the levels of certain indigenous plaque organisms.
Support for Specific Plaque: (Loesche)
Dzink (Forsythe) (88): Clusters, Combinations of Cr, Bi, Pg, Bf, Fn. were more numerous in active sites.
Slots (88): Pg, Pi, Aa: when all 3 isolated from site it was active with 86%+ sensitivity, spec, predictive
values.
Listgarten (JP 65 8-12): Spirochetes largely responsible for ANUG lesion. Four zones superficial to deep
Bacterial zone, neutrophil rich zone, Necrotic zone, spirochetal infiltration (BOARD QUESTION)
Zambon (JCP 85, 8-32): Aa associated with LJP.

88

Virulence Factors: LPS, outer membrane proteins, vesicles, toxins, proteolytic enzymes, adherence
factors (pilli) hemolysins, fibrinolysins, effects on host cells i.e. fibroblasts, lymphocytes, PMNs, epithelial
cells, etc. All factors are expressed to a different degree by bacteria making some more pathogenic than
others.
Support for Non-Specific Plaque: small groups of bacteria produce the pathogenic potential necessary to
induce periodontitis of the #s or proportions are increased in the pocket to certain critical level to overcome
the host resistance.
Moore (91): No difference in the bacterial flora of active and inactive sites.
Theilade (JCP 86, 8-8): Non-specific plaque theory. Destructive periodontitis as the result of subG
colonization, which is favored by such ecological changes as plaque accumulation, gvtis, and gingival
exudate. This increases the numbers of microorganisms and alter their proportions, but no single species
appears in active sites which is not also commonly present in inactive sites.
DOES PLAQUE CAUSE GINGIVITIS AND/OR PERIODONTITIS?
PLAQUE CAUSES GINGIVITIS:
Loe, Theilade, Jensen (JP 65 8-01): Experimental gingivitis Produce gingivitis in patients with health
gingiva by withdrawing oral hygiene.
- 9 1st year dental students, teacher, 2 lab techs, reviewed GI and PI at intervals, reviewed
bacterial status.
- 3 of subjects developed gingivitis in 10 days, 9 subjects between 15 and 21 days. when
oral hygiene reinstituted gingiva returned to a healthy state.
Loe and Schiott (70): Experimental gingivitis study in which it was found that daily rinsing with a 0.2%
CHX solution virtually prevented plaque accumulation and gingivitis development over a 21 day period of
no oral hygiene.
Holt Wilson Musa (JP 95 8-15) Mycoplasma may cause gingivitis in children.
PROVE PLAQUE CAUSES PERIODONTITIS:
Loe, Theilade, Jensen (JP 65, 8-1): Experimental gingivitis
Maintenance Studies:
H&W
McFall
Wood
Goldman
Christersson, Zambon, Genco (JCP,91): Opportunistic Infection idea, Indigenous and many exogenous
micro-organisms are normally non-pathogenic bacteria but can, under circumstances such as reduced host
resistance or overgrowth, cause disease in which case they may be considered opportunistic pathogens.
Lindhe (75): Ten beagle dogs brushed twice daily did not develop periodontal disease, while 8/10 beagles
that accumulated plaque developed periodontitis with loss of attachment. Gingivitis can proceed to
periodontitis, but 2/10 untreated dogs and some sites did not progress suggesting variability in host
susceptibility.
Sri Lankan Studies: Sri Lankans had significantly more plaque and calculus than their Norwegian
counterparts, as well as significantly greater attachment loss and rate of attachment loss. This seems to
suggest that plaque is a significant contributing factor in periodontal disease. Keep in mind though that 11%
of the Sri Lankans had no disease progression even with all of the local factors present, which goes to show
that plaque is not the only variable in periodontitis.
PLAQUE AS ETIOLOGY OF DISEASE PROGRESSION:
Long term studies of Gothenburg Group i.e.. 14 yr. Lindhe study, Nyman, Rossling studies prove or show
that plaque control (every 2 wks) although unrealistic may be the essential component to success to therapy.
Ranney (JPR 87 8-19) No bacterial differences between active and inactive sites
Tanner (JPR 87 8-20) W. rectus, B. gracilis, E corrodens found more frequently in active sites

89

PLAQUE FREE ZONE

Corresponds to epithelial attachment, area that doesnt stain, could be free floating bacteria.
Bass (J Den Res 45): First to describe PFZ
Saglie (JCP 75, 8-02): Plaque free zone present. Narrowest in anterior. No mans land between host
defenses and advancing plaque front. PFZ decreases as PD increases. Suggests non-surgical treatment.
Vrahopoulos (JP 95, 8-03) PFZ is not plaque free, colonies in severe periodontitis resemble colonies in
adult periodontitis. No adult periodontitis pts like Saglie (JP, post-JP, RPP), could have been bacterial
products or parts and not whole bacteria--small particles resembling bacteria.Area that doesnt stain,
could be free floating plaque.
Friedman (92): SEM of extracted diseased teeth, showed clear evidence of plaque free zone(not entirely
plaque free).Had plaque front + "Zone" + epithelium, spirochetes predominant, always bacteria present
usually weird morphology
Kochs Postulates- claim bacterial specificity
1) Bacteria should be able to be isolated from the diseased tissues
2) Pure cultures can be obtained
3) Bacteria when inoculated in experimental animals should cause the disease
4) Bacteria should be isolated from the diseased tissues in the experimental animal.
Socranskys modifications (JP 77)
1) Presence of the putative pathogen in proximity to periodontal lesion and in high numbers compared to either
the absence of the bacteria or presence in much smaller numbers in healthy subjects.
2) Patients infected with these periodontal pathogens often develop high levels of antibody in serum, saliva and
gingival crevicular fluid and may also develop a cell-mediated immune response to the putative pathogen.
3) Bacteria can often demonstrate in vivo production of virulence factors that can be correlated with clinical
histopathology.
4) Clinical treatment that eliminates these bacteria from periodontal lesions should result in clinical improvement.
MICROBIOLOGY
NON-MOTILE
Aa: G(-) , non-motile, facultative anaerobic rod
B. forsythus: G(-), non-motile
F. nucleatum: G(-), non-motile, anaerobic rod found most frequently in disease and remission
(BOARD QUESTION)
P. gingivalis: G(-), non-motile, anaerobic, bacillus has proteases which degrade compliment, IgG
P. intermedia: G(-), non-motile, anaerobic, bacillus
Bacterionema matruchetii: internal calcification
E. corrodens: G(-), non-motile, microaerophylic facultative anaerobe, rod, surface translocating.
MOTILE
Capnocytophaga sp: G(-), motile, capnophyllic, fusiform rods, surface transloc.
Treponema denticola: G(-), motile, strict anaerobes
Treponema socranskii most commonly sampled spirochete (BOARD QUESTION)
Camphylobacter (Wollinella)(sp): G(-), motile, anaerobe, helical curved, straight cells, flagellated.
C. rectus: G(-), facultative, motile, can be helical, curved, or straight.
Note: It is of importance to remember that facultative organisms (i.e. A.a. and E.c.) are not susceptible to
metronidazole because metronidazole is only effective against obligate anaerobes. If using metronidazole
and still concerned about A.a., prescribe another antibiotic in addition (i.e. amoxicillin)
Extended List: Actinomyces israelii, A. naeslundii, B. capillus, Selenomonas sputigena, Eubacterium timidum, E.
brachy, E. nodatum, Lactobacillus minitus, Peptostreptococcus micros, enteric rods + pseudomonads
VIRUSES
Contreras Slots (OMI 96) CMV EBV have possible role in periodontal diseases

90

Sabiston (JCP 86, 16-9) ANUG possible viral origin CMV. CMV and ANUG have many similar
characteristics age, higher prevalence in HIV positive patients.
FUNGI

Dewit, Cobb, Killoy (IJPRD 85, 16-15):100% of specimens had fungi invading tissues in an acute
abscess. Sparse number of bacteria. Should you prescribe anti-fungal instead of antibiotic?

ATTACHED PLAQUE:
SupraG: Strep mutans, S. sanguis, S. mitis, S. salivarius, lactobacillus, actinomyces
SubG: S mitis, S. sanguis, Eubacterium, Bifidobacterium, A viscosus, A naeslundii, Propionibacterium,
Bacterionema matruchotii.
UNATTACHED PLAQUE
SubG: Pg, Pi, Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Capnocytophaga, Selenomonas, Camphylobacter, Actinobacillus.
So, bacteria normally associated with AP are part of the unattached plaque.
MICRO BY DISEASE TYPE: Taken from Periodontal 2000, Socransky and Haffajee, 1994
Gingivitis
HIV
S.s., S.m. V.p.,
Actinomyces Sp
same as AP
A.n,A.v. LJP
Strepto RPP
Fn..,
Adult Perio
PPP P.m., C.r.
Refractory
Aa, Pi, Pg, Ec,
Aa, Capno,
Pg, Pi, Capno,
Pi, Pg, Aa,
Aa, Pg, Pi,
Fn., C.r.
Yeasts
Bf, Ec, C.r.,
Capno, Ec
Cr,B.f. Fn..,
Treponema,
Fn..
E.c.,Candida,
B.f., P.m.,
Enteric rods,
Selenomonas
P.m.
Sp,
Eubacterium
Sp
(Slots 88)
(Dzink 85)

(Slots 82)

(Tanner)
(Di Murro)

(Delaney)

(Haffajee 88)

ANUG
Pi, treponema
denticola,
fusiforms

(Loesche 82)

Loesche, Syed, Schmidt Morrison (JP 85, 8-17): AP caused by Pg and spirochetes. And we can treat with
Flagyl. (We dont know if spirochetes are the etiologic agent).
MICRO OF OTHER CONDITIONS:
Peri-implantitis
same as AP
IDDM
NIDDM
Smokers

same as AP
same as AP, Pg, possibly different serotype
Aa, Pg, Pi, #s same in smoking and non-smoking perio pts

Pregnancy

increased numbers of P.i.

Mombelli 87
Apse 89
Zambon
Zambon 88
Preber & Bergstrom
92
Kornmon 80

WHY ARE CERTAIN BACTERIA SO VIRULENT?

What bacteria can do:
1) May produce toxic products such as lactic acid, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia
2) Endotoxins which indirectly destroy tissue by setting up destructive inflammatory response.
3) Produce enzymes such as collagenase, hyaluronidase, glycosides
4) Kill PMNs or alter their function- Capnocytophaga and Pg interfere with chemotaxis, Aa produces
leukotoxin which interferes with PMN function.
5) Ag/Ab Response thus tissue destruction.
Virulence Factors of P.ging.
(1) pilli for adherence

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(2) fimbriae induce T-cell response and antibody production (BOARD QUESTION)
(3) capsule which adds resistance to phagocytosis
(4) LPS which has indirect effects due to cytokines IL-1, PGE, TNF
(5) enzymes: collagenase, trypsin-like activity, degrades complement, (BOARD QUESTION) degrades Ig
(6) toxins: ammonia, butyric acid
(7) vesicles to evade chlorhexidine
(8) Three serotypes
(BOARD QUESTION)
(9) Can invade into epithelial cells (BOARD QUESTION)
Virulence Factors of P.i.
(1) pilli
(2) capsule
(3) LPS
Considered less virulent than P.g. because P.i. lacks trypsin-like activity, only partially degrades complement
and Ig, and produces low to no toxic products.
Gharbia (JP 94, 19-16) P. intermedia and P. nigrescens may be confused with each other
Virulence Factors of Aa: (Zambon JCP 85, 8-32)
(1) leukotoxin which lyses PMNs
(2) can alter PMN activation
(3) lymphocyte suppression factor
(4) produces catalase which degrades peroxide.
(5) Four Serotypes (Type B - bad!)
(6) Tissue destruction factors- LPS
(7) Bone resorption inducing toxin
(8) Activates t-suppresser cells
(9) Can invade epithelial cells
(BOARD QUESTION)
(10) Facilitate adherence to mucosal surfaces
(11) Can invade tissue
(12) Collagenase
(13) Acid Phosphatase
(14) Alkaline Phosphatase
(15) fibroblast inhibiting factor
(16) epithelial cell inhibiting factor
(Fives-Taylor JP 96, 32-33): Bacteriocin, Chemotactic Factor, inhibit DNA & RNA synthesis, decreased
fibroblast proliferation, Fc binding-inhibit complement, LPS, adherent, invasivevessicles containing
leukotoxin and endotoxin.
Differential Darkfield Microscopy (DDFM) technique popular in the early 1980s thought to be able to
diagnose active disease on the basis of percent of spirochetes and motile rods. (MOTILE
Capnocytophaga. Treponema denticola: Camphylobacter C. rectus) Listgarten was big advocate. Became
part of the Keyes technique. Later popularity and relevance faded.
Evian (JP 82 8-03) When mean rather than individual values used, with increase in GI and PI,
spirochetes and motile rods increased and cocci decreased. Proportions vary considerably. Article quoted
to support evidence of spiros causing disease, but this may not be the cause.
Taichman (JP 82) Spirochetes important in perpetuation of periodontal disease. Can activate host cells.
Baab (JCP 86, 8-7): Cultured bacteria in bleeding and non-bleeding sites. Bacteria not significantly
different. Spirochetes more related to PD, ALOSS, and GI than BOP. Sig correlations related to increase
ALOSS, PI and GI found with cocci and motile rodsUsed means of GI, PI and Bleeding Index.
Race and Gender Differences in Microbiology

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Schenkein (JP 93, 8-11) No microbial differences between sexes. Pathogenic bacteria more prevalent in
blacks than whites. (BOARD QUESTION)
Racial differences also noted in prevalence of early onset perio.
Drake (JP 93 8-27) Blacks have higher prevalence of pathogenic bacteria than whites. Perio also more
severe in blacks in the Piedmont study (more Pging).
Von Troil-Linden (JCP 95 8-32) Spouses of patients with advanced periodontal disease have a worse
perio status than spouses of periodontally healthy individuals.
Beck (92) Studied pathogens in Blacks and White. Differences most pronounced for P. ging (BOARD
QUESTION)
BACTERIAL INVASION
Bacterial invasion was not thought to occur for many years. Bacteria in the CT were thought to be an error of
biopsy technique. Now bacterial invasion of the periodontal tissues is an accepted concept.
YES:

Saglie(JPR 82): SEM of 5 biopsies, 4 had bacterial penetration into epithelium, 1 penetrated into CT.
Another study showed Aa, spirochete invasion into epithelium and CT in 1 LJP patient.
Saglie (JP 88 8-22) Aa and P ging detected in epithelium and CT of active lesions by immunoperoxidase.
1) High numbers in active sites
2) Decreased with successful treatment
3) Remain high after unsuccessful treatment
Nisengard, Bascones (JP 87): Saw bacteria 400m beyond epithelium to crest of bone in some cases,
invading organisms were primarily G(-)
Listgarten (JP 65 16-1): ANUG Spirochetes: Superficial to deep 1) Bacterial Zone. 2)Neutrophil rich
zone. 3) Necrosis 4) Spirochete infiltration into CT.
Frank & Vogel - TEM bacteria seen on the bone
Moskow (JCP 92 12-3): Human block sections, periodontitis in maxillary molars can cause thickening of
the maxillary sinus mucosa.
Lane & O'Neil (JP 84 18-8): Periodontitis can cause chronic sinusitis in rare cases.
Engstrom and Egelberg (JP 88 18-5) Perio patients with thick sinus membrane were treated, one year
later perio health was better and sinus membrane was thinner

NO:

Silverstein (90): Beagles, controlled biopsy with perfusion, saw a limited # of bacteria in tissues
regardless of health.
Sussman (JP,69): Human gingival col biopsies, deep tissues no bacteria, limited to superficial plaque &
ulcerated areas.

TRANSMISSION BETWEEN FAMILY MEMBERS:

van Steenbergen et al (JCP,93): P.g. can be transmitted between spouses and children , A.a more difficult
Offenbacher (JP 85 11-7) risk of transmitting bacteria from one spouse to the other. Similar
morphotypes in married couples, could be due to similar oral hygiene practices
Von Troil-Linden (JCP 95 8-32) Spouses of patients with advanced periodontal disease have a worse
perio status than spouses of periodontally healthy individuals.
Preus (JP 94 12-01) Transmission of Aa in families
50% of pts with advanced perio had Aa
50% of spouses and 30% of children also had Aa
Husband and wife did not have the same serotype of Aa
Children with Aa had a serotype identical to that of one parent
Christersson (JP 85 8-32) Evaluated possibility of Aa being transmitted from site to site in an individual
by the perio probe. Found that Aa was inoculated into healthy sites, but that it didnt live for long
CULTURING
Baker (JP 91 19-12): Paper points may not accurately culture bacteria from the base of the pocket.
Layered different bacteria and cultured. Make sure all supraG plaque is removed
Gunsolley (JP 92, 6-34) Must sample a lot of sites to be sure that Aa is not present (31-35). For other
pathogens can use smaller sample number.
Van Steenbergen (OMI 93 19-15) Bacterial survival in transport media was ok up to 48 hours.
Magnusson: Curette vs. washing, neither more effective.

93

Renvert (JP 92): Paper points will sample more bacteria than curettes, even immediately after a curette
sample.
Sampling in LJP:
Savitt: 37 % sites with Aa
Zambon: 57 0f 60 pts + for Aa
PROTECTIVE BACTERIA??
Dzink et al (85): S sanguis, S. uberis, Viellonella parvula, R. dentocariosa, Capno ochracea,
Proprionibacterium acnes associated with sites with gain of attachment/ no loss of attachment. CDR
PAUL FAVORITE. Use when he says bacteria cause periodontitis.
PATHOGENESIS
THEORIES OF PATHOGENESIS
Waerhaug (79): Pts without evidence of TFO had vertical defects.
Waerhaug: Sphere of influence: 2.5 mm from advancing plaque front.
Weinmann (41):
1) Gingival inflammation spreads through blood vessels into the marrow spaces of
alveolar bone
2) Spread of inflammation into PDL is secondary, and usually not inflamed
3) Defect morphology depends on location of blood vessels and thickness of bone
Glickman (63): Codestruction Theory , necropsy study of 3 patients. Zone of irritation + zone of
codestruction, separated by transseptal fibers. Described Buttressing Bone (JP 65 17-1) (both central and
peripheral).
Akiyoshi & Mori (JP 67 17-3): Inflammation occurs along blood vessels, within alveolar bone causing
resorption to start internally.
MECHANISM OF POCKET FORMATION
Takata (JP 88 11-11): Autopsy study 218 human teeth, pocket formation was initiated by degenerative
changes in the 2nd and 3rd cell layers of the innermost cells of the coronal part of the JE. Intraepithelial
cleft formation was followed by degeneration and desquamation of cells lining the cleft.
ENZYMES
Christner (JP 80 11-11) In health, collagenase inhibitor may prevent activation. In disease, bacteria,
host PMNs may produce protease to destroy host collagenase inhibitor.
Friedman (JP 83 11-12) The ratio of lysozyme to lactoferrin could be of value as a diagnostic test for LJP
patients.
Nakamura (JPR 83 11-13) Periodontitis patients have higher salivary levels of enzymes than healthy
patients.
Sandholm (JCP 86 11-14) Most collagenase is derived from the host not bacteria.
Gustafsson (JCP 92 19-6) Increased granulocyte elastase in GCF in perio patients
MECHANISM OF RECESSION FORMATION
Novaes (JP 75 11-4): Pathogenesis of gingival clefts, Hypertrophy of rete ridges leads to anastomoses of
sulcular and oral epithelium, subsequent loss of connective tissue and vasculature, recession.
GINGIVITIS DISEASE PROGRESSION
Page and Schroeder (Lab Invest 76 11-1):
Initial: (2-4 days) Vasculitis, increased GCF, exudate, Increase PMNs, coronal JE alteration, perivascular
collagen loss.
Early: (4-7 days) Accentuation of initial, lymphoid cell (T-cell Seymour) infiltrate, more collagen loss,
proliferation of basal JE.
Established: (2-3 weeks) Persistence of acute inflammation, plasma cells predominate, presence of IgG,
continued CT loss, apical migration of JE, early pocket formation. Still gingivitis
Advanced: Persistence of above, plasma cells predominate Bone loss/ periodontal pockets, quiescence
exacerbations. Periodontitis.
Modifications:

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Brecx (87): Initial lesion health rather than pathology

Wilde: T-cell mediated early lesion
Listgarten (JCP 6-11): Most gingivitis lesions do not progress to periodontitis, conclusion from recall
based on DDFM study.
Schroeder/Lindhe: Change in progression associated with acute inflammation/exudate rather than
change in proportion of lymphoid cells i.e. T cell to B cell.
TRANSSEPTAL FIBERS:
Goldman (JDR,57): Transeptal fibers is a defense mechanism against inflammation and provides
stabilization
Weinman Inflammation follows the course of blood vessels. Gaps in the transseptal fibers allow passage
of inflammation
RAPID ATTACHMENT LOSS MAY BE DUE TO CEMENTAL TEARS

95

IMMUNOLOGY
HEMOPOIETIC STEM CELLS:
T-Cells (Lymphoid Progenitor)
Differentiate into subpopulations of sensitized T-Lymphocytes, derived of precursor cells processed in the thymus
T-Killer cells react with cell surfaces of target cells and kill them.
T-D (Delayed hypersensitivity) cells release mediators (lymphokines) which attract macrophages
B-Cells (Lymphoid Progenitor)
Derived from the same precursor cells but processed in a "bursal equivalent". They differentiate into plasma cells
that produce IMMUNOGLOBULINS: IgG: 80%(150K), IgM 13%(900K), IgA 6%(300K), IgD
1%(185K), IgE .02%(280K)
Immune Complexes:
Glomerulonephritis (Ab to basement membranes), Goodpasture's disease, rheumatoid diseases
Arthus Reaction: Injection of antigens with circulating IgG Ab leads to an acute inflammatory reaction
peak 6 hrs, causing perivascular necrosis.
Reinhardt (JP 88 13-22) Active lesions associated with B cells. Stable lesions T-cells
POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LYMPHOCYTES: PMNs (Myeloid Progenitor)
Primary line of defense against infection (91% of cells in GCF), Major protective cell against periodontopathic
organisms, Neutrophil deficiencies predispose to rapid, severe destruction of periodontium.
1 Azurophilic granules: myeloperoxidase, lysozyme, neutral proteases, hydrolytic enzymes, H2O 2 required,
elastase
2 Specific granules:
lysozyme, attacks bacterial cell walls
collagenase,
lactoferrin deprives Fe, Chelator unique enzyme to PMNs
Lysosomal enzymes = collagenase, hyaluronidase, acid phosphatase
6-8 hrs is the life of a PMN.
Goes from stem cell to PMN in 14 days.
Kills by oxidative/non-oxidative methods
Respiratory burst, phagocytosis, secretion, cytolysis
Chediak-Higashi syndrome deficiency in Neutral Serine Proteases
Chronic Granulomatous Disease, no respiratory burst
Chemotactic defects in LJP, EOP, RPP, diabetics
PMN
Chemotactic:
FMLP: n-forml-Methionyl-Leucine-Phenylalanine: A powerful synthetic chemoattractant for PMNs
Boyden Chamber
Under Agarose Method
Chemotactic Receptors: GP120-90, LFA-1, a-x, CDW-2 are abnormal in PPP (Page:87)
Van Dyke: LAD Leukocyte adhesion deficiency: 40% of the population exhibit this to some
degree.
Kalkwarf (84): PMN defects migration and chemotaxis: LAD (lazy leukocyte syndrome, JOBs syndrome
Diabetes, Downs Syndrome, Chediak Higashi Syndrome. Neutrophil considered the first line of defense,
an inverse relationship can be demonstrated between severity of periodontal destruction and degree of
neutrophil function.
Oshrain et al (JCP 86 13-17): Refractory cases appear to have different pattern of leukocyte response
with two peaks, total cell counts also less.
Phagocytosis: Measured by seeing how many Latex spheres can be ingested
COMPLEMENT CASCADE
Board Questions
C5a profoundly stimulates mast cells, is chemoattractant for neutrophils
C5,7,8 members of membrane attack complex
Classic and Alternate pathways converge on C3 to activate lytic pathway
Complement activates macrophages and lyses cells, increases vascular permeability, involved in mast cell
degranulation

96

Direct Pathway
C1: First component of complement, binds to antibodies that have reacted with antigen
C1 acts as an enzyme which cleaves C4 and C2 into C4a, C4b, C2a, C2b. C4b and C2a form C3 convertase which
cleaves C3 into C3a and C3b. C3b is responsible for opsonization, forming a complex with C4a and C2b
which cleaves C5 into C5a and C5b. C5b reacts with the remaining complement components (C6-C9) to
form the attack unit producing a transmembrane channel causing cell lysis.
C3a and C5a can act on mast cells to degranulate, and as a chemoattractant for PMNs.
Alternate Pathway
Endotoxins activate a protein (properidin) system which behaves as C1, C2, and C4 to activate C3 and set
off the interactions of the remaining complement components.
Plaque can locally stimulate complement production.
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
Type 1: Anaphylaxis: IgE mediated, mast cells (releases heparin, SRS-A bradykinin, prostaglandins and
eosinophil chemotactic factors), PCN allergy, bee sting, asthma, allergy to dust, mites hayfever
Type 2: Cytotoxic: Tissue bound Ag/Ab complexes IgG, IgM, autoimmune hemolytic anemias, blood transfusion
Type 3: Immune complex: IgG,M,A SLE, rheumatoid arthritis, glomerulonephritis (BOARD QUESTION)
Type 4: Cell mediated: T-lymphocytes: lymphokine production, TB , sarcoidosis, poison ivy
AUTOIMMUNITY
Affar (93): Possible autoimmune component to periodontal disease (unequivalent sites affected, weak
study)
Anusaksatheim (92): Autoimmunity possible due to levels of IgG localized to gingiva.
IMMUNE RESPONSE AND PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Wilton (91): Pitfalls in immunology trials: Definition of disease, antibiotic use, organisms not causing
disease, orgs not removed by treatment, cross reactive antigens, fluctuation of antibody levels.
Seymour et al (JCP 79 13-5): Stable site is a T-cell lesion, Progressive site is a B-cell lesion. Thus
progression occurs when a lesion shifts to a B-cell.
ANTIBODIES:
Board QuestionsMolecular weight of IgM is 12 times that of IgG
IgG1 (subclass of IgG) has the highest concentration in blood
IgG4 doesnt fix complement
Ebersole (JPR 82 13-10): AP, Active AP, LJP pts: 90% of LJP patients had high Ab levels to Aa. 3748% of Advanced Destructive Periodontitis and AP pts had normal responses to all organisms except Bg.
85% of normal had no elevated response to pathogens. Increased Ab and increased organism levels =
84% chance of disease activity
Gunsolley et al (87): Failure to mount a substantial Ab response to organisms leads to greater and more
widespread periodontal destruction.
Gunsolley (JP, 90 13-24): Attempted to classify disease status by serum Ab and compare to clinical
disease in periodontitis subjects. No periodontitis group was 100% correct, support heterogenicity,
(Severe periodontitis 60%, LJP 78%).
McArthur and Clark (JP, 93): Antibodies protect by inhibition of microbial attachment, aggregation,
opsonization, and fixation and activation of the complement system. Thus preventing colonization, lysis,
and actually killing of microbes and neutralizing of toxic products
EFFECT OF THERAPY ON ANTIBODY RESPONSE
Vincent (JCP 87 13-18): Successful therapy resulted in significant decrease in levels of Ab reactive with
B.g and A.a.
Wilton et al (91): Reasons given for failure of antibody levels to fall after treatment:
1) organism chosen for study are not causing the disease
2) organism are not eliminated by treatment and persistence of continuing disease/
colonization

97

3) numbers of organisms remain at a level sufficient to maintain antigenic stimulation but

not cause disease
4) cross-reactive antigens which maintain antigenic stimulation but not cause disease
5) post-treatment sampling may be too early
6) organisms may be present at other sites of the mouth
7) Ab levels fluctuate during treatment and no treatment
Endotoxin
Reitschel (SciAm 92 12-4) Endotoxin heat stable, located on the surface of gram negative bacteria.
Endotoxin stimulates host cells (usually macrophages) to release inflammatory mediators
Endotoxin is composed of
Lipid A which is embedded in the membrane and responsible for most of the harm done by endotoxin
Functional part of endotoxin (BOARD QUESTION)
Polysaccharide
Inner core
Outer core
O-specific chain: most variable and provokes an immune response
Mast Cells numerous in health, rare in disease (already used up)
contains Histamine, SRS-A, eosinophil chemotactic factor, heparin, bradykinin
Prostaglandins inflammatory mediator associated with bone resorption
Marks and Miller (JPR 94 12-9) local delivery of PGE1 results in bone formation surprising result
Miyagi Prostaglandin production by monocytes
decreased by testosterone
increased by progesterone
increased and decreased by estrogen
GROWTH FACTORS
Primary action is to differentiate mesenchymal precursor cells into cartilage and bone forming cells.
Wozney (90): BMP clones
BMPs: Glycoproteins, acid resistant
BMP1: Unrelated to other growth factors
BMP2: Most potent
BMP2-7: Members of the TGF- family of molecules, located on chromosome 20
BMP3: Osteogenin
BMP6: Membrane protein Vgr-1
BMP7: OP1
Effective in nanogram concentrations.
Sigurdsson (JP 95, 34-30): Placement of rh-BMP-2 can regenerate original alveolar bone height and additional
apparatus
Sato and Urist (84): Minimal effective dose of BMP is approx. 2 ug.40mg (wet weight): optimal dose 10 g.
Bowers (JP,91): Combination of DFDBA and Osteogenin enhanced regeneration (new attachment) 1.92 mm
compared to DFDBA alone 1.31mm in submerged and 2.33 mm compared to 1.72 mm in nonsubmerged
respectively.
Boyne (IJPRD 97 11-25) rhBMP-2 with collagen sponge used successfully for sinus floor augmentation. Gained 8
mm of bone.
Cochran, Nummikoski, Jones, Makins Turek Buser (IJOMI 97): rhBMP-2 can sig stimulate bone formation in
critical-sized defects around dental implants. rhBMP-2/mem (4.1 mm) > rhBMP-2/ mem (3.7 mm) >
rhBMP-2/mem (2.4 mm) > rhBMP-2/ mem (2.2 mm).

TGF- Transforming Growth Factor-

A polypeptide hormone, found in bone and platelets, activated by low pH (wound healing/resorption), inhibits
growth of epithelial cells and stimulates mesenchymal cells, increases the production of Type 1 collagen.

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Wahl (93): A cytokine in acute and chronic inflammatory sites, chemoattractant for blood neutrophils, monocytes,
lymphocytes. Stimulates secretion of cytokines induced by bacterial products. Combines with other
cytokines to stimulate osteoclasts to resorb bone.
FIBRONECTIN
Glycoprotein, widely distributed, important cell binding properties, stimulates wound repair and scar formation,
influences the movement of fibroblasts into the developing clot, in general stimulates mesenchymal cells,
and inhibits epithelial cells.
LAMININ
Glycoprotein, influences the adhesion, growth, migration of cells, most important is adhesion of epithelial cells to
basement membranes, a potent chemoattractant for epithelial cells.
INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTORS
Somatomedin C, IGF-I+II serum proteins produced in liver, fibroblasts upon stimulation by growth hormone, IGF
stimulates cartilage, bone formation, increases alkaline phosphatase activity. Lynch (JP,91)
PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTORS
Has potent effects on osteoblast migration and mitogenesis. (BOARD QUESTION)
PDGF-AA made by bone cells.
Polypeptide growth factors, synthesized by osteoblasts, macrophages, platelets, stimulates bone DNA and protein
synthesis, bone resorption, released at wounds to stimulate cell division, nanogram amounts will
stimulate mesenchymal cell proliferation. Lynch 91
Giannoble (JP 94 6-37) Compared responses to PDGF/IGF-1 in monkeys and dogs.
Lynch et al (JP,91):Dog study. PDGF and IDGF-1 had more regeneration, 2-fold above controls, no
barriers, than controls.
Dill (93): Possible link to phenytoin overgrowth.
Rutherford et al (JPR 92, 34-25): Monkeys, ligature created lesions (P.g) treated with PDGF/IGF-1
revealed new cementum with attached fibers coronal to cemental notch with new bone formation even a
horizontal area of resorption. 1st demonstration that recombinant human growth factors induce
regeneration in primates.
Oates, Rouse, Cochran (JP 93): in vitro, PDGF-AA and PDGF-BB are major mitogens for human PDL
cells, TGF-B1 is a weak mitogen but modulates the response of the two isoforms of PDGF. IL-1B is not
mitogenic and is inhibitory to PDL cell mitogenesis in hinge concentration.
TNFa/b: TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR a & b
Cytokines which can directly stimulate osteoclast formation from precursors. Can also bind to osteoblasts
and stimulate mature osteoclast formation.
Stashenko (JP 91 12-2) IL-1 important mediator in pathology of periodontal disease. TNF next, IL-1
less important lowest tissue concentration
Rutherford (92): Monkeys, OFD + human PDGF+IDGF got more regeneration (new cementum and
functionally oriented PDL) vs. placebo or debridement only.
METALLOPROTEINASES
Proteolytic enzymes (collagenase), possible role in bone resorption via cytokine activation.
CYTOKINES
Biologic Activity
Activation of Bone Resorption
Inhibition of Bone Resorption
Inhibition of Bone Formation
Mitogenic Activation of Fibroblasts
Fibroblast Proliferation
Neutrophil Stimulation
T-Cell Proliferation

IL-1a/

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B-Cell Proliferation
IC-1: alkaline phosphatase levels, stimulates PDL cell formation into fibroblasts rather than differentiation to
osteogenic progenitor cell lines.
CALCULUS
COMPOSITION:
Organic: 15-20% with Protein 50-60%, Carbohydrates 12-20%, Lipids 10-15%
Inorganic: Calcium 20-29% (higher in subG), Phosphorus 16-18%
Crystalline forms: Brushite, Octacalcium Phosphate, Magnesium Whitlockite, Hydroxyapatite
FORMATION:
Oshrain, Salkind, Mandel (JP 71): SupraG calcification begins before subG calcification. SubG cuticle
derived from GCF, while supraG appears to be salivary in origin. No relationship b/t age of plaque and
onset of calcification or onset and degree of calcification. Mineralization appeared to proceed by
coalescence of foci.
Friskopp, Hammarstrom (JP 80, 9-5): Calcification begins between the microorganisms. SupraG
calculus: covered by filamentous organisms arranged perpendicular to surface. SubG calculus: bandlike clusters covered by cocci, rods and filaments, no distinct orientation. Both had heterogeneous core,
covered by soft, loose layer of microorganisms.
Sidaway (80): G+ rods have intracellular calcification, but G- rods produce extracellular calcification,
which may be significant in early plaque calcification.
-Calculus formation is always preceded by plaque formation, forms the organic matrix
-Calcification can begin within 4-8 hours (Tibbits70).
-50% mineralized by 2 days
-Up to 90% mineralized by 12 days, rate variable
Turesky (JP 92 15-7) Calculus formation reduced if pt is taking blockers, diuretics anticholinergics,
synthroid and allopurinol despite large amounts of plaque.
THEORIES of MINERALIZATION:
1. Booster mechanism: In plaque there is Ca+PO4- ionic forms which cannot alone ppt crystalline
forms, but environmental conditions alter i.e. pH drop, loss of CO 2, NH4+, pH increase. allows crystals to
form. Lindhe
2. Epitaxic: Nucleation points are critical, not Ca+, PO4-, nucleators include: collagen, tissue breakdown
components in GCF. This is what occurs with Peridex.
3. Inhibition Theory: Pyrophosphates can stop it, but something deactivates them and calcification
begins
4. Transformation Immature crystalline forms (brushite) change to larger more mature forms
(Hydroxyapatite)
SUPRAG AND SUBG CALCULUS (Friskopp, JP 83)
SupraG
SubG
Coronal to gingival margin
Apical to gingival margin
White, Yellow , darkens with age
Brown, Black
Softer and more easily removed
Hard and tenacious
Site preference distribution
Generalized distribution
Minerals primarily from saliva
Minerals primarily from GCF, Varied
morphology, highly mineralized
associated with disease
Heterogeneous
Homogenous
Horizontal sm. & large crystals
Vertical sm. crystals only
Filamentous organisms
Rods, Filaments
CALCULUS ATTACHMENT
Zander (JP 53): LM
1) Secondary cuticle interface.

100

2) Locking in cementum irregularities (surface irregularities) where

Sharpey's fibers attached.
3) Locking into resorptive cementum bays/mechanical undercuts
(resorptive defects).
4) Direct penetration of bacteria into cementum.
Moskow (JP 69, 9-2): Cemental tears in region of CEJ. Often site of plaque and calculus attachment.
Canis (JP 79, 9-4): SEM, rejects bacterial penetration, (BOARD QUESTION) saw cuticular
attachment, mechanical locking, direct attachment of calculus matrix to root.
Selvig (JPR 70): Direct contact of calcified matrix to tooth structure.
Richardson, Chadroff, Bowers (JP 90, 9-8): Part of HENA study. Apical extent of calculus is found
1/2 the total depth of defect. The mean distance between the base of the calculus and base of the defect
was found to increase with the depth of the defect.
Pyrophosphate: Believed to inhibit calcification by preventing the initial calcification nucleus from
growing, possibly by poisoning growth centers of the crystals.
Zacherl (JADA 87): Dentifrice containing 0.24% NaF, 3.3% pyrophosphate showed 37% reduction in
supraG calculus in 6 months.
Lobene (J Prev D 86): Dentifrice containing 0.24% NaF, 3.3% pyrophosphate showed 44% reduction in
supraG calculus in 3 months.
Rosling & Linkhe (Comp 87): Crest 3.3% soluble pyrophosphate (tetrasodium & disodium PP) & 0.23%
NaF Colgate pyrophosphate (tetrasodium and tetrapotasium PP). After 3 months of BID brushing, sig
diff in calculus formation after 6 months, calculus in Crest & Colgate reduce 9% & 42.2% compared to
placebo.
TISSUE RESPONSE TO CALCULUS
Pathogenic Potential: Tissue proximity, Impediment of oral hygiene, niche for bacteria (porosity)
Hatfield Cells died if soaked with diseased roots
Allen & Kerr (JP 65, 9-1): Sterile and non-sterile calculus placed in peritoneum of guinea pigs. SC
caused mild irritation, (foreign body reaction) NSC caused severe infection/ abscesses.
Fujikawa (JP 88, 9-7): Dog. Retained calculus after surgery, resulted in increased inflammation, remove
calculus during surgery!!! Healing took 120 days in non-scaled areas and 30 days in instrumented areas.
At all evaluation periods and in both instrumented and non-instrumented sites, inflammation was more
intense when calculus was present.
Listgarten & Ellegaard (JPR 73, 1-33): Monkeys, EM found cellular attachment between JE and dental
calculus, conc. CHX
Nyman (30-22?) split mouth. When plaque removed rather than cementum- same result.
Anerud and Loe (91): Norwegian vs. Sri Lankan (dental care vs. no dental care). Norwegians with good
oral hygiene had supraG calculus with no influence on attachment loss. Sri Lankans: teeth with calculus
showed higher rate of AL.
Ainamo (70): Correlated calculus with gingivitis.
Patters (82): Looked at bone resorbing activity of calculus. Tx with citric acid removed these bacterial
antigens.
Cercek (83): Compared removal of subG plaque or subG plaque + calculus. Only subG removal of both
resulted in clinical improvement.
METHODS OF CALCULUS DETECTION:
Sherman et al. (JP,90): Two clinicians determined the presence of calculus they were correct 75% of the
time. If they thought no calculus was present they were incorrect 50% of the time.
Buchanan (87): Radiographic calculus 43.8% sensitivity, 92.5% specificity, able to detect calculus 1/2 the
time.
Brown, Hancock, OLeary, Miller, Sheldrake (JP 91, 9-9): Culture and DDFM. Non-calculus group
had sig greater % of coccoid and fewer rods or spirochetes. The calculus group had higher levels of BPB
and the noncalculus had higher levels of Aa.
COMPLETE CEMENTUM/CALCULUS REMOVAL NECESSARY?

101

YES:

Hatfield & Baumhammers (AOB 71 5-8): Initially described, endotoxin may have a deleterious effect
on periodontium, irreversible morphological changes of epithelial cells when exposed to diseased roots.
Aleo (JP 74 5-9): In vitro, removed cementum (endotoxin), 0.30 um/ml extract depresses cell
proliferation
Aleo (JP 75 5-10): Fibroblast cell attachment to healthy, cementum removed, phenol extract, but no
attachment to untreated.
Daly (JCP 82 5-17): LPS and bacteria found to penetrate cementum. (3-7 microns)
Nishimine & O'Leary (JP,79): levels can be reduced to non-diseased level with S/RP
Lopez (JP 80 5-13): Implanted root fragments. Scaled had more inflammation than, scaled &
autoclaved, S/RP & autoclaved fragments, but inflammation seen in all. Concluded thermostable and
cementum must be removed.
Fine et al. (JP,92): associated gram- bacteria in periodontal pockets finding a high correlation between
endotoxin level and % of age of gram neg. bacteria.
Jones and O'Leary (JP 78, 30-1): Human, in vitro. Compared SC with S/RP which reduced the
endotoxin (limulus lysate test). Concluded RP able to render Dsd root surfaces approx as free of
detectable endotoxin as healthy root surfaces of uninvolved teeth. RP teeth only had 1 ng endotoxin more
than healthy root surfaces.
Residual Calculus:
Rabbani (JP 81, 30-27): High correlation between residual PD and remaining calculus. NSD b/t
anterior and posterior teeth. The deeper the area (>5 mm) the more difficult b/c more irregular & less
access and more area.
Waerhaug (78): Suggested reformation of subG calculus and reestablishment of pockets in areas where
calculus missed, longitudinal LM human study.

NO:

Sherman: Improvement in clinical parameters despite residual calculus

Nyman et al (JCP 88, 3021): split mouth study, 2 quads S/RP, burs to remove cementum, 2 quads scaled,
polished removed calculus w/o removing cementum, Clinical improvement the same, No need to remove
cementum.
Nakib (JP 82 5-16): Endotoxin weakly adherent, almost completely removed after 1 min brushing.
Moore (JCP,86): Endotoxin can be removed with gentle washing (39%) and a toothbrush (60%) (only
1% remained).
Listgarten & Ellegard (72): Epithelial attachment to calculus
Soderholm: Risks of excessive cementum removal. Pulpal damage, sensitivity.
Middleton and Bowers (90): Cellular cementum can form over dentin and old cementum.
Hughes et al (JPR 88 5-21): LPS on SEM. LPS seen primarily on retained calculus and bacteria, only on
surface area .
Maidwell-Smith et al (JCP 87 5-20): Only a weak correlation exists between amount of LPS on a
particular tooth and attachment loss
and no correlation could be found between pocket depth and
amount of LPS.
Corbet et al. (JCP,93): Root debridement is best assessed on the basis of the healing response and that it
should aim to disrupt plaque on and remove plaque from the periodontally-involved root surface rather
than to remove part of the root surface itself.
Fukazawa and Nishimura (JP,94): 10 periodontally involved roots, 5 were lightly root planed to removal
superficial cementum, the other 5 served as controls, Human Gingival fibroblasts were cultured and
evaluated by TEM after 4 months. In the non-treated roots, HGF failed to attach. HGF did attach to the
instrumented teeth with normal morphology of health fibroblasts.
Somerman et al (JPR,91): Attachment proteins in cementum- bone sialoprotein II

Maybe: Adriens, Loesche (JP 88 5-22,23): Presence of bacteria in dentinal tubules, reservoir of Recolonization,
excessive S/RP alone may not be enough. Bacteria invaded the dentinal tubules up to 300 um. May need
chemical debridement supplement.
BL: World Workshop says excessive removal of cementum to remove endotoxin is unnecessary.
RISK FACTORS OF PERIODONTAL DISEASE
SMOKING

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Epidemiology: 40% of Americans in 1964 were smokers compared to <26% in 1991 (46.3 million).
MMWR 95: 400,000 deaths/yr. due to consequences of cigarette smoking vs. 100,000/yr due to alcohol
misuse
Surgeon General's Report 90: Quitting smoking decreased pt morbidity and mortality.
MECHANISM: Hypothesis
Kenney & Kraal (JP 77, 9-10): PMNs from non-smokers phagocytized better and had more vitality than
smokers. Smoking one cigarette immediately prior to cell collection resulted in a further decrease of these
parameters for both smokers and non-smokers and lasted at least 24 hrs.
Kraal & Kenney (JPR 79): No diff found between ability of chemotactic agents from smokers and nonsmokers to attract PMNs.
Mosely (78): Nicotine produces cutaneous vasoconstriction and has been associated with decreased
microperfusion, which ultimately leads to tissue ischemia.
Nolan (85): Carbon monoxide combines reversible with hemoglobin. This results in a decreased amount of
oxygen carried by hemoglobin which causes cellular hypoxia or anoxia.
Silverstein (92): Cyanide causes an inhibition of the enzyme systems required for wound healing.
Raulin(JP 88): Human foreskin fibroblasts on glass tubes & human teeth, 25-400 ng/ml nicotine. LM, SEM
showed that nicotine altered fibroblast attachment to glass and root.
IN VITRO:
Baab (JCP 87, 9-14): Used laser Doppler, smoking raised gingival blood flow 25%, decreased skin flow and
raised BP and HR.
Peacock (93): Low levels of Nicotine does not alter fibroblast attachment to plastic (in vitro), in fact it
enhanced it.
Cuff (JP,89): Smokers, greater nicotine on root surface, but can be removed by root planing
ARE SMOKERS MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO PERIODONTAL DISEASE?
YES:

Bergstrom, Eliasson, Preber (JP 91, 9-17): 210 Swedish hygienist 30% smokers, 32% former smokers
(FS), 38% non-smokers
Bone loss CEJ to crest (BWX): S - 1.71mm, FS - 1.55mm, NS - 1.45mm. Supports hypothesis that smoking
has direct influence on periodontal bone loss in adults that have good oral hygiene, diff b/t smokers and nonsmokers was only 0.26 mm.
Haber, Wattles (JP 93 9-20): Current smokers possessed higher proportion of deeper pockets (>5mm) than
former smokers or never smokers, The odds ratio for becoming periodontic positive 14:1 for Heavy smoker
(> 10 cigs/day) compared to 3.4:1 for light smoker (< 10 cigs/day). Effect of smoking among IDDM similar
to that in non-diabetic group.
Periodontitis
Sites 4 mm
Non-Smokers
19-30 yrs
12%
3.4%
31-40 yrs
33%
4.3%
Smokers
19-30 yrs
46%
8.2%
31-40 yrs
88%
14.3%
Stoltenberg (JP 93, 9-11): Smoking is a greater risk factor in periodontal disease than the presence of
pathogenic plaque. Smokers 5.3xs greater chance of PD 3.5 mm than non-smokers. No association
between smokers and bacteria.
Grossi (94): odds ratio for LOA increases with the amount of smoking. Heavy smoker odds ratio for LOA
4.75 (double that of light smokers). If >45 y.o., diabetic, mod-heavy smoker, and Pg, Bf + 30xs higher risk
for LOA
Martinez-Canut (JCP 95): Tobacco increased periodontal disease activity and this effect is clinically
evident above consumption of a certain quantity of tobacco. PAL did not differ between non-smokers and
those smoking <10 cigarettes a day, but did increase significantly in those smoking 10-20 per day and even
more so in those smoking >20 a day. Smoking 1 cigarette/day increased PAL 0.5%. Smoking 10/day by 5%,
20/day 10%.

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Feldman (88): More bone loss, less plaque and gingival. inflammation in smokers. Supported by
Bergstrom (87)
Pihlstrom et al. (91): Cross-sectional; prevalence of periodontal disease much greater in smokers.
Bergstrom and Eliasson (JCP 87): Retrospective, FMX 235 musicians, significantly more bone loss in
smokers
NO:

Sheiham (JP 71): Those who smoked 1-10 cigs/day had cleaner mouths and less severe disease than those
who smoked more. Comparable levels of periodontal disease were observed in smokers and non-smokers
with similar oral hygiene.

CLINICAL FINDINGS:
Macgregor (85 27-15): Smokers brush less and can tolerate dirty mouths. Smoking does not influence
plaque formation. Also did article on alcohol and decreased immune response.
Bergstrom and Preber (86): Correlated decreased inflammatory response in smokers by clinical PI, GI,
Bleeding , exudate. Plaque rate formation was similar in both groups. Smokers have less inflammation and
bleeding than non-smokers (BOARD QUESTION)
Danielsen (JCP 90): Same results.
MacFarlane et al (93, JP): 31 Pts - Study on refractory periodontitis with respect to PMN chemotaxis and
phagocytosis and smoking. Found:
1) No chemotaxis defects
2) Phagocytosis was significantly impaired.
3) 90% of refractory pts were smokers
Haber: Clinical appearance:
Gingiva tends to be fibrotic with thickened, rolled margins.
Minimal gingival redness or edema is present relative to the disease severity present.
Greater pocketing in anterior and post max palatal areas.
Gingival recession in anteriors.
No association between perio status and plaque and calculus scores.
Characteristics:
Early onset of disease at 20-30 years with rapid disease progression.
Minimal reduction of PD following scaling.
Repocketing within one year of surgical tx.
Resistance to conventional tx.
IMPLANTS:
Bain (93): Retrospective study of 2,194 Branemarks, failures were 11.28% in smokers vs. 4.76% in nonsmokers
Jones, Triplet (JOMFS 92, 9-19): Cigarette smoking is strongly associated with impaired healing in
patients undergoing simultaneous autogenous bone graft/implant procedures.
Gorman, Winkler et al (DI 94) 2.066 implants in 310 patients
1. Implant failure was 3.31% in non-smokers 6.5% in smokers
2. Patient basis 8.77% in non-smokers, 21.95% in smokers.
DOES SMOKING ALTER THE RESPONSE TO THERAPY? YES
Tonetti, Pini-Prato, Cortellini (JCP 95, 9-15): Studied effects of smoking on healing following GTR in
intrabony defects. 71 defects: 32 defects in smokers (>10 cigs/day) and 39 defects in non-smokers Txd with
ePTFE. At 1 year, smokers showed less PALG (2.1 mm) than non-smokers (5.2 mm). Smoking increased
risk of site becoming loser. Suggests that cigarette smoking leads to a reduced healing response after GTR
Tx.
Ah, Johnson, Kaldahl, Patel, Kalkwarf (JCP 94) Smokers respond less favorably to a variety of treatments
than non-smokers, especially PD and ALOSS. Smoking has systemic and local effects which affect host
response and deleterious on wound healing. Lower BOP in smoker until surgical phase.
Preber and Bergstrom (JCP 90, 9-19): S,NS treated w/ OHI, S/RP,MWF, showed probing depth reduction
or residual pockets at
12 months. S - 71%, NS - 32%
Preber, Bergstrom (JCP,85): No difference in PD response to S/RP in smokers and non-smokers, moderate
disease

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Miller, PD: Smoking 10 cigs/day = 100% chance of less than optimal result. Light or occasional smokers
(<5 cigs/day) same as non-smokers, If heavy smokers stopped during 1st 2 weeks of healing, then had results
comparable to non-smokers.
Kaldahl, Johnson, Patil, Kalkwarf (JP 96, 9-13): HS >20 cig/day, LS <20 cigs/day, P(ast)S, NS. HS
and LS have a poorer response to therapy (surgical and non-surgical) than NS and PS. Smoking cessation
allows wound healing to proceed unimpeded.
MICROBIOLOGY OF SMOKERS:
Preber & Bergstrom (92): No sig. difference in bacterial counts or % each organism between smokers
and non-smokers (Aa, Pg, Pi). [Comment: points to host/systemic problem.]
Stoltenberg (JP 93 9-11): No differential in bacterial counts or % of each organism between smokers and
non-smokers. 5.3 xs greater chance of PD 3.5 mm than non-smokers.
SMOKING CESSATION:
Haber: Former smokers fall in between non-smokers and smokers as far as bone loss is concerned. Pts
with periodontal disease quitting smoking need to be aware that their gums may become bloody and
tender due to loss of the fibrotic, thickened tissue and return of the inflammatory component.
Therapies: No statistical difference between effect of gum or transdermal patches. Long term results
reveal that neither method is effective unless pts change their environment.
Nicorette gum- 12 wk course $320. Pt compliance is a problem.
Transdermal patches- apply daily. Better pt compliance. 4 wk course $320.
(1) Habitrol- starts at 21 mg/day, 24 hr release
(2) Nicoderm- starts at 21 mg/day, 24 hr release
(3) Nicotrol- starts at 16 mg/day, 16 hour release
(4) Prostep- starts at 21 mg/day, 24 hr release
Habitrol and Prostep delivery is based on differences in the concentration gradients between the
patch and the skin.
Nicoderm and Nicotrol delivery is based on a diffusion controlling element.
SMOKELESS TOBACCO
Robertson (JP 90 9-16): Most common periodontal defect is recession (also attachment loss), 46%
mucosal lesions opposite tobacco placement.
Schroeder Soller Primary sites of smokeless tobacco lesions are mandibular labial mucosa (BOARD
QUESTION)

DIABETES MELLITUS
Periodontal Changes:
- Enlarged, hemorrhagic tissues
- Proliferative gingival tissues
- Increased rate of bone/attachment loss
- Periodontal abscesses- often multiple
- Numerous mobile teeth
Signs and Symptoms
- Polyuria (frequent urination)
- Polydipsia (increased thirst)
- Polyphagia (increased hunger)
- pruritis of skin, rectum, or vagina
- weakness and fatigue
- weight loss
- nausea and vomiting are found in uncontrolled IDDM and associated with increasing ketoacidosis
- Xerostomia and burning tongue, thus possible increase in caries in the poorly controlled diabetic.
Complications
- Retinopathy is leading cause of blindness in the US
- Accelerated atherosclerotic cerebrovascular and peripheral vascular disease
- Renal dysfunction that can lead to end-stage renal disease, need dialysis or transplantation

105

- Diabetic nephropathy can increase hypertension.

Prevalence
- US estimated 12-14 million, 5 %
- South Texas Type II 30% among Hispanic population
- Pima Indians Type II approx. 40%
- Finland; high Type I population
Type 1: (IDDM), caused by destruction of the insulin-producing B cells of the pancreas (autoimmune or viralmeditated suspected). Young, usually abrupt, little familial history, thin/undernourished, ketosis common
Type 2: (NIDDM), results from defects in the insulin molecule or from altered insulin cellular receptors and
represents impaired insulin function rather than deficiency. >40 yrs, slow onset, +family history, obese,
insulin levels may be low, normal, or high (resistance/ineffective insulin), may be asymptomatic or 3 p's
Diabetes Insipidus: over production of renal hormone aldosterone, with excessive urine production.
Gestational Diabetes: diabetes associated with pregnancy
ADA Guidelines for Glycemic Control
Test
Normal
Fasting (Specific Test)
70-115
Postprandial (Sensitive Test)
<140
Glycosylated Hemoglobin
5-8
Other test
guidelines:

Acceptable
115-140
140-175
8

Fair
140-200
175-235
10

Fasting blood glucose: 140 mg/dl or higher for more than one occasion
2 Hr post prandial: 200 mg/dl or higher up to 2 hrs, normal <100 World Health
Organization epidemiology studies
Glycosylated hemoglobin: Piche (JP,89): 7.8-8% ( life of RBC is 30-90 days,
irreversibly binds glucose at fraction A1c.) Glycosylated albumin and fructosamine have also
been developed
Oral glucose tolerance test: 100 mg glucose, 30, 60, 90 mins <200mg/dl
Parker (JP,93): Gingival Crevicular blood for diabetic test (92% +PV)
Glycosylated fructosamine cheaper than glycosylated hemoglobin tests for sugar control for
past 3-4 weeks

Treatment:
1) Insulin: Short (Regular) 2-6 hrs, moderate, NPH (Neutral Progamine H),Lente (10-20hrs), long, Ultra Lente
(24-36hrs)
2) Oral hypoglycemic drugs stimulate insulin release from the pancreatic B cells and promote insulin uptake in
body tissues. These drugs are members of the sulfonylurea group and have varied duration of action. Short
acting agents are tolbutamide (Orinase), tolazamide (Tolinase), and acetohexamide are maximally
effective up to 24 hours, while long acting agents such as Chloropropamide (Diabenase), glipizide
(Glucotrol), and glyburide (Micronase) are effective up to 36 hours.
Long term: administration has not been clearly established
Side Effects: increase in cardiovascular mortality, metabolized in the liver, excreted in the urine,
hypoglycemia
Drug Interactions: NSAIDS, ASA, Beta adrenergic drugs.
3) Troglitazon (Rezulin) resensitizes body to insulin drug approved by FDA 1997
4) Metformin (Glucophage) suppresses glucose formation in the liver.
DIABETIC EMERGENCIES
The most common emergency in the dental office is hypoglycemia or insulin shock, can occur with a
sudden drop of glucose level but under 40 mg/dl or lower is the threshold usually described. Initial signs
include mental confusion, sudden mood changes, lethargy, followed by tachycardia, nausea, cold clammy
skin, hunger, increased gastric motility and increasing bizarre behavior. Hypotension, hypothermia and
loss of consciousness follow if condition isn't treated. Seizures can develop with possible death. Early
treatment is administration of carbohydrates (soft drinks, juice, food), dextrose IV, glucagon (1mg)
followed by 0.5 mg 1:1000 Epi IM.
Hyperglycemia occurs when blood glucose goes over 200 mg/dl, with coma occurring at levels of 300600 mg/dl. This condition develops slowly and presents with characteristics similar to the uncontrolled
106

diabetic. In later stages the patient becomes disoriented, with rapid and deep breathing, and hot dry skin.
Acetone breath. Severe hypotension and loss of consciousness develop without treatment, so the conscious
should be transferred to the hospital. The unconscious patient should be managed with basic life support.
Recovery is slower than the hypoglycemic patient. Treatment for hypoglycemic patient with glucose will
not significantly worsen the hyperglycemic state in an incorrect diagnosis , especially if the patient was
hypoglycemic which will deteriorate more rapidly to a life-threatening condition.
DIABETES AND PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Theories for differences between diabetic and non-diabetic perio pts:
(1)Altered host defense i.e., PMN Defects:
Leeper (85)- PMN chemotactic defect most pronounced in persons with poor diabetic control. Genetic
Link- siblings 75% reduced chemotaxis.
Mc Mullen (81) Neutrophil dysfunction of families with hx of diabetes in the family but not having it
themselves. Thus positive correlation PMN dysfunction in first order relatives of diabetics. Genetic
origin
Manoucher Pour (JP 81 14-3) - Diabetics with severe periodontitis had lower PMN chemotactic response
and phagocytosis decreased.
Salvi (JP 97 127) GCF levels of PGE2 and IL-1B are elevated in diabetics.
(2) Bacterial Shift:
Zambon (JP 88 14-5) - NIDDM- P.i., Pg (distinct serotype), Cr ; IDDM- Capno, Fusobacterium, Cr, H
Actinomycetecomitans
Mandell et al (JP,92): elevated P.i., E.c, Fn.., C. rectus. with P.i. being the most significant
Sbordone (JP 95): Few differences between juvenile IDDM and healthy siblings
(3) Impaired Collagen:
Golub (83): Impaired collagen metabolism in the diabetic pt. Increase in collagenase, more soluble
collagen in diabetics.
(4) Vascular Changes i.e., Endothelial/ Basement Membrane thickening:
Frantzis (JP,71): Increased thickness of basement membrane in gingival blood vessels- decrease oxygen
diffusion, decreased
delivery of nutrients, decreased elimination of metabolic end products, impaired
tissue wound healing.
Listgarten (JP 74 14-2): There is not predictable thickening of the basement membrane in blood vessels
in diabetics. Gingival biopsies are not a useful indicator of diabetic status.
(5) Glycosylated End Products
Schmidt (JPR 96 508) Diabetics have increased attachment loss due to increase in glycosylated end
products which changes tissue oxidation. Can treat with anti-oxidants?
(6) Cytokines
Salvi (JP 97 127) GCF levels of PGE2 and IL-1B are elevated in diabetics
Supporting more perio disease in diabetics:
Ciancio (JADA,82 14-4): Young pts, more periodontitis in diabetics than non-diabetics when patients with
similar plaque amounts were compared, but increased alveolar bone loss was more related to the
chronological age of the IDDM patient, than to the duration of the diabetes. IDDM and non diabetic pts: 412yr 0% incidence. 11-18yr IDDM 9.8% vs. control 1.7%, and >19, 39%.
Emrich (JP 91 15-1): 1342 Pima Indians, 2 hr glucose tolerance test to establish diabetes, pts with noninsulin dependent diabetes had 3.4X risk of periodontitis (radiographic bone loss) than non-diabetics.
Diabetic 15-24 y.o. had 2.8X as much attachment loss as normal subjects.
Loe 93 (Diabetes Care) Looks at NIDDM Pima Indians 1) prevalence of advanced periodontal disease
higher among Type II diabetics, 2) Loss of attachment and alveolar bone started earlier in diabetic
population, rate almost 3X greater. 3) Diabetics with retinopathy were almost 5X more likely to periodontal
disease. 4) Pima Indians with Type II diabetes were 15X more likely to be totally edentulous than non
diabetic 5) Those suffering from Type I diabetes for more than 10 yrs had showed greater loss or breakdown
than those under 10 years.
Denying more perio disease in diabetics:
Barnett (84): 22 young patients, 14 yrs Ave., X-rays to detect perio, glycosylated hemoglobin to
determine control: no
correlation between diabetes and increased PI,GI, and BI.

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DePommereau (92): 85 IDDM young (12-18) yrs verses 38 healthy controls. Used glycosylated Hb for
control determination. (55%
were poorly controlled). No difference between plaque control of both
groups. No relationship between the gingival condition and degree of diabetic control and disease
duration.
Effect of Diabetic Control on Periodontitis:
Yes:
Ervasti et al (85): Gingivitis. No differences between control and diabetic group, but poorly controlled
diabetics as a separate group had more gingivitis and perio disease. In contrast, well controlled diabetics
had better perio condition than controls.
Tervonen and Knuuttila (86): Type I pts. Similar to Ervasti study. Well controlled DM pts not
associated with increased risk for pocketing.
Tervonen and Oliver (JCP 93 15-2): 75 diabetics, (59% Type 1), (47% Type 2), 20-70yrs with evidence
of glyc-hemb control. Without calculus, diabetics with good, mod, poor control had minimal
periodontitis. With calculus and poor control had higher incidence of perio (PD>4mm).
Safkan Sappala (JCP,92) IDDM, Well controlled similar to health, poorly controlled diabetics have
more bone attachment loss, Panos used ? Control based on med records.
Seppala et al (JCP, 94): Type I, Poorly controlled pts had more gingivitis than well controlled pts with
similar plaque levels. Greater bone loss and attachment loss in poorly controlled. At 2 yrs, main
differential was greater # of sites with bone loss in poorly controlled group.
Tervonen (94): 107 diabetics Type 1 and 2. No relationship could be found between metabolic control
(Eval by HBac) and the prevalence of subG periodontal pathogens. No difference in the prevalence of
pathogens was found between Type 1 & 2 diabetics. Thus, if control is important in decreasing
periodontal disease, it comes from its role in the host and not in decreasing
bacterial populations.
NO:

Barnett (84): IDDM control and incidence of periodontal disease, No relationship between control and
perio.
45 IDDM pts using X-rays only, pt diabetic for 10-18 yr. used Hb1ac.
Sastrowijoto (89): No difference of perio disease between controlled and poorly controlled (Type I )
diabetics. However, low level of control and no effort to improve plaque control.
Sanholm (89) Increase in gingival bleeding of IDDM with no correlation between status of HB1ac, C
protein

Effect of Control of Periodontitis on Diabetic Control:

Williams & Mahan (60): Control of perio disease improved level of diabetic control. 9 pts had perio tx
and insulin requirement was monitored for 6 mos. 7/9 pts had a reduction in their insulin requirement.
Miller, Manwell, Newbold and Redding (JP 92):treatment for periodontal disease in diabetic patients
may reduce insulin requirements and improve metabolic balance. 9 pts treated for periodontitis, diabetic
control determined by Glycosylated hemoglobin. 5 of 9 had + response to therapy. Pts with improved BI
had decreased Glycosylated hemoglobin, those that had no change in BI had no change in Glycosylated
hemoglobin.
Aldridge (JCP 95): Studied 2 groups of IDDM pts who were fairly well controlled (HbAc). One group
had gingivitis and little to no LOA, the 2nd group had well established periodontitis. Both groups were
then subdivided into a control group and a S/RP group. Results indicated that decreasing perio
inflammation has no effect on diabetic control.
Duration of diabetes:
Glavind (JP,65): duration of diabetes is similar the that of other complications of diabetes such as
nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy, and vascular disease.
Cerda (JP,94): Duration of diabetes since diagnosed was greatest predictor of problems.
MISC DIABETES:
Golub: Increased collagenase activity observed in diabetic periodontal tissues.
Zambon (JP, 88 14-5): Flora in diabetics (Pima Indians) = Capno, anaerobic vibrios, Aa, Pg, Pi, C. recta.
Ficara (75): Elevated glucose levels in the GCF of diabetes.

108

RADIATION/CHEMOTHERAPY
Ionizing Radiation:
-Radiation Therapy for tumor: 200 RAD/day for up to a Max of 6000 RADS, > 6000 RADS is when
osteoradionecrosis is a concern.
-Effects or End Points
A) Molecular
B) Cellular

does

1) Killed a) undifferentiated cells/ cells in mitosis at 100-200 rads

b) non mitotic cells more resistant killed at 10,000 rads
2) Transformation- Carcinogenesis no threshold, Stochastic- Probability of
effect increases with increasing dose, but the increase in dose
not increase severity of the disease.
3) Alter cell function- more response, i.e. WBC increase burst when
challenged by LPS

C) Tissue
D) Whole Body
E) Population
Side effects - rampant caries, xerostomia, osteoradionecrosis
Konzelman (JOM 83 13-29)
Stage I Therapy
complete exam, dental work completed, extractions 14 days before treatment, fluoride trays
Stage II Therapy (during treatment)
broad spectrum anti-microbial, alkaline irrigation, anti-fungals, topical fluoride
Stage III Therapy (after treatment)
delayed use of prosthesis, no soft tissue relines in dentures due to friable mucosa and lack of saliva
Information to know when treating a cancer patient
Type of cancer, WBC forecast, length of treatment, can surgery be performed safely? Platelet count
radiation ports, will it hit salivary glands?
Depaola (Gerodontics 86 13-22) Risk factors with radiation and chemotherapy.
1. Poorly fitting FPD/RPD
2. Poor OH
3. Poorly contoured restoration
4. moderate to severe periodontitis.
Karr (JPD 92 26-12) Pts about to have chemotherapy. If implants have probing depth <3 mm can maintain. If 45 mm carefully evaluate possibly remove. If PD>6 mm, remove the implant. Most problems have
happened with the blade and subperiosteal implant systems.

109

HORMONAL
PREGNANCY
1st Trimester: Emergency care only, no elective treatment. No x-rays.
2nd Trimester: Gingival changes (2nd month on). Routine dental care allowed.
3rd Trimester: Supine hypotension (pressure of fetus on inferior vena cava. Sepsis can precipitate miscarriage,
thus treat infections aggressively. Routine care: early, emergency care only: late
Anesthetic: Lidocaine at all trimesters
Antibiotics: Penicillin
Estrogen: are involved in maintenance of fibrous collagen
Progesterone: cause increased vascular permeability, and increased crevicular PMNs and PGE 2 Results in
increased inflammation
Miyagi (JP 93 15-15) Studied monocyte production of prostaglandins in response to hormones
Estradiol at low concentrations decreased PGE 2 production
Estradiol at high concentrations increased PGE 2 production
Progesterone increased PGE2 production
Testosterone decreased PGE2 production
PREGNANCY EFFECTS OF PERIODONTIUM
Jensen (81): Pregnant pts have 2X increase in GCF and increased GI compared to non-pregnant
Pregnant pts had 55X increase in Bacteroides compared to non-pregnant
Loe (65): Gingivitis increases from 2nd to 8th month of pregnancy. Responds well to local factor
removal.
Kornman and Loeshe (80): BOP and GI increases in the 1st and 2nd trimester verses non-pregnant
controls. Increase in GI without an increase in plaque levels. Bacteroides (prevotella) intermedius was
5X that of the controls and the increase was consistent with increased serum steroid levels,
naphlylquinone, and menadione = growth factors for Pi.
Neal (79): Gingivitis increased from 14-30 weeks gestation while plaque decreased. No correlation b/w
hormone levels and increased gingivitis.
Raber-Durlacher (94): 9 females at the 25th week of pregnancy underwent a 14 day experimental
gingivitis. Study was
repeated at 6 months post-partum. Gingival Erythema, edema, and BOP were
greater during pregnancy while plaque levels were the same. An increase in Pi was seen during
pregnancy.
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES/PREGNANCY
Kalkwarf (JP 78 14-12): Females taking oral contraceptives had a higher gingival index and less local
debris than controls (better hygiene and increased social activity among oral contraceptive users).
Inflammation was thought to be due to effects of increased vascular permeability, increased gingival
permeability, and elevated progesterone. (High doses at this time, today doses are lower.)
Jensen (JP 81 14-13): Non-pregnant on oral contraceptives had 16X higher levels of Bacteroides
compared to non-preg / non-contraceptive. Pregnancy increases GCF flow. GI greater in pregnant
patients.
Antimicrobial effects on contraceptives:
Contraceptives taken into liver, secreted back into the digestive tract (conjugates) via bile where bacteria
hydrolyze and free steroid contraceptive. Low doses rely on bacteria and antibiotics can interfere.
Barnett (85): Antibiotics reduce efficacy of oral contraceptives by eliminating bacteria which are required to
metabolize steroids of oral contraceptives to permit uptake. (Enterohepatic circulation).

110

GINGIVAL ENLARGEMENT Phenytoin 50%, Cyclosporin 30%, Ca Channel Blockers 20% (Verapamil,
Calan, Nifedipine) Sodium Valproate
Hyperplasia may be due to decreased collagenase activity
Phenytoin (Dilantin):
Pihlstrom (JP 80 14-6): Phenytoin enlargement can be prevented with rigorous plaque control programs.
Anterior is most common place to have hyperplasia. (BOARD QUESTION)
Smith QT (JPR 83 14-7) Good OH important in preventing hyperplasia. Microbiology of hyperplastic
areas same as non-hyperplastic areas.
Dill (93): Phenytoin increases gene expression for PDGF-B in macrophages and monocytes.
Cyclosporins:
CycA acts on T-cells, natural fungal metabolite, inhibits cell mediated immunity (BOARD QUESTION)
Pisanty (JP 90 13-34) CycA overgrowth due to epithelial hyperplasia, not CT overgrowth. Needle-like
crystals in epithelium
Thomason (JP 95): 25.8% of pts on cyclosporins only displayed overgrowth vs. 62% of pts on combo tx.
CycA + nifedipine (Ca channel blocker) (BOARD QUESTION)
Cebeci (JP 96 1201) Verapamil (Ca channel blocker) does not affect the severity or prevalence of CycA
induced hyperplasia
Wysocki (83): 30% incidence of overgrowth with cyclosporin.
Seymour (92): Cyclosporin and gingival tissues. Extensive OH does not prevent overgrowth. Pts may need
SBE prophylaxis if heart transplant. Mech. of Cyclosporin: Inhibits interleukin 2 synthesis and cytotoxic TLymphocytes response to Interleukin 2.
Barber (92): LPS and cyclosporin = increased growth of fibroblasts invitro.
Mariani (JP93): Biopsies of CycA vs. control. Gingival overgrowth was due to increase in ground
substance and not by an increase in number or volume of cells.
Pernu (JP93): 27 Cyclosporin A pts. More overgrowth was seen in pts using a combination of Cyclosporin
A and a calcium channel blocker, suggesting an additive effect. Pts taking Cyclosporin A alone exhibited a
better response to treatment and less recurrence of overgrowth when better OH measures were instituted than
those patients using combination therapy. OH had no effect on gingival overgrowth in pts with combination
Tx.
Somacarrera (JP94): 39 Cyclosporin A pts: 60% developed overgrowth over 6 month period. No
overgrowth seen in edentulous areas. Areas with highest PI had the highest overgrowth.
Fu (JP 95): Dose-dependent effect on severity of cyclosporin induced gingival overgrowth in rats.
Calcium Channel Blockers (Nifedipine):
Tipton (JPR94): Nifedipine overgrowth is due to over deposition of collagen compared to control pts.
There is no hyperproliferation of fibroblasts (no hyperplasia) and no increase in fibronectin or GAGs (no
increase in ground substance).
Nery (JP 95): 181 pts on nifedipine for at least 4 mos. 43.6% experienced gingival overgrowth.
Overgrowth related to OH and # of teeth present (10% of edentulous pts with overgrowth vs. 54% of
dentate). No relationship seen between dose or duration of nifedipine or age of the pt and overgrowth.
(BOARD QUESTION)

111

CORTICOSTERIODS: EFFECTS ON PERIODONTITIS

Safkan (JP 84 14-14): No influence of long-term corticosteroid tx on clinical parameters of periodontal
disease. Local factors more important than host factors.
Vogel (JP 84 14-15) Topical steroids significantly inhibited gingival inflammation while the systemically
administered NSAID had no apparent effect.
STRESS
Ratcliff (56): Degeneration of PDLm reduced osteoblastic activity
Stahl (61): Delayed wound healing of connective tissue and bone.
Monteiro da Silva (JCP 95): Review emphasizing:
(1) Human studies strongly suggest stress may be a predisposing factor to ANUG. Correlative findings.
(2) The different forms of periodontitis may not be equally associated with stress.
(3) Only ANUG is clearly related to stress.
(4) Animal studies do not support effect of stress on periodontal support. i.e. Pregnancy or food
deprivation does not result in periodontal changes.
DeMarco (JADA): Post Vietnam stress syndrome correlated with more bone loss. Caution due to poor nutrition,
dental tx, and plaque control.
Periodontal disease:
Green (J Human Stress): Stress associated with perio disease
Ballieux (91): Mental stress has a negative effect on various aspects of the immune response.
ANUG:
Moulton (1952): Stress associated with ANUG
Shannon (1969): ANUG not related to 17-hydroxycorticosteroid levels
Maupin (1975): ANUG related to 17-OHCS levels
Cogen (JP,83): Large-scale study associating "stress" with ANUG, Depression of PMN chemotaxis and
phagocytosis
Vincents Organism: Fusospirochete, pathopneumonic for NUG
HIV/AIDS
Oral conditions associated with AIDS Candida, Hairy Leukoplakia, HIV-gingivitis, Kaposis, Non-Hodgkins
lymphoma
Infection:
Centers for Disease Controls revised classification for HIV:
Category A - Pts with asymptomatic or acute (primary) HIV infection or with persistent generalized
lymphoadenopathy
CD4 > 500, total cell count >2000
Category B - Pts with symptomatic conditions not included in Cat A, but which are not AIDS-indicative
conditions.
For example: Bacterial infections, candidiasis (oral or vaginal), cervical dysplasia or
carcinoma, oral hairy
leukoplakia, herpes zoster, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purport,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, peripheral neuropathy. CD 4 200-499, total cell 1000-1999
Category C - Outright AIDS, The AIDS core definition is CD4 + T cell count < 200 l. total cell count ,
1000
POINTS FROM AAP POSITION PAPER APRIL 94
1)Clinical AIDS is now defined by a CD4 count < 200 and CD4 percentage < 14% total lymphocytes
2) Current terminology for HIV-G is " linear gingival erythema (LGE)"
HIV-P is " Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis"
3) Prevalence LGE in HIV+ is 0 to 50%, NUP is 0 to 5%
4) Micro LGE and NUP of HIV+ is very similar, micro consist of Cr, Peptostreptococcus, Capno, Aa
5) Antibiotics: Caution due to increased risk of overgrowth of Candid, use of concurrent antifungal
recommended, metronidazole leaves much of the Gram (-) to prevent C. Albicans overgrowth. fluconazole
100mg q.d. (14 days)

112

Redfield & Burke (Sci Am): Walter Reed classification: 6 stages based on T4/helper cells/ mm 3.
Stage

lymphadenopathy

WR 0

HIV
Ab/ Virus
-

T-helper
cells
>400

Delayed thrush
hypersensivity
Normal
-

Opportunistic
Infections
-

WR 1

>400

Normal

WR 2

>400

Normal

WR 3

+/-

<400

Normal

WR 4

+/-

<400

Partial

WR 5

+/-

<400

Partial/Fail +/-

WR 6

+/-

<400

Partial/Fail +/-

Lesions used for staging of HIV Kaposis Sarcoma, Hairy Leukoplakia, Candidiasis (BOARD QUESTION)
Mechanism:
Weber: GP120 binds to CD4 receptor, RNA becomes double stranded DNA which makes new viral RNA
proteins. The increased immune response to the infection therefore leads to increased viral particles
formed.
The decline in T4 numbers is due to:
1) T-Cell lysis.
2) Syncitia of T-Cells bound by GP 120 (infection without exposure to immune system).
3) Free GP120 binds to T-Cells rendering them susceptible to immune system attack.
4) Virus can also infect monocytes, macrophages, tissue dendritic cells.
6 weeks to 1 yr. before antibody to virus produced(window of vulnerability). Pts most infective at initial
infection and WR6.
Glick and Cronfeld: HIV retrovirus, core protein p24, GP 120 outer glycoprotein, CD4 receptors on T4
helper cells also macro/monocytes
Normal T cell count = 700-1000 cells/mm 3, immune suppression is <500, serious <200
Normal T4:T8 ratio is 1.75/2:1. At 1:1 there is a decreased immune response. At 0.5:1 HIV-P prevalent
As of Dec 92 there are >200,000 AIDS and 1 million HIV+
Attachment Loss:
Yeung et al (JP,93): HIV infected patients with pre-existing periodontitis tend to experience a greater
rate of attachment loss over time compared with controls.
Tomar (JP 95): Infected persons may experience severe loss of attachment without clinical presentations
of HIV-P.
Microbiology:
Rams (JP 91 15-10) HIV flora similar to regular flora
Murray et al. (JCP, 89): HIV + periodontitis flora similar to classical periodontitis with more Aa. HIV +
gingivitis flora a little different than classical gingivitis and may predispose to HIV + periodontitis. Rams
et al. (JP, 91): same
Moore, Moore et al (JP, 93): Bacteria of HIV + subjects are very similar to non-HIV + with exception of
mycoplasm salivarium, Yeast, ands C. Albicans . Predominant organism F. nucleatum. Zambon et al
(JP,90) says same Fn. most prevalent.
Management:
Robinson: HIV+ pts healed as well as normal pts after an extraction.
Winkler (92): HIV-G: Intense, red, linear band, facial, proximal tissue, entire mouth, gingival pain
frequent. HIV-P: Deep, severe, pain, soft tissue necrosis, not a deep pocket disease due to concomitant

113

soft tissue necrosis, usually localized, tooth mobility, Management: Debridement, povidone-iodine
solution, hand inst., CHX, immediate follow-up care, close maintenance.
Metronidazole (250 mg tid) 2 weeks.
NECROTIZING ULCERATIVE PERIODONTITIS
(BOARD QUESTION) <5% of HIV infected patients experience NUP
Glick (JP 94 15-14): Presence of NUP (95%) highly predictive of AIDS Dx in HIV pts, CD4 cell counts
<200. (BOARD QUESTION) 27% mortality rate 12mos after NUP dx and 72% mortality rate at 24
months after NUP dx.
PROGNOSIS
McGuire (JP 91 19-27): 100 maintenance pts. With at least 5 years of maintenance overall pessimistic prognosis
categories
1. Projections were ineffective in predicting any prognosis other that good.
2. Prognoses more accurate for single rooted teeth than multirooted teeth.
3. Teeth with good initial prognosis remained good.
4. Teeth with initial fair to poor prognosis generally improved.
5. Teeth with hopeless prognosis either improved or were lost.
6. 75% of hopeless teeth were lost.
7. No single rooted mandibular teeth were lost.
8. This population only consisted of the well maintained patient group.
Becker, Becker, Berg (84): Criteria for prognoses.
Questionable prognosis:
1. Bone loss close to 50% of root length.
2. Pocket depths 6-8mm.
3. Class 2 furcations.
4. Deep vertical groove on max incisors (palatal)
5. Mesial furcation involvement of max 1st premolars.
6. Extensive decay, questionable restorability.
Hopeless Prognosis: At least 2 of the following:
1. Loss of 75% supporting bone.
2. Pocket depth greater than 8 mm.
3. Class 3 furcation involvement.
4. Class 3 mobility.
5. Poor crown to root ratios.
6. Root proximity with minimal interproximal bone.
7. History of repeated periodontal abscesses.
8. Usefulness for prosthetics and restorative.
ROOT ANATOMY EFFECTS ON PROGNOSIS
Abrams (89):
Developmental grooves: Long deep groves may have a poor or hopeless prognosis.
Root concavities: Less favorable or poor prognosis
Limited access to furcations: Root removal may be necessary to improve prognosis.
Interradicular ridges in furcations: poor or hopeless prognosis.
Short root trunk
CEPs
INITIAL INFLAMMATION
Hirschfeld and Wasserman (JCP 88 18-12) Patients with inflammation at initial exam had better long term
prognosis than patients without inflammation. Inflammation is a sign of a healthy immune response and
usually means disease is caused by local factors which are relatively easy to treat.
FURCATIONS

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Wang (JP 94 19-29) Molars with furcations are 2.5 times more likely to be lost than molars without furcation.
Mobile teeth and mobile teeth with furcations are at greater risk of attachment loss than teeth without
these characteristics.
MACHTEI (JCP 97 102) Past breakdown, smoking, presence of B. forsythus, P. ging, P. intermedia are
prognostic for future breakdown
EXTRACTION of ADJACENT HOPELESS TEETH:
Pro:
Machtei (89): Significantly greater bone loss adjacent to teeth flanking hopeless teeth. Without
treatment, retention of teeth with severe periodontal breakdown has a negative effect on the adjacent teeth.
Grassi (JCP 87, 19-22): Extraction of teeth had a beneficial effect on adjacent teeth, i.e. decreased PD
gain in attachment
Con:

Heins (JCP 89, 19-24): Adjacent teeth with angular bony defects have no effect on each other.
Heins (JP 73, 19-22): close proximity of adjacent teeth does not predispose the IPX bone to increased
resorption in the presence of periodontitis.
Devore (88): With therapy, retained hopeless teeth have a no effect on the periodontal status of adjacent
teeth. (BOARD QUESTION)
Wojcik, Devore et al (JP 92, 19-25): 8 year follow-up of the Devore article. Still no effect of hopeless
teeth of adjacent teeth with treatment (BOARD QUESTION)

EXTRACTION OF IMPACTED THIRD MOLARS

Chin Quee (JP 85 18-27): Attachment Loss on 2nd molar after extraction of thirds regardless of initial
attachment level. Flap design had no effect. Benefits of intervention: Reduced morbidity.
Osborne (JP 82 18-26): Recommends early removal of 3rds to minimize attach loss distal to 2nd molars.
No benefit of S/RP distal to 2nd molars post extraction, but young patients (18-25yrs) and the area was
probably not diseased. There may be benefit to older patients with diseased sites.
Kugelberg (91): Intrabony defects distal to 2nd molars after 3rd molar extraction was related to pre-op
defects and age of patient.
Van Swol (IJPR, 83): Recommends RP distal at the time of extraction or 4-6 wks later
Mercier (93): Risks of non-intervention: Crowding, resorption of adjacent teeth/perio status, infection,
cyst, tumor
Risk of intervention: Nerve alteration (1-6%), infection/dry socket(1-35%), adjacent teeth injury,
periodontal injury
Dr. Bowers likes to keep third molars

HYGIENE PHASE
PLAQUE/GINGIVAL/PERIODONTAL INDICES
PLAQUE INDEXES
Tan (JWSPA 81 27-3) Disclosing agents discussed, found that no effectiveness for patient motivation.
Reasons to use the agents: 1) Aid Prophy, 2) Diagnosis, 3) Home care, 4) Technique, 5) Experimental.
Arnim for them, O'Leary against.
Silness & Loe (JP 63 6-1) Plaque Index. Graded 0-3 for epidemiology
O'Leary (72): Plaque Record: % of plaque (4 surfaces/tooth), need <10% prior to surgery, plaque not at
DGJ not scored.
Navy Plaque Index: Ramfjord teeth on F + L, divided in thirds
Other indexes:
Green and Vermillion: oral hygiene index
Podshadly and Haley: patient hygiene performance
Lennox and Kopezk
Love: Hygiene analysis index
Glass: OHI-S debris modification
Quigly and Hein (62): Gingival 0-5, 1(crevice). 2 (1mm continuous band). 3 (band
>1mm <1/3). 4 (>1/3 <2/3). 5 (> 2/3 of surface).

115

Gentian stain for plaque, Pellicle stains with disclosing solution

Carter and Barnes (JP 74 6-2) Pts floss themselves and see how much their gums bleed.
BLEEDING/GINGIVAL INDICES
Eastman Interdental BI: Stimudens inserted 4X interproximal, look for bleeding within 15 sec.
Loe & Silness: Gingival Index. Graded 0-3, 0 = normal gingiva. 1 = mild inflammation/edema/color
changes no bleeding when blunt instrument run along crevice. 2 = moderate inflammation, BOP. 3 =
severe inflammation/spontaneous bleeding.
Ainamo & Bay: Ging. Bleeding Index. BOP % (4 surfaces/tooth)
PERIODONTAL INDICES
Ramfjord Teeth: 3,9,12,19,25,28 Periodontal Disease Index (PDI) gingivitis 1-3, Perio 4-6
Gettinger (JP 83 6-5) Ramfjord teeth accurate in estimating indices for whole mouth
Diamanti-Kipioti (JCP 93 6-13) Ramfjord teeth provide reasonably valid estimates of affected tooth
sites, grossly underestimate prevalence of subjects exhibiting deep periodontal pockets
PATIENT MOTIVATION
Soderholm (JCP 82, 27-4): Best realistic plaque index is 15%, 5 OH sessions not better than 2
Derbyshire (70): Gain trust, re-educate, reinforce.
Emler (JP 80, 27-2): Reinforced group had lower plaque scores than control, non-reinforced group
Rayant and Sheiham (JCP 80, 27-1): Study of 161 pts who called back for recall visit b/c they felt
susceptible to disease. But pts did not know disease prevention techniques, nor did they comply with them
if they knew. Thus there is no relationship b/w perceived susceptibility and actual behavior.
Rosenstock Health Belief Model (66):
(1) Pt must believe they are susceptible to the disease and believe in the severity of the consequences of
contracting the disease.
(2) They must believe the advocated health behavior is feasible and efficacious when weighed against
physical, psychological, and financial barriers.
(3) A cue to action must occur to trigger the appropriate health behavior.
Kuhner & Raetzke (JP 89): Socioeconomic variables: age, sex, family standing have no influence on
compliance. Beliefs including motivation, perceived severity, perceived benefits, experience with affected
organ were sig contributors.
MacGregor (JCP, 8427-15): Smokers brushed shorter amount of time, males poorer brushers, not much
difference between females in both groups. Smokers tolerate lower level of OH.
World Workshop: The only way to achieve long term success with plaque control is through supervised,
repeated instruction and reinforcement.
PATIENT SATISFACTION:
Kalkwarf & Kaldahl (92): 80-90% of patients were willing to repeat therapy, most patients didn't know
what kind of surgery performed.

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PLAQUE CONTROL
HALITOSIS/BAD BREATH
Cause: Hydrogen sulfide, methylmercaptain, dimethylsulfide, cysteine, cystathionine
Found: metabolic disorders, perio pockets , tongue
Preti (JP 92, 15-5) Non oral causes for malodor - Diabetes (ketone breath), Uremia/kidney failure (fishy
odor), cirrhosis of liver, laryngeal cancer
Steidley (92): Filtered saliva for volatile sulfides. Found a correlation with oral malodor and existence of
periodontal disease.
Rosenberg (JP 92): Difficulties with measuring malodor, associated with volatile sulfur compounds (H2S
and methylmercaptain)
PROVE BRUSHING WORKS:
Lang & Loe (JP 73, 27-12): Showed that brushing and flossing at 48 hr intervals is consistent with
health.
Waerhaug (JP,81, 27-14): Monkeys, One side brushed 3X/wk , other side served as no tx control,
evaluated up to a year. Marginal gingivitis was absent from the brushed side, moderate cellular infiltrate
was seen on the control side.
Loe (65): Gingivitis in man.
Lindhe (75): Dog study.
Effect of Supra gingival scaling on subG flora
NO:
Kho et al. (JCP 85):18 wks. Reduction of supraG plaque did not appear to significantly change the subG
micro flora.
Beltrami et al (JCP 87):3 wks. No change in subG plaque after supraG treatment.
YES:

Dahlen, Lindhe et al (JCP,92): A 2 and 4 yrs after supraG plaque control, reduced deep pockets and
significant change in subG microflora, especially Aa and Pg.

BRUSHING FREQUENCY
Lang & Loe (JP 73, 27-12): Effective oral hygiene procedures at intervals of 48 hrs were able to
maintain gingival health in dental students. First area to form plaque is the interproximal of premolars
and molars. (BOARD QUESTION)
BRUSHING TECHNIQUES
Gibson & Wade (JP,77): Both modified Bass and Roll method effective over 8 weeks of OH. only 50%
removed. Bass superior to Roll Technique at gingival margin.
Waerhaug (JCP,81): Brush filaments penetrated approx.1mm into sulcus (0.5-1.5 mm).
O'Leary: Carbon particles not forced into the sulcus.
Techniques:
(1) Scrub
(2) Fones: Large circular strokes
(3) Leonards: Up and down, vertical strokes
(4) Stillmans Technique: 45 degree angle towards gingiva with gingival stimulation
(5) Charters: clean crown good technique for post-surgery
(6) Bass sulcular
(7) Modified Bass (45 angle with coronal roll)
(8) Roll
FLOSSING/INTERDENTAL CLEANING
Hill et al (JP,73): Waxed and unwaxed floss equally effective.
Wolffe (JCP,76): Interdental toothpick, proxibrush + floss were equally effective in plaque removal in 35
subjects.
Bergenholtz (JCP,80): Floss more effective than toothpicks for plaque removal. No differences between
various floss types.
Waerhaug (JCP,81): Floss penetrated more than 2 mm but less than 3.5 mm below the papilla.
Graves et al (JP,89): Waxed and unwaxed floss and tape equally effective reducing bleeding 67%, while
brushing reduced on 35%

117

PROXIBRUSH:
Kiger: In absence of papillae, brush & floss 55% effective, Perio-Aid 80% effective, interproximal brush
95% effective.
MECHANICAL HYGIENE AIDS
Walsh et al (JCP,89): 118 pts, Manual and power brushing with and without irrigation equally effective
in decreasing plaque, GI, BOP.
Walsh et al (JCP,95): Showed irrigation with CHX worked better than CHX rinse or placebo of saline for
reducing vital micro-organisms in plaque.
Baab and Johnson (JP,89): Interplak toothbrush removed plaque and decreased GI better than manual
toothbrushing.
Boyd et al (89): Rotadent equally effective as manual toothbrushing, floss, and tooth picks. especially
interproximal
Killoy and Love (JP,89): Interplak, counter-rotary group has less plaque, decrease in gingival bleeding.
Van der Weijden (93): Tested manual toothbrush vs. conventional electrics: BlendaDent, Interplak,
Braun Plaque Control. Time was important factor, @75 sec Interplak was superior, from 15-90 sec
Interplak = Braun, which exceeded manual and conventional electric at all times.
Yukna, Shaklee (JP, 93): Interplak, more substantial and consistent improvement in perio condition and
plaque control effectiveness with the use of inter plaque than conventional devices. 6 month study.
Van der Weijden (JCP 94): Eval of Braun Plak Control vs. manual brush in 87 pts. Parameters evaled out
to 8 mos. Braun Plak Control showed decreased PI, GI, BOP, and calculus compared to the manual
toothbrush.
Hawthorn Effect: Use of a device more because it's new.
Taylor et al (JP,95): No statistical difference with respect to interproximal plaque viewed with SEM
between hand brushing, Interplak, and Braun tooth brushes.
SUBG IRRIGATION
Pitcher et al. (JCP 80): Mouth rinse and direct irrigation, neither solution was found to the apical border
of plaque, direct irrigation was partially effect while mouthrinse was ineffective.
Cobb, Killoy et al. (JP 88): SEM and TEM, Test direct irrigation showed fewer organisms in less
complex arrangements. Doesn't injury the tissues.
Braun, Ciancio (JP 92): Professional SubG delivery (Pik pocket) by Water Pik. Depth of delivery 90% in
< 6 mm pockets, 64% > 7mm. A regular rinse 20% of the depth.
Shiloah (JP 93): Review article: With exception of Hardy, none of the intrapocket irrigation devices reach
the pocket, also the GCF affects the agent if used from being effective. Cannot substitute S/RP but may act
positively if following instrumentation with 0.2% CHX.
Walsh et al (JCP 95): Showed irrigation with CHX worked better than CHX rinse or placebo of saline for
reducing vital micro-organisms in plaque.
Prophy-Jet
Galloway and Pashley (JP 87): Can erode dentin and cementum, minimal changes in enamel, uses
sodium bicarbonate as abrasive powder.
Horning et al. (JCP 87): evaluated air-abrasive powder to ultrasonic, root instrumentation during flap
surgery and found the prophy jet favorable with 80 m of cementum removed in 40 sec vs. 57 m in root
planned teeth which were evaluated after extraction. (2 microns/sec)
Pippen (JP 88): wound healing after surgery, abrasive to tissue resulted in exudate and inflammation,
abrasive to the roots little change in healing, Powder on bone, 2 to 4 days ulceration and partial necrosis,
acute inflammation and bone resorption.
Atkinson (JP 84): Prophy-jet removes 636 m/30 seconds
Berkstein (JP 87): Prophy-jet removed 10.68 m root surface in 3 1/2 sec, 27.9 m with curette

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CHEMOTHERAPEUTICS
ADA Approval:
2 studies, 6 months duration, double blind random with crossover. Lowers plaque % gvtis. Clinically and
statistically sig. Peer review journal. No resistance. No mutagenicity. Safe. Used on general population.
PERIDEX
History: Discovered in 1940's during antimalarial and antiviral research of polybiguanides. First used in Great
Britain for skin wounds, and later as a 4% solution of Hibiclens. Loe (70) showed its effectiveness with
an experimental gingivitis study.
Kornman (86) CHX is a second generation agent (BOARD QUESTION)
Mode of action: 0.12% CHX-digluconate; cationic (binds cell walls/ lysis through increased permeability) and
anionic (binds pellicle and glycoproteins: substantivity). Low toxicity: CHX is poorly absorbed in the GI
tract. (BOARD QUESTION) Over 90% of swallowed CHX is excreted unchanged in the feces. Can be
bactericidal or static depending on concentration. Does not work well in the presence of inflammation.
Substantivity:
Bonsvold, 30% bound in 30 sec. which is slowly released for up to 8 to 12 hours.
Stabholz (JCP 93): In vitro immersion test on dentin chips. .2% CHX and .12% CHX had antimicrobial
activity out to 24hrs. (BOARD QUESTION) CHX better than TCN for substanitivity
Concentration:
Smith (JCP 93): Randomized, double blind cross-over study of 24 volunteers comparing 0.12%CHX to
0.2%CHX. Similar plaque and staining.
Side effects:
Peridex Stain: Ellinson (82): Mechanism = formation of iron sulfide (sulfide from denatured plaque
proteins + iron from the diet stain) coffee, tea, red wine, smoking and CHX are strong denaturing agents.
Dulling of taste sensation: This affects primarily salt/sweet and returns to normal after discontinuing the
rinse.
Bitter taste: This is a function of the CHX itself. The flavoring materials in Peridex effectively mask the
taste, but if the patients rinses with water after using Peridex, the
flavoring will be rinsed away
leaving the CHX taste.
Increased Calculus formation: mechanism unknown; does not seem to decrease effectiveness and is
easily removed.
Desquamative lesions: Uncommon but when it occurs lesions are superficial.
Toxicity:
Pucher & Daniel (JP 92): In vitro effects of 0.02% CHX on fibroblasts. Support the hypothesis
that chlorhexidine is highly cytotoxic to cells in vitro, but various cell functions such as
proliferation, collagen gel contraction, and protein synthesis are affected to different degrees by
the drug.
Gabler (87): 0.02% CHX cytotoxic to RBCs and PMNs.
Cline (JP,92): Direct exposure of 0.01% CHX caused 90% reduction of gingival
fibroblast cell growth.
Clinical Applications:
Pre-treatment rinse: reduce salivary bacterial counts as much as 80-90%, Veksler (JP,91)
Reduction of Plaque 60%, reduces severity of gingivitis 50 - 80%. Walker (88)
Immunosuppressed patients:
Limited manual dexterity: Kalaga (89), Mentally handicapped
Post-periodontal surgery: Newman (89): CHX used POT reduces bacterial risk factors associated with
wound healing 6 weeks POT (Better PLI/GI during healing time frame).
Post extraction: Lang (JCP,94): 40 pts CHX Vs placebo rinse 2x/day for 30 days after
ext.
CHX pts revealed decreased PI, GI, BOP compared to the placebo group out to 6
months
SubG Irrigation: Walsh et al (JCP,95): 0.2% CHX irrigation was more effective
than rinsing with
CHX or saline rinses or irrigation as far as reducing plaque vitality of micro-organisms.
Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis

119

Apthous stomatitis
Caries control
Reduce malodor for 8 - 10 hours Rosenberg (92)
Clinical Efficacy:
Sanders (JCP 86 29-3) SupraG irrigation with CHX in Water Pik has limited effects on composition of
subG plaque.
Walker (29-26) Peridex and Listerine are both effective at reducing plaque
CHX
Listerine

Plaque
60%
40-56%

Inflammation
50-80%
59%

Siegrist et al. (JPR, 86): 0.12% CHX is superior to Listerine or Viadent to maintain optimal gingival
health.
Westfelt (83): Professional recall Vs CHX, both equally effective.
Reynolds et al (JCP,92): Ultrasonic scaling with CHX irrigation resulted in greater PD reduction in the 4
-6 mm range.
Walsh (92): Irrigation with Peridex better than irrigation with H2O, more effective after S/RP.
Berstein (90) .12% CHX effective against viruses with an envelope (BOARD QUESTION)
Bacterial Resistance:
Briner (JPR 86 29-1): 80 pts, 6 mo BID Peridex: transient effect on composition of supraG microflora
no bacterial resistance (Streptococci, Actinomyces).
Decreased Aerosols:
Fine, et al (JP 92, 29-32): 20 ml Listerine for 30 secs reduced cultivable bacteria in aerosols 94.1% vs.
33.9% for control rinse.
CHX:
Greenstein (JP 97, 29-4): REVIEW. Cationic, base stable as salt, substantivity. Acts by binding to cell
wall/mem. Causing change in osmotic equalibrium.
Low concs.- low MW substances leak out
High concs - precipitation of plasma proteins
Effective against Gm(+), Gm(-), and yeasts.
Inhibit plaque by: 1) binding salivary glycoproteins, thus reducing pellicle formation and plaque
colonization, and 2) binding salivary bacteria and interfering with adherence.
Resistant strains dont seem to develop.
Low toxicity, 90% excreted in feces and remainder via urinary tract.
Haskel (JP 86, 29-3): CHX irrigation as a subG monotherapy yielded transient (2 weeks)
microbiological effects (spiros, cocci).
Sanders (JCP 86): SupraG irrig with Water Pik using 0.2% CHX, 0.05% metronidazole or quinine
placebo. Slight shift noted towrds more healthy (cocci) subG microflora with metronidazolegroup but
little change for any group compared to controls. SupraG irrig. had little effect on the subG plaque.
Grossman, Meckel, et al (JP 89, 29-27): Rinsing w/ 0.12% CHX provides significantly greater plaque
reductions (49% vs. 24% Listerine, 12% sanguinaria) and gingivitis (31%) reductions than do phenolic
compounds (Listerine) and sanguinarine compounds (Viadent).
Alleyn et al (JP,91): CHX significantly inhibits fibroblast attachment which may interfere with
regeneration. (BOARD QUESTION)
Maruniak, et al (JCP 92, 29-35): 71 pts, randomized double-blind, both Peridex and Perimed when used
as bid rinse were effective in reducing plaque and gingivitis when used alone. Listerine was more
effective than water in reducing plaque, but showed no difference than water with bleeding.
Soskolne (JP 97, 32-38): CHX gel placed subG combined with S/RP better than S/RP alone. Weak study.
KEYES Technique:
- sulcular brushing and tooth picks of floss with baking soda and H2O2
- leave baking soda and H2O2 in place for 1 min after brushing
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- Rinse or use water Pik

- Use water Pik with NaCl in the evening.
- Use topical F- once a day
- Use topical F- once a day
- If Darkfield positive for motile organisms, use TCN
Rams, Keyes, et al (JADA 85, 29-15): THE CLASSIC ARTICLE. 47 ADV Pdtis pts (10 refractory),
Keyes technique, 2-4 month recall, pts thought to be successfully maintained using non-surgical
technique. All but 1 pt received TCN. Admitted it may be difficult to maintain suppression of diseaseassocd morphotypes in ADV Pdtal sites w/o systemic antibiotics. Poor study design, no controls, highly
motivated patents, very difficult home care regimen to master.
Refuting Keyes technique:
Greenwell, et al (JCP 85, 29-13): If no S/RP the Keyes technique was superior to conventional OH.
The addition of S/RP negated the benefit of the Keyes technique. Post-surgical status had the most
profound effect on the clinical and microbiological parameters. Primary antimicrobial effect produced by
S/RP. OH alone, with or without baking soda, H2O2 and salt whould not be relied upon to control the
pathogenic subG microflora.
Claffey, et al (JCP 85, 29-14): SubG washings measuring WBCs and spriochetes could not be used as
indicators of response to nonsurgical therapy.
Omar, Newman (JCP 86, 29-16): Sampling, dispersion, slide preparation, counting, morphotype
grouping and interpretation errors may lead to false results if not representative or reproducible.
Pihlstrom, Wolff, Bakdash (I) (JP 87, 29-19): 2 yr. study of 231 pts, no significant difference between
Keyes technique and conventional S/RP.
Wolff, Pihlstrom, Bakdash et al (II) (JP 87, 29-19): No evidence that use of NaCl, NaHCO3, and
H2O2, will contribute more toward perio health than the use of conventional methods.
Bakdash, Wolff, Pihlstrom et al (III) (JP 87, 29-21): Greater compliance with conventional oral
hygiene than salt/peroxide regimen (74% vs. 58%).
Listgarten (JP 84, 29-13): Measured disease recurrence. in relation to change in microbial composition
at the affected site. Disease recurrence as measured by increase in PD may be due to:
1) alteration of host response w/o detectable change in subG microbiota,
2) a qualitative change in microbial flora not detectable by microbial assay and
3) relatively brief episodes of disease activity accompanied by brief change in local microflora. Perio
disease may be related to an upset in host-parasite equalib. Cant use microbial composition (DDFM) to
predict the progression of disease.
SALIFLUOR
Nabi, et al (JCP 96, 29-37): Salifluor, when mixed with a combination of PVM/MA copolymer and the
mixed surfactant system of sodium laurel sulfate (SLS), Tauranol and Pluronic, offers promise as an
effective antiplaque agent in mouthrinses and dentifrices.
SALTS:
Wolinsky (JP 86, 29-17): Effects of NaCl, sodium bicarbonate, and magnesium sulfate inhibit the growth
and motility T. denticola. O.5 M solutions well below 5 m solution used in Keyes technique.
Herrin (JP 87, 29-22): erosive lesions after using high concentration saline
LISTERINE:
Formula: Listerine is a mixture of phenol-related essential oils (thymol, eucaliptol, menthol, methyl
salicylate) in 26.9% alcohol.
Mode of action: Alteration of bacterial cell wall permeability. Promote cell lysis, inhibits PGE 2 synthesis,
suppresses PMN superoxide anion generation.
Problem: Mucosal ulceration, when patient uses the product too frequently.
Clinical Results:
Overholser: 41 pts x 3, CHX, Listerine, Control (H2O): Plaque effect: CHX>List>Cntrl,
Gingivitis effect: CHX = List>Cntrl
Zambon, Ciancio, (JP,89): 28.9% more effective at reducing plaque than saline
Axelsson, Lindhe (JCP,87): CHX better at reducing plaque, but Listerine better at
reducing
gingivitis
Fine (JCP 85, 29-22): rinsing with Listerine as an adjunct to normal OH procedures produces an
overall reduction in plaque toxicity and reduction in total plaque mass.
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Gordon (JCP 87, 29-23): Listerine group had less plaque accumulation and decreased development of
gingivitis as compared to placebo after professional prophy after 9 months.
Ciancio (JP 89): Home supraG irrigation with Listerine for 6 months, sig. reduced plaque, total bacterial
cell counts and gingivitis compared to the vehicle control. No sig. diff. In PD and ALOSS.
Fine (JP 92, 29-33): Culture, Listerine prerinse before ultrasonic scaling showed 94% reduction n CFUs
in aerosols, 34% using vehicle.
VIADENT
Sanguinarine: alkaloid extract from the blood root plant Sanguinaria Canadensis , mechanism of action
unknown. Alters cell wall surface so aggregation and attachment reduced.
Koczyk et al. (JP,91): significant reduction of plaque, gingivitis, BOP vs. Placebo.
Southard et al (JCP,87): Same as above.
Mauriello (JP 88, 29-24): No sig benefit on gingivitis or plaque using dentifrice with sanguinaria or
placebo.
TRICLOSAN:
antiinflammatory by reducing pge, no good studies.
Renvert (JCP 95, 29-30) Broad spectrum nonionic antimicrobial (BOARD QUESTION), A dentifrice
containing triclosan and copolymer is effective in reducing supraG plaque formation and gingival
bleeding w/o causing major shifts in the salivary microflora.
Modeer, et al (JCP 96, 29-36) Triclosan inhibits inflammatory mediators (IL-1, TNF) in vitro.
Binney (JCP 96 10-20) Triclosan toothpaste no better that regular toothpaste. Study sponsored by
competing toothpaste company.
MERIDOL: Amine (125 ppm) + stannous (125 ppm) fluoride mouthrinse.
Zimmerman (93): Benefits of Meridol: Decreased PlI, Decreased GI over controls.
Brecx et al. (JCP,90): Meridol as effective as Listerine, but not CHX.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE H2O2:
Mechanism: H2O2 releases oxygen in the presence of catalase and peroxidase. The released oxygen has
some bacterial effect. Disinfectant, antiinflammatory, delay wound healing, causes tissue injury, lower
BOP, bacteria same.
Side Effects:
Boyd (89): Showed 1.5% H2O2 to be effective in Ortho cases.
Ramp (87): Chick tibias, single application of H2O2 led to decreased collagen synthesis,
bone and glucose metabolism.
Rees and Orth (JP,86): Oral ulcerations.
PLAX

OMullane (JP 94, 29-31): Prebrushing rinse plaque (PBR) scores showed the biggest difference between
baseline and 12 months, but was not sig different than rinsing with water. Did detect sig diff b/t PBR vs.
no rinse, although not clinically sig.
Binney (93): Pre-rinsing with PLAX or toothpaste slurry was no more effective in reducing pre-brushing
plaque index than H2O alone.
Chung (92): Confirms above.
Mills (JCP 94): No difference in Plax vs. placebo clinically and in vitro in reduction of stain out to 2
weeks

DELMOPINOL
Moran (92): Decreased plaque accumulation via prevention of colonization, plaque adherence. Not more
effective than CHX, but has minimal side effects.
Collaert (93): Topical application of 0.5% decreased plaque accumulation and delayed plaque migration
and morphological
complexity.
FLUORIDE:
Stannous fluoride appears to be a more effective antiplaque agent than sodium fluoride. Alters bacterial
aggregation and metabolism, antibacterial b/c of Tn ion.
Some studies indicate more of an effect on plaque than of gingivitis. Tinanoff (80)

122

Perry (J West Soc Perio): Review. Fl may inhibit bacterial adsorption to pellicle-covered teeth by
competing for Ca2+ ions. Comparisons b/t SnF2 and NaF have generally shown the Sn compounds to have
superior antimicrobial properties. Conc in tooth pastes generally 0.1-0.2% which is effective for caries
reduction but less than required to have sig antimicrobial effect (0.3-0.4%).
Boyd (JCP 85, 29-4): 28 pts, double blind with cross-over. irrigation with SnF 2 in Water Pik resulted in
sig improvement in clinical parameters (except ALOSS) than water irrigation group, which was reversed
after the cross-over.
Tinanoff (JCP 89, 29-9): SnF2 rinse decreases quantity of supraG plaque and # of CFUs compared to
placebo.
Grembowski et al (JPR,93): Long term exposure to fluoridated water would appear to reduce the risk of
attachment loss form
0.87 to 0.72.
Hastreiter claims fluorides have no effect.
ORAL IRRIGATION: Purpose: Non-specifically reduce the bacteria and their by-products that lead to the
initiation or progression of periodontal disease.
Hardy (JCP 82): When irrigation tip placed 3 mm sug-G got 100% penetration in shallow and deep pockets.
Brownstein (JCP 90): the effect of irrigation on gingival bleeding and plaque:
1) Change in plaque composition.
2) Flushing out of the inflammation inducing factors.
3) Physical change in tissue integrity.
Larner and Greenstein (IJPRD 93): Deep pockets (7-10) with calculus had less dye penetration. This was not
true in 4-6 mm pockets.
YES:

Lander (JCP 86): Single subG irrigation with 0.2% CHX, decreased spirochetes, fusiforms, decreased
BOP
Walsh (JCP 95): 0.2% CHX reduced vital micro-organisms in plaque more than CHX rinse or saline
irrigation or rinse.
Flemmig (JCP 95): 60 pts. 0.3% ASA in addition to regular hygiene is a beneficial adjunct in supportive
care in pts with mod-severe AP. Mean PDR 0.26mm. GI decreased from 0.35 to 0.1

NO:

Silverstein (JP 88, 28-13) TCN irrigation S/RP = TCN irrigation

Hugosen (78): No advantage of oral irrigation over brushing alone.
Haskel (JP 86, 29-4): SubG irrigation with CHX daily for 4 weeks resulted in transient microbial and
limited clinical effects.
Jolkovsky (JP 90, 29-6): Professional and home irrigation with CHX helps decrease GI and PlI, but no
difference b/w irrigation with CHX and H2O.
Caton et al (JCP,93): Only mechanical interdental plaque removal combined with toothbrushing is
effective in reducing or preventing interdental inflammation.

NSAIDS
Williams, Jeffcoat (JCP 88, 3-23): Ibuprofen can inhibit alveolar bone resorption in beagle dogs above
therapeutic dosages. Interferes with host inflammatory response
Williams, Jeffcoat, et al (JP 89, 29-28): Rate of radiographic bone loss was sig. less in patients taking
50 mg flurbiprofen bid compared to placebo at 12 & 18 months but showed no difference at 24 months.
Hawthorne Effect - patients cleaned more during 1st year b/c they thought they were getting something
good.
Heasman, Seymour (JCP 89, 29-29): Systemic flurbiprofen can reduce signs of exp gingivitis over a 6day period, either when used alone or as an adjunct to toothbrushing.
ANTIBIOTICS
Bactericidal: Penicillin, cephalosporin, metronidazole, aminoglycosides, bacitracin, vancomycin, polymixin B
Bacteriostatic: Erythromycin, tetracycline, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, sulfonamides
WHEN DO WE USE ANTIBIOTICS?

Febrile

123

LJP
EOP
RPP
Refractory (after culturing)
Post surgically

Why use Antibiotics?

Nyserad: Aa invasion of epithelium and CT, S/RP unable to eradicate Aa in LJP.
Mandell (JP 88 10-19): 8 LJP pts, doxycycline + surgery, effective in controlling disease and eliminating
Aa. Actisite alone ineffective in eliminating Aa.
Novak (JP 88 10-18): Tetracycline only (no surgery or S/RP) in early LJP was effective, 250 mg 4x day
for 3-6 weeks
Van Oosten ( 28-30) Case report of use of antibiotics for non-perio reasons resulted in spontaneous
increase in attachment
Sanders: More bone fill with bone blend and TCN
Liljenberg and Lindhe: Post LJP/LJP pts tx with TCN+ pocket elimination was successful
Kornman and Robinson (85): Stepwise approach to antibiotics in Aa+ pts, if BPBs present then
MWF+TCN surgery also
Gordon: 250 mg TCN qid, GCF = 4-8 g/ml, serum 2.5 g/ml (BOARD QUESTION)
Socransky & (JP,93): 17 pts, tx MWF at deep sites, scaling shallow sites, used Augmentin (3), Ibuprofen
(3), tetracycline (9), and placebo (2). Deeper sites and sites treated with antibiotics showed greater
reduction in probing depth than shallow sites and non-antibiotic site Tetracycline was the most effective.
TETRACYCLINES:
Perio Bacteria Susceptibility: Aa, Pg, Bacteroides, Capno, Eikenella, F. Nuc.
Inhibits collagenase, broad spectrum, inhibits protein synthesis
Rare reaction to TCN therapy Pseudotumor Cerebri
Can potentiate action of anticoagulants (BOARD QUESTION)
Anticollagenolytic Effect Of TetracyclineS:
Nip ( ) TCN and analogs inhibit collagenase.
Golub (84): Mechanism: Depletes Ca++ which is required for collagenase activity.
Doxycycline
Substantivity Of Tetracycline On Diseased Cementum And
Demirel (90): High substantivity of TCN on both cementum and dentin, up to 14 days.
Baker: TCN binds to roots in vitro, inhibits bacterial growth.
DOXYCYCLINE: Broad spectrum bacteriostatic, effective against G+ and G- anaerobic bacteria, liver
metabolism, least affected by
dairy products, reacts with (Vit K dep.)anticoagulants, oral
contraceptives, photosensitivity (Gabler and Creamer 91)
Perio Studies:
TCN Walker (28-4) TCN in GCF after oral dosing is 4-8g/ml
Slots (79): 12 refractory patients, 2 wks TCN, dramatic clinical/ micro improvements
Slots and Rosling (83): 3 wks of S/RP does not reduce subG levels of Aa in LJP lesions. 3 weeks of
TCN necessary to eliminate Aa, 6 LJP pts
Lindhe (83): TCN long term, 50 wks, decreased spirochetes and motile rods.
Kornman and Karl (JP 82, 28-5): 10 refractory pts, long term TCN on/TCN off treatment (2-7yrs), 76%
of flora TCN resistant.
Listgarten (78): TCN S/RP not more effective than S/RP alone
Minocycline: Stains adult teeth, vertigo, not affected by food
Ciancio (80): Double blind study, minocin without S/RP better than placebo with S/RP
Westbury (JP 97 84-91) Minocycline induced pigmentation. Differential DX melanoma, Kaposis
Sarcoma, Amalgam tattoo, heavy metal poisoning, racial pigmentation, Addisons, Hemochromatosis,
Peutz-Jeghers
Doxycycline: (Vibramycin) increased PO absorption, increased 1/2 life
Gajanan (91): Double blind, placebo controlled, Dox trial, 100mg/day for 3 weeks in disease active
recurrent disease pts. Improvement in AL for treated sites, decreases in Aa, Pg, Pi, Ec, Fn, spirochetes.
Kulkarni (91): Double blind study, increased PALevel and 40% decrease in path flora with doxy

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Pascale (86): DOX 3-10 g/ml in sulcus, 2.1-2.9 g/ml serum

Mandel (86): Doxy effective in LJP pts with surgery
Treatment of Refractory Periodontitis:
Walker and Gordan (93 JP): 30 subjects, 3 month post-treatment Clindamycin treated group (150 mg
qid 10 days) gain of
attachment 2.1mm, Augmentin (250 mg tid 14 days) group 1.4mm gain in
attachment. Clindamycin group stable for 21 months
Augmentin 15 months
Collins, Offenbacher, Arnold (JP 93): 30 pts, treated with augmentin for 2 weeks, 6 povidone Iodine
rinses during this time
also with CHX rinses. Results: At 34 months , > 1 mm attachment gain in
41.2% of the sites. Assume Pg and other bacteroides responsible for RP.
Gordon, Socransky (90): Scaling and clindamycin decrease active sites for 8% to 0.5%.
Magnusson: Augmentin with non-surgical- Stabilized 12 months, PD decrease approx. 2.5mm, 1-2 mm
attachment gain.
Implant Placement
Dent, Olson, Farish, Bellome et al (JOMS 97): Higher implant failure rate in patients who did not
receive preoperative antibiotics. Failure rates 4.0% Abs, 1.5% No Abs). Used PCN 75%.
LOCAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS/FIBERS
METRONIDAZOLE:
Giodano (92): 20% MET in ethylcellulose fibers, 2x14 days, decreased surgical need in 1.2-2.4 teeth/pt.
TETRACYCLINE:
Multi-Center Study (JP 95): Quadrants treated with S/RP alone, TCN alone, S/RP + TCN, and S/RP + 2
TCN fibers. Fibers did tend to decrease F.n., P.g., P.i., and C.r. No significant clinical differences were
seen though.
Rapley & Killoy (JP 92 28-17): TCN GCF levels can reach concentrations of 1300g/ml, at the same
time serum level not over 0.1g/ml thus only possible side effect is allergy, probably does not effect birth
control pills, staining of teeth.
Goodson (91): 107 pts, 25% TCN in ethyl vinyl acetate copolymer monolithic fibers, S/RP +fibers vs.
Fibers alone, placed 10 days, TCN conc. in GCF was 650 g/ml, better with S/RP +fibers at 3 mos, no
difference between S/RP + fibers at 12 mos.
Morrison: SEM with fiber therapy, TCN penetrated 10 m into root
Ciancio, Cobb (JP 92): TCN fibers with MWF surgery, 3 months post-op favored TCN quadrants in
pocket reduction & 6 months in attachment gain but #'s not significant 0.47 mm gain PD and .09 mm
Attachment.
Kerry (JADA, 94): TCN fibers conc. in GCF 1,590 um/ml for 10 day period, mean pocket depth
reduction 3.0 mm in deep sites and 1.5 mm in moderate sites. multicoated teeth same improvement as
single rooted teeth.
Wilson, McGuire Greenstein, Nunn (JP 97): Questions long-term effectiveness of S/RP+TCN fiber in
treating periodontal disease. More recession and less AGAIN (1.23 mm/0.66 mm)S/RP +TCN fiber (than
S/RP alone (0.58 mm/1.09 mm).
MINOCYCLINE:
Jones (92): 51 AP pts, 2% mincing ointment with syringe+S/RP vs. S/RP vs. NT, MINO + S/RP better
than S/RP, NT. Also: Van Steenberghe (93): Decreased Pg, Pi, Aa 2-12 weeks POT, decreased PD 3.1
vs. 2.1 control.
PENICILLINS:
Yamagami (JP 91, 29-32): Ofloxacillin in PT-01 fiber, water soluble, vs. control, better clinical
improvements BOP and PD with strips.
What is the difference between Augmentin, amoxicillin, and ampicillin?
Augmentin: Amoxicillin + clauvulanate potassium
Ampicillin: Extended spectrum penicillin
Amoxicillin: Synthetic analog of Ampicillin.
PENICILLINS: Perio Bacteria Susceptibility: Pg, Pi, Bacteroides, Capno, F. Nuc.
B-lactamase sensitive, G+/- cocci, spirochetes, anaerobes

125

B-lactamase (penicillinase) resistant: Nafcillin, oxacillin, methcillin, dicloxacillin, cloxacillin

Extended spectrum: Ampicillin (rash common), Amoxicillin, carbencillin, not penicillinase resistant
PENICILLIN ALLERGY
Only specifically determined for benzylpenicillin. This does not bind strongly enough to proteins for an allergic
reaction, but a major degradation product, benzylpenicilloyl (BPO), causes responses. BPO is the major antigenic
determinant. IgE response to BPO causes urticaria. IgE to minor determinants causes urticaria and anaphylaxis.
IgG against BPO may have a protective role. No IgG has been demonstrated against minor determinants.
PENICILLIN ALLERGY SKIN TEST
A BPO-polylysine conjugate is used for skin tests for the major determinant. Diluted penicillin G is used to test for
minor determinant allergy. Detects only IgE mediated allergy. A negative skin test does not exclude
allergy. The test itself might induce allergy. Other penicillins cross-react with pen G.
CLINICAL USE OF PENICILLINS
Magnusson (89): 21 RPP pts, Augmentin 250 mg tid for 14 days, active sites decreased from 14% to 7%.
METRONIDAZOLE Flagyl, G(-) Anaerobes (Pg, Pi, Bacteroides, Fn), ETOH interaction, metallic taste. doesn't
affect A.a (facultative). Possible mutagen.
Loeshe (92): Sig. reduction in PD, PAL need for surgery with Flagyl, best used after S/RP. (92):
Decreased need for surgery,
decreased spirochetes with metronidazole and S/RP.
Shin: Effective in ANUG.
Lundstrom (84): Effective in refractory cases.
Winkler (89): Effective in HIV-P,G.
COMBINATIONS:
Metronidazole and Amoxicillin
Van Winklehoff (92): LJP, RP, AP pts, 250 mg MET + 375 mg AMOX, synergistic effect on Aa, Pg, Pi,
eliminated Aa, Pg.
Metronidazole and Augmentin
Rams (90): MET + AUG 250mg tid for 7 days, Eliminated Aa, improved clinical parameters.
MISC
Erythromycin and Seldane = arrhythmias
Chloramine T: Slow release Chloride ions, bactericidal
Pseudomembranous colitis treatment: Vancomycin 250-500mg qid for 2 weeks.
SBE Prophylaxis
Dajami et al (JAMA, 90): AHA recommendations.
Amoxicillin 3 g 1 hr before, 1.5 g 6 hrs. after first dose.
Penicillin allergic: EES 800mg 2hr before, 400mg 6 hr post
Clindamycin: 200mg 1 hr preop, 150mg 6 hr POT
Special regimens: Ampicillin 2g IV 30mins pre,
Gentamycin 1.5 mg/kg IV before, Amox1.5g/kg 6 hr POT
Vancomycin 1g IV over 1 hr , 1hr preop.
Tzuckert (86): 1.36 deaths/million/year attributed to antibiotics administered to prevent SBE, 0.26
deaths/million/year due to SBE of dental origin.
Barco (JP,91): Non-streptococcus bact frequently found in perio are now implicated in endocarditis and
are not affected by systemic antibiotics. Amount of microbes may not be as important as ability to adhere,
this may be where antibiotic helps. use CHX rinse.
BACTEREMIA
Wank (JP 76 30-23): No difference in bacteremia between brushing, flossing, and initial therapy.
Before and during brushing, floss and toothpick had increased anaerobes in blood.
Carrol & Sebor (80): Bacteremia with less than frequent flossing 86%, routine flossing eliminated
bacteremias.

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Silver (JCP 77, 30-24): Toothbrushing can cause bacteremia in periodontal diseased patient, good OH
reduces this chance. Blood culture b/f and during brushing (+) and related to amount of inflammation.
Lothus (JP 91 30-25): SubG irrigation of CHx or saline same bacteremia before and after S/RP.
Reinhardt et al. (JP,82): Tap water irrigation used in ultrasonic scaling did not appear to be significant
causative agent in
postoperative bacteremias in healthy individuals with healthy periodontium.
Waki et al (90): Bacteremia after S/RP 18.5%
Winslow (65): Increased incidence of bacteremia with increased periodontal disease
Otten (): 40% incidence of bacteremia after removal of a partially impacted tooth.
Wikesjo: Bacteremia possible after suture removal, also King (88): 5% incidence of bacteremia after
suture removal.
ANTIBIOTICS AND GRAFTS: See Alloplastic/Synthetic Grafts.
Haffajee (JCP 95): 4 adjunctive systemic agents in tx of periodontal infections. 30 days. 98 subjects txd with
MWF, scaling. DNA probes taken at 6 sites at 2 month intervals. Pts placed on either Augmentin 250mg
tid, tetracycline 250mg tid, ibuprofen 400mg tid, or placebo. Overall ALG 0.34mm, PDR 0.62mm.
Subjects with antibiotics had more attachment level gain (0.57mm) vs. ibuprofen, placebo 0.02mm. Pg,
Bf, Pi, Pm were reduced in greater amounts in the antibiotic pts.

127

INITIAL THERAPY AND RE-EVALUATION

S/RP
Rationale: To create a biologically acceptable root surface that is compatible with the health of adjacent
periodontal tissues. Biologically acceptable = Smooth, hard, and clean.
Objectives: O'Leary
1) Biologically acceptable root surfaces
2) Resolving inflammation
3) Reducing pocket depths
4) Facilitating oral hygiene procedures
5) Improve or maintain attachment levels
6) Prepare tissues for surgical procedures
Limitations: Anatomy of roots, Depth of Pockets, Position of teeth, area of mouth, size of mouth opening /
cheeks, bacterial invasion of tissue and or root surface.
Stambaugh (IJPRD 81, 30-28): Complete calculus removal with pockets > 3.73 mm is unpredictable,
maximum instrumentation 6.21mm. Hygienists 30-40 min/tooth. Curette Efficiency = 3.73 mm,
Curette Limit = 6.21 mm.
Jones and O'Leary (JP,78): 19 % of periodontally involved teeth still had calculus which was only
detected after extraction. Most commonly found at the CEJ, root flutes and line-angles.
Bower (JP,79): Furcation access of curette is limited due to furca entrances of 1st molars : 58% were <
0.75mm and 81% were < 1.0 mm and Ave. curette is 0.75 - 1.1 mm wide.
Rateitschak-Plus (JCP,92): SEM, 29 of 40 surfaces cleaned, 75% of base of root surfaces not
instrumented.
Nagy (92): After 5 curettes do not reach deeper than regular curettes, mean curette efficiency 1-3.5mm
Rabbani et al. (JP,81): Correlation between % of residual calculus and pocket depth.
Loos et al. (JCP,89): In sites of > 7 mm regressed after initial tx, Overall 25% of molar furcation sites
demonstrated loss of attachment compared to 7% for non-molar sites and 10% of molar flat-surface sites.
Waerhaug (JP,78): Incomplete plaque removal rates: BOARD QUESTION
Pocket Depth IPRR
> 5 mm
89%
3 - 5 mm
39%
< 3 mm
11%
Other notables from the article:
-Surgical elimination of pockets greater than 3 mm is the most predictable method for adequate subG
plaque removal
-Regrowth of subG plaque is a slow process which may take up to months or even years
Cementum Removal with Hand Curettes:
Coldiron (JP 90, 30-6): Complete cementum removal at 20-70 strokes. 90 minutes/quadrant to
instrument pt w/ mod pdtis.
Healing Time Post S/RP
Proye (JP 82, 30-17): Substantial PD reduction w/i 4 weeks with single episode of RP. Biphasic
response: 1 week-gingival recession, 3 weeks-attachment gain 0.52 mm.
Morrison (JCP 80, 30-27): 4 weeks
Badersten (JCP 84): 4-5 months in 4-7 mm PD's, 5-9 months in 7-12 mm PD's
Kaldahl (JP 88): 1 year
AAP World Workshop says 4-6 weeks, but gradual repair and maturation may occur 9 -12 months.
Healing after S/RP
Waerhaug (JP 78, 30-15): S/RP then extracted up to 7 mo. JE reformed in 7 days. Plaque front moves
2 m/day. If good supraG plaque control no subG plaque formation. New dentogingival junction in 2
weeks.

128

Waerhaug (JP 78, 30-16): Plaque to fiber distance 0.5 to <1 mm. If PD < 3 mm 89% success at
calculus removal, if PD >3 mm 11% success calculus removal.
Listgarten: LJE reforms post S/RP, Epithelium in 7 days, collagen maturation at 4 weeks
Hughes, Caffesse (JP 78, 30-2): Human. The relationship of the bottom of the pocket to the MGJ may
change during the hygienic phase, however, the position of the MGJ with respect to the CEJ will not
change as a result of initial therapy. If no bone present under MGJ, or the pocket extended to the MGJ,
there was an increased chance of decrease in crevice depth.
Caton and Zander (JP 79): Healing by LJE , Histometric eval 2 monkeys, created defects, treated
experimental with S/RP repeated 3, 6, and 9 months. killed Found LJE in both control sites and
experimental sites.
Muller et al. (JCP 86, 30-19): Darkfield. SupraG cleaning, then 1 side supraG RP, 6 mo. Clinical
change related to change in flora. Excellent supraG plaque control had profound favorable effects on
shallow sites, supraG plaque control cannot stop recurrence in deep pockets. SupraG plaque accumulation
led to subG changes.

OHI vs OHI + S/RP:

Tagge, OLeary (JP 75, 30-14): RP + OHI more effective than OHI alone.
Healing After Curettage
Stone, Ramfjord, et al (66): Peak mitosis at 12-24 hrs, CT peak 2-3 days, Epithelial attach at 5 days,
cells come from residual epithelial attachment in crevicular lining.
RECOLONIZATION AFTER S/RP
Tabita (JP 81, 30-30): SubG plaque is reformed after 14 days, despite effective supraG control (not
mature or attached).
Heinrichs (85): After S/RP, significant decreases in coccoid, spirochetes, motiles, in deep/shallow
pockets. Insignificant reductions in bacteroides.
Listgarten (JCP,78): Decrease in micro (motile rods/spirochetes) up to 25 weeks with S/RP with or
without TCN.
Slots (JP,79): Up to 6 months a decrease in spirochetes and capnocytophaga was evident.
Mosque Listgarten (JPR,80): cocci 21 days, motile organisms 7 days, and 42 days spirochetes
Magnusson et al (JCP 84, 30-18): Deep pockets (8mm) not reduced following instrumentation,
decrease in spirochetes maintained with good oral hygiene, return in 16 weeks from baseline without it.
By controlling supraG plaque, the development of subG plaque is markedly reduced.
Effects on Clinical Parameters
Morrison (JCP 80, 30-26): Initial therapy can reduce PD and increase AL: assess need for surgery after
initial therapy (4 weeks)
Initial PD
1-3mm
4-6mm
6+ mm

PD Change
- 0.17 mm
- 0.96 mm
- 2.2 mm

AL Change
NSD
+ 0.23 mm
+ 0.91 mm

Badersten, Nilveus, Egelberg (II) (JCP 84, 30-31): Clinical. Ultrasonic=Hand. S/RP/OHI q3mo 1yr.
F/U 2 yr. Clinical improvement continued up to 9 mos after start. Plaque & AGAIN up to 3 mo. GI,
BOP, PD & REC up to 9 mo. Wait 9 months post IT for Sx eval.
Badersten, Nilveus, Egelberg (I) (JCP 81, 30-29): Clinical. ADV Pdtis, hand, ultrasonic. 12 mo.
No diff b/t ultrasonic and hand instruments, great improvement in clinically w/ OHI & RP in 5 mo but
after that little improvement.
Removal of LPS:
Smart (JCP 90, 30-12) Endotoxin on surface of roots. Scaled teeth have similar levels as healthy teeth

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McCoy, et al (JP 87, 30-4): Human. Concentration of endotoxin greatly reduced (but not eliminated)
by RP in vivo, retoxificaiton occurs w/i a short time (up to 12 weeks) after RP procedures. Limulus lysate
test.
Effects on Mobility:
Ferris (JP,66): 25% reduction in tooth mobility after root planing
Rateitschak (JP,63): 14% reduction in mobility.
Selipsky (DCNA,76): 23% reduction in mobility.
S/RP verses Cavitron
Cavitron better than S/RP:
Leon and Vogel (JP 87 18-19): Non-surgical approach, decrease microbes and reduce GCF, Cavitron
better in class II + III furcas.
Dragoo (IJPRD,92): Modified Cavitron tips more effective than hand instruments (4.65mm verses
3.45mm)
Matia & Bissada (IJPRD,86): Mand furcations tx w/ S/RP + OHI, open vs. closed, curette vs. ultrasonic.
Ultrasonics better than hand instruments in narrow (<2.3 mm) furcations using open approach. Dome of
furcation highest calculus.
S/RP better than Cavitron:
Nishimine and O'Leary (JP,79): Hand instruments can virtually eliminate endotoxin (used Limulus
Amoebocyte
Lysate assay). Also, Cavitron was not as effective, 8x less calculus with hand
instruments than Cavitron.
VanVolkinberg: SEM shows hand instrumentation less rough than Cavitron
Kepic and O'Leary (JP,90): Residual calculus was noted on 12/14 using an ultrasonic, while 12/17 with
hand instruments.
S/RP = Cavitron:
Rosenberg and Ash (JP 74): Hand instruments leave a smoother surface than Cavitron, but makes no
difference. No direct relationshop of roughness, plaque accumulation & inflammation.
Badersten, Oosterwaal also
Badersten, Nilveus, Egelberg (II) (JCP 84, 30-31): Clinica. Ultrasonic=Hand. S/RP/OHI q3mo 1yr.
F/U 2 yr. Clinical improvement continued up to 9 mos after start. Plaque & AGAIN up to 3 mo. GI,
BOP, PD & REC up to 9 mo. Wait 9 months post IT for Sx eval.
Gellin (JP 86, 30-11): S/RP = Cavitron. Better if you use both.
Torfason, Kiger, Selvig (JCP 79, 30-10): Gradual reduction of PD and # BOP sites occurred over 8
weeks, NSD except ultrasonics took less time. For treatment of 4-6 mm pockets, there was NSD b/t hand
instrumentation vs. ultrasonics in terms of clinical improvement.
Combined
Kerry: Root smoothness: Cavitron + RP>RP>Cavitron
Modified Tip
Copulos, Low et al (JP,93 ): modified tip reduced instrumentation time vs. curettes 3.9 min and 5.9 mm
respectively.
Takacs (JP,93): Use of sonic scalers and ultrasonics with ball tip performed the best in furcations, EVA
performed poorest.
Ultrasonic vs Sonic Scalers:
Baehni (JCP 92, 30-13): Changes related to length of instrumentation. In vivo NSD ultrasonic vs.
sonic. Lowered spirochetes, raised coccoid. In vitro ultrasonic better due to cavitation effect.
POWER-DRIVEN SCALING AND POLISHING INSTRUMENTS
Cavitron: Magnetostrictive, and Piezoelectric effects, handpiece contains a wire coil producing a magnetic field
when current is applied, the handpiece insert is nickel-cobalt alloy stack which acts as a transducer which
shortens (in the electromagnetic field) by one-thousand of an inch and back to its original length at a high
frequency.
CAVITRON
Infection control:
Larato (JP 67, 30-9): 3,000 % increase in bacterial aerosol during Cavitron use, with still 230% 35
minutes after treatment. handpiece not autoclavable

130

TITAN-S Operates at 2,500-7,500 CPS

Gellin (JP 86, 30-11): Titan-S Sonic scaler versus curettes, found very similar, best when used in
combination.
PROPHY-JET Sodium bicarbonate blaster,
Galloway and Pashley (87): Can erode dentin and cementum, minimal changes in enamel, uses sodium
bicarbonate as abrasive powder.
Bernstein (JP,87) - Prophy jet removes stains faster and is close to abrasiveness of the curette 27.09 um
vs. 10.68 um
Gillman et al. (JP,86): Cavitron and prophy-jet detoxify root surfaces allowing growth of fibroblasts.
ROTARY INSTRUMENTS
Schwarz et al (89): OFD with hand inst. -vs.- rotary diamond burs. 8 pts, 20 teeth: advantages of either,
hand better in mesial/distal furcations. Rotary instruments removed a lot of tooth structure, but more
efficacious in fissures, grooves, indentations.
Parashis (JCP,93): Use of rotary diamonds for root instrumentation via an open flap resulted in furcal
surfaces with significantly less residual calculus than furcations treated with hand instruments (closed or
open approach).
Residual calculus : Closed Rp 70%, Open RP 35%, Rotary Instrument 5%. Follow up study of furcation
opening showing the same trends. 2.4 mm was threshold for narrow furcation.
S/RP in Health
Claffey and Shanley (JCP 86): Thin (<1.5mm thick tissue) nonBOP sites = 0.3mm ALOSS, >2.0mm
thick 0mm Attachment loss. Thin or thick BOP sites gain attachment.
PD <3.5 mm ALOSS,
PD4-6 mm slight AGAIN,
PD >7 mm big AGAIN.
Lindhe, Nyman, Karring (JCP 82, 30-3): S/RP in normal sulci of monkeys q2weeks for 6 mo resulted
in 0.39 mm of AL.
S/RP IMPROVED WITH SURGICAL ACCESS
Brayer and Mellonig (JP,89): 114 single rooted teeth, 4 operators with different experience levels
experienced operators removed more calculus in moderate to deep pockets > 4mm. Open approach
helped both operator groups.
Fleischer, Mellonig (JP 89, 30-5): 61 molars with same 4 operators, 68% of teeth calculus free even
with open approach and experienced operator. The deeper the pocket, the more calculus left on the root.
More experienced practioners removed more calculut in both open and closed flap procedures. Poen flap
tx allowed more efficient S/RP regardless of practioner experience. Total calculus removal in furcations
utilizing conventional instruments may be limited.
Badersten, Nilveus, Egelberg (III) (JCP 84, 30-32): No difference in effects noted b/t single vs.
multiple instrumentations. Single rooted teeth: maintainable by nonsurgical therapy: curettes/Cavitron,
single vs. multiple scalings or operator variability played no role.
Caffesse, Sweeny, and Smith (JCP 86, 30-33): S/RP w & w/o flap surgery, % of Root Surface Free of
calculus after extraction. CalculusCEJ, groove, fossa & furcations.
Probing Depth
1 -3 mm
4 -6 mm
> 6 mm

NO:

S/RP alone
86.4%
43.2%
32.3%

S/RP with flap

86.0%
75.7%
50%

Wylam, Mealy, Mills, Waldrop (JP, 93) Residual plaque and calculus using curettes only :
Closed root plane : 54%
Open flap curettage: 33%
Furcations same , need different means to clean- ultrasonics, burs, chemo, no difference with respect to PD
>90% calculus left in furcations
Schroer et al. (JCP,91): Facial of Grade II molar furcations with closed RP 0.60 mm gain in attachment,
and open 0.45 loss of attachment. 16 month study.

131

Papillary Reflection with headlights:

Reinhardt (85): 80.8% accretion free with Papillary Reflection and Headlights
29.0% accretion free with Papillary Reflection only
0% accretion free with Closed Sc/ RP
DETECTION OF CALCULUS
Sherman and Hutchens (JP 90, 30-37): SEV Pdtis, S/RP + OHI multiple sessions prn. 75% right if
both investigators said calculus was there, but 50% right if both investigators said it was absent. High
sensitivity, low specificity.
LOSS OF TOOTH STRUCTURE
Ritz & Hefti (JCP,91):
Ultrasonic
11.6 um 100p with 12 strokes
Sonic
93.0 um 100p
Curettes 108 um
500p
diamond bur
118 um
100p
Zappa et al. (JP,91): After 40 strokes, between 0.143-0.343 mm were removed depending on the force.
ROOT SMOOTHNESS/ ROOT ROUGHNESS
Rosenberg and Ash (JP 74 30-1): Smoother roots did not have more or less plaque accumulation or
inflammation than rough roots.
Khatiblou (JP 83 30-5): Horizontal grooves placed in roots did not effect healing after MWF compared
to S/RP teeth.
Leknes et al. (JP 94): dogs, high speed diamond burs or sharp curettes viewed with SEM, more plaque
accumulation on rough surfaces.
Leknes, Lie, Selvig (JP 94, 9-23): Clinical. Attachment loss greater on grooved surfaces than nongrooved surfaces. Grooves facilitate plaque growth, hide from defense mechanism, impede OH. Sx Tx
with grooves less successful.
Vacek and Gher (IJPRD,93): Cementum variations 11.5%, Pebbled cementum, 94% anomalies
interproximal.
Oberholzer, Rateitschak (JCP 96, 30-8): Human. Open S/RP MOD pdtis, test sites roughened w/
diamond, no improvement over smooth in clinical attachment (6 months).
NON-SURGICAL STUDIES
Badersten Articles (Highlights)
1) Single Rooted teeth only. Studies not applicable to molars
2) Clinical Parameters up to 9 months
3) Ultrasonics = Curettes
4) Operator experience not a significant factor
5) No controls
6) Continued bleeding sites
7) Regression Analysis
8) Predict disease activity 5 yr. PD >7mm (50%), >7mm bleeding and increase in > 1mm PD (80%)
9) A single episode instrumentation = several appointments (3)
10)
Deep pockets didn't progress to further attachment loss
Claffey (90): 3 yr. > 7mm 50% LOA, Increase attachment loss 1 mm 66%, + BOP 87% LOA
MISC

LAL: Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate, test for endotoxin, PPT when combined with the blood of a horseshoe
crab, false +s common. (Wilson and Moore (85))
Westphal Extraction: Hot phenol/water Westphal (52), save aqueous portion, dialyze against pyrogen
free H2O, concentrate by dialysis against propylene glycol and ultracentrifugation.
Endotoxin penetrates 5 microns into cementum.

132

Cercek: no improvement in PD or AL by home care alone.

Breninger et al. (JP,87): Evaluated by SEM, the stainable material used to determine residual endotoxin,
the majority of stained deposits were composed of adherent fibrin and instrumentation debris.
XI. SURGICAL THERAPY
WHY DO SURGERY?
Preserve teeth in health function and esthetics.
Rationale for surgery: Therapeutic objectives include:
(1)
Regeneration
(2)
Conservative Therapy
(3)
Access for Debridement
(4)
Pocket Reduction
(5)
Pocket Elimination
More Conservative Therapy:
Pihlstrom & McHugh (1981 32-19): Pts had full-mouth S/RP (3-4 2 hrs. appointments), 1/2 mouth
MWF + maintenance every 3-6 months. 4 years follow-up. For 4-6 mm pockets, S/RP was as effective as
surgery. At 4 years, MWF had greater attachment gain and PD reduction. At 10 years no significant
changes in S/RP and surgical sites. > 7 mm greater gain attachment with surgery.
Lindhe et al (1982): 15 pts with split-mouth S/RP and S/RP + MWF. Maintenance q 3 months, followed
up for 2 yrs. Sites initially gained attachment, except initially shallow sites (<4 mm). Initially deep sites
(>6mm) responded better to surgical therapy in PD reduction and attachment gain. S/RP only took twice
the time. critical probing depths 2.9-4.2 mm
Knowles: In deep defects the best procedure is MWF, significant pocket reduction, and attachment gain
for 8 years, baseline was at initial eval.
Furcations do not respond to non-surgical therapy
Loos and Nylund: Teeth (furcated) with S/RP only, rebounded at 1 yr., 25% of Furcation invasion lose
attachment.
Badersten: Non-surgical therapy works, but in non-molar teeth only.
Nordland, Garrett, Kiger, Vanooteghem (JCP 87, 30-35): Furcations with initial pocket depth > 4mm
had poorer response to non-surg therapy verses flat molar and non-molar sites initially >4 mm.
LJP Patients
Kornman: LJP responds poorly to S/RP alone.
Improve Compliance with Recall: Beckers
No evidence to support pocket elimination makes teeth easier to clean, maybe more accessible, but not easier.
TOOTH LOSS STUDIES
UNTREATED disease
Becker 79
Buckley 84
Loe 85

Duration
Loss rate
3.2 yrs
0.04/pt/yr
10 yrs
0.08/pt/yr
15
0.13/pt/yr
0.11/pt/yr

Loss rate

TREATED disease

0.36/pt/yr

Oliver 69

0.25/pt/yr

Hirshfeld+Wasser 78

22yrs

0.14

McFall 82

19yrs

Becker 84

6.5

Time

10yrs

AVE 0.25

AVE

0.09
Meador and Lane: 90% of surgical pts were stable, 60% of pts txd non-surgically were stable

133

LOCAL ANESTHETICS AND EPINEPHRINE

Anesthetic Action: Binds to Ca2+receptor, blocking the Na channel which prevents signal conduction
Action of Epi: Activates a-adrenergic receptors to cause vasoconstriction, and activates b-receptors to cause
cardiac stimulation and bronchial dilation. Increases HR, force of contraction, systolic pressure.
Decreases diastolic pressure.
MAXIMUM DOSAGES
Epinephrine:
Healthy Patients0.2 mg/appt 11 carpules 1:100,000; 5 carps 1:50,000 Epi)
Cardiac Patients 0.04 mg/appt 2 carp. 1:100,000
0.018mg Epi/carp1:100,000, 0.036mg/carp 1:50,000. (BOARD QUESTION)
Catecholamine levels: Resting adrenal medulla releases 7g/min Epi, stress releases 280 g/min.
Contraindications. for Epi: Pheochromocytoma (medulla tumor), uncontrolled hypertension,
arrhythmias and hyperthyroidism.
Epinephrine given to patient taking Beta Blocker can result in transient hypertensive and bradycardic episodes
(BOARD QUESTION)
Anesthetics

Lidocaine: 3mg/lb, 36 mg/carp, max dose 300mg 8 carps

Marcaine: 0.6mg/lb, 9mg/carp, Max dose 90mg 10 carps
Prilocaine (Citanest plain): 2.7 mg/lb., 72 mg/carp, Max dose 400mg 5 carps
36 mg of lidocaine in 1.8 cc of 2% solution (BOARD QUESTION)
Contraindications for local: Methemoglobinemia (Can be enhanced with amide locals, Substitution for
ferric ion on hemoglobin molecule = brown blood. Allergy to bisulfites (preservative)- used to be
methylparaben

Lidocaine decreases myocardial excitability and decreases force of heart contractions (BOARD QUESTION)
Intra-arterial injection Pain and ischemia distal to injection. Confusion, convulsions, respiratory arrest,
arrhythmias. Treatment, stop injection, do not remove needle, inject 10-20 ml of .5% procaine, leave IV
in place, transport to medical facility. (BOARD QUESTION)
Buckley (JP,84): 10 pts, split mouth, cyanomethemoglobin, 1:50,000 Epi improves hemostasis over 1:100,000
Epi.
Baab (77): Pt loses 16-592 ml blood aver 134 ml/quadrant, cyanomethemoglobin to determine, >500ml loss give
fluids
Landen et al (87): Marcaine significantly reduces post-op pain.
Is the amount of exogenous Epi something to be concerned about in dental pts?
Yes:
Lipp (Reg Anesth 93): Looked at exogenous and endogenous plasma levels of Epi during dental tx under
local anesthesia. Tx begun on an unanesthetized area produced little change in plasma Epi levels,
suggesting total Epi levels are more a reflection of exogenous rather than endogenous Epi. Also suggests
that endogenous Epi response due to stress was not as significant as exogenous injected Epi.
HTN pts: Hemodynamic instability results in greater and faster increases in systolic pressure when Epi is
used. Hypertensive meds may also interfere with the storage, release, and biotransformation of Epi.
Previous MI pts: Epi speeds up the repolarization of calcium channels and further alters the refractory
period, predisposing the ischemic area to re-entrance arrhythmia and fibrillation.
No:
Cheraskin (JADA 58): BP and pulse monitored in ext. cases. Local anesthetic without vasoconstrictor is
less effective and results in greater stress which causes an increase in release of endogenous Epi. This
endogenous Epi causes greater cardiovascular changes than the exogenous Epi.
Davenport et al (JP,90): Lidocaine with/without 1:100,000 Epi in HTN pts. No effects on BP or HR.
Lidocaine without Epi had inadequate anesthesia and hemostasis in 7/9 procedures.
BASIC SURGICAL PRINCIPLES

134

SULCULAR VS REVERSE/INVERSE BEVEL INCISIONS

Cattermole & Wade (JCP 78 31-3): No difference between linear and scalloped incisions at three weeks,
except that linear incisions have greater inflammation and slower initial healing.
Smith, Echeverri, Caffesse (JP,87): Sulcular incisions are comparable to MWF as measured by gain in
attachment and PD reduction. Thus the removal of crevicular epithelium is not of critical importance.
(BOARD QUESTION)
Litch et al (84): Half of crestal and subcrestal incisions did not completely remove pocket epithelium
Pippin: Healing of the MWF, sulcular epithelium degenerates and reforms in 7 days.
Kon, Caffesse (31-4): Beveled incisions heal better than perpendicular when using vertical with FTF.
VERTICAL RELEASING INCISIONS
Kon et al (IJPRD 84 31-4): Healing of beveled vs. perpendicular vertical releasing incisions. Beveled or
"slanted" healed faster and was less detectable.
Lynch (JP,88): Mandibular vertical releasing incisions allow access, should not be made distal to 2nd
molars.
Morman and Meier (79): 31 dental students, punch wounds at radicular and mid-axially, mid-axial is
less resistant to trauma due to less collateral circulation.
PAPILLA PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
Takei (JP,85): Papilla preservation technique, incisions are made from the palate and papilla are pushed
through the embrasure space for access. The tissue must be thick (2 mm) and the embrasure wide.
Murphy (IJPRD 96) Papillary triangle
SPLIT THICKNESS VERSES FULL THICKNESS FLAPS
Staffileno (JP,74): Supports use of split thickness flaps for less resorption, sooner osteogenesis, minimal
apical movement of
attachment apparatus at 60 days verses FTF. Must have thick CT or acts as
denudation.
Tisot & Sullivan (JDR,71): Abstract, monkey study, disulfine blue dye, photos, More vascular disruption
with split thickness flaps
Wood (JP 72 33-25): Split thickness flaps heal slower with more bone loss than full thickness flaps (0.98
vs. 0.62 mm) BOARD QUESTION
Levin et al. (JOP,77): dogs, full and partial flaps adjacent at 15 and 90 min, healing faster in partial
thickness and faster procedure.
PERIOSTEAL RELEASING INCISION
Corn (1962): Periosteal Seperation Technique- eliminate pockets, minimal marginal osseous exposure
reducing resorption of bone, release of frenum and muscle pull and predictable increase in vestibular
depth.
LASERS Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission Radiation
ND-YAG neodymium-yttrium-aluminum (Affects mostly pigmented tissue)
Trylovich et al (JP,92): Nd:YAG, Unerupted 3rds, lased and cultured fibroblasts and SEM evaluation.
decreased amount of flat fibroblasts in lased, endotoxin tx root segments vs. non-lased and endotoxin
treated groups. Alteration of cementum surface made it unfavorable for fibroblast attachment.
Morlock et al. (JP,92): Kansas city Mo (Killoy group), used as adjunct to root planing, physical changes
in root surfaces not amiable to fibroblast attachment.
Killoy: Nd-Yag has a wider band of necrosis than the CO2 laser, also burns root surface, melts HA no
fibroblast attachment.
Block: Lasers alter the surface of implants
Cobb et al (JP 92 31-26): Nd:YAG, laser-induced root surface alterations appear directly related to energy
levels and time exposure and has the potential for suppression or eradication of subG microflora.
CO2 - highly attracted to tissues of high water content.
Rossman et al. (JP,92): Retardation of Epithelial migration, monkeys. irradiation of experimental side
resulted in delayed epithelial downgrowth along the root surface and more CT attachment. control seen 14
days, experimental 28 days.
Israel et al (JP,95): 2 pts, used laser to de-epithelialize the flap to enhance CT attachment 1/2 CT and
repair cementum.

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ELECTROSURGERY
Krejci and Kalkwarf (JCP 87 31-30): Limit contact to soft tissue only, short contact with bone is ok,
move tip quickly to avoid burning tissue. Wound healing is not adversely affected. Can't use on
pacemaker pts, around implants. Slight recession expected with troughing incisions, Electrode contact
with cementum inhibits reattachment. (BOARD QUESTION)
Cortical penetrations Mellonig Aids to revascularization, Buser for GBR
VASCULATURE IN SURGERY
Cutright (JP,69 31-8): Proliferation of Blood vessels in Gingival wounds
Day 1: Withdrawal and blockage of cut ends of the vessels at wound margin
Day 2: New sprouts, club-shaped stubs at bottom of wound.
Day 3: Short Capillary loops forming, arising from the cut surfaces of existing vessels
which anastomose. No regeneration at angles of the wound.
Day 5: Increased capillary loops with dilation of one limb. Corners of the wound show
revascularization.
Day 7: General contour of gingiva reestablished, floor and edges show completion of
capillary loops
Day 9. Capillary loops almost reach height of normal loops, density less than normal.
Day 11: Further restoration of normal pattern and size, density still not equal to normal gingiva.
Baab et al (JP,77): 30 pts, Flap surgery, blood loss assessed cyanomethemoglobin, range was 16 - 592 ml
(Ave. 134ml) ; duration rather than type of anesthetic seemed to have the only correlation with blood loss.
> 500 ml think IV
Morman and Ciancio (JP,77): 8 pts, different flap designs, IV sodium Fluorescein then photographic
system to determine diffusion. The following concepts in flap design:
1) Length: width ratio should not exceed 2:1
2) The base should be broad enough to include major gingival vessels
3) Minimal tension should be created in suturing and tissues should be managed gently
4) Partial thickness flaps to cover avascular sites need to have enough blood vessels
included
in them
Morman et al (JCP,79): 31 dental students, contralateral punch wounds in mid-axial and mid-papillary
1) Ischemia occurred coronal to the wounds
2) Collateral circulation from the PDL vessels to marginal gingiva was insufficient to
maintain tissue vitality
3) Circulation was oriented in an apical-coronal direction in the mandible and maxilla
4) Mid-axial gingival tissue is less resistant to trauma, has less potential of collateral
circulation
5) The use of horizontal releasing flaps should be restricted to preserve blood supply
6) Double pedicle bilaterally based flap is unsound due to blood supply.
Mclean et al (JP 95 31-11): Dogs, Fluorescein angiography, vascular changes following
mucogingival flap (early healing of flap was extravascular diffusion until actual circulation
restored):
1) Raising a flap initiates a significant vascular embarrassment
2) Lack of circulation at the most coronal portion of the flaps lasts for at least 3 days but persists
for 7 days at the interproximal areas.
3) Flap diffusion recovers sooner than flap circulation
4) No apparent differences between horizontal mattress and interrupted suturing techniques
circulation absent near sutures.
ANTERIOR ESTHETICS
Takei (JP,85): Papilla preservation technique, incisions are made from the palate and papilla are pushed
through the embrasure space for access. The tissue must be thick (2 mm) and the embrasure wide.
Frisch: Curtain procedure
Beagle (92): Described surgical technique for papilla reconstruction, case report 28yo, 6-0 silk sutures,
split thickness flaps.
DELAYED (Altered) PASSIVE ERUPTION

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Coslet et al (77): Diagnosis and classification of eruption, 12.1% of pts exhibit this to some degree.
Classification Type
1=excessive gingiva (A normal bone and B bone at CEJ), Type 2 is normal
gingiva, A and B.
STAGES OF PASSIVE ERUPTION
Gottlieb and Orban:
1. Base of sulcus and JE on enamel, JE all on enamel
2. Base of sulcus on enamel and JE on both enamel and cementum.
3. Base of sulcus at CEJ and JE on root, JE all on cementum.
4. Base of sulcus and JE all on root. JE all on cementum below the CEJ.
SUTURE MATERIALS
Absorbable:
Suture
Raw Material

Plain Gut

Absorption

Strength

Tissue
Reaction

Knot

Handling

Uses

rapidly
healing
mucosa
avoids
suture
removal
as above
slower
absorption
subepithelial
submucosa
surfaces,
vessel
ligation

Sec
urit
y

Sheep or Beef
intestine

enzymes &
macrophage
s
complete in
70 days

4 - 10 days

++++

as above
treated with
chromic salts
Coated Vicryl Polyglactin
910 coated
with
polyglactin
310
and Ca ++
stearate
Nonabsorbable:
Surgical Silk
Protein fiber
of
silkworm
coated with
silicon
prote
in
Nylon
monofilament
polyamide
polymer
Gore-Tex
expanded
polytetrafluor
o
ethylene

as above
complete in
90 days
slow
hydrolysis
complete in
60 - 90 days

10 -14 days

+++

20 -30 days

++

+++

++++

Local
inflammator
y
response in
1
- 2 yrs

90 -120 days

++++

++++

mucosal
surfaces

slow
hydrolysis

+++

++

++

skin closure

none

++++

++

++

GTR

Chromic Gut

SUTURE TECHNIQUES
Nelson et al. (JP,77): Interrupted sutures vs. continuous. No difference in healing, interrupted had
slightly better flap adaptation with the continuos suturing tending to displace each papilla in a mesial
direction.
Antoni et al: Monofilament sutures have less bacterial wicking, less inflammation.
Lily et al. (OS,72): More bacteria associated with silk sutures, polyglycolic acid sutures (Vicryl) had no
bacteria, tissue response occurred with other monofilament sutures.
Newell and Brunsvold: (85) Vertical (long papillae) or horizontal (short papillae) mattress sutures to
prevent facial tissues from being pulled interproximally.
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Complications with sutures:

Brunsvold, Redding, Kornman (Int J oral Max Imp,91): Suture granuloma by leaving a piece of silk
suture behind.
SUTURE REMOVAL TIME
Hiatt et al at (68): Dog study. Remove sutures at 7-14 days (except if youre using a membrane)
Time

Force Applied to Flap

Results

2-3 days
7 days
14 days
1,4,6
Mon.

225 gms
340 gms
1,700 gms
1,700 gms

flap separation from bone and root

flap separation form bone and root
suture pulls through gingiva
suture pulls through gingiva

PERIODONTAL DRESSINGS
Advantages of Dressings
1. Helpful with APFs, crown lengthenings and covering exposed bone
2. Reminder to the patient not to chew in the area
3. Can stabilize a FGG
Disadvantages of Dressings
1. Healing is not improved
2. Possible plaque trap, doesnt allow for CHX to contact tissues
3. Contraindicated when coronally positioning a flap
4. Dressing can get under a flap, it can be loose and not add to clot stability.
Sachs et al. (JP,84): Rationale for dressings: Retention of APFs, Stabilization of FGGs, protect denuded
bone, graft retention?
PerioCare Dressing: Ingredients: Magnesium oxide, zinc oxide, Ca(OH) 2, vegetable oils, ethyl cellulose,
resins, lanolin.
Barricaid: Light Cured: Polyvinyl ethyl siloxane, a polymer of methylmethacrylate.
Smeekens (92): No difference between Barricaid and eugenol dressing in wound healing, more
microulcerations with eugenol.
Gilbert (JP 94): In vitro study of Barricaid. Cured dressing does not adversely effect fibroblast growth.
Uncured dressing is lethal to cells it is in direct contact with, but an ingrowth of normal cells was seen at
5 days. After the 40 sec recommended curing time, some polymerized material still remains
interproximally.
Checchi (JP 94): 24 pts with APF surgery. 1quad received dressing, the other quad did not. According
to the patients, there was no additional relief of discomfort in quadrants with dressing.
POST OPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS
Pack & Haber (JP 83 31-35): Incidence of infection after periodontal surgery 1%, no difference in the
incidence of infection with antibiotic coverage. Infection highest after osseous surgery
Curtis & McLain (JP 85): Incidence of postop complications: 94.5% had none or minimal POT
complications. Increased duration of procedure resulted in increased POT pain.
Murphy: Complications with GTR: Pain 16%, perforation 4%, infection 4%.
Mathews & McCulloch (JP,93): Survey the pain perceptions of surgical vs. non-surgical tx. Pts. had
significant differences between tx types, post-op pain, swelling, interference with eating, having a
restoration placed in a surgical area, and prior periodontal therapy.
WOUND HEALING
VASCULAR
Cutright (JP,69): Proliferation of Blood vessels in Gingival wounds
Day 1: Withdrawal and blockage of cut ends of the vessels at wound margin
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Day 2: New sprouts, club-shaped stubs at bottom of wound.

Day 3: Short Capillary loops forming, arising from the cut surfaces of existing vessels
which anastomose. No regeneration at edges of the wound.
Day 5: Increased capillary loops with dilation of one limb. Corners of the wound show
revascularization.
Day 7: General contour of gingiva reestablished, floor and edges show completion of
capillary loops
Day 9. Capillary loops almost reach height of normal loops, density less than normal.
Day 11: Further restoration of normal pattern and size, density still not equal to normal
gingiva.
SOFT TISSUE
Kon (JP,69): Full Thickness Flap
0 hour: Thin blood clot over exposed bone and CT
2 days: increased flap vascularization/ vasodilation. Rete pegs flat
6-7days: Increased inflammatory reaction, flap still prone to separation, blood clot replaced by
immature CT.
7 days: Osteoclastic activity reaches a peak at day 7.
12days: Flap is reattached to bone and tooth, osteoblastic activity predominates at day 12.
23-31: Bone reformed at crest and buccal septum, organized CT.
55-85: Periodontal tissues reconstructed, DGJ renewed, buccal plate is rebuilt.
Thick clot impairs healing.
DENUDED BONE
Costich and Ramfjord (JP,68): Leave exposed bone of 10pts, 3-4 mm apical to alveolar crest
1) No pts complained of pain,
2) Sequestration and bone resorption was present 6 wks after surgery,
3) post-surgical inflammation extended into the periodontal membrane
Ramfjord and Costich (JP,68): Exposure of periosteum same as above:
1) Exposure of periosteum on the alveolar process without flap coverage results in severe inflammation
with bone resorption
2) The degree of bone resorption following periosteal retention is almost equal to that seen with
denudation
3) As thick a layer of CT as is possible should be left over the periosteum if the area is not going to be
covered with epithelium
Wound healing Intervals
Lindhe: More graft fill in q 2 weeks recall vs. q 2 months
HEALING IN THE PRESENCE OF PLAQUE
Yumet, Polson (JP,85): 4 squirrel monkeys, Healing in the presence of plaque, get marked epithelial
downgrowth into an incisional wound after inflammation with a proposed loss of CT.
Nyman (77): 5 types of surgery, no POT professional cleanings, OH returned to baseline @ 6 months, in
Attachment loss and PD regardless of surgical method used.
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING HEALING
Protein, Fe, Vita C: Important for epithelial barrier function.
Vogel et al (84):
Zinc: Stabilizes membranes and decreases lysosomal enzyme and histamine release
Vit C: May alter PMN function , needed for collagen synthesis (cross-link process)
Fe (Iron): Collagen metabolism, may alter macrophage function and PMN
Protein: epithelium barrier
Folic Acid: epithelium barrier. Collagen metabolism
Calcium: decreased may alter Calcium/Phosphate ratio
Pauling: Vit C good for wound healing
Vogel (JP 86 14-20): Showed that subclinical deficiencies of Vit C, zinc, and iron may increase the permeability
of epithelium, generally reversible. However, megadosages of Vit C did not increase resistance to
gingivitis/periodontitis.
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Leggott (JP 86 14-21) With good OH vitamin c deficiency does not result in severe periodontal pathology.
Vitamin C deficiency does relate to gingival inflammation. Depletion of Vitamin C can lead to increased
gingival bleeding (BOARD QUESTION)
Siegel (82): Conditional oral scurvy due to vitamin C withdrawal
Granulation tissue removal
Lindhe and Nyman (JCP,85): Split mouth 15 pts. MWF/ OFD/ S/RP. Granulation tissue removal in
conjunction with flap surgery is not a critical measure for promotion of proper healing of the periodontal
tissues.
Saliva Contamination
Bodner (92): Saliva components i.e. enzymes, IgA, etc. are important in wound healing. Rat study
Wikesjo (JP,90): Dogs, Saliva contamination of the root surface does not adversely affect healing.
CRATERING
Jenkins et al. (JP,90): OFD pts, at 1 month 30% had craters or clefts of 1.8-1.6 mm deep, at 6 months
craters reduced to 0.7mm. Tissue forming is a crevice not a LJE
Newman: 3 mo pot inverse bevel procedures, Decrease in PD, increase AL but good gingival architecture
not always obtained, pts maintained these areas OK
DENTIN HYPERSENSITIVITY
ETIOLOGY: 15,000 dentin tubules per mm 2
Theories of Dentinal Hypersensitivity: Dowell (JCP 83 16-24)
1) Transducer- " Synaptic-like" relationship between terminal sensory nerve endings &
odontoblastic process
2) Modulation- Odontoblasts may become injured & release neurotransmitting agents
modulates nerve fibers
3) Gate control and vibration- deals with how pain responses are interpreted.
4) Hydrodynamic- fluid movement within the dentinal tubules. (Brannestrom):
Absi, Addy (JCP,87): Patency, diameter and # of tubules affect sensitivity
proportionately.
Pashley (JE 86 16-28): Amount of bacteria and products that can migrate into the tooth depends
on thickness of remaining dentin, surface area of dentin exposed, smear layer, potency of bact
products, rate of pulpal blood flow.
TREATMENT:
Knight (93): Methods for decreasing hypersensitivity include mechanical and chemical obliteration of
dentin tubules.:
Mechanical: best in descending order: Sharp curettes, dull curettes, ultrasonics, plastic instruments.
Chemical: 1.09% NaF, 0.40% SnF2, 0.14% HF, 3% monohydrogen mono-potassium oxalate, glycerin,
sealant 6% ferric oxalate, toothpaste 5% KNO3, light cured dental resin.
SEM analysis showed most obliteration of tubules were sharp curette and light cured resin.
Fogel and Pashley (JCP,93): SEM; Smear layer created by root planing is acid-labile, did not reduce
dentin permeability, Potassium oxalate occluded the tubules and was acid resistant.
Butler Protect: 3% monohydrogen mono-potassium oxalate. K makes nerve less excitable, oxalate
combines with Ca to form crystals and block tubules.
TOOTHPASTE Sensodyne:
Minkoff (87): 10% strontium chloride, significantly decreases dentin hypersensitivity
compared to control toothpaste.
Collins (JP 84 16-25) Toothpaste study, compared Protect, Protect with fluoride and
Sensodyne. All relieved sensitivity no sig difference.
Kuroiwa (JP 94 16-26) Brushing with a non-abrasive dentifrice or without a dentifrice will
prevent hypersensitivity. Occludes tubules with organic pellicle containing materials.
TOOTHBRUSHING

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McAndrew (JP 95): Toothbrushing alone was most effective in occluding dentinal tubules
and should not precede or follow dietary acid application and separate from mealtimes.
IONTOPHORESIS: Forces fluoride into dentin by setting up a charge gradient.
Lutins (84): Less hypersensitivity to controlled mechanical pressure/temperature in
iontophoresis treatment group.
Brough et al (JADA,85): all methods , 2% NaF and distilled H20 with and without
Iontophoresis were the same
FLUORIDE
Gel-Kam 0.4% SnF2
Mazza (Bowers favorite) high concentration Gelcam 1.2%?? effective at decreasing
sensitivity
Tinanoff (80): SnF2 reduces plaque, but does not affect gingival health. GI and plaque
score did not change sig, but CFUmg reduced 30%and total CFU reduced 50%.
Perry (J West Soc Perio): Review. Fl may inhibit bacterial adsorption to pelliclecovered teeth by competing for Ca2+ ions. Comparisons b/t SnF 2 and NaF have generally shown
the Sn compounds to have superior antimicrobial properties. Conc in tooth pastes generally 0.10.2% which is effective for caries reduction but less than required to have sig antimicrobial effect
(0.3-0.4%).
Boyd (JCP 85, 29-11): 28 pts, irrigation with 0.02% SnF 2, sig. improvement in clinical
indices, better than OHI+H2O irrigation.
Hastreiter (89): No effect on plaque, gingivitis, perio except with radiation and ortho
decalcifications
INFECTION CONTROL
BOARD QUESTIONS
Activated glutaraldehyde is most effective disinfectant for cold sterilization
2% glutaraldehyde requires complete rinsing.
Bleach requires exposure for 10 minutes.
Spore tests should be done weekly.
Dry heat sterilization requires 160 degrees for 60 minutes.
Herpes virus can survive for 2-4 hours on environmental surfaces.
CAVITRON
Infection control:
Larato (JP 67, 30-9): 3,000 % increase in bacterial counts in air during Cavitron, with still 230% 35
minutes after treatment. handpiece not autoclavable
GINGIVECTOMY
Contraindications: intrabony pockets beyond the MGJ, or narrow AG, highly inflammed tissues, risk of
caries, irregular pocket depths, esthetics a concern.
HISTORICAL:
Fouchard 1742 - Described a procedure and instrumentation for removal of excessive gingiva
Pickerill 1912 - Coined term gingivectomy
Kronfeld 1939 - Claimed bone to be not infected, thereby no need for bone removal, gingivectomy more
popular
Goldman (OS 50, 33-1): Described the gingivectomy 45 bevel to establish physiologic contours of
tissues and to remove periodontal pockets, gingival overgrowth.
Glickman (JP 56, 33-2): Described the unembellished gingivectomy, no preop therapy
Kramer (92): Advocates the use of gingivectomy to treat intrabony defects.

141

Proestakis et al (JCP, 92): Gingivectomy vs. MWF, split mouth design, There was no significant
difference in the healing response in infrabony pockets between Gv and MWF. The bone gain was not
predictable in either case.
Healing after Gingivectomy:
Engler & Ramfjord (JP 66, 33-3): Epithelialization: Tritiated thymidine in monkeys, epithelial cells
migrate b/w polyband and CT after a delay of 12-24 hrs , most activity 2 mm from wound margin,
reaching tooth in 5-7 days, Epithelium migrates at 0.5mm/day, it takes 1 week to cover a 3mm defect, 3-5
weeks to reestablish DGJ.
Ramfjord and Engler (JP 66, 33-4): Connective Tissue: Same M&M as above, acute inflammation
observed 2 hrs post op, epithelial labeling reached peak 1 day after surgery, CT labeling peaking on day 3,
CT healing started 0.3-0.5 mm under wound surface, but spreads to rest of supracrestal area once
epitheliazation is complete. Functional arrangement & collagenous maturation of connective tissue
requires 3 - 5 weeks .
Stahl (JP 68, 33-5): Humans re-epithelialization at 7-14 days. CT repair continuing for 28 days.
Listgarten (JP 72): JE reestablished at 12 days POT, heals by extension of basal layer of oral epithelium
apically between gingival CT and tooth. BOARD QUESTION
Moskow (JP 77, 32-27): Monkey, histo. Interdental creaters treated w/ GV, curettage and flaps 11yr.
All 3 worked at crater elimination.
Wennstrom (JCP,83): Regeneration of Gingiva following surgical Excision, Keratinized gingiva
consistently regenerated following surgical excision of the entire portion of the gingiva.
Blood Loss Gingivectomy:
Hecht and App (JP 74): Split mouth, one side infiltration the other a block w/ 2% lidocaine 1:100,000
Epi
Block: mean blood loss, 19.3 ml, mean operating time 24.5 min
Infiltration: mean blood loss 6.7 m., mean operating time 20.5 min
Gingivoplasty:
Goldman (JOS 50): Gingivoplasty includes the establishment of physiologic gingival architecture to
maintain health. Festooning of the gingiva to obtain interdental grooves is important for food spillways.
Indications:
1) Thickened gingival margins which remain inflamed
2) Fibrotic, bulky tissue
3) Improper gingival contours following curettage or gingivectomy
4) Areas of interdental cratering
OPEN FLAP CURRETAGE/DEBRIDEMENT
ENAP (Excisional New Attachment Procedure)
Yukna (JP 76, 32-31): ENAP procedure in 5 monkeys, pocket reduction 5-2.8mm, 1.6 new attachment
by LJE
Yukna (JP 80, 32-32): 5 year follow-up post ENAP, 1.5 mm attachment gain maintained although PD
increased, mean "new" attachment decreased, compares favorably to MWF (0.5mm).
Curettage:
Stone, Ramfjord (JP,66): Epithelium regeneration mainly from remaining cells of epithelial attachment
and crevicular lining.
Ramfjord, Nissle etal (JP 68, 32-25): One of the first split mouth studies, SubG curettage vs. surgery
(OFD, gingivectomy)
After 5 years most pts with curettage gained attachment, Surgery had greatest PD reduction but also loss
of attachment.
Stahl, Weiner et al (JP 71, 32-26): Romoval of crevicular epi not consistently achieved by curettag/RP.
Epithelialization of crevice complete by 1 week v. 2-4 weeks w/ GV. Curettage reduced inflammation but
returned in 8 weeks.
Caton and Zander (JP 79, 32-28): Monkeys, Coronal attachment gains and increased resistance to
probing following RP and curettage
is due to long junctional epithelium formation.
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Echeverria, Caffesse (JCP 83, 32-30): S/RP plus curettage does not predictably result in improved
clinical parameters over S/RP alone
in the treatment of shallow, suprabony pockets.
Litch: You leave sulcular epithelium when you do inverse bevel incisions.
Chemical Curettage:
Kalkwarf et al (JP 82, 32-29): Sodium hypochlorite provides uniform and predictable pocket lining
removal without anesthesia as well as antimicrobial effects.
Forgas and Ground (JP 87): S/RP plus antiformin-citric acid curettage = to S/RP alone.
OPEN FLAP CURRETAGE/OFD
Ammons & Smith (DCNA 76, 32-2): REVIEW. Stimulates regeneration, inverse bevel initial incision,
sulcular epithelium and granulation tissue removed with a curette.
Lindhe (85): Granulation tissue removal not necessary for clinical success. (BOARD QUESTION)
Ellegaard B & Loe (JP,71): With OFD full regeneration of intrabony lesions occurred in 72% of 3 -wall
defects, 45% of 2 wall defects, and 40% of combined 3 and 2 walled defects. Not all re-entries.
HEALING AFTER OFD
Froum et al (JP,82): 2mm recession, 1.4mm A Level gain, 1.2mm osseous fill, 0.8mm crestal resorption,
LJE formation these findings were repeated by Stahl, Froum, et al (JP,82) with the LJE formation.
Listgarten, Rosenberg, and Lerner (JP 82): Rats, at as early as 3 weeks CT replacement of LJE after
OFD. This has never been repeated with no real proof that CT and Cementum was removed during the
procedure. Creeping attachment
Kohler and Ramfjord (OS 60): 15 specimens 0f 14 pts. OFD, block section hopeless teeth.
Results: 1) Flaps healed with no loss of attachment, 2) Foreign body (calculus, remnants of gauze, tooth
fragments).
Caton, Nyman, Zander (JCP 80): Monkeys, No new attachment occurred in monkeys treated with MWF,
Autogenous graft, alloplastic ceramic graft, or root planing/curettage all formed a long junctional
epithelium.
Steiner, Crigger, Egelberg (JPR 81): No new attachment with conventional replaced flap surgery,
healing by LJE. sometimes used as the control for the Cole et al (80) study using CA root chemotherapy.
Karring, Isidor, Nyman, Lindhe (JCP 85, 32-14): Monkey study. Induced pdtis 50% bone loss,
crowns reduced, RP, cementum removed, submerged lateral pedicle. New bone 2 mm. The epe and
granulation tissue derived from the bone and gingiva must be excluded in order to obtain new fibrous
attachment w/o root resorption. Attachment formed from the coronal migration of the PDL cells when the
epi was excluded.
HEALING FOLLOWING FIBER RETENTION PROCEDURE
Stahl (JP 77, 32-24): Rat study. Removal of cementum & CT fibers result in LJE or deepened crevice
with JE apical to preop postion.
MODIFIED WIDMAN
Ramfjord and Nissle (74): Described Original Widman Flap: 1 mm FGM, reflect beyond MGJ, curette
tissue, APF, 1916, limited bony manipulation. MWF marginal scalloped incision parallel tooth axis,
sulcular incision, then horizontal to remove tissue. FTF minimally, leave as much interproximal as
possible. Bony contouring for IPX papilla adaptation. Good access, esthetics, optimal root coverage, LJE.
Good procedure when minimal recession is desired.
Ramfjord (77): 7 yr. follow-up, 105 pts, MWF compared favorably with pocket elimination surgery.
Renvert, Nilveus, Egelberg (JCP 85, 32-22): S/RP vs. MWF and CA root treatment. 6 month results.
CA with surgery was more effective in tx intraosseous defects than S/RP even though no sig difference.
MWF HEALING
Caton, Nyman, Zander (80): Monkey study showed no regeneration, LJE only
Bone Denudation (Pushback) Procedure
Wilderman, Wentz, Orban (60): Described healing after bone denudation procedure, generates attached
gingiva

143

Healing:0-2 days Clot formation. Polyband 2-10 days max osteoclastic, 10-28 days max osteoblastic,
28-185 days functional
repair. Regeneration of all but 1/3 of bone. Complete regeneration of
keratinized, alveolar mucosa.
Long Term Effectiveness of Periodontal Therapy
Meador (JP 89): Stability of tx over 22 yrs (mean 7.4 yrs). OFD 95%, MWF 91%, FO 71.6%, Nonsurgical 63.6%
OSSEOUS SURGERY
Osseous Resection:
Pro:
Olsen (85, 33-27): 12 pts, 5 yr. follow-up APF with and without osseous, initially the same, but long term
osseous had maintained pocket reduction while APF alone had soft tissue rebound and increased
inflammation (2.3 times as many 4+ bleeding sites). 6 month study done by Smith, Ammons, and Van
Bell.
Kaldahl (92): flap with osseous has long term maintainability and stability.
Schluger (OS 49 33-10): Osseous resection leads to more stable and more maintainable dentitions
Lindhe (84): 14 yr. study. Sites where FO was performed had less residual pocket depth. Only 0.8% had
>2mm LOA.
Selipsky (DCNA 76 33-14): Mobility back to baseline after 1 year POT, 0.6mm circumferential
supporting bone removed after osteoplasty and ostectomy as an average of 6 sites per tooth, max 1.5mm.
Bu and Li bone less important for tooth support than interproximal bone. (BOARD QUESTION)
Con:
Becker: Pts treated with pocket elimination without maintenance had recurrent disease.
World Workshop: Osseous resection is indicated for 1) Thick bony ledges, Tori. 2) Tx of class 1
furcations. 3) Shallow 2 wall craters. 4) Shallow 1 wall (No GTR). 5) Crown lengthening.
Physiologic Architecture:
Schluger (OS 49, 33-10): Opinion paper of 10 yrs observation, Pocket elimination as the goal of surgery
and since soft tissue form and depth ultimately depends on hard tissue, physiologic osseous contours must
be attained to assist in pocket elimination.
Ochsenbein: Bone does not influence the morphology of the gingiva, but rather the CEJ and
interproximal spaces. Confirmed by Wirthlin (87)
World Workshop: States we should not remove excessive bone to produce physiologic architecture.
CLASSIFICATION OF INTRABONY DEFECTS
Goldman &Cohen (JP,58): Classification of infrabony pockets
Three osseous walls:
A) Proximal, buccal, and lingual walls
TX: curettage/ GV
B) Buccal, mesial, and distal
C) Lingual, mesial, and distal
Two osseous walls:
A) Buccal and lingual walls (crater)
TX: osseous therapy
B) Buccal and proximal walls
C) Lingual and Proximal walls
One osseous wall:
A) Proximal wall (hemiseptal)
TX: osseous therapy
B) Buccal wall
C) Lingual wall
Combinations
A) 3 walls + 2 walls
B) 3 walls + 2 walls + 1 wall
C) 3 walls + 1 wall
D) 2 walls + 1 wall
Four osseous walls (circumferential)- Buccal, Lingual, mesial and distal
Tal (JP 84 3-16): 100 mandibles, 4.1% incidence of intrabony defects, 2 walled defects most common
(50%) also when inter-root distance increases 2.1-4.1, so does incidence of intrabony defects.
Karn (JP 84 3-15) Classified defects as moats ramps craters trench etc.
OUTCOME VS DEFECT MORPHOLOGY
Renvert et al . (JCP 85): 51 pts, many combinations of osseous defects, Surgery of OFD, RP/SC, CA (3
min):

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results: Tx outcomes based on the # of walls of osseous defect, the defect circumference, and the number
of tooth surfaces involved showed little or no relationship to bone fill.
Steffensen & Weber: (JP,89) Most defects with an angle less than 45 o showed a gain of bone (31% fill)
while largest defects angles showed a loss.
OSSEOUS Techniques
Ochsenbein & Bohannan (JP,63): Palatal approach to osseous surgery. Advantages: elimination of
reverse architecture, less denudation of buccal radicular surfaces, and less buccal recession and furca
exposure.
Ochsenbein & Bohannan (JP,64): Crater Classification:
A. Class I Crater: 2-3 mm, thick B & L walls; TX: Remove palatal wall of deformity
B. Class II Crater: 2-5 mm, wide orifice and thinner wall abrupt slope to base: Tx: Remove
palatal some buccal
C. Class III Crater: 6-7 mm, concavity with sharp drop to broad, flat base
D. Class IV Crater: variable depth with extremely thin buccal and palatal walls- base wider
buccolingually
Tibbets, Ochsenbein (DCNA,76): Lingual approach to osseous resection, watch for lingual artery/nerve,
mylohyoid ridge.
Rationale: 1) 25o lingual inclination, thus crater more lingual, 2) Lingual embrasures wider than buccal,
3) Reduction of lingual bone is osteoplasty vs. ostectomy from the buccal, 4) Buccal is usually overtreated,
5) Lingual furcation is more apical than buccal
furcation, 6) Lingual CEJ's are lower apically on the
tooth and since bone follows the CEJ, natural slope lingually.
OSSEOUS SURGERY: WOUND HEALING
Wilderman, Wentz, Orban (JP,60): dog study: Epithelial migration finished after 10 days. Bone
formation greatest at 21-28 days. Bone resorption even with periosteum in place. Preparatory phase (0-2
days) Osteoclastic phase 2-10 days. Osteoblastic phase 10-28 days. Maturation / functional repair 28-185
days. (BOARD QUESTION) Where does granulation tissue come from?
Pennel, Wilderman (JP 67 33-21): Clinical, Mean bone loss with osseous 0.54 mm, (range 0 to 3.8 mm)
82% loss <1 mm. Loss of bone is relatively insignificant.
Wilderman et al (JP,70): Histologic: Healing post osseous in humans, 7 days peak osteoclastic activity, 34 weeks peak osteoblastic activity, apical proliferation of JE crestal bone loss = 1.2mm aver- crestal bone
apposition 0.4mm = net loss 0.8mm.
Donnenfeld, Hoag, Weissman (JP 70 33-23): 0.6mm osteoplasty, 0.4mm no osteoplasty, alveolar bone
undergoes changes with and without osteoplasty.
Wood, Hoag, Donnenfeld (JP 72 33-25): 9 pts, APF's Partial and full thickness flaps, partial thickness
flaps were found to heal slower and with more radicular bone loss than the full thickness flaps (0.98mm
vs. 0.62 mm ) respectively.
Moghaddas and Stahl (JP 80 33-26): APF with Osseous resulted in average loss: Horning Favorite
article.
Radicular loss: 3 month (0.84 mm), 6 month (0.55 mm)
Interradicular loss: 3 month (0.38 mm), 6 month (0.23 mm)
Furcation loss: 3 month (0.79 mm), 6 month (0.88 mm)
Tavtigian ( 33-24) will lose 0.5 mm in facial bone with an APF
Wound Healing - Instrumentation
Horton et al. (OS 75): Compared healing after 1)ultrasonics, 2)burs, 3)chisels, faster healing with 1,3
delayed 2,although 2 smoothest. By 28 to 56 days healing was the same for the three methods
Lobene and Glickman (JP 63, 33-18): Post-osseous surgery bone contour not guaranteed ultimate
contour depends on healed bone. Might need to measure heat produced when grinding bone. Response of
bone when using rotary diamond, by day 28 post-op, bone height was reduced 0 to 1.7mm vs. 0 to 0.5mm
in control. 40% reduction in bone in grinded experimental sites , 5% in controls.
Apically Positioned Flaps
Nabers (JP 54 33-11): Originally described, 2 yr. observation of several cases in which the attached
gingiva was repositioned to the alveolar crest. Designed for areas where GV would remove all attached
gingiva.

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Friedman (JP 62): Describes the APF technique Advantages: 1) Rapid healing by primary intention and
fewer post-op sequelae, 2) Maximum bone coverage, 3) Control of post-op amount of gingiva
APF HEALING
Pippin (JCP 90): 6pts Split mouth, APF, Sulcular vs. internal bevel incision, epithelium degenerates and
is replaced with CT
Donnenfeld (JP 64): 13 pts, mean gain of attached gingiva 1.33 mm, mean loss of alveolar bone height
(0.63 mm) loss.
Caffesse (JP 68, 32-3): Monkey. Inverse bevel incision 1 mm FGM, FTF, debridement, osteoplasty 1
mm, APF, no dressing. If poor adaption, epith b/t flap & new tissue. Healing depends on flap adaptation.
Thin clot = heal secondary intention, thick clot = tertiary intention.
Tavtigan (JP 70): 6 pts, change of facial radicular crest after APF (+0.5 to -2.3 mm)
DISTAL WEDGE PROCEDURES
Robinson (66): Distal wedge indications, to gain access to bone, triangular incision
Chakin (77): moon curved incision, from facial line angle distally
ESTHETIC CROWN LENGTHENING
Bragger, Lang (JCP 92): 25 pts, Surgical crown lengthening of a distance of 3 mm from the alveolar
crest to future crown margin leads to stable periodontal tissues over a period of 6 months. Apical free
gingival margin: Post surgical 1.3 mm, 6 wks 1.5 mm, and 6 month 1.4 mm.
Gargiulo (JP 61): 30 human jaws, histo,
Sulcus Ave. 0.69 mm
range 0.0 - 5.36 Ave. range 0.61 -1.76
EA
Ave. 0.97 mm
range 0.08-3.72 Ave. range 0.71 - 1.35
CT
Ave. 1.07 mm
range 0.0-6.52
Ave. range 1.06 - 1.08
Vacek, Gher (IJPRD,94): Histomorphometrics on 171 tooth surfaces of cadavers
Sulcus Ave. 1.32 0.80 mm range 0.26 - 6.03 mm
EA
Ave. 1.14 0.49mm range 0.32-3.27 mm
CT
Ave. 0.77 0.29 mm range 0.29-1.84 mm
LOA Ave. 2.95 1.70 mm range 0.60-8.73 mm
Notables:1) No correlation between LOA and CT or biologic
2) Although there was variability in CT it was the least variable
3) Epithelium attachment was greater on tooth surfaces adjacent to restorations
4) CT and EA were greater in the posterior segments.
Herrero (1995) Amount of root exposure considerably less than 3mm for both staff and residents.
(BOARD QUESTION)
Tal (21-23) Effect of violation of biologic width, width restored with recession
Machtei (JP 94 33-16): Place gingiva at the level of the bone to have better pocket depth reduction in
healing.
Managing the Maxillary Anterior:
Lie T (IJPRD,92): Gingivectomy from palate, pop papillae of facial preserving the facial attachment, no
sutures usually needed, occasionally lose the papillae height.

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COMPARISON OF SURGICAL TECHNIQUES, SURGICAL VS. NONSURGICAL:

Kaldahl, Kalkwarf, Patil (JP,93): Review of longitudinal clinical trials of non-surgical and surgical therapy:
Sweden, Washington, Minnesota, Denmark (Karring), Loma Linda, Arizona, Nebraska and found:
1. Both therapeutic measures improved periodontal clinical parameters.
2. Surg better short term: PD decrease, long term: some studies showed surgery better, some showed =
3. Osseous: Short term: greater PD decrease, long term: no difference.
4. Attach loss: shallow: Surg more long and short term, deep: mixed results.
5. No difference in longitudinal maintenance of PAL non-surg vs. surg.
Antczac-Bouckoms et al (JCP,93): Meta-analysis of surgical vs. non-surgical in major studies
BL: For 1-3 mm pockets the advantage of preserving PAL with non-surgical Tx is greater than the PD
reduction with surgical tx. For the 4-6mm pockets the advantage of surgical TX in PD reduction out
weighs the advantage of non-surgical Tx/
Michigan Studies:
Knowles et al Ramfjord (JP,79): 8 yr. with tx of subG curettage (SC), MWF, and pocket elimination
(PE).
BL: greatest pocket reduction with MWF and PE, and greatest attachment gain with MWF and SC.
(BOARD QUESTION) @8 years how many mm of pocket reduction??
Ramfjord, Knowles, Morrison et al (JP 80, 32-16): Influence of tooth type using the data from the
above study.
BL: Tooth type has little influence of response of periodontal treatment, problem was furcations may have
not been examined.
Hill, Ramfjord et al (JP 81): 2 yr., Random, PE (pocket elimination), MWF, subG curettage, and S/RP
only. PD >4 mm Sx more ALOSS, less PD. PD 1-3 mm all ALOSS but Sx worse. OH key.
Ramfjord et al (JCP 87, 32-17): Random 4 tx modalities: 1)S/RP, 2) MWF, 3) APF & oss, 4) Curettage
BL: S/RP is tx of choice in pockets of 6 mm or <, > 7mm all treatments are similar.
Becker, Becker, Ochsenbein, Caffesse, Morrison, Prichard: (JP 88, 32-23): S/RP, Osseous, MWF (1
yr.)
BL: S/RP somewhat effective at reducing pocket depth, but not as effective as surgical techniques
Gothenburg:
Rosling, Nyman, Lindhe, Jern (JCP 76, 32-15): GV, APF, APF w/oss, WF, WF w/oss
BL: All surgical techniques worked as long as can be successful as long as excellent OH is maintained.
Nyman, Lindhe, Rosling (JCP,77): Five surgeries mentioned above without maintenance care.
BL: Periodontal treatment is less effective without good OH. can be 4X worse.
Westfelt, Bragd, Socransky, Haffajee, Nyman, and Lindhe (JP,85): Split mouth design. All had S/RP
tx were 1) alone 2) GV, 3) APF, 4) APF w/ oss, 5) MWF, and 6) MWF w/ oss.
BL: Both surgical and non-surgical treatments are effective if subG plaque is removed.
Lindhe, Nyman, Socransky et al. (JCP,82): Healing following surgical and non-surgical tx.
BL: Critical Probing depths: Non-surgical therapy was superior in shallow sites, equal in moderate, less
effective in deep sites.
Washington:
Smith, Ammons, Van Belle (JP,80): OFD vs. Flap and Osseous,
BL: Pocket reduction of osseous reduction was maintained over 6 months, some interproximal PD
increase in OFD.
Nebraska:
Kaldahl, Kalkwarf, Patil, Molvar (JCP, 90): Four modes of therapy, CS, RP, MWF, Flap and osseous
BL: PD decrease and attachment gain are best when suppuration is absent. Deep probing sites are best
eliminated with MWF and FO treatment rather than CS or RP.
Kaldahl, Kalkwarf, Patil, Dyer , Bates (JP,88): CS, RP,MWF, and FO, random
BL: All tx resulted in decrease in mean PD with FO producing the greatest decrease followed by MWF,
RP, CS
Loma Linda:
Renvert, Nilveus, Dahlen, Slots, Egelberg (JCP 90): 5yr F/U, RP vs. Surgery
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BL: Clinical parameters were not significant different between surgical or S/RP at 5 yrs.
Renvert, Nilveus, Egelberg (JCP 85, 32-22): S/RP vs. MWF and CA root treatment. 6 month results
BL: CA with surgery was more effective in tx intraosseous defects than S/RP even though no sig
difference.
Minnesota:
Pihlstrom et al. (JP 81): S/RP vs. S/RP + MWF. Split mouth.
BL: Both S/RP and S/RP & MWF are effective up to the moderate pockets 4-6 mm, but MWF better >
7mm
Pihlstrom et al (JP 83, 32-19): 6 1/2 yr. above study.
BL: MWF Sx slightly better at 2 yrs but evened out at 6 1/2 yrs with the exception of deep pockets (>7
mm) which surgery was better.
Pihlstrom et al. (JCP 84, 32-21): S/RP or MWF followed by maint q 3-4 months. Both treatments
maintained pre-tx attachment levels adj to molar & non-molar teeth.

ROOT SURFACE BIOMODIFICATION

Root surface when exposed to saliva
Selvig & Zander (62):
1) no change
2) Demineralization (300 m)
3) Hypermineralization (10-35 m) ,most common, Re-appears in 3-4 wks post-scaling
Effects:

1) Demineralization of peri-tubular dentin (7-10 m)

2) Widening of dentinal tubules with formation of new "cementum pins"
3) Exposure of collagen fibrils in root surface
4) Stabilization of early wound healing via fibrin clot with prevention of apical epithelial downgrowth
(Wikesjo 92)
5) Possible release of inductive substances (Yeomans 67, Urist 71)
6) Decreased bacterial populations (Daly JCP,82)

CITRIC ACID:
POSITIVE ARTICLES:
Animal Studies:
Register and Burdick 1. (JP 75): Dogs & cats (living together). Optimum root demeneralization with
CA at pH 1 for 2-3 minutes.
Register and Burdick 2. (JP 75, 34-1): Dog, fenestration wounds, cucumferential and furcation. Flap
reattachment induced by in situ root demineralization using CA at pH 1.0 for 2 mins.
1) Anchoring cementum pins (perpendicularly extending fiber bundles seen in the tubule
at 3 week, which appear continuous with and insepearable from the induced cementum at 6
weeks) enextending into dentin tubules widened by demineralization.
2) Reattachment with cementogenesis of inflamed gingiva to roots exposed to
chronically infected surgical defects for 3 months.
3) Poor success in furcation and horizontal bone loss. 10% ankylosis with root
resorption. New PDL, cemntum and bone in 90% of case.
Polson, Proye (JP 83, 34-2): Monkey, reimplantation. CA facilitated fibrin linkage, which was the
initial stage in healing, and precedes the collagen attachment.
Ferynough & Page (JP 83, 34.2): CA application after scaling and root planing does give more fibroblast
attachment than S/RP alone.
Woodyard et al (JP 84, 34-4): Monkey, surgical recession, pedicle flap. CA increased CT attachment
and had no effect on pulps, but did not increase root coverage.
Caffesse et al (JCP 85, 34-5): Dog. Root surface demineralization with CA followed by FN enhances
healing with CT attachment.

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Fardal & Lowen berg (JP 90): CA alone does promote fibroblast attachment, to same degree as S/RP
and S/RP followed by CA application gives more attachment than S/RP alone
Polson & Proye (JCP 82): monkeys, CA stabilizes initial fibrin linkage and prevent apical epithelium
downgrowth. PIONEERS IN EPITHELIAL EXCLUSION NOT THROUGH MEMBRANES.
Polson & Hanes (JCP 87, 34-7): Rat, human root implants. CA treatment caused cell and fiber
attachment and inhibition of epi migration. diff in CT attach on demineralized healthy and diseased
root surfaces.
Hanes & Polson (JCP 88, 34-8): Rat, human root implants. CA removed smear layer, uncovered
openings of tubules and exposed collagen fibrils. CA may result in fibrin clot stabilization and initiate
wound healing that results in new XT attachment.
Histologic Human Studies:
Garrett, Crigger, Egelberg (JPR 78, 34-9): Human. S/RP necessary prior to CA application in order to
expose collagen fibers. 4 m demin zone dominated by exposed collagen fibers. Cementogenesis may not
be needed for attachment if collagen fibrils are exposed.
Cole & Crigger et al (JPR 80): Human. First study to delineate diseased root surface by placing notch
in most apical calculus. Root Plane, 5 min CA, reposition flap, New CT attachment seen from 0.1 - 2.3
mm coronal to notch and was formed on dentin, new cementum and old cementum. CT regeneration on
previously exposed root surfaces is biologically possible in humans. Steiner et al (JPR 81) is used as
the control and illustrates JE.
Lopez (JP 84, 34-11): Prisoners, CA tx, buccal pouch. New CT attach could form on previosly diseased
and roots that are S/RP and conditioned with CA, even in the absence of PDL cells.
Common & McFall (JP 83): Human histology of lateral positioned flaps, No new cementum or CT
attachment in non-CA controls but New cementum & CT attachment in CA group.
Clinical Human Studies:
Caffesse, Kerry et al (JP 88, 34-15): Human. CA & autogenous FN may promote reattachment
following MWF Sx. CA + FN>CA>FN=control
Tanaka, O'Leary (JP 89): A benefit of applying CA is that it removes virtually all debris and bacteria
from partly scaled surfaces and decalcifies the superficial layers of residual calculus.
Chaves et al (IJPRD 93): CA application after S/RP opens up dentinal tubules by removing the smear
layer and exposes collagen fibers of the peritubular dentin and the dentinal matrix.
Albair, Cobb, Killoy (JP 82): 18 teeth, 9 tx with CA, 9 controls, after full thickness flaps evaluated 6-15
wks later with LM and SEM, found 6/9 CA roots provided evidence of fibrous attachment to old and new
cementum no dentin which was functionally oriented and perpendicular to the root surface. No evidence
of fibrous attachment was found on the controls.
NEGATIVE ARTICLES:
Animal Studies:
Nyman, Lindhe, Karring (JCP 81, 34-2): Monkey. Cementum formation & new CT attach did not
occur on root surfaces previously exposed to perio disease and subsequent S/RP or on roots deprive of their
supporting bone and non-exposed cementum layer. CA conditioning results in formation of LJE which
may protect against ankylosis and root resorption.
Aukhil et al (JP 87, 34-6): CA application may delay migration of fibroblasts (progenitor cells from the
adjacent PDL during the early phase of healing in dogs.
Histologic Human Studies:
Stahl and Froum (JP 77, 34-12): Human teeth, histology, 4 mm pocket, CA applied to planed, pocketexposed cementum showed no evidence of accelerated cementogenesis or functional CT attachment.
(small sample case reports).
Clinical Human Studies:
Smith, Mason et al (JCP 86, 34-13): Human, MWF w & w/o CA pH1 3 min, no histo. No evidence of
improved or accelerated healing with CA Tx to MWF Sx.
Moore et al (JCP 87, 34-14): Human. No benefit to CA in conjunction with replaced flap Sx on nonmolars.

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Sammons (IJPRD 94): CA & TCN delayed fibroblasts.

Laurell doesnt like to use citric acid because it necroses the PDL which is important as a source of cells
for regeneration. He instead prefers to use EDTA.
NO DIFFERENCE ARTICLES:
Stahl and Froum (JP 77, 34-12): Human teeth, histology, 4 mm pocket, CA applied to planed, pocketexposed cementum showed no evidence of accelerated cementogenesis or functional CT attachment.
(small sample case reports).
Sarbinoff (JP,83):
1) CA alone does not remove endotoxin but does expose collagen fibers
2) Antiformin alone does remove endotoxin, but does not expose collagen
3) Combination of CA+ Antiformin removes endotoxin, removes smear layer, exposes collagen
Cogen et al (JCP,84):
1) CA alone does not remove endotoxin
2) CA alone does not promote fibroblast attachment to diseased root surfaces
3) S/RP alone gives no more fibroblast attachment
4) S/RP + CA gives no more fibroblast attachment than S/RP alone
Crigger et al (JPR,83): Direct exposure of normal periodontal CT to citric acid will not result in
irreversible deleterious effects.
Miscellaneous Investigations
Nilveus, Selvig (JPR 83, 34-16): Dog. Root planing may result in formation of reparative dentin but
does not cause inflammatory cellular rxns in pulp. Application of CA on RP surfaces does not sig change
characteristics of pulp response.
Valenza, Dangelo et al (JP 87, 34-17): Human. CA pH 1 5-10 min. CA caused edema of prickle cell
layer, disarrangement of tonofilament and karyolysis of the nucleus. CA caused marked alterations in
gingival epithelium, which may contribute to its prevention of a LJE attachment.
Lafferty, Gher et al (JP 93 34-18) SEM of root surface treated with CA or TCN-HCL for 5mm,
exposure and removal of smear layer, devoid of debris, and network of collagen fibers. CA and TCN
produce similar root surfaces after conditioning. TCN from capsules may introduce fillers and other
sediment.
Nasjleti, Caffesse et al (JP 87, 34-23): CA + LAP (lyophilized autologous plasma) appears to enhance
healing in monkeys after perio flap Sx.
Application articles:
Wen et al (JP,92):
1) Paint brush application of CA X 5 min gave more collagen fibril exposure and open
tubules than burnishing X 5 min (human dentin surfaces)
2) Burnishing x 5 min left smear layer and obturated tubules.
3) Depth of demineralization = 3- 7.5 mm
Codelli et al (Quint Int, 91):
1) 5 min CA burnishing caused protein denaturation (over demineralization)
2) 3 min burnish or 5 min passive application w/cotton pellet gave excellent smear layer
removal and collagen repair.
3) 3 min passive application left some smear layer & only partially demineralized
surface.
Guided Tissue Regeneration:
Handelsman et al (IJPRD,91): Intrabony defects tx by Gore-Tex alone or GT +CA, 9 month re-entry NO
DIFFERENCE
Kersten et al (JP,92): Intrabony defects tx by Gore Tex alone or GT + CA, 12 month clinical NO
DIFFERENCE
CONCLUSIONS ON CITRIC ACID

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1.
2.
3.
4.

CA has a beneficial effect when used in an animal model

CA has a questionable beneficial effect when used in humans
Bowers likes to use CA to debride furcations that are inaccessible to mechanical debridement
Possible beneficial effect when doing connective tissue grafts.

Tetracycline:
Positive articles:
Wikesjo et al (JPR,86): Due to acidity has similar effects as CA
Wikesjo et al (JPR, 86): Antibacterial effect
1) Binds to root surface (dentin acts as a reservoir)
2) Released from root in active state
3) Retains MIC for > 48 hours
Golub et al (Current Opinion 94): Anticollagenolytic effect
Terranova (JPR 86, 34-19): Human epi on dentin slabs. TCN 50-100 mg/ml for 5 mins, followed by
application of FN could lead to attachment of fibroblasts and decreased attachment of epi cells due to
binding of LM. TCN & CA reduced epi attachment.
Terranova et al (JP 87, 34-20): TCN promotes fibroblast adhesions and growth. PDL cells migrate
toward FN which is enhanced when dentin txd with TCN. Gingival epi cells had increased proliferation
and migration when dentin txd with LM. 1st to use AFSCM (assay for specific cell migration).
Stabholz et al (JP 93): TCN-HCL at 50 mg/ml had a greater antimicrobial activity than CHX for 22 days.
50 mg TCN displayed antimicrobial activity out to 14 days; CHX only for 24 hours (BOARD
QUESTION)
Smith Caffesse (JCP 87, 34-21): Dog. Use of combination of FN and LM in new attachment procedures
not justified. LM may inhibit LM.
Guided Tissue Regeneration:
Parashis and Mitsis (JP,93): No additional effect of tetracycline root preparation on GTR in the
treatment of Class II furcation defects.
Application articles:
Hanes et al (JCP,91): 5 min immersion of CA (pH 1) gave much better smear layer removal than 0.5% (5
mg/ml) TCN
Wikesjo et al (JPR,86): Bovine teeth, immersion 1-10% TCN solution (10-100mg/ml) gave the best
results.
Demirel et al (JP,91): Used human dentin and cementum, doxycycline, 50 mg/ml solution inhibited
bacterial growth for 7 -14 days, 100 mg/ml inhibited growth for 14 days.
Desoxycolate:
Assad, Dunlap (JP 87, 30-7): Findings suggest desoxycholate/plasma combination enhanced in vitro fibroblast
attachment to Dsd root surfaces.
Antiformin:
Lasho (JP,83):

a) Solution of hypochlorite, sodium hydroxide & sodium carbonate (Nebraska)

b) Very caustic agent (pH 13-14)
c) Originally used for chemical curettage, destroying pocket epithelium
d) No known damage to the CT
e) Used to detoxify root- endotoxin removal
f) Applied for 5 min, then neutralized for 30 sec with citric acid

Fibronectin:
Terranova et al (JPR 86): TCN-HCL and fibronectin as treatment produced a four-fold increase of # of
attached fibroblastic cells over untreated slabs.
Caffesse et al (JP 87, 34-25): Faster healing with the combination of CA and FN enhancing cellular
proliferation.
Alger et al (JP,90): Histology, Tx of human roots with TCN or TCN + FN during periodontal surgery did
not result in new attachment. The addition of fibronectin actually appeared to inhibit CT attachment.
Ripamonti et al (JPR 87, 34-22): Potential for CT attach and bone regeneration is enhanced if planed
and CA txd roots are additionally txd with specific attachment glycoproteins and plasma factors.

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Peltzman, Bowers, Reddi (JP 88, 35-14): Human bilateral furcations on Mand molars, AUTOG vs.
AUTOG + FN. AGAIN equivocal for both groups.
FURCATION MANAGEMENT
Furcation Classifications
Goldman: Incipient, Cul de Sac, Through and Through
Glickman: Grade:
1= detect
2=moderate
3= through & through
4= Exposed and can see through
Hamp: Degree:
0= no Horizontal penetration
1= < 3mm penetration
2= >3mm penetration
3= through & through.
Ramfjord:
0= no penetration
1= < 2mm penetration
2= >2mm penetration
3= through & through.
Tarnow and Fletcher:
Class 1, Subclass A 1-3mm Vertical Component
Class 2, Subclass B 4-6mm Vertical Component
Class 3, Subclass C +7mm Vertical Component
Lindhe: 1/3, >1/3 but not through and through, through and through. Hamp based treatment on
Lindhes classification.
Anatomy
Herman and Gher (83): Attachment area of roots. Root trunk 31%, MB 25%, P 24%, DB 19%
Ross and Evanchik (81): 29% of all molars had fused roots, 35% max 24% Mand
Hou and Tsai (JCP 94): 33% of all teeth with fused roots; 42% max, 24% man
Prevalence and Distribution
Tal (JP,82): Furcation involvement 85% of 100 pts (untxd south Africans) FI increases with age, 1st
molars most common.
Tal (JP,82): Correlation between depth of furcal defects and distance from the CEJ and alveolar crest, 5-6
mm suspect CL III
Ross and Thompson (JP 80 18-20): 615 molars from 72 perio pts, 90% FI in maxilla and 35% in
mandibular, only 22% of max furcations could be diagnosed solely with X-rays.
Larato (JP 70 18-13): 305 Mexican dry skulls, FI increases with age, 1st molars most common (max
more than Mand), buccal more than lingual/ palatal. Incidence related to length of time in mouth,
decreases as more posterior except premolars.
Svardstrom (JCP 96 1093) Highest frequency of furcation involvement is the distal of MX 1 st molar
(53%). Lowest frequency of furcation involvement is the mesial of the MX 2 nd molar (20%)
Etiology

Kalkwarf & Reinhardt (DCNA 88, 18-14):Review

1. Anatomic factors: carious lesions, restorations, furcation morphology-width, shape, root trunk length
2. Enamel projections: role as contributing factor uncertain
3. Occlusal trauma: still may be controversial
Waerhaug (JCP 80, 18-16): Plaque is the main contributor, subG plaque even in areas where no supraG
plaque was evident, GI and PI do not reflect actual level of destruction of furcation, loss of attachment did
not increase with increasing mobility.

Contributing Factors to Furcation Involvement:

(1) Root Concavities:
Bower (JP 79 18-15): Furcation root surface anatomy

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1. Max 1st molar teeth

furcal aspect of root concave 94% MB, 31% DB, 17% P
deepest concavity was in the MB root- mean concavity 0.3 mm
furcal aspects of buccal roots diverge toward the palate in 97%, divergence 22
2. Mand 1st molar teeth
furcal aspect of root was concave 100% M, 99% D
deeper concavity on M root (0.7mm), D root (0.5mm)
concavity presence of more cementum
Gher and Vernino (JADA,80): Max 1st premolars - groove furcation side buccal root 78%, 1st Max
molars concave facial side of MB, Mand have M and D concavities.
(2) Cervical enamel projections
Masters and Hoskins (JP 64 9-21): CEP Mand 28.6%, max 17%, 90% of Mand furcations associated
with CEPs. (BOARD QUESTION)
Grade I - CEP very slightly extending from CEJ
Grade II - CEP approaching furca
Grade III - CEP extending into furca
Leib, Berdon, Sabes (JP 67, 9-22): CEPs: maxilla: I>III>II, Mand. I>II>III. No correlation between
CEP presence and furca involvement. 22% maxillary molars and 25% mandibular molars, 4% are class
3s.
Hou and Tsai (JP,87):
1. CEPs in all molars 45.2%
2. CEPs in molars with furcation involvement 82.5%, Mand 1st molar most common (all other
studies suggest CEPs more common in 2nd molars), 1st Max, 2nd Man, 2nd Max
3. Chinese 2X more prevalent than Caucasian population
Swan and Hurt: Significant relationship between tooth surfaces with grade II and III furcations and
CEPs,
(3) Accessory Pulp Canals
Gutman (JP 78): 28% in furcation region; 24% in furcation only (BOARD QUESTION)
Lowman (OS 73 20-8): 59% Navy study treat perio 10-12 weeks after endo treatment
Vertucci
46%
Burch and Halen: 76%
(4) Bifurcation Ridges
Everett (JPR 58): bifurcation ridge is present 73% Mand 1st molars running M to D at the midpoint of
bifurcation
(5) Root Trunk Length
(6) Width and Location of Furcation Entrance
Wheeler (Text 68): Furcation entrances, location from CEJ
Max 1st molar
Man 1st molar
mesial 3mm
buccal 3mm
buccal 4mm
lingual 4mm
distal 5mm
Bower (JP 79 18-15):
1. Mean M-D width max 1st molars was 7.9 mm, Mand 1st molars was 9.2 mm
2. 81% of all furcations have entrance diameter 1.0 mm, 58% the diameter was 0.75mm or
less.
3. Extremely low correlation between M-D width of tooth and furcation entrance diameter
4. Blade face width of the curettes tested were within 0.75 mm to 1.10 mm .
Hou and Tsai (94): Furcation entrance means
Max 1st molar Max 2nd molar
Man 1st molar Man 2nd molar
Buccal
0.74mm
63mm
Buccal
.88mm
.73mm
Mesial
1.04mm
.90mm
Lingual
.81mm
.71mm
Distal
0.99mm
.67mm

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Diagnosis
Zappa et al (JP,93): Using Ramfjord and Hamp indexes, Overestimation of furcation defects
Mealey et al (JP,94): Bone sounding with anesthesia significantly improves the diagnostic accuracy of
furcation invasions as compared to standard probing techniques. (Vertical and horizontal) If no
anesthesia, tend to underestimate by 1-1.5 mm. (BOARD QUESTION)
Kalkwarf (DCNA,88): Diagnosis not complete until surgical access.
TREATMENT MODALITIES FOR FURCATIONS: S/RP, furca obliteration, GV, APF, Osseous, tunneling,
root amp, bicuspidization, hemisection, GTR
Non-surgical therapy
Loos et al. (JCP,89): In sites of > 7 mm regressed after initial tx, Overall 25% of molar furcation sites
demonstrated loss of attachment compared to 7% for non-molar sites and 10% of molar flat-surface sites.
Badersten: Non-surgical therapy works, but in non-molar teeth only.
Nordland (87): Furcations with initial pocket depth > 4mm had poorer response to non-surg therapy
verses flat molar and non-molar sites. 0.5mm loss in 24 months
Leon and Vogel (JP 87 18-18) Compared hand and ultrasonic scaling in furcations
Class I No difference between modalities
Class II and III ultrasonic scaler better.
Parashis (93) Calculus removal in furcations best with open scaling and rotary diamonds (BOARD
QUESTION)
Bower (JP 79 18-15) Width of furcation entrance is too narrow for most scalers
Tunnel:
Little (JCP 95): 18 pts with 5 max and 13 man furcas txd by tunneling. Adjacent teeth were used to
evaluate bone loss. After 5 yr., 3/18 had developed root caries. No difference seen in CAL or bone loss
when compared to adjacent teeth.
Hellden, Steffensen et al (JP,89): 149 teeth with Grade III furcations at 3 yrs, 75% caries free.
Hamp, Nyman, Lindhe (JCP,75): Tx of teeth with furcations revealed the following 5 yr. results:
1. 44% of the teeth were extracted during initial treatment
2. 50% of the remaining teeth received root resections , one root preserved 64% of the time ,none
of the teeth were lost in 5 yrs
3. Tunneling procedure had root caries 4/7.
Root Amputations: Consider implants, may have better long term success
Langer et al (JP,81): 10yr, 100pts, results are as follows for resected teeth: 38% of resected teeth failed by
10 yr. mark (62% success rate), 15.8 % in 5yr.
Of the failures:
1. 47% (greatest number of teeth) failed due to root fractures (BOARD QUESTION)
2. 26.3 failed to progression of perio, most were maxillary molars
3. 18.4% failed to endo
4. 7.9% failed due to cement washout
Erpenstein (JCP,83): 3 yr. hemisections, 6/34 failed due to endo, 1 failed due to perio. Suggests
favorable prognosis for hemisections, but these resections were sometimes done without surgical access
and no osseous recontouring was performed.
Carnevale et al (IJPRD, 91): 500 teeth with either root amps or hemisections. Overall 5.7% failures,
highest being caries and root fractures, 97.6% of these teeth were treated for periodontal reasons, only
0.6% had recurrence of periodontal breakdown.
Buhler (IJPRD,94): 337 cases, 7 yr. period of hemisection, reported failure rate of 13.1%.
Klavan (JP,75): Mean 38 month follow-up study of primarily DB root amps. Only 3/33 teeth showed an
increase in mobility after the root amp. The removal of one of the roots of a maxillary molar does not
increase the mobility of the tooth in normal function or contribute to increased PD. Splinting does not
seem to be necessary.
FURCATIONS - LONG TERM MAINTENANCE STUDIES

154

Pearlman (JP, 93): 172 pts classified similar to Hirschfeld and Wasserman with similar breakdown of
results. Finding was that even in the well maintained group, there were more molars lost with furcation
involvement over those without involvement.
Hirschfeld, Wasserman (JP 78 19-17): 22 yr. maintenance study of 600 pts.
1. 31% of teeth with original furcation invasion were lost
2. Breakdown of teeth lost according to groups WM 19.3%, D 69.9%, ED 84.4%
3. Average overall tooth loss by patient groups WM 0.68, D 5.7, ED 13.3
4. Order of tooth loss: Max 2nd, Max 1st, Mn 2nd, Mn 1 st (BOARD QUESTION)
5. 300 lost no teeth, 199 lost 1-3 teeth, 76 lost 4-9 teeth, 25 lost 10-23 teeth
6. Mortality of teeth correlated more closely to case type rather than type of surgery
7. Periodontal disease is symmetrical
PATIENT PERCENTAGES
Well Maintained 83%, Downhill 12.6%, Extreme Downhill 4.2% (BOARD QUESTION)
Ross and Thompson (JP 78 18-20,21): 100 pts treated with 387 furcas,. Conservative treatment only
OFD, no resection (BOARD QUESTION) or osseous treatments, 5 yr. Minimum follow up, 88% of teeth
were functioning after 5-24 yrs, (BOARD QUESTION) radiographs were the only diagnostic tool of
success. Max FI three times that of Mn. Max furcas detected most frequently by radiographs, MN furcas
detected most frequently by clinical exam.
McFall (JP 82): 100pts in maintenance for 15 yrs. 57% of teeth with initial furcation involvement were
eventually lost (BOARD QUESTION) with 25% being lost in the well maintained category.
Avg. overall tooth loss: WM 0.68, D 6.7, ED 14.4
Goldman, Ross (JP,86): 211 pts, 15-34 yrs with maintenance.
1. Furcation teeth lost WM 16.9%, D 66%, ED 93%
2. Avg. overall tooth loss: WM 1.0, D 5.8, ED 14.2
Becker studies (JP 89):
No therapy group:
31% furcations became involved at second exam 5 yr.
22% furcations got worse at 5 yrs.
Therapy w/maintenance: 22% furcations became involved at second exam 5 yr.
12% furcations got worse at 5 yrs.
Kalkwarf, Kaldahl, Patil (JP 88 18-22): 82 pts, 1394 furcations, teeth were tx with CS, RP, MWF, F/O
teeth were extracted, resected, hemisection, if bone loss past apex or bony architecture not corrected.
2 yr. - F/O had less breakdown than other tx , but several more teeth taken out in the group
5 yr. - Less breakdown with F/O (4.1%) although overall the other therapies havent caught up with total
extractions
BL: FO does better if one can create a positive architecture otherwise the MWF or OFD may be the better
treatment as far as tooth loss goes
Wang (JP 94 19-28): 24 pts 8yr study with 3 mo recalls. Molars with initial mobility showed greater
LOA than ones without mobility. Molars with furcation involvement also showed greater LOA over this
time period than molars without furcal involvement.
Summary of the above studies stresses the importance of maintenance in pts with FI and that the majority of
tooth loss occurs in a minority of pts.
BONE GRAFTS
GOALS OF OSSEOUS GRAFTING:
Schallhorn (JP 77, 35-1): Review
1. Pocket reduction/elimination
2. Restoration of lost alveolar process
3. Regeneration of functional attachment apparatus
GREATEST INDUCTIN POTENTIAL WITH ILIAC AUTOGRAFTS.
Advantages: reconstruct lost periodontium, idealistic therapy, reverse disease, tooth support, better
esthetics and improved function.
Disadvantages: longer tx, autograft disadvantages, availability of graft material, more post-op visits, lost
post-op tx eval, $$, multi-step, recurrence.

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FUNCTION OF A BONE GRAFT

1. Provides viable cells, hip graft best
2. Osteoinduction form bone in a non-bone forming site (non-orthotopic site) Hip, DFDBA best
3. Osteoconduction form bone in a critical size defect
4. Epithelial exclusion
5. Clot enhancement (Polson and Proye in CA studies)
6. Space maintenance. Dont pack material too tightly need space for vascular ingrowth
7. Enhance cementum formation
8. Enhance formation of new attachment
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL GRAFT
1. Viable cells
2. Osteoinductive
3. Osteoconductive
4. Physically stable
5. Replaced or incorporated by host DFDBA is not resorbed No mechanism for resorption of Type I
collagen. Eventually turned over with collagen metabolism. Hip bone lasts 3-5 years.
6. Safe
7. Unlimited Supply
8. Enhance new attachment
9. Clinically effective
INDICATIONS FOR GRAFTING
1. Deep intraosseous defects which cannot be adequately treated by other methods
2. To retain a critical tooth
3. Juvenile periodontitis
4. To reduce post op recession
PROBLEMS WITH GRAFTING
1. Additional time
2. Logistical problems of donor site and material quality
3. Post op care
4. Longer post-op treatment evaluation time
RESPONSES TO GRAFTING
Active Bone Formation: Bone cells survive and form bone. Possible only with iliac fresh graft
Osteoinduction: BMP proteins etc. which induce chemotaxis of mesenchymal cells/ bone precursor cells
Osteoconduction: Lattice which allows migration, resorption, bone formation (collagen matrix important for bone
formation).
Bone Principles
Endochondral vs. Intramembranous
Urist (CO 67): Bone induction principle cell differentiation caused by physiochemical effect of one tissue
on and in contact with another. BMP is protein derivative from mineralized matrix tissue. Earliest
deposits of new bone in 24-26 days.
Reddi (OCNA 87): 3 phases of bone induction,
1. Chemotaxis - activation and migration of mesenchymal cells aided by fibronectin (anchorage to cell
matrix),
2. Mitosis and proliferation of mesenchymal cells.
3. Differentiation and mineralization of cartilage followed by vascular invasion, and osteoblast
differentiation, followed by matrix mineralization in 10-12 days.

156

Types of Grafts:

1. Autograft
Same Individual Cortical bone
chips, Osseous Coagulum
Bone Blend Cancellous bone
2. Allograft
Genetic Difference/ Same Species
3. Xenograft
Different Species
4. Isograft
Identical Twins (Nyman)
5. Alloplast
Synthetic
6. Syngenisograft
Allograft Between Blood Relatives
7. Brephoplasiograft Fetal Tissue.
Graft: Tissue/organ for transplant/implantation, living tissue.
Implant: Material placed under mucosa/periosteum or within bone for functional, therapeutic, esthetic purposes,
inert tissue.
Transplant Denotes living tissue e.g. iliac crest

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AUTOGENOUS AND ALLOGENIC BONE GRAFTS

Study

Bone Type

Defect Type

mm Of Increase

Eval Method

Schallhorn, Hiatt et al
(JP 70, 35-15)

Fresh/Frozen Iliac
Autographs

Crestal

2.57 mm

Sounding/Re-Entry

1-Wall
2-Wall
Furcations
Crestal

3.75 mm
4.18 mm
4.50 mm
2.06 mm

Sounding/Re-Entry
Sounding/Re-Entry
Sounding/Re-Entry
Re-Entry

Infrabony
Furcations
Infrabony

3.62 mm
3.30 mm
3.44 mm

Re-Entry
Re-Entry
Sounding/Re-Entry

Furcations
Crestal

0.7 mm

Complete Fill Rare

Sounding/Re-Entry

Intrabony

2.1 mm

Sounding

Schallhorn, Hiatt,
(JP 72, 35-20)
Hiatt, Schallhorn
(JP 73, 35-9)
> Fill With More Walls
Dragoo, Sullivan
(JP 73, 32-17)

Frozen Iliac
Allograft
Intraoral
Autografts
Fresh Iliac
Autograft

Hiatt & Schallhorn (JP 73, 35-9): Intraoral transplants of cancellous bone & marrow in perio
lesions. 40 pts/166 human defects autogenous bone from tuberosities, healing ext sites and edentulous
areas. Mean of 3.44 mm fill reentry. Surface area of cancellous bone more desirable than cortical bone.
Occasional sequestration seen. Adequate soft tissue coverage & large area of vascular bony walls imp for
success. Furcation less predictable. Greatest fill came from defects with the most walls.
Equivocal Results:
Peltzman, Bowers, Reddi (JP 88, 35-14): Human bilateral furcations on Mand molars, AUTOG vs.
AUTOG + FN. AGAIN equivocal for both groups.
Renvert (JCP 85, 35-13): Human clinical, 1 yr f/u. Healing after tx of perio intraosseous defects. III. 19
pts/53 defects with PD > 6 mm. Used CA with or without autogenous bone. Used stents with
standardized probings. Limited differences are noted. 1.1 mm probe gain. NO histo, all clinical
measurements, no re-entry and 3 different operators. Both therapies resulted in approximately 1 mm
gains in probing attachment and probing bone levels.
PD
1.9 mm
Bone levels:
CA
0.8 mm
CA + Autog
1.4 mm
ILIAC GRAFTS Most osteogenic material yet. Problems include: difficulty in obtaining graft, root resorption
(keeps going), morbidity,2nd surgical site, sequestration, $$.
Hiatt (JP 78, 36-31) Root resorption (1-20%).
Dragoo, Sullivan (I) (JP 73, 32-17): 13 pts, 4 histo, grafted with fresh autogenous iliac marrow, 1 case
was ankylosis, 2.1 mm increase by sounding, 2 months cementum, 3 months PDL, osteoblastic activity >
2 months and < 8 months. (0.7 mm crestal bone) 1.03 mm new CT, 1.34 mm new epi attachment.
Dragoo, Sullivan (II) (JP 73, 30-18): 4 cases, 7 teeth with root resorption (2.8% root resorption), 250
autogenous fresh iliac bone grafts. Detected at 3 weeks. Rads should be taken monthly.
Burnette (JP 72) Root resorption occurs most frequently at 2 months post-operatively.
Schallhorn & Hiatt (JP 70, 35-15): Iliac transplants in perio tx. 52 pts/182 autogenous iliac cancellous
& marrow implants into 1-, 2-, 3-wall, furcation and crestal defects. Some were fresh and some were
frozen. Reentry. 2-wall defects filled. Crestal mean increase if 2.57 mm, 7/8 furca 100% fill. Avg.
Increase bone height 3.33 . 1-wall 3.75 mm, 2-wall 4.18 mm. 2 cases of root resorption from fresh
grafts.
Schallhorn (JP 72, 35-16): Lecture. Post-op problems assoc. w iliac transplants. Recommends
prophylactic use of antibiotics, sequestration is most common problem, don't overfill, root resorption may
be due to viability of cells. Cover. Important to evaluate and monitor pt's plaque control. Root resorption
may be related to mobility.

158

Piatelli, Degidi, Marchetti, Scarano (IJOMI 97): Case report, block resection following recurrence of
tumor. Nonvascularized iliac block graft may be used to augment the deficient mandibular ridge prior to
implant placement.
RAMUS AND SYMPHYSIS GRAFTS
Misch (IJOMI 97): Ramus and symphysis grafts are associated with low morbidity, minimal resorption
and heal in 4-6 months. Ramus Graft - min pt concern for altered facial contour, lower incidence of
incision dehiscence, decreased complaints of postop sensory disturbance and proximity to posterior
mandible recipient sites. Symphysis Grafts - potential for thicker grafts with increased cancellous
component.
ILIAC ALLOGRAFTS Not used today due to strong possibility of disease transmission
Schallhorn & Hiatt (JP 72, 35-20): 1st report, greatest osteogenic potential of any graft material, crestal
bone apposition potential (mean 2.57 mm). Results not as good as with autogenous iliac grafts but still
very good (3.07 mm bone fill overall, intrabony = 3.62 mm, furcations = 3.30 mm).
CORTICAL BONE CHIPS:
Nabers and O'Leary (JP 65, 35-5): 1st published case in US. 8 case reports. Cortical bone chips
obtained during ostectomy and osteoplasty (2-4 mm) used as successful graft material. No histo, just
probing depth reduction: disadvantage: sequestrum of large particles and low osteogenic potential.
However Nabers (JP 72) showed histo 57 months post-op of with new vital bone.
Langer (JP 81, 35-19): Human case report. 5 yr histo eval, reentry at 3 months, root Fx and block
section at 5 yrs. Early reentry of autogenous grafts for evaluation and physiologic recontouring is possible
without significant compromise to the ultimate success of the graft. Long term clinical success with
cortical bone.
Friedlaender (76): Cortical bone less antigenic than cancellous bone (tested in rabbits)
Urist et al (70,73): Cortical bone has a higher concentration of bone inductive proteins.
Kucaba and Simpson (JDR ,78): max tuberosity is questionable source for autogenous bone grafts, little
marrow.
HISTO OF AUTOGENOUS GRAFTS
Moskow, Karsh et al (JP 79, 35-10): Histo of single case of grafted cancellous intraoral bone, 28 wks
after grafting, showed fibrous encapsulation with a LJE, repair not regeneration. New bone was found but
the epi interposed b/t it, new attachment present at base of defect. Moskow used to clean roots with soap
b/f putting in graftthis would leave surface coating on tooth that would be the death of fibroblasts.
BOWERS: BONE NOT PREPARED CORRECTLY.
Wound Healing in autogenous bone grafts
Sullivan and Dragoo (76)
1) new bone seen at 7 days
2) Cementogenesis 21 days
3) New PDL at 3 months
4) By 8 months functionally oriented fibers but maturation may take up to 2 years
OSSEOUS COAGULUM:
Robinson (JP 69, 35-6): Osseous coagulum (burs and blood) reentry 6 pts, smaller particles more
effective in resorption and replacement, osteogenesis and fill of furcations. Overpack the defect.
BONE BLEND: Difficult to harvest enough bone for grafting
Diem & Bowers et al (JP 72, 35-7): Describes technique. Bony fragments can be reduced to useable
consistency using an amalgam capsule w/ trituration for ~60 secs to consistency of a slushy mass.
Eliminates problems association w. ossious coagulum.
Froum (JP 75, 35-8): Human histo. 1st human histo. 3 cases osseous coagulum/BB placed in intrabony
defects on anterior teeth, block sections 6, 9 & 13 wks. Perio remodeling of graft, regeneration of bone
and cementum, marked increase in cementogenesis at graft sites and variations in parallel or functional
orientation of PDL, 2.4-3.4 mm osseous fill.

159

Froum et al (JP 76, 36-29): Osseous Coagulum/Bone Blend gain 2.98 mm (70% fill) vs. OFD .66 mm
fill (21% fill)
Lekovick (91): Periosteal grafts vs. OFD in Mand Class 2 furcas, more horizontal fill, attach gain PD
reduction with graft
Hiatt and Schallhorn (75): Intraoral cancellous bone (3.4 mm bone fill) Also Rosenberg (71): 400 pts.
Froum (1975): equally effective as iliac marrow.
Schallhorn, Cushing: Extra-oral cancellous bone(iliac)
Froum et al (JP,75): Histo intrabony defects with autogenous bone-blend, new cementum, bone, PDL.
Ahl (1980):
Zaner, Yukna (JP 84, 36-2): 300-500 m (380 m) sized particles optimal to permit 100 m space for
vascularization, minimize macrophage response, promote osteogenesis.
EXTRACTION SOCKET:
Evian (JP 82, 35-11): 2 phases of bone regeneration: 4-8wks - progressive osteogenic phase with
proliferation of osteogenic cells and immature bone formation. 8-12 wks - mature bone present and
osteoblasts and osteoid are in less quantity that at 4-8 weeks. A core removed at 8-12 weeks contains a
combination of both types of tissues. The healing socket can be used form 8 to 12 weeks after
extraction. (BOARD QUESTION)
Sohren (79): Fatty marrow in retromolar/ tuberosity region. The best place to obtain bone for graft is
healing extraction site 8wks max, 12 wks Mand BOWERS FAVORITE
Bowers bone grafts are ok in extraction sockets if the socket is not intact
Boyne healing of extraction socket can prove anything depending on where you take the biopsy, if you
want to get a sample that shows healing, take it from the bottom or sides. If you want to show no healing,
take it from the middle.
BONE SWAGING PROCEDURE
Ewen (65): Bone Swagging, no flap
Zubrey, Kozlovsky (JP,93): Human Histological case report, new bone was seen, however epithelial
migration between the tooth and graft area was seen but not to the base, no evidence of new cementum
with disorganized PDL fibers, probing depths were reduced but that didn't necessarily mean regeneration
had taken place.
LONG-TERM RESULTS, AUOGENOUS GRAFTS
Nabers (INPRD 84, 35-12): No histo, 1-, 2-wall defects most 7-9 mm defects radiographic
documentation up to 25 yrs. Criteria for success: uncomplicated MxHx, pt understanding of procedure,
proper Dx, occlusal adjustment PRN, aseptic technique, proper initial prep, Ab coverage, flap design,
defect prep, root prep, vascularization improvement, proper graft placement, suture for primary coverage,
dressing change and H2O2, post-op rads, possible tissue recontouring to eliminate food impaction and
maintenance. Dont probe 6-9 months.
Langer (JP 81, 35-19): Human case report. 5 yr histo eval, reentry at 3 months, root Fx and block
section at 5 yrs. Early reentry of autogenous grafts for evaluation and physiologic recontouring is possible
without significant compromise to the ultimate success of the graft. Long term clinical success with
cortical bone.
CORONAL FLAPS
Gantes (91): Class 3 furcations, citric acid and coronally positioned flaps with moderate results.
Gantes (88): Coronal flap and DFDBA vs. coronal flap. 30 defects. Similar results for both 1.6 vs.
1.5mm attach gain with 44 and 43% complete closure. Questionable results.
Garrett (90): Coronal flap and DFDBA vs. Dura mater and DFDBA, 31 defects, 2.2mm vertical fill for
both, Coronal flap and DFDBA had 2.7mm horiz fill vs. 1.8mm for Dura mater and DFDBA. 56%
complete closure with coronal flap and DFDBA vs. 20 for Dura mater and DFDBA.
XENOGRAFTS
Neilson (JP 81) Bovine bone Vs. Autogenous both did fairly well.
DFDBA/FDBA

160

Developed at Naval Dental School. Navy Tissue Bank started to deal with injuries from the Korean War. Freeze
drying allows the water in the tissue to move directly from the solid state to vapor bypassing the liquid
state (sublimation). Lyophilization synonymous with freeze drying.
Preparation of Bone Grafts
Urist AAA bone = Autolyzed, Antigen extracted, Allogenic
Harvested, ground, demineralized with 0.6 N HCL, methanol + chloroform extracts, wash with phosphate
buffers/enzyme inhibitors, final grind, sifted, (Sublimation) freeze drying
Reddi: HCL demin, ethanol + anhydrous diethyl ether, final grind, freeze dried.
Musculoskeletal Transplant Foundation: Procession of DFDBA
1) Cortical bone harvested in sterile manner-long bones-cortical less antigenic
2) Rough cut- 500 um to 5 mm efficiency of defatting bone and decalcification
3) 100% Ethyl alcohol 1 hour to remove fat, inhibits osteogenesis, inactivates virus
4) Frozen (-80 o C) for 1 to 2 weeks, analyzed bact cultures, serology, antibody assays
5) Freeze drying - remove 95% H20, kills all cells, reduces antigenicity
6) Ground to particle size 250 - 750 um, below 125 um foreign body response
7) Washed 100% ethyl alcohol to remove chemicals (permeon, nonionic detergent)
8) Decalcified with 0.6 N HCL to remove Calcium, leaves bone matrix and expose bone
protein
9) Washed Sodium Phosphate Buffer to remove residual acid
10) Re-freeze dried
11) Vacuum sealed.
FDBA:

Mellonig (1976): 1st large scale study, 6 month reentries in 971 defects. 64% of defects 50+% fill (24%
complete); 24% partial fill
Sepe, Bowers, et al (JP,78): FDBA (100-300 m) placed by 53 periodontists in 109 pts with 231 sites189 re-entered @ 1yr
> 50% fill in 60%, (67% without furcations, furca had poorer response) better with intramarrow
penetration & 1 closure.
Altiere et al (JP 79, 36-31): Lyophilized bone allografts (FDBA) vs. control OFD, showed no
significant difference. note the allograft was subject to 3 million rads of radiation. ANTI-BONE GRAFT
Yukna, Sepe (1980): FDBA + TCN (4:1) in LJP patients,
- 98% defects (61/62) 50% fill
- mean bone increase 2.8 mm; 72% defect fill
Sanders, Sepe et al (JP 83, 35-22): Large scale Navy, 48 dentists, 381 sites comparing FDBA and
FDBA/autogenous (bone blend mostly);
50% fill 63% defects w/ FDBA vs. 60% of Sepe & Bowers (JP 78).
> 50% fill 80% of combination graft sites (FDBA + autog) also better success
with antibiotics 85% vs. 38%, lesser results with RCT teeth. Horning favorite.
Evans and Yukna (JP 89, 35-23): 10 JP pts with bilateral defects. No controls. TCN locally and
systemically can be used safely with allografts and alloplasts in the treatment of osseous defects associated
with LJP. Reentry. FDBA, Periograft (HA), Synthograft (-TCP) all 65% fill.

DFDBA: Superior grafting material in use today Bowers, 1989

Urist (65): DFDBA in heterotropic sites will form bone (rabbits, intramuscular), hypothesize BMP in
bone matrix.
Urist (67): Freeze drying of cortical bone graft induces new bone formation and enhances osteogenic
potential
Urist and Strates (71): demineralization is necessary because bone mineral blocked the effect of the
chemical inductive agent
Libin (1975): 3 cases with FDBA, 4 mm mean clinical attachment, 4-10 mm new bone on reentry.
Harakas (84): DFDBA induces the host stem cells to differentiate into osteoblasts
Quintero, Mellonig (JP 82, 35-26): 27 defects in 11 pts grafted with DFDBA (250-500 m)and reentered 4-6 mon. 1-wall defects gained 2.6 mm (61%), 2-wall 1.8 mm (62%), 3-wall 2.9 mm (73%),
overall 2.4 mm (65%). More walls=more bone. Mean probing attachment gain of 1.9 mm. DFDBA
has some potential for osseous regeneration. Some crestal apposition. No controls
Mellonig (JP,84): 47 defects treated with either OFD or DFDBA, re-entry:

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50% fill 78% defects w/ DFDBA

Treatmen
t

PD

REC

AGAIN

OFD

2.86 mm

1.3 mm

1.5mm

DFDBA

3.1 mm

0.2 mm

2.9 mm

bone fill

> 50%
fi
ll

1.3 mm
(38
%)
2.6 mm
(65
%)

40%
78%

Garrett (JP 88, 35-29): Tx of intraosseous perio defects w combined adjunctive tx of CA, bone grafting,
& placement of collagenous membranes. All clinical. 25 defects/21 pts. DFDBA + dura mater and CA.
Limited success with TX. Gain 1.8mm year. Dura resorbed too fast. Limited success may be explained
by the difficulties in obtaining adequate wound closure in most human situations. Dura mater may
transmit disease. Creutzdeldt-Jacob.
OSTEOGENIC POTENTIAL: BOWERS FAVORITE
Mellonig, Bowers, Bailey ( JP 81a, 35-1): Critical size calvaria guinea pigs, tested osteogenic potential
of: autogenous, osseous coagulum, autogenous bone blend, DFDBA, and FDBA implanted in nylon
chambers and placed in calvaria, used strontium 85 (concentrates in new bone and can be used as a
measure of the rate of new bone formation.
Results: the rate of new bone formation in the presence of DFDBA increased rapidly from day 14 to 28
then declined. This was much more rapid than other graft materials. The following order for materials:
DFDBA>>Osseous Coag=Oss BB>FDBA>control.
Mellonig, Bowers, Cotton (JP 81b, 35-25): Same M&M as above except determined new bone
formation histology with the above mentioned graft materials and in guinea pig calvaria. The results
again showed DFDBA>Oss Coag=BB>FDBA. Bone formed with DFDBA 1 st and increased rapidly from
14-28 days.
Mellonig et al (80): composite grafts studies (DFDBA/OSS Coag, DFDBA/BB, FDBA/OSS Coag,
FEBA/BB) with SR 85 model no difference was noted in rate however the Histo Mellonig (82) showed the
DFDBA composites did better than the FDBA composites.
Schmitz, Hollinger (Clin Orthoped & Related Res 88, 34-26): Rabbit, critical size defects.
Biodegradable copolymer of polylactide-polyglycolide (PLA:PGA) combined with DFDBA & implanted
into rabbit calvarial defects produced significantly greater volume of bone than control defects txd w/o
polymer and DFDBA. PLA:PGA copolymers may provide acceptable carrier vehicle that provides for
immediate stability conducive to repair of the craniofacial skeleton.
Hollinger (Clin Orthop & Rel Res 91, 35-31): Histo studied 4 different DBA (Demin Bone Allograft)
bone preparations in skull holes in rats. Endochondral & Intramembraneous antigen extracted, autolyzed,
allogenic (eAAA & iAAA) bone and DBM (Demin Bone Matrix) and control. DBM resulted in the most
bone formation. But all better than empty control. DBM similar to DFDBA.
FACTORS IN DETERMINING OSTEOGENIC POTENTIAL
Age of donor:
Jergesen et al (Clin Orthop 91, 35-43): Animal study. DBM in rat model varying age
of recipient and donor. Bone induction decreases with increasing age of the recipient animal and
increases with decreasing age of the donor.
Nyssen-Behets (Arch Orhtop Trauma Surg 96, 35-42): Human DBM, various age
donors, implanted in subQ pouches of athymic mice for 28 days. Sig lower alk phosp activity in
implants form the old donors vs. young donors. There appears to be a tendency to decreased
osteoinductive capacity in bone from older donors.
Particle size
Residual Calcium some residual calcium may be helpful 1-2%.
Schwartz (JP 96): Not all tissue banks follow same procedures, osteogenic potential of different batches
of DFDBA vary greatly. Gender not a factor in osteogenic potential

162

HUMAN BONE OSTEOINDUCTION AFTER PROCESSING (TISSUE BANK)

Yes:
Schwartz, Sommers, Mellonig (NOT PUBLISHED YET!): Human DFDBA 7 F, 20 M (age 15-50), 107
batches, 108 Nude mice (athymic 75% chance doesnt recognize Ab), blinded eval 6 wks.
R: 8-, 8-low, 7 good, 4 excellent, donor gender doesnt play role, donors should be < 50yrs.
(xenograft but doesnt respond like one b/c athymic mouse).
Testing:
Zhang, Powers, Wolfinbarger (JP 97):
Zhang, Powers, Wolfinbarger (JP 97):
HISTOLOGY STUDIES: HENAH Studies (BOARD QUESTION)
Middleton , Bowers (JPR 90): Histo evaluation of submerged roots.
1) New cementum formation was cellular in nature (98%).
2) Cementum formation 100% DFDBA grafted, 53.1% non grafted.
3) Cellular cementum can form over exposed root surfaces, dentin, or old cementum.
Bowers et al (89a, 36-34): Submerged vs. Non-submerged roots, no regeneration in non-submerged
roots, while submerged roots had new attachment, new bone, new cementum. 0.75 mm new attachment
in submerged teeth.
Bowers et al (89b, 36-25): Submerged vs. Submerged w/ DFDBA, new attachment, bone, cementum
occurred more frequently in the grafted sites.
Grafted
1.76 mm
1.96 mm
1.88 mm

New attachment
New bone
New cementum (NSD)

Non-Grafted
0.76 mm
0.80 mm
1.48 mm

Bowers et al (89c, 36-26): Non-submerged vs. non-submerged w/DFDBA, non-grafted sites showed a
LJE downgrowth on the entire exposed root surface and often apical to the notch while the grafted sites
showed regeneration of new cementum, bone, and CT fibers.
BL: With a graft there was 1.24 mm of new bone cementum and PDL (this is in addition to the mean
defect depth of 3.69 mm, therefore, had mean of 5 mm of repair and regeneration. Control sites healed by
LJE.
Reynolds & Bowers (JP 96, 37-40): Histo from phase III of HENAH studies. Compare fill w/o graft
and amount of attach. 72% sites residual DFDBA 6mo biopsy but greater new attach 1.7 vs. 0.2, bone 2.33
vs. 0.2, cementum 1.7 vs. 0.2 and PDL. DFDBA is incorporated into new bone and produces more new
attach vs. empty control.
Comparison Studies:
Carraro (JCP 76, 36-28): Intraoral cancellous bone autografts in the treatment of infrabony pockets.
More favorable healing in intrabony pockets when bone grafts are used especially in the 2-walled defects
(2.88 mm vs 2.18 mm). In one-walled defects there was no difference in healing between grafting vs.
debridement-only.
Hiatt, Schallhornn (JP 78, 36-30): Human bone and marrow allograft, autograft, and nongraft
periodontal regenerative procedures. Consistently found regeneration of bone, cementum and a functional
pdl in the successfully treated graft sites when compared to the non-grafted sites. Unable to demonstrate
immunologic responses to transplants of allogenic cancellous bone & marrow. No resorption except for
fresh iliac crest.
Listgarten, Rosenberg (JP 79, 36-32): Osseous allografts w/ & w/o S/RP, Overall, the grafted sites did
better clinically and histologically than the nongrafted sites. The lack of oral hygiene in this study
population could account for less than optimal results obtained when compared to other studies and points
out the importance of this through adequate maintenance of our surgical patients. Tendency for JE to
proliferate apical to alv crest in all specimens, and new attachment only at base of defect.
Stahl, Froum Kushner (JP 83, 36-33): Human, grafting citric acid 1 year, Autogenous best, followed by
DFDBA, then synthetic filler. Citric acid didn't appear to improve the success of the treatment. "New

163

attachment" can be obtained on root surfaces previously covered by calculus. (2 cases) Need close
proximity of PDL cells.
Rummelhart (1989): DFDBA Vs. FDBA No difference, bone fill DFDBA 1.7mm (59%) vs. FDBA
2.1mm (66%).
Mellonig (IJPRD,84): DFDBA vs. OFD Probing depth reduction similar approximately 3.0 mm,
Recession:
0.2 mm DFDBA
1.3 mm OFD
Att gain:
2.9 mm DFDBA
1.5 mm OFD
Bone fill:
2.6 mm DFDBA (65%) 1.3 mm OFD (33%)
Barnett, Mellonig (JP,89): FDBA vs. Porous hydroxyapatite (Interpore 200), bone fill with FDBA was
better (2.1mm 66%) than. Porous hydroxyapatite (1.3mm 42%) (BOARD QUESTION)
Bowen, Mellonig (JP,89): DFDBA vs. PHA (Interpore 200), bone fill DFDBA 2.2mm (61%) vs. PHA
2.1mm (53%)
Oreamuno, Lekovic, Kenney et al (JP 90, 36-23): DFDBA Vs. PHA PHA better
Graft Material
DFDBA
PHA (Interpore 200)

PD reduction
3.3 mm
4.3 mm

Attachment gain
2.1 mm
2.9 mm

Bone fill
2.4 mm re-entry
3.3 mm re-entry

Grafts with Growth factors:

Hollinger, et al (JOMFS 89, 34-31): Baboon, bovine osteogenin placed in calvarias. Increased
osteogenesis when osteogenin used, controls healed with more fibrous CT and less bone. OG may
accelerate bone formation and needs bone derived matrix.
Doll, Towle, Hollinger, Reddi, Mellonig (JP 90, 34-32): Long-Evans rat, critical calvarial defects. HA
healed w/ dense CT, Osteogenin + collagen bone, control soft tissue. OS + collagen produces
excellent results and holds great potential for clinical use. (HA binds too strongly to be effective carrier
for OS.
Bowers, Felton, Middleton (JP 91, 35-23): Human histo, teeth indicated for extraction: DFDBA +
osteogenin resulted in more regeneration and new attachment than DFDBA alone, Collaplug, or collaplug
plus osteogenin.
Becker et al (JP 92): dog study, immediate extraction sites for Implants augmented with either 1) ePTFE
alone, 2) ePTFE with FDBA, 3) ePTFE with PDGF/IGF. Results were: ePTFE with DFDBA highly
variable and may have hampered results, remember that human DFDBA was used in a dog (Xenograft),
ePTFE and the ePTFE with PDGF/IGF were statistically significant in
Antigenicity of Allogenic Bone Grafts
Quattlebaum, Mellonig et al (JP 88, 35-27): Antigenicity of freeze-dried cortical bone allograft in
human perio oss defects. 20 pts, 49 serum samples assayed for presence of anti-HLA AB's against donor
antigens. No donor specific anti-HLA AB's detected. FDBA could be regarded as material lacking
clinically sig antigenicity. Reduces challenge. Not like transplant b/c replaced. Freeze-drying reduces
antigenicity (no HLA antibodies)
Mellonig and Levy (1984): Bone particles below 125 m can induce a significant foreign body response.
Sandpath and Reddi (83): Antigenicity of bone is via Type 1 collagen in the bone matrix. Optimal
particle size is 74-420m
Dragoo & Sullivan (JP 73, 35-18): Low incidence of resorption (2.8%), can use curette to prevent it.
Friedlaender et al (JBJS,84): 9/43 pts receiving large FDBA developed anti-HLA antibodies.
Graft Particle Size Always look at particle size in studies, too small, no vascular ingrowth, too big bone
sequestrates. Just right 300 m.
Zaner and Yukna (JP 84, 35-2): Examined particle size of autogenous bone obtained by different means
bone/blend: 210 x 105 m; Hand chiseled largest particles, most variable: 1559 x 784 m; and High speed
hand piece: 351 x 198 m, low speed hand piece: 299 x 527 m, FDBA: 551 x 306 m. Minimum pore
size b/t particles of >100m (0.1 mm) is needed to allow proper vascularization and bone formation.
Material in 300-500 m best. Size of 380 m would permit a 100 m space for vascularization.
Mellonig and Levy (Abs): Optimal particle size of DFDBA is 250m-750m. Less than 125m causes
inflammatory response.

164

Bhaskar (OOO,71): Pore size of range of 100-200um is considered optimal for endothelial and
fibroblastic ingrowth. The space between the particles may be just as important as the size of the particles
themselves.
Shapoff, Bowers, Levy, Mellonig & Yukna (JP 80, 35-21): Monkey femurs, Particles of 100-300 m +
marrow had better results than 1000-2000 m + marrow. (BOARD QUESTION)
Fucini, Quintero, Gher, Black, Richardson (JP 93, 35-34): Human IPX 2-, 3-wall defects. Small vs.
Large particle size. Small particle group (250-500 um) had defect fill of 1.32 mm (38.6%) vs. the Large
particle group (850-1000 um) had fill 1.66 mm (34.9%) No significant difference.
GRAFT SAFETY
Points to tell patients
Used since 1951, in perio since 1969
2 million grafts have been done
There have been no reports of antigenicity or rejection
No adverse effects like root resorption or ankylosis
OTHER COMMON RISKS
Dying from flying 1 in 22,000
Dying from an automobile 1 in 8,000
Buck (Clin Orthop & Rel Res 90, 35-30): Freezing alone results in HIV-risk of 1/8 million. 1/3
chance present in bone if pt tests HIV (+), 3/5 chance present in bone after freezing, 1:1.67 million chance
of graft containing cultivable virus from unrecognized HIV (+) pt. 1/3 3/5 1.67 million = 1:8 million.
Russo (1995) Revised risk of transmitting HIV through DFDBA 1 in 2.8 billion.
1:22,000 chance in airplane crash
1:8,00 in auto accident
Mellonig, Prewitt, Moyer (JP 92, 35-35): Demineralization and treatment with a virucidal agent
inactivates HIV in spiked and infected bone.
Resnick (JAMA 86, 35-27): Viral infectivity is undetectable within 1 min of alcohol treatment. Stability
and inactivation of the HTLV-II/LAV under clinical and lab environments. Exposed to quaternary
ammonium chloride, alcohol, NA hypochlorite, nonionic detergent and acetone. Exposing the virus to
different temperatures reduced infectivity . 0.5% Na hypochlorite, 70% alcohol, 0.5% nonidet-P40, and
0.08% quaternary ammonium Cl for 10 min and 1:1 mix of acetone-alcohol were effective in reducing
virus to undetectable levels. Virus can survive up to 15 days at room temp and 11 d at 36 C. HIV not as
fragile. Tissue Bank effective protocol. Prewitt (91) says ethanol completely penetrates.
Mellonig (91): Effects of irradiation and ethylene oxide on osteogenic potential are unknown.
Zislis (89): Ethylene oxide alkylates bone; shuts down osteogenic potential.
Marx (JOMFS 93, 35-36): Lecture. Concern over transmission of infectious diseases (HIV,
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Hepatitis B & C) Bank accredited by AATB. If bone can be cultured after
freezing the bone, it will not be inactivated by other usual procedures used in tissue banking, such as
washing and freeze-drying. Creutzfelt-Jacob neurologic disease affecting primarily the cerebral cortex and
basal ganglia in adults under 30 years of age, have been reported following use of dura allograft. Keep
recd, obtain consent.
Moran et al (JP,94): reported that irradiation up to 3 Mrads does not destroy the osteogenic potential of
DFDBA
Towle: X-radiation decreases osteogenic potential.
Prewitt (90): Irradiated chips had no osteogenic potential, whereas irradiated whole bone had some
osteogenic potential.
Simmond (NEJMed 92, 35-33): HIV sero(-) Pt as donor. HIV (+) and retested samples. Vascular
organs all (+). Freeze dried tissue or bone and avascular (corneas) all (-), but some at large untested.
Retest after 8 weeks. Need to improve recd keeping.
Shigeyama (JP 95, 35-39): Lab comparison of BMP biologic activity between fresh bone and DFDBA.
Similar ability to stimulate cell attachment. DFDBA retains proteins with biological capacity, and BMP
with osteogenic potential but with lower potential. DFDBA has ability to influence cell behavior but
looses some with processing.

165

Ijiri (J Orthop Res 94, 35-29): In rats. BMP w and w/o collagen through ethylene oxide and gamma.
Rad of Collagen or BMP. 2.5 rads produce no bone. Ethylene oxide 29 C 5 hrs reduce bone but not
much. Can irradiate BMP but not collagen.
Tissue Bank Requirements
1. Donor must be free from infections, malignancies, auto-immune diseases, diseases of unknown etiology, severe
trauma
2. Tissue must be taken within 24 hours
3. Tissue must be procured under sterile conditions
4. Sterility testing is done throughout procurement process.
Lifenet now only accepts donors under 50 years of age. In the future, all DFDBA may be tested osteogenic
potential
BONE GRAFT HEALING
Angiogenesis: Paralker(91): Endothelial cells of capillaries may respond to growth factors, important for bone
formation.
Ankylosis of FDBA/DFDBA: Bowers, Mellonig et al: Low incidence.
Rabie (J Dent Res 96, 35-41): Critical defects in rat parietal bone, filled w/ IM (intramem) bone graft,
DBM alone (cortical bone) DBM-IM bone or left unfilled. DBM & DBM-IM healed w/o intermediate
cartilage stage, and IM did not. Type of bone making up graft material will determine type of regenerative
process induced.
ANTIBIOTICS and BONE GRAFTS
Systemically:
Sanders, Sepe (JP 83, 35-22): Navy study, FDBA vs. FDBA/ Bone blend coag, Better results with
antibiotics (TCN) and complete closure over graft.
Mixed with Graft:
Evans and Yukna (89): 10 LJP pts, 4:1 ratio of TCN to -TCP, HA, FDBA, at reentry HA was better
than -TCP, however all 3 worked well. Pts were also on Doxycycline 100mg/day for 10 days POT.
Mabry and Yukna (JP 85 10-23): LJP pts, TCN mixed in FDBA + systemic vs. no TCN, significant
bone fill 2.8mm, and resolution of defects using local and systemic TCN with FDBA. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Drury and Yukna (91): FDBA +sterile H2O vs. FDBA + 10ug/ml TCN in baboons, TCN + bone had 35X bone fill as bone alone.
Terranova, Wikesjo: Suggest 50 mg/ml TCN reconstitute with graft.
Sommerman (88): Low doses (<100mg/ml) of Minocin enhance fibroblast attachment, high doses
(>100mg/ml) inhibit fibroblast attachment. Fibroblasts were flattening and spreading.
ANTI-GRAFTING
Becker (JP 96) DFDBA is dead bone, slowly resorbed should not be used around implants
Altiere et al (JP,79): Lyophilized bone allografts (FDBA) vs. control OFD, showed no significant difference.
*Note: allograft subjected to 3 million rads of radiation.
Xiao (JP 96 1233) Study of DFDBA results using antibodies to osteocalcin, decorin, biglycan (bone proteins)
DFDBA encapsulated by fibrous CT.
Becker (IJOMI 95 25-12) 2 Dog study. Immediate implants, all with membranes. Compared DFDBA to
autologous bone. Autologous best (95% regeneration), membrane only (80%), DFDBA (75%), control (37%).
Anti-DFDBA. 12 week study, small n
Becker, Becker, Caffesse (JP 94, 35-37): 2 extractions on 7 pat. One filled DFDBA, other with autog. 3-13mo
biopsy. DFDBA caved in with particles at bottom buried in CT, no calcification or osteoblastic activity. Interfere in
healing. Autog hard, viable bone, + calcification. DFDBA no bone, interference. Mellonig & Towle (JP 95, 3538): Rebuttal: Critique previous article. Why ext and not perio defect. Ext heals spontan. Comparisons at
different time periods. Deep biopsy on DFDBA but surface on autologos. No eval of healing interference.
Conclusions are not facts.

166

ALLOPLASTIC /SYNTHETIC GRAFTS

Ideal properties of alloplastic implant materials:
Biocompatibility, non-allergenic, non-carcinogenic, non-inflammatory, sufficient porosity to allow bone
conduction-growth of bone into and around the implant, ability to stimulate bone induction, resorbability with
replacement by bone, radiopacity which permits radiographic visualization, withstand sterilization procedures, easy
to obtain and inexpensive, and stable to variation in temperature and humidity. (AAP Periodontal Literature
Reviews)
Why use alloplastic implant materials:
1) Unlimited quantity
2) No additional surgical site
3) Nonantigenic
4) No disease transmission
SYNTHETICS:
Osteogen: Porous crystalline calcium phosphate, resorbable Corsair (92)
Periograf: Durapatite nonporous HA, Yukna, Ganales (86): Human histo of 4 pts, no osseous regeneration.
Perioform: Calcium phosphate cement which crystallizes in vivo as HA.
NON-CERAMIC IMPLANT MATERIALS:

1) Calcium Sulfate (Plaster of Paris):

Shafer & App (JP 71): Used in human tuberculosis bone defects, intent to stimulate osteoblasts, provide
bulk to support the flap, prevent apical downgrowth, resorbs quickly, in rough form arsenic can be
identified.
Sottosanti (Compend 92, 36-1): Add sterile medical grade CaSO4 hemihydrate to hydrated DFDBA so
CaSO4 is 20% by volume. CaSO4 helps bind the graft to prevent loss. Mix CaSO 4 separately and place
over graft as a barrier and extend 2-3mm onto the surrounding bone. Case reports indicate that CaSO 4
retards epith and he shows nice clinical response but there are no long term controlled clinical studies and
no histo.
2) Polymers:
a) HTR (hard tissue replacement polymer): (PHEMA) polymethylmethacrylate core with
polyhydoxylethyl methacrylate and calcium composite, micropores, nonresorbable, granular and molded
forms, barium for radiopacity, hydrophilic thus ease of use, electrically charged to promote osteogenesis ?
Shahmiri (93): Fibrous encapsulation. No evidence that it has osteoinductive properties.
Stahl, Froum & Tarnow (JP 90): Healing by LJE, connective tissue adhesion, limited bone
formation
Kwan et al (IJPRD 90): Severe inflammatory reaction has been reported to material
Yukna (JP 90,36-24): May result in some decrease in PD & gain in clinical attachment. Pts
with intraosseous defects, radiographs, stents, and HTR. 6 month re-entry. HTR had 60.8%
defect fill with greater reduction in pocket depth and increase in attachment then FPD (32.2%).
b) Polylactic acid: Meadows et al (JP 93):
c) Polyglycolic acid
d) Proplast: Radell & Cassingham, (80): Two polymers: PTFE & pyrolytic graphite, pore size 100-500
um, used in alveolar ridge augmentations
3) Calcium Carbonate: Yukna (JP,94): Porous material- removal of organic material from the genus Porites
coral, Well tolerated, resorbable, bone ingrowth
4) Porous Hydroxyapatite (non - ceramic), composed of porous, crystalline clusters
OsteoGen: Corsair (92): mean fill of intrabony defects 2.26 mm, 51% fill
5) HA Cements
Perioform
Tetracalcium Phosphate Cement (HAC)

167

CERAMIC MATERIALS:
1) HYDROXYAPATITE
A) NON-POROUS HYDROXYAPATITE (Durapatite), coral particles sintered.
Periograf: Galgut (JP,92): Not much difference. between control sites except 4 yrs in deep
sites.
Calcitite 4060
Orthomatrix HA-500
Animal studies: Biocompatible, not osteoinductive (Barney,86) , Healing by fibrous
encapsulation (Boyne,82)
Human studies:
Rabalais et al (JP,81): 1st human study, HA enmeshed in CT, resistant to probe, defect fill HA
1.7 mm vs. 0.5 mm OFD, no difference in AL or PD reduction. 6 month re-entry.
Froum (JP 82, 36-2) Histo, Durapatite (Periograf), This alloplast should be considered "a tissuetolerated foreign body fill." well tolerated, no new attachment, foreign body fill.
Yukna (JP 84, 36-5): Durapatite ceramic as an alloplastic implant in periodontal osseous
defects after 3 years. Durapatite ceramic particles as a bone graft material in periodontal osseous
defects are at least as good as, surgical debridement alone.
Yukna (JP 85, 36-9): Appears material is a biocompatible nonresorbable filler that will support
a dense CT matrix over time and giving comparable results to OFD in the treatment of human
periodontal osseous defects. Caution with meaned data, therefore its potential may be as
autograft extender or expander.
Yukna et al (JP 89): 5 yr., HA three times better than OFD (BOARD QUESTION) and more
stable at 5 yrs, OFD regressed 3-5 X faster.
Shepard (IJPRD 86, 36-14): Calcitite 4060, new bone associated with fibrous CT, Calcitite
encapsulated by fibrous CT w/o inflammation, but no evidence of new attachment, healing with
LJE.
Ganales (JP 86, 36-11): Durapatite, human intrabony defects, In 17/19 of the cases, osseous
tissue did not regenerate around or through the implant particles when used in human
periodontal intrabony defects. Interface with tissue had existence of mucopolysaccharide
"bonding zone" that was amorphous collagen free.
Meffert (IJPRD 86, 36-15): Human histo, Calcitite 4060, Osteogenesis is possible within the
fibrous CT surrounding the HA particles in deep intrabony periodontal defects in humans. May
be function of time and dimension.
Kramer (IJPRD 89, 36-21): Combination FDBA/HA graft material can be used in human
periodontal defects and may obtain clinical/radiographic appearance of success. FDBA induces
osteogenesis and HA induces fibrous activity.
Moskow (JP 83, 36-25): Case report, Durapatite + autogenous chips, 9 wks root fxd and block
section. Durapatite ceramic particles were well-tolerated by the body but no bone formation was
seen around this filler, osteogenesis around bone chips. Radiographs give appearance of defect
fill due to radiopaque nature of the alloplast.
B) POROUS HYDROXYAPATITE: hydrothermal conversion of calcium carbonate exoskeleton of
porites coral into HA (replamineform process). Interconnecting channels are 190-230m to support
fibrovascular ingrowth and subsequent bone formation. Available in both solid and granular forms.
Interpore 200:
Stahl and Froum (JP 87, 36-19): Interpore 200, 1 yr. block sections, biocompatible, clinical
attachment gain, reduced PD, bone formation in pores, no evidence of new CT attachment,
closure by LJE. Evidence of osteogenesis around and within the pores of the particles at 3 mos &
union with alv crest at 12 mo. Some root resorption noted. Gain of clinical attachment 2.0-4.2
mm
Kenney (JP 88, 36-20) Interpore 200, Human grade II furcations Mand molars, HA greater
attachment gain, bone fill, histo of new bone in pores. Gain in attach levels when compared to
controls (2.08 mm).

168

Lekovic, Kenney et al (JP 90): Interpore 200 + ePTFE vs. ePTFE membrane. Similar reduction
of PD. Greater horizontal and vertical bone fill and less recession with combined.
Kenney (JP 86, 36-10): Interpore 200, 6 months, 1st evidence of materials ability to stimulate
osteogenesis w/i porous structure of implant. At 3 mo CT infiltration through pores & narrow
zone of bone formation. At 6 month continued bone formation with in the pores.
Krejci (JP 87, 36-18) Porous v. Non-porous HA. Grafted sites in general demonstrated more
positive clinical defect changes than the non-grafted sites, with the nonporous HA being the best
overall (3/12 porous HA exfoliated). Radiographs over estimated the amount of defect fill.
Bowen & Mellonig et al (JP 89): NSD b/t HA and DFDBA, Bone fill HA 2.1 mm vs. DFDBA
2.2 mm. If regeneration is the goal, then DFDBA is the choice. If defect fill is the goal, then
either material will work.
Oreamuno & Mellonig et al (JP 90): HA greater PD reduction & gain in Attachment bone fill
than DFDBA. NSD, no histo.
Barnett et al (JP,89): FDBA 2.1 mm bone fill vs. HA 1.3 mm.
Yukna (84, 85, 86, 89A, 89B): A summary of findings indicates that the use of HA ceramic as a
bone implant material in periodontal osseous defects yields at least as good and often better
results than those following surgical defect debridement alone. HA is clinically beneficial in
most cases, provided it is used judiciously.
Stahl and Froum (JCP 91, 36-27): Interpore 200 + Goretex, human, . Vertical
lesions on hopeless teeth. Used OFD, HA and Goretex. One control with OFD only. Calc notch.
Block sections. HA alone does not stimulate cementum but increases bone mass. With a teflon
membrane and HA, it appears cementogenesis and bone mass was enhanced. 5/7 exp had epith
attachment and new cementum was seen in the osseous crater (range 0-2.4 mm).
2) TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE: a CaPO4 PPT from alkaline aqueous solution low temp 950C for a short time,
CaPO4 mixed with naphthalene leaving pores in evaporation, sintered to solid mass (slowly resorbable). C/P of
TCP 1.5/1, bone is 1.67/1. (Synthograft)
Snyder, Levin, Cutright (JP 84, 36-3): Human, TCP is a useful graft material because of its potential
for osseous (clinical ave of 3 mm as did Schallhorn) repair, its availability, host acceptability, ease of
manipulation and storage advantages. No residual particles at 6 months.
Baldock et al (JP 85, 36-26): Histo, TCP encapsulated in CT, minimal new bone, only partially resorbed
at 9 months.
Bowers et al (JP 86, 36-13): Histo: Bone & osteoid around TCP, partial resorption, nidus for new bone
formation. supracrestal apposition was noted in 3/4 specimens.
Stahl & Froum (JP 87, 36-12) & Froum & Stahl (JP 87, 36-17): Histo 3-8 months and 13-18 months:
Synthograft, TCP not osteoinductive. No osteogenesis, cementogenesis or new attachment. Healing by
LJE. Slowly resorbing TCP particles act as inert fill material and b/c well encapsulated by gingival CT.
Active root resorption seen immediately. Gain in clinical closure (clinical AGAIN) 2.6 & 2.3 mm
respectively.
Saffar (JP 90): Human histo of Synthograft, 5 biopsies, fill and resorption takes about 40 months
Pepelassi (JP 91): Synthograft: Composite graft vs. OFD, 26 defects, composite had 1.9mm attach gain
vs. 0.6 for control. 1 and 2mm more vertical and horizontal fill with composite graft. No complete
closures.
Xenografts: OsteoGraf N- 300, bovine collagen, when Boplant exposed it is recognized by body as foreign and
sloughed.
Nielsen et al (JP 81): No difference between Kielbone and autogenous grafts when comparing clinical
gain of attachment and radiographic bone fill.
World Workshop: Supports only porous HA for grafting, if regeneration objective use DFDBA, if fill objective
then use HA.
Studies:

Yukna (JP 89): Durapatite (Periograf) vs. OFD, 39 pts, 2mm bone fill for HA/ 0.7 for OFD, HA had less
recession, less crestal resorption. Also has 12 month re-entry study.
Meffert (JP 85, 36-6): Calcitite 4060 vs. OFD, 9 mo reentry, HA has potential as an alloplast in
periodontal osseous defects and is well-tolerated by hard and soft tissues. HA had 54% bone fill and 0.6
mm increase in crest height for a total of 67% fill. Controls lost crest height for a 10% total fill.

169

Kenney (JP 85, 36-7): Interpore 200, 25 pts, angular defects, 5mm PD or greater, had 3.6mm
attachment gain vs. 1.2mm control. Implant well tolerated, and produced sig reduction POD, depth of
osseous lesion and gain in AL.
Stahl and Froum: HA grafted 3 teeth, block sectioned: LJE separated graft from tooth, some osteogenesis
Nagahara et al (92): HA and TCP both undergo resorption (yrs), TCP resorbs more but more bone
formed with HA.
Allogenic vs. Alloplastic
Stahl, Froum Kushner (JP 83, 36-33): Healing responses of human intraosseous lesions following the
use of debridement, grafting and citric acid root treatment 1 year. Autogenous best, followed by DFDBA,
then synthetic filler. Citric acid didn't appear to improve the success of the treatment. Showed that "new
attachment" can be obtained on root surfaces previously covered by calculus. (2 cases) Need close
proximity of PDL cells.
Barnett (JP 89): No difference FDBA vs. porous HA, slightly better fill with FDBA.
Bone fill:
2.1 vs. 1.3 mm
PD:
3.0 vs. 1.3 mm
AGAIN: 202 vs. 1.3 mm
Bowen (JP 89): No difference DFDBA vs. porous HA. Histo: little osteogenic activity associated w/
either material.
Glass and Mellonig (JP 89, 36-22): HA and bone inductive proteins vs. bone and BMPs, HA + BMPs
no bone, Bone + BMPs grew bone.
Oreamuno, Lekovic, Kenney (JP 90, 36-23): Porous HA vs. DFDBA. HA had more defect fill, less
residual PD, more attachment gain than DFDBA.
COMBINATIONS OF ALLOPLASTS
Nery (92): 85% HA + 15% -TCP had more bone, new attachment than other concentrations. Shows
advantages of both, slow resorption HA, osteoinduction -TCP.
ROOT RESORPTION
Ibbott (JP 85, 36-8): Durapatite. Case of root resorption with Periograf. Resorption detected radiographically at
12 months and clinically at 18 months.
Froum and Stahl (JP 87, 36-17): Root resorption with TCP (Synthograft).
Stahl, Froum (JP 87, 36-19): Interpore 200, LJE but osteogenesis around graft.
REGENERATION
GTR DEFINITIONS (1992 Glossary of Periodontal Terms)
New attachment: Union of CT or epithelium with a root surface that has been deprived of its original attachment
apparatus. This may include cementum, no bone, CT attachment only, or LJE.
Reattachment: The reunion of epithelium or CT with root surfaces and bone such as occur after incision or injury.
Regeneration: A HISTOLOGICAL TERM: Reconstruction or reconstitution of a lost or injured part.
Repair: Healing of a wound by tissue that does not fully restore the architecture or function of the part. (Proper
term is new attachment)
Bone Fill: Clinical term only.
ACCEPTED REGENERATIVE TECHNIQUES
AUTOGRAFTS

Extraoral

Intraoral
ALLOGRAFTS

FDBA

FDBA + Autografts

FDBA + Tetracycline

DFDBA

170

 GUIDED TISSUE REGENERATION

GTR

GTR + DFDBA Not fully accepted yet due to lack of histological data
Alloplasts are not accepted as regenerative materials. They are biocompatible fillers only.
GTR PRINCIPLES
1. Epithelium exclusion (epithelium migrates at a rate 3-5 X faster than PDL cells, Polson Proye with Citric acid,
Yukna with ENAP were different approaches to exclude epithelium)
2. Space creation
3. Stabilization of clot (Loma Linda: Wikesjo) key to fiber linkage
4. Complete coverage?
5. Amplification of Growth factors and progenitor cells?
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESS OF GTR
Machtei, Zambon, Genco et al (JP,94):
1) Age doesn't play a role
2) No difference between 1st and 2nd molars
3) No difference if initial therapy was performed or not
4) Sites with low PI, GI, and A.a. did better
5) Deeper initial PD demonstrated best results.
6) Greater # of fibroblasts on inner portion of membrane had best results
THEORY
Kramer: Fiber barrier theory, transeptal fibers, also supports rotary instruments prior to grafting.
Becker: The wider the bone defect, the poorer the regenerative results
Terranova (88): Regrowth of bone is related to the distance from root to bone.
Harris: The osteogenic "gap" is 1 mm.
Wikesjo (92): Membrane stabilizes graft, essential to success.
Prichard: Interdental denudation technique
Steffensen and Weber (89): The more acute the defect angle (radiographic) < 45, the more fill you get
Renvert/Bowers (89): Both authors said walls did not effect defect fill potential (with grafts.) Depth is
key
Where do the cells come from?
According to Dr. Bowers, the primary source of cells for regeneration is bone with a little contribution
from the PDL
Aukhil et al (JCP 86 37-06): Dogs; Contact with root dentin may be necessary for progenitor cell
differentiation into cementoblasts. used membrane to block cells from dentin , no Cementogenesis in this
area.
Melcher (JPR 86 37-07): Bone cells from rats can grow cementoblasts in rat calvaria.
Iglhaut: (37-15) Bone and PDL, PDL migration at 2 wks, peak mitotic activity at 3 wks.
Nyman (70s): Get ankylosis with bone, CT from epithelium causes resorption, blocked by PDL (86) All
wound healing from PDL.
Caton (JP 87 37-11) Cementum formation is the rate limiting step in regeneration.
Aukhil (JP 87 37-10) Flap CT cannot form new cementum or fibers
Areco (JP-91 37-25) PDL cells can initiate mineral-like nodules in vitro
Van Dijk (91): Co-cultured cementoblasts and fibroblasts, placed back into defects = no new cementum.
(Not from cementoblasts??)
Aukhil (88): Tritiated thimidine PDL cells, with/without membrane. Got 200m with both. Suggested
we need membrane to allow amplified division of cells.
Histologic new attachment
Nyman et al (JCP 82 37-03): Millipore filter, #23, no new bone but CT/cementum found. 1st study to
show regeneration possible.
Gottlow et al (JCP 86 37-05): Histo of human teeth, txd with Gore Tex, new CT. Coined term Guided
Tissue Regeneration.
Factors that influence regeneration:
1) degree of gingival recession that occurs during healing

171

2) Periodontal defect morphology

3) Amount of remaining periodontium
Becker/Becker (87): Open probing new attachment, unpredictable results, 2.6mm gain in bone.
Becker/Becker (89 37-18): Clinical improvement of Class II, not Class III furcations.
Dahlin (89 ): GTR over implants grows bone.
Stahl (JCP 90, 37-24) histo 9 lesions Gore-tex new cementum noted .5-1.7 mm.
Stahl & Froum (JCP 91): Histo: 4 vertical lesions with DFDBA + e-PTFE reduction of probing depth,
1/4 closed with LJE, 3/4 had new attachment but not coronal to the calculus notch.
Stahl & Froum (JCP 91): Histo: 7 vertical lesions, tx with porous HA and GTAM, 2/7 had LJE, 5/7 had
new cementum, and increased bone mass apical to calculus notch with functionally-oriented PDL usually.
Greaves, Martin (AJP 85): Malignant fibrous histiocytoma in rats at sites of implanted Millipore filters.
BONE RESPONSE:
Renvert: GTR effect = 0.8mm "sphere of influence"
GTR DEVICES
Microfibrillar collagen (Avitine, surgicell, collatape, etc.), duramater, polyglactin, polyglactic acid, coronal
positioning, foil, Expanded PTFE, demin cortical plate, synthetic skin (polydimethyl siloxane) Rubber dam,
interdental denudation, CaSO4 , Lambone, FGG, CTG, Periosteum, Coe Pak.
GTR in Furcations (See Furcation Regeneration)
Gantes (91): Class 3 furcations, citric acid and coronally positioned flaps with
moderate results.
Lu (JP 92 37-27): Complete circumferential adaptation of the membrane to the root is not possible, gaps
will remain. Occlusal border should be placed 1-2mm below CEJ. GTR success may be more from clot
stabilization than from epithelial exclusion.
Pontoriero et al (JCP 88 37-16): GTR in class II furcations, 14/21 complete closure, 5/21 had residual of
< 1 mm. 90% closure of Class IIs with membrane, OFD 2/21 completely closed, No reentries. GTR
better than OFD in Class II furcas.
Pontoriero (JCP 89 37-21): Class III, 8/21 closure with GTR, control 0/21, no re-entry, clinical probing
depth only.
Pontoriero (JCP 95 37-32) Buccal furcations more predictable than interproximal furcas, GTR doesnt
work in class III furcas.
Lindhe et al (JCP,95): Flap management and bioresorbable membranes in class III molar furcations in
dogs:
-Large furcation defects can be treated provided soft tissue flaps covering membranes prevented from
recession
-Resolute equally as effective as e-PTFE.
Anderegg et al (JP,91): 15 pts, molar furcas, GTR alone vs. GTR and DFDBA (BETTER), 6 mo reentry, combined more fill, more PD reduction, greater attach gain both horizontal and vertical.
Mellonig (91): IJPDR: Class 2s, membrane better than OFD, improved HOPA/VOPA, GTR will improve
clinical results, rarely complete closure.
Mellonig (IJPRD 94): 13 pts with grade II furcas. Comparison of ePTFE vs. debridement-6 month reentry. ePTFE sites showed more PDR, ALG, as well as recession in man II defects. There was no
difference between the 2 txs in max grade II furcas.
Anderegg (JP 95): Gingival thickness in GTR. 37 pts with grade I or II max or man furcas were txd with
GTR. Pts with <1mm of gingival thickness had 2.1mm of recession at 6 mos. postop. Pts with >1mm
gingival thickness only had 0.6mm recession. Less recession with thicker tissues.
Lekovic and Kenney (JP,89): class II furcations, e-PTFE vs. OFD, test site showed PD reduction, gain in
attachment levels of 2.86mm, vs. controls which didnt change from preoperative levels.
Nygaard Ostby (JCP 96) GTR vs. OFD. GTR has no significant advantage over OFD. No grafts were
used.
Metzler and Mellonig (91): GTR vs. OFD in Max II furcations, 6 mo re-entry, overall results
inconsistent and unpredictable, recession 0.7mm.
Furcation Morphology:

172

Pontoriero (JCP 92): Beagles, the larger the furc, the less likely fill, suggests critical size to Class II or
III, wider/shallower the defect is better, narrow deep is bad, i.e. poor access for debridement. The study
had small Class IIIs.
Lu (JP 92 37-27): Topography of root trunk, 94% had concavity depth that prevented proper membrane
adaptation to root surface. The depth range from 0 to 2.25 mm, recommend that membrane be placed
coronal to this area.
Maxillary Furcations:
Pontoriero (JCP 95 37-32) Buccal furcations more predictable than interproximal furcas, GTR doesnt
work in class III furcas.
Metzler and Mellonig (JP,91): GTR vs. OFD in Max II furcations, 6 mo re-entry, overall results
inconsistent and unpredictable, recession 0.7mm.
Proestakis et al (JCP,92): Maxillary Premolars, very little difference between GTR and OFD controls.
GTR in Intrabony Defects
Cortellini (JP 93 37-29): Selected deep defects, mean gain in bone 4.3mm: 95% fill of 3-wall, 82% fill of
2-wall, 39% of 1-wall. 73% defect fill overall.
Becker W. and Becker B. (JP 93 37-12) 32 pts, 33 sites. Mandibular 3-Wall Intrabony Defects by OFD and
e-PTFE The initial clinical attachment was 9.7 mm (deep) with an average gain of 4.5 mm at the second
examination (3 years 5 months). Recession between the 1st and 2nd examination was 1.2 mm. The average
initial defect depth was 11.7 mm with re-entry at 7.2 mm or a bone fill of 4.4 mm. Average crestal loss was
0.3 mm which is made net bone gain 4.06 mm (72% when figured from the crest). The 3 rd exam (4 years 3
months) was soft tissue measurements only which showed probing depth decrease of 5.8 mm, attachment
gain of 4.1 mm, and recession 1.0 mm from the initial values. When comparing these results with open flap
debridement it is difficult to do with different measuring techniques and the fact that this was a unique group
of deep defects. Mean of 2.5 mm with attachment gain around that same 2.5 mm figure. Even the grafted
sites with Yukna,1985 with Hydroxyapatite showed 2.1 mm bone fill and Mellonig,1984 with DFDBA
reported 2.5 mm of defect fill.
Selvig et al (JP,93): Influence of defect configuration on healing response, Intrabony defects , no reentry,
bone sounding,
Results: 1) Areas of deepest probing depth exhibited greatest PD reduction and AL gain.
2) Extent of defect surrounding the tooth, # of tooth surfaces involved, or
predominant wall form of the defect than any significant effect on
healing.
Cortellini et al. (JP,95): describes a modified papilla preservation technique for interproximal
regeneration resulting in primary closure of 14/15 cases. Pushes the papillae through sutures with cross
horizontal low, internal vertical high.
Tonetti, Pini-Prato, Cortellini (JP, 93): Tissue gain at 4-6 wk (membrane removal) 7 2.2 mm, deep
defects, decreased angle. Incomplete coverage (35%) and exposed membranes (72.5%) didn't significantly
affect tissue gain. At 1 yr. PAL (gain) was 5.6 2.6 mm and bone fill 4.3 2.5 mm. The greater the amount
of tissue at 4-6 wks the better PAL and bone fill, coverage
of the new material was essential for success
Cortellini (JP 95): Covering regenerated material with FGG after membrane removal was significant when
compared to coronally repositioning.
Nygaard-Ostby (JCP 96): GTR vs. OFD - GTR no sig. Advantage over open flap debridement grafts
used.
Long Term Stability of GTR Tissues
Gottlow (JP 92): Probing attachment levels maintained at 4-5 years.
McClain and Schallhorn (IJPRD,93): 5 yr. follow-up of GTR with and without CA root conditioning
and composite grafts. Long term results enhanced with CA + graft, 5yr stability of CPAL. 93% stable
with graft, 30% stable with membrane only.
Yukna (91): OPNA does not hold up vertically and minimally horizontal (furcations).
Bragger (92): Assessed tissues with CADIA, slow consolidation of tissues and mineralization.
Becker, Becker (JP93) 4yrs + , 3-wall intrabony with ePTFE (see above)

173

Cortellini (JCP 94): Effect of OH on long term stability of GTR. 40 defects were txd with GTR in 23
pts. For the 1st yr. pts were seen on a monthly recall basis and maintained stringent plaque control. Pts at
this point averaged 4.1mm PALG. For the next 3 years, 15 pts were seen on a 3 mo recall basis and 8 pts
received sporadic care. The pts seen on a regular basis maintained their PAL and exhibited lower PI and
bleeding. Those seen sporadically lost 2.8mm of the PAL they had gained at 1 yr. They also showed an
increase in BOP, plaque, Pg., and Pi. Study emphasizes that stability of gained clinical attachment is
dependent on stringent OH>
Weigel, Bragger, Lang (JCP 95 37-36): 18 pt, 4 yr. follow-up. Mean 1.27mm loss of attachment.
CAL+1 mm was maintained at 12/19 sites. If the pt lost attachment in their dentition, they lost
attachment in GTR sites also. The key to success was low inflammation.
BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION: PTFE Membranes
Selvig (JP,92): SEM. Clinical appearance of retrieved membrane may be an indication of clinical success
or failure. The extent of bacterial contamination of the membrane correlated inversely with clinical
assessment of attachment gain.
Wang et al (JP,94): in vitro micro-organisms on e-PTFE, polyglactin 910, and collagen
- no spirochetes found, strong adhesion of S. mutans, microbes incorporated in membrane are resistant to
antibiotics so removal is indicated in infection. Pg, Pm and T.d found to degrade bioresorbable
membranes.
Simion et al (JP,94): ePTFE membranes when exposed to the oral cavity are prone to bacterial
contamination in approximately 3 - 4 weeks and should be removed to prevent further bacterial infection of
the underlying regenerative tissues. Note no CHX was used in these studies.
Simion (JCP 95): Same M&M as above study except .12% CHX gel applied bid on one side and the other
side was used as the control. The controls showed greater amounts of plaque than the test groups and the
plaque was more complex in nature. In the CHX group, plaque did increase over the 4 week period and by
the 4th week, complete bacterial invasion of the membrane had occurred. CHX does not prevent bacterial
penetration of membranes.
Nowzari and Slots (JCP 94): Perio defects and implant sites txd with ePTFE. Inverse relationship
between microbial counts and PALG.
Nowzari (JCP 95): 2/3 wall defects in 18 pts were treated with GTR via ePTFE. 9 pts were placed on
Augmentin postop for 8 days, the other 9 pts served as controls. At 6 months, the Augmentin group
showed significantly higher PALG than the control pts. When membranes were removed, the Augmentin
group had significantly fewer organisms present. Sites free of pathogens on the membrane surface side
gained the most clinical attachment. This study emphasizes the importance of controlling microbial
pathogens in GTR procedures.
Sanders, Karring (JCP 95): Monkeys. Submerged and non-submerged roots covered with ePTFE or
polyglactin. Roots that were completely covered displayed new CT, bone the length of the initial defect
67-100%. Non-submerged roots showed bacterial contamination which jeopardizes formation of bone &
CT (30-59%).
CONCLUSIONS: Bacterial contamination reduces benefits of GTR.
TISSUE THICKNESS
Anderegg (JP 95): Consider thickness of KT when performing GTR. Pts with <1mm thickness had a
mean recession of 2.1mm after GTR tx compared to 0.6mm in areas with KT >1mm.
ePTFE + GRAFT:
Anderegg et al (JP,91): PTFE+DFDBA vs. PTFE alone, 30 defects, PTFE+DFDBA had 3.1mm attach
gain, vs. PTFE alone 1.4. PTFE+DFDBA had 2mm more vertical and 1.5mm more horizontal fill. 27%
were completely closed (4/15).Combined method decreased defect 85% of time while only 50% in the
membrane only group.
Lekovic et al (JP,90): grade II furcations PTFE+HA vs. PTFE alone, 30 defects, PTFE+HA had 2.9 mm
attach gain vs. PTFE alone of 2.4 mm. PTFE+HA had greater vertical/horizontal bone gain and less
recession.
McClain and Schallhorn(IJPRD 93 37-17):
GTR + GRAFT =Long term stability
DFDBA + autog + GTR + C.A. = 4.0 mm mean clinical AGAIN, including furcation fill.
5 yr. follow-up of GTR with and without CA root conditioning and composite grafts. Long term results
enhanced with CA + graft, 5yr stability of CPAL. 93% stable with graft, 30% stable with membrane only.

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Caffesse et al (JP,93): beagles, DFDBA in combination with e-PTFE was not adjunctive to e-PTFE alone,
problem was human bone used in the dog (Xenograft), the defects healed completely in dog with e-PTFE
alone, thus no improvement possible.
Guillemin, Mellonig, Brunsvold (JP,93): Intrabony defects treated with either DFDBA or a combination
of DFDBA and e-PTFE, results show 58% defect fill with DFDBA alone and 70% fill w/e-PTFE/DFDBA
combination, however no significant differences were noted between the two treatment groups.
Garrett (JP 94): Grade III man furcas txd with DFDBA alone or DFDBA + ePTFE. Both covered by CPF.
No benefit was seen with the use of ePTFE.
Wallace (JP 94): Grade II man furcas txd with either ePTFE alone or ePTFE + DFDBA. 6 month re-entry
showed similar results as far as recession, and reduction of horizontal defect depth were concerned. The
ePTFE + DFDBA group showed greater vertical defect fill and greater PALG when compared to the ePTFE
only group.
Mellado (JP 95 37-34) ePTFE with and without DFDBA more bone formed without DFDBA AntiDFDBA study.
Rossen (NOT PUBLISHED YET!!) DFDBA v. DFDBA + ePTFE, grade III furcations sig gain horizontal
and vertical bone with DFDBA + ePTFE.
Schallhorn and McClain (IJPRD 94): Healing responses of >100 defects txd with combination
regenerative therapy
Rapid
Typical
Delayed
% of occurrence
13%
76%
8%
Membrane exposure
none
early
early
Membrane removal
dissection
relatively easy
easy or premature
needed
Substance under
bone-like
pink, rubberlike or
immature
membrane at
granulation tissue
granulation tissue
removal
Resistance to probing
resistant
resists gentle
no resistance
probing
Radio maturation
3-12 mos.
3-12 mos.
6-24 mos.
Long term results
predictable
predictable,
favorable, partial
success
favorable
resolution
Most Common
Most difficult to predict
GTR: PTFE:
Haney J, Nilveus R, McMillan P, and Wikesjo U.: J Periodontol 64: 883-890, 1993.supraalveolar
periodontal defect model in the dog. Results:
a) Control teeth exhibited long junctional epithelium and reduced connective tissue repair.
b) Membrane-treated teeth had connective tissue repair coronal to the membrane and minimal junctional
epithelium. * note: this difference was only significant when looking at defect height.
c) When membranes were found collapsed to the root, minimal or no bone regeneration was
observed, while if the membrane allowed space adjacent to the root, substantial bone regeneration
was seen.
d) Three membranes became exposed and an extensive inflammatory cell infiltrate dominated and bone
regeneration was minimal.
e) Cementum regeneration was minimal when present (7/11 membrane-treated, 5/14 controls)
f) Root resorption was common even when connective tissue was excluded by the membrane.
Pontoriero (88): PTFE membrane vs. OFD, 42 defects, PTFE had 3.5mm Attach gain vs. 1.1 for
controls. Not
more than 6 mm deep, shallow sites.
Lekovic (89): PTFE membrane vs. OFD, 24 defects, PTFE had 2.9mm attach gain, control had -0.1.
Metzler (91): PTFE vs. OFD, 34 defects, PTFE had 1mm attach gain vs. 0.2 for control. More
horizontal /vertical fill with PTFE.
Mellonig (91): IJPDR: Class 2s, memb better than OFD, improved HOPA/VOPA, GTR will improve
clinical results, rarely complete closure.
GTR COMPLICATIONS
Murphy (IJPRD 95 37-31): Pain 16%, perforations 4%, infection 4%,
Kramer (93): Collagen bovine membranes, 2% pts experience transient localized hypersensitivity.

175

Adverse
3%
early, progressiv
easy, premature

fragile tissue wit

surface necrosis pos
no resistance

Variable
limited, failure, o
regressio

GTR in MG Defects
Techniques and Case Reports: Described by Tinti (JP 93), Shanaman (IJPRD 93), and Shih (IJPRD 94).
Pini Prato (IJPRD 93): Described technique using GTR and FGG to treat buccal gingival recession. Complete
coverage obtained in 3/5 pts with 4-6mm initial recession. The other 2 pts had 1mm recession remaining.
Pini Prato (JP 96 1216) 4 year follow up, no difference between GTR and MG surgery. Over time, attached
gingiva increases with GTR.
RIDGE AUGMENTATION
Allen et al (85): Classification of ridge defects: type A: apico-coronal; type B: buccolingual; type C:
combined. Defect depth: mild:<3 mm; moderate 3-6 mm and deep > 6 mm.
Buser (90): Uses titanium pins to gain bone/space under membrane (1.5-5.5mm). Ridge augmentation
prior to implants
RESORBABLE MEMBRANES
Problems associated with resorbable membranes, resorption by-products, resorbs too quickly, not occlusive, too
malleable, inflammation associated with resorption.
Advantages of resorbable membranes, single surgery,
LACTIC ACID DERIVATIVES:
(1) Guidor
Guidor: polylactic Acid = stability, Citric acid ester = malleability. Resorbed through hydrolysis: Lactic
acid to citric acid to Krebs cycle, small particles = phagocytosis.
(2) Vicryl
Caton (JP 94): 40 pts Vicryl vs. OFD in man Class II furcas. Greater gain in attachment in Vicryl group
vs. OFD.
Christgau et al (JCP,95): Resorbable membranes (polyglactin) provided attachment gain similar to
ePTFE
Desanctis (IJPRD 96 435) Used vicryl membrane for treating buccal recession. HA used under the
membrane for tenting. Got good results. I question the use of a non-resorbable graft material for GTR
Gager (91): Vicryl mesh and DFDBA, 9 case reports, excellent fill.
(3) Resolut
Caffesse (JP 94 37-13) Dog study Resolut vs. ePTFE similar results
Becker (JP 96) Human study, Resolut good for Class II furcations
Cortellini (JP 96 37-39) Resolut similar to ePTFE.
Lindhe (JCP 95): ePTFE vs. Resolut in Class III furcas in dogs. 5 month results showed the
bioresorbable membranes performed as well as ePTFE.
Simion (IJOMI 96) Gore-tex better than Resolut in GBR around implants
(4) Atrisorb
Polson (JP 95): 29 pts, class II defects. significant PDR, PALG at 1yr. No controls or comparison
groups. Soft tissue results: PDR 2.2mm PALG-V 1.7mm PALG-H 2.5mm
(5) Others
Vuddhakanok (JP,93): Resorbable 50:50 polylactide:polyglycolide barrier, 7 HUMAN pts, 20 teeth,
block sections, no new attachment, more bone recession than controls.
Warrer (93): 25 teeth, notch in calculus, txd with polylactic acid + polyurethane. Got LJE between
membrane. No significant regeneration.
COLLAGEN
(1) Bio-Gide: Resorbable collagen membrane of porcine origin (Jewish people would have problenm with animal
products).
Zitman, Naef, Scharer (IJOMI 97): Human study. Implants placed , grafted with Bio-Oss (deprotinized
cancellous bone material of bovine origin). Bio-Gide and Gore-Tex both result in good bone formation,
however, if Gore-Tex becomes exposed there will be less bone formation.
GUIDOR:

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SAFETY:
Olsen (OOO,82): Comparative study of polylactic acid in dressing material vs. Gelfoam for extraction
sites- minimal inflammation - elicits a mild foreign body reaction- multinucleated giant cells.
Myers, Autian (J. PHARM,64): Citric acid esters used as plasticizers does have the potential for
blocking neural transmission
when they come in direct contact with the nerve trunk.
Nakamura (J Biomaterials Res, 94): Tumoriginicity of Poly-L-Lactide plates and polyethylene,
27/50 PLLA- still present for 2 yrs caused fibrosarcoma
23/50 Polyethylene- had the fibrosarcoma
Article states that it is the presence of the material continuously not the material itself. The reaction was
more of an irritation. So the question is how long is the material present in the same area.
Verheyen (J Biomedical Res, 93): Material noted in the lymph nodes 2 yrs after implantation of Poly (llactide) plugs, deep inguinal lymph nodes retrieved from goats sacrificed at 2 yrs were swollen when
compared to controls.
BL: The role of crystalline degradation products of the polymer may limit the clinical application or
Poly(L-lactide).
Suganuma (J Applied Biomaterials, 93): Use of Polylactic acid sutures for internal fixation of
mandibular fxs.
No inflammatory response in 6 wks, degradation products at 12 wks show some
inflammatory response
When the materials degrade into small particles 2 um they elicit a foreign body
response, when 40 um they did not influence a bone response.
Kronenthal (75): Four stages of polymer degradation:
(1) Hydration or water infiltration. Lubrication of polymer chains results in loss of membrane
stiffness and increases plastic deformation "creep". Affects space-making ability.
(2) Strength loss. Initial cleavage of polymer backbone decreases space maintenance.
(3) Loss of mass. The material is no longer cohesive and breaks up into fragments which can
elicit a foreign body reaction. This response can compromise or prevent bone formation or even
result in bone resorption.
(4) Final breakdown involves inflammatory reactions including phagocytosis of small
particles
by macrophages and multinucleated giant cells.
* the risk for bacterial induced complications may continue as long as the material is physically
present.
RESORBABILITY:
Gottlow et al (IJPRD,94): 15 monkeys showing the results at 6wks, 3,6,12,and 24 months. Healing was
uneventful without inflammation or adverse tissue reaction. At six wks of healing the matrix barrier was
completes integrated with no inflammation. New attachment, new cementum, and new bone were found
in 6 wks and the matrix was still stable. The material was completely resorbed between 6 to 12 months. At
the final stages of resorption, macrophages and multinuclear cells were present.
GINGIVAL CONDITION:
Laurell et al (JDR,92) : 28 pt, 32 defects, mild inflammation in one defect in 1st month of healing.
gingival recession in 13/32 with 2.2 mm average (range 1-5 mm), exposure 5/32.
Lundgren (JP 95): 24 defects 4 monkeys. Guidor vs. Vicryl mesh.
exposure
prevent down-integration
new attachment

Guidor
3/12
9/12
2.2mm

Vicryl
10/11
0/11
0.8mm

NEW ATTACHMENT / BONE:

Gottlow et al (JPR,92): Comparison in monkeys of Guidor vs. ePTFE. Guidor better
Exposure
% Bone fill
New Attachment

e PTFE
21/30
87%
63%

Guidor
2/30
89%
72%

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CLINICAL RESULTS:
Gottlow et al (JDR,92): 28 pts, 32 defects, 12 were class II molar furcations, 20 intrabony defects
Class II molar furcations Probing depth reduction 5.6 mm to 3.0 mm, Vertical attachment gain 3.2 mm
Horizontal attachment gain 3.1 mm, complete closure of 7/12 , 5 now class I. Intrabony defects: Probing
depth reduction 8.9 mm to 3.1 mm, Gain of attachment mean 4.9 mm
Wikesjo (93): PTFE vs. Guidor: Horizontal gain = 1.4 vs. 2.1.
Laurell (JP 94): 19 man class II furcas and 47 2 or 3 wall defects txd with Guidor.
Soft tissue results: PDR 3.7mm PALG-V 3.4mm PALG-H 3.3mm Recession 0.2mm
Intrabony results: PDR 5.4mm PALG 4.9mm Recession 0.5mm
Multicenter study (Sweden) (JDR,92): 38 pts Class II molar furcations.
Hugoson, Gottlow (JP 95 37-30): 12 mo soft tissue measurements
Guidor better than ePTFE
PAL-H
Recession

Guidor
2.1 1.7 mm
0.3 1.0 mm

e PTFE
1.4 1.4 mm
1.2 1.0 mm

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS FOR GTR:

FREEZE-DRIED DURA MATER:
Yukna (JP,92): Grade II molar defects, results were similar between FDDM and e-PTFE.
COLLAGEN:
Mattson (JP 95): Collagen vs. OFD, intrabony defects. Greater PDR, CALG, less recession than in OFD
sites.
Soft tissue results at re-entry (6 mos. to 3 yrs): PDR 3.12mm CALG 2.37mm Recession 0.75mm
Black, Gher (JP 94): Collagen vs. ePTFE. No difference.
Paul, Mellonig (JP,92): Use of collagen barrier membranes in grade II defects doesnt compare to other
membranes. No difference vs. control.
Blumenthal (JP ,93): Humans , 12 month re-entry ,bovine collagen membrane vs. e-PTFE in Mandibular
Class II defects. All parameters were similar with the exception of better horizontal open probing
attachment and reduced inflammation with collagen membranes.
Anderson (JP 91): Collagen vs. control in Class II furcas. Greater defect fill with collagen membranes.
Blumenthal & Steinberg (JP,90): Combination of autolysed antigen extracted allogenic (AAA) bone and
microfibrillar collage (Zyderm) covered with a resorbable collagen membrane showed 62.2% bone fill and
gain in attachment in infrabony defects.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE GRAFTS:
Bouchard et al (JP,93): Mandibular class II furcations, Comparison of e-PTFE vs. CTG. The connective
tissue graft cannot be recommended for furcation defects: 1) very difficult to perform, 2) Advantage of one
stage lost since need a second surgical site, 3) The use of e-PTFE membranes gives better soft and hard
tissue results.
BIOBRANE:
Flanary et al (JP,91): 15 pair grade II furcations, biobrane membrane vs. OFD, no statistical difference.
RUBBER DAM:
Advantages Cheap, adapts well to teeth, no suturing
Disadvantages high allergic reaction rate 15%, powder acts as foreign body, no space maintenance effect,
recession
Salama (IJPRD 94): reports on 10 pts using rubber dam as GTR material. material biocompatible and
easily adapted. space maintenance inadequate., tissue integration does not occur recession postop common.
Avg. attachment level gain 3.84mm and defect fill of 4.25mm. 15% of the population allergic to latex
packed with corn starch.
Cortellini (IJPRD 94): 5 case reports where intrabony defects were txd with rubber dam material. 3-5mm
gain in bone and attachment level were seen at 1 yr. re-entry.

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Zellin- critical size defects, thru-and-thru rat mandible, Resolut LT, GTAM and Millipore filter- good for bone
marrow, GTAM least inflammatory reaction.
CALCIUM SULFATE: SOTTOSANTI
GTR WITH GROWTH FACTORS:
ParkGenco (JP 95, 34-29): GTR vs. GTR + PDGF-BB.
(1) At 8 and 1 wks greater amount of bone was seen in group with growth factor. 80-87% vs. 14-67%
(2) P-GTR stimulated formation of fibrous CT in early stages of repair stabilizing the wound. CT later
mineralizes into bone or cementum.
MUCOGINGIVAL PROCEDURES
Determination of the Mucogingival Junction: Roll technique, visual, Stains (Mallory-CT, PAS-glycogen,
Weigert-elastic fibers), biopsy (Stanford intermediate zone, 600-800m), Schillers IKI Iodine solution.
Infiltration technique. MGJ histology described by Lozdan and Squier.
Masticatory Mucosa: Attached gingiva, marginal gingiva, palate
Lining mucosa: Covering alveolar processes, fornix of vestibule, mucosa of the floor of the mouth, ventral lingual
surface of tongue, soft palate, lips, cheeks.
Specialized mucosa: Dorsal surface of the tongue
Gingival Thickness
Soehren (JP 73 39-19) Mean thickness of palatal epithelium: 0.34 mm; Range (0.1-0.6), mean CT
thickness was 0.3 mm when harvested with Paquette knife. no grafts thinner 0.75 - 1.25 to assure CT
component. Also scuffs up adjacent epithelium when doing FGG. Scar epithelium adjacent to graft.
Studer (JP 97 148) Thickness of palatal tissues. Thicker as you go medially, 2-3 mm. Thinnest over
palatal root of MX first molar. Thickest in tuberosity area.
Goaslind (77): Mean thickness of free gingiva averaged 1.56 mm increased from anterior to posterior
and was directly proportional to sulcus depth. Attached gingiva average 1.25 mm, increased from anterior
to posterior in the Mand arch, remained constant in the max anteriors, and was inversely proportional to
AG width.
WIDTH OF ATTACHED GINGIVA
Bowers (63 1-11): Facial only, 1-9mm (narrowest Mand cuspid/1st pre), health consistent with less
than 1 mm, but areas with no attached gingiva were inflamed. Buccal and Lingual tooth position, high
frenum and muscle attachments affected amount of AG. Found an increase in width from primary to
secondary dentitions.
Tenenbaum (JCP 86 1-15): 331 kids (3-15) 30 pts/age group, saw no change in width from primary to
permanent dentition, but did see an increase in the permanent dentition related to decrease in pocket
depth.
Wennstrom ( 22-26) Thickness of tissue is more important than height of attached gingiva in
determining risk for recession
(BOARD QUESTION) With supereruption of teeth, the width of the attached keratinized tissue
increases.
World Workshop says that no one can agree on how much AG is necessary, use your best judgment
Ainamo & Loe (JP 66 1-14): X-sectional study, width of attached gingival increases with age
Voight (78): Lingual attached gingiva, 1-8mm, more in 1st & 2nd molar (4.7mm), less in anterior (1.9
mm). When going from primary to permanent dentition AG decreased.
Andlin-Sobocki (93): 96 kids, aligned teeth, saw width of KG over 2 years.
How much is necessary?
Lang & Loe (72 1-12): 2mm KG, 1 mm AG, necessary for inflammation persisted even in light of
good oral hygiene.
Miyasato et al (77): Dental faculty, dental students, areas of minimal width of KG were no more prone
to inflammatory changes.
Stability of width of Attached Gingiva:
Dorfman & Kennedy (80): 92 pts, maintained 3-6 months, Bilateral study, one side graft, 2 yr. followup, in face of inflammation no difference in grafted side over the control.
179

Kennedy, Bird, and Dorfman (JCP 85 39-02): 5 yr. follow up to Dorfman (80),
>90% of patients with minimal attached gingiva and poor oral hygiene had increased recession.
(BOARD QUESTION)
Maintained
Patients
Discontinued
Patients

Control Sites
-No increase in gingival inflammation
-No increase in recession
- Re-establishment of gingival inflammation
- Increase in recession >90% (BOARD
QUESTION)

Experimental Sites
- increase in KG, AG
- Gain in Attachment
- Decrease in recession
- Increase in KG, AG
- Gain in Attachment
- Decrease in recession

Wennstrom (87 1-13): 26 sites , 6 pts surgically deprived of KG, No difference in recession noted after 5
yrs of follow-up, 3 of controls developed recession. " inadequate AG is a result, rather than a cause of
recession. Wennstrom, Lindhe (83) dogs
Freedman and Salkin (JP 92 39-1) 10 yr. follow-up to Salkin study. Only 10/64 sites saw a decrease in AG.
Supports previous conclusion regarding untxd defects and good OH.
BL: Areas with minimal keratinized tissue in the presence of good OH remain stable over 10 yrs.
CRITERIA TO DETERMINE ADEQUATE WIDTH OF ATTACHED GINGIVA
Hall (77): Age, teeth involved, esthetics, sensitivity, oral hygiene, dental needs, previous dental treatment
WHEN WOULD YOU CONSIDER GRAFTING OF AN AREA?
It depends on the following:
(1) Age of the Patient
Wait
Andlin-Sobocki (JCP 93): F gingiva of max/man well aligned teeth evaluated in 96 children (7-12yrs) 2xs
over 2years. AG and KT increased over 2 year period. Suggests conservative approach in children of this
age with minimal attached gingiva. (BOARD QUESTION)
Now
Maynard (IJPRD 87 39-4) graft before you have a problem, rationale for grafting in kids
(2) OH of the Patient
Dorfman and Kennedy (80): 92 pts FGG placed on one side vs. ungrafted side with minimal AG. Pts
placed on maintenance every 3-6 mos. for 2 years. Both sides sustained PAL. Suggest that with good OH
grafting may not be necessary in area of minimal AG.
.Kennedy, Bird, and Dorfman (JCP 85 39-2) 5 year follow-up to Dorfman study. Compliant pts results
same as in previous study. 10 non-compliant pts examined. GI in these pts had returned to baseline. The
grafted sites in these pts displayed no recession, while non-grafted sites displayed addl. recession. Suggests
that in pts with areas of minimal AG without consistent maintenance, FGG may be indicated. Also
emphasizes importance of good OH in areas of minimal AG.
Salkin (87): 39 dental students with inadequate AG (<2mm) were examined. Pts re-examined after 4
years. No Tx performed. Little change occurred in these inadequate areas. Pts were dental students and had
good OH. Suggests that untreated defects do not predispose a patient to recession in pts with good OH.
Freedman and Salkin (JP 92 39-1) 10 yr. follow-up to Salkin study. Only 10/64 sites saw a decrease in AG.
Supports previous conclusion regarding untxd defects and good OH.
Rateitschak (JP 79 39-3) Grafts stable after four years 25 % shrinkage most within first month.
(3) Are restorations planned in this area?
Stetler and Bissada (87): Compared teeth with and without 2mm KG with and without full coverage subG
restorations. Teeth with a narrow zone of KG with a subG restoration exhibited a greater gingival
inflammatory response compared to the other 3 groups. It may be desirable to augment these areas if the
patient is having trouble controlling the inflammation of the site.
(4) Is ortho planned in this area?
Coatoam (81): 100 pt retrospective study of ortho tx. Teeth with no KG before ortho will not form any
new KG during tx. Pts with 0mm KG had a 28% incidence of gingival cleft formation. Tooth position in
the arch as well as pre-existing condition of the zone of KG need to be considered.

180

RECESSION
ETIOLOGY: Iatrogenic, habits, tooth location/anatomy, inflammation.
Loe (92): Sri Lankans vs. Norwegians: Found recession with periodontal disease and good home
care. Increased with age in both groups, although Sri Lankans were 100% effected by 40
yrs.
Ervin (44): More recession opposite the dominant hand
CLASSIFICIATION OF RECESSION
Sullivan & Atkins (Perio 68):
A: deep-wide
B: shallow-wide
C: deep-narrow
D: shallow-narrow
Miller (85):
Class 1: recession does not extend to MGJ, no bone or soft tissue loss. 100% coverage
expected
Class 2: recession beyond MGJ but no bone or soft tissue loss. 100% coverage
Class 3: recession beyond MGJ and bone loss. <100% coverage
Class 4: recession beyond MGJ and bone loss so severe that no root coverage can be
anticipated.
RECESSION INCIDENCE
Gorman and Bowers (JP 67 18-6): 78% prevalence of recession, increases with age, recession
associated with good oral hygiene, shallow pockets and tooth malposition. Males greater incidence of
recession than females
Wilson (83): Incidence of recession & AL: 18.37% in 135 pts.
Hall (77): Facial lower centrals: 8%, canines & first premolars: 20%, MB root of max. 1st molars, Mand
3rd molars.
O'Leary, Drake, Crump, Allen (72): 470 Air Force cadets, 30% with recession, increased recession
with increased level of home care (GI & PI).
Vehkalahti (89): Mean age 46 yrs, recession in 68% of subjects. Men had more recession than women.
Khocht et al (JP,93): Recession was found to greater for pts with hx of hard tooth brushes mean recession
9.4% vs. 4.7% of those who never used a hard brush.
Loe et al (JP, 92): Norwegians and Sri Lankans, both groups had recession, initial started sooner in
Norwegians but was confined to the buccal surfaces and increased slowly with age, attributed to tooth
brushing. The Sri Lankans didn't start as soon but progressed rapidly and involved more of the tooth
surface and was attributed to attachment. loss due to Periodontal disease.
Serino (JCP,94): 225 Swedish dental pts cross sectional and longitudinal study out to 5 & 12 years.
Over this period 33% of sites previously without recession developed recession. 87% of sites with
previous recession had additional recession occur. Recession increased with age. Younger patients
showed recession primarily on upper premolars and molars. Older pts exhibited recession on incisors and
canines.
Joshipura (JP,94): Exam of 298 pts with at least 1 area of recession. Males had more recession than
females and recession increased with age. Recession on the molars may be associated with calculus and
premolar recession may be more due to abrasion.
MUCOGINGIVAL SURGERY/RESTORATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Maynard & Wilson (79): Minimum 3 mm AG, 5mm keratinized required prior to restorative.
Stetler & Bissada (87): SubG margins must have 2mm attached for health.
Corn (80): Supports grafting prior to RPDs
MUCOGINGIVAL SURGERY METHODS
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Free Gingival Graft:

Pennel and King (JP 64 39-9): Technique for FGG
Bjorn (Sweeden,63): First to do FGG,
Nabers (66): first reported in the US
Sullivan and Atkins (PERIO 68 39-10):
Donor site:
1) Thicker graft will undergo greater immediate (primary) contraction upon detachment
from the donor area due to its greater elastic fiber content. This same thick graft will undergo less
secondary contraction during the healing than a thicker graft.
2) A thinner graft can be more easily maintained by diffusion and is easier to vascularize
3) A thicker graft had greater resistance to functional stresses.
Healing stages: Plasmatic Circulation, Vascular, Organic Union
Mormann et al (JP 81, 39-15): Transplant thickness:
Graft Type

AVE Graft
% Vert Shrinkage
Thickness
1 yr.
Very Thin
0.37 mm
45%
Thin
0.56 mm
44%
Intermediate
0.77 mm
38%
Scalpel
0.92 mm
30%
Thin grafts had more shrinkage but healed faster.
Holbrook and Ochsenbein (IJPRD 83): Gingival Graft
Amount of
Initial Recession
< 3 mm
3-5 mm
> 5 mm

% Root
Coverage
95.5%
80.6%
76.6%

Miller PD (IJPRD 85,39-16) To treat recession he used free thick soft tissue autograft following Citric
Acid, Technique article. High success rate 88%
Miller PD (JP 87,39-17): Factors associated with incomplete coverage of free gingival graft.
1) Improper classification on marginal tissue recession
2) Inadequate root planning flatten convexity
3) Failure to treat planed roots with citric acid controversial
4) Improper preparation of recipient site recommends butt joint
5) Inadequate size of interdental papillae
6) Improperly prepared donor tissue
7) Inadequate graft size
8) Inadequate graft thickness
9) Dehydration of graft
10) Inadequate adaptation of graft to root and remaining periosteal bed
11) Failure to stabilize the graft
12) Excess or prolonged pressure in coaptation of sutured graft
13) Reduction of inflammation prior to grafting
14) Trauma to graft during initial healing
15) Excessive smoking- A 100% correlation between failure to obtain root coverage and heavy
smoking (>10) HARRIS DISAGREES
Maynard and Ochsenbein (JP,75):
Conclusions:
1) Mucogingival problems occur in children
2) Prevalence 12-19%
3) FFG should be performed prior to tooth movement
4) Grafts recommended in children with 1 mm or less keratinized tissue
182

5) Grafts would not be recommended in children with > 1mm attached gingiva or 2 mm of
keratinized tissue.
FREE GINGIVAL GRAFTS: WOUND HEALING
Sullivan & Atkins (Perio 68,39-10): Plasmatic circulation (0-2 days), vascularization (2-8 days),
organic union (4-10 days).
Caffesse et al (JP 79, 39-12): Healing of FGG placed on periosteum or denuded bone: initially slower
healing on bone but eventual outcome was the same. Monkey study (BOARD QUESTION)
Busschop (JCP 83, 39-21) Fluorescein study on FGG placed on bone and periosteum, no healing
differences
Mormann et al (JCP 75, 39-20): Fluorescein angiography of FGG
Results:
1 day: Marked plasmatic circulation
3 days: Increased # of capillaries, new centers of vasculature and permeation
of adjacent graft tissue
4 days: Capillary blood circulation is unimpeded
9-14 days: Uniform capillary distribution
Caffesse et al (87, 40-9): Citric acid does not improve clinical attachment in lateral sliding flaps
Pasquinelli (IJPRD 95, 39-22) Histo of FGG revealed 4.4 mm of new bone and 4.0 mm of new
attachment
Oliver et al (68): Epithelialization complete by 14 days; keratinization complete by 28 days
Kisch (86): Over 5 years, mobile unattached gingiva was not more prone to recession.
Laterally Positioned Pedicle Flap:
Grupe & Warren (56 40-1): Lateral pedicle graft with a step BOWERS
Pennel et al (65): Oblique pedicle graft******** grafting pioneer
Hatler Technique Slide flap over a half tooth (HORNING)
Wilderman & Wentz (JP 65, 40-11): Histo: 4 stages of healing process:
1) Adaptation stage
(0 hours - 4 days)
2) Proliferation stage
(4 - 21 days )
3) Attachment stage
(21- 28 days )
4) Maturation stage
(28 - 6 months)
50% shrinkage of flap
25% new attachment
25% new epithelium
Pfeifer & Heller (JP,71 40-12): Full vs. Partial thickness flaps. Full thickness flap (BETTER) had CT
attachment in the apical 1/2 of defect and LJE in the coronal 1/2, while the Partial thickness flap had a
LJE on its entire surface with no CT attachment.
Citric Acid and Laterally Positioned Flaps
Caffesse R (IJPRD 87, 40-9): Lateral Sliding flaps with and without CA, No difference.
Oles (JP 85 40-7) Agrees with Caffesse on citric acid
Double Papillae Graft:
Ross et al Cohen (IJPRD,86 40-2): Double papillae graft, technique article
Maynard (77): Do FGG 1st, then coronally position the tissue.
Tarnow et al (86): Semilunar pedicle
Robinson (64): Edentulous ridge pedicle
Connective Tissue Grafts:
Langer & Langer (83 39-23): subepth. CT graft 2-6 mm of root coverage
Edel (74) actually first
Raetzke (JP 85 40-8): CT graft placed in an envelope or pouch, (pita pouch) 5/12 achieved total root
coverage, 80% coverage, gain attachment 3.5mm, Grafts blended harmoniously with neighboring tissues
by 17 days.

183

Harris (JP,92 40-10): CTG with partial thickness pedicle graft (double papilla graft), complete root
coverage 24/30, mean root coverage 97.2% Used TCN to etch roots. Important factors in success pedicle
size, previous FGG, plaque control
Harris (JP,94 40-4): 100 defects 97.7% Mean root coverage of above technique.
Allen A (IJPRD,94): CT using supraperiosteal envelope, 84% root coverage.
Bouchard et al (JP,94): CT with and without the epithelial collar. Gingival coverage was better with the
epithelial collar 94% vs. 65% with out, without however did have better color blending.
Subpedicle Connective Tissue Grafts:
Nelson (JP,87 39-27): Double papilla technique, suture mesial and distal papilla together. Subpedicle
connective tissue graft; donor trap door approach, Results: 3mm or = < 100%, 4 to 6 mm = 92%, 7 to 10
mm = 88%.
Free Rotated Papilla Autograft
Tinti (JP 96 p1016) Split thickness incision, deepithelialize papilla, remove and rotate over area of
recession, crossed sling suture, coronally position flap. Questionable methodology (BOARD
QUESTION)
Coronally Positioned Graft:
Bernimoulin(75): Coronally positioned graft First to describe BOWERS
Caffesse (JP 78 40-13) advocated FGG before a coronally positioned flap
Allen & Miller (JP,89): coronally positioned flap (requires minimum of 3 mm of keratinized. tissue
apical to defect and minimum thickness of 1 mm), Class 1 recession. (BOARD QUESTION) What was
the success rate
Laney et al (JP,92): No advantage of coronally repositioning of a FFG. (BOARD QUESTION)
Harris and Harris (JP,94): 20 isolated Class I defects, mean root coverage 98.8%
Mucogingival Surgical Methods Comparisons
Jahnke (JP 93 39-19): FGG vs. Subepithelial CTG, CTG better than FGG (BOARD QUESTION)
Laney (JP 92 39-19) FGG vs. 2 stage coronally positioned flap equal in root coverage
Caffesse (JP,80 40-6): Coronally positioned FGG vs. Lateral Pedicle. No sig. difference in predictability
and root coverage at 3 yrs POT.
Mucogingival vs. GTR
Pini Prato (40-14): Compared GTR vs. FGG/CPF. Good results with GTR in covering recession
greater than 4.98 mm
Tinti (JP 93 40-15): TR membranes can treat M-G defects.
Pini Prato (IJPRD 95 40-16) Guidor in tx of buccal recession 65% defect coverage
Cortellini (JP 93 40-17) Histo of recession txd by GTR Resulted in new bone, cementum and CT
Roccuzzo (JP 96 40-18) Gore-tex and Guidor equal in effectiveness in treating buccal recession
(BOARD QUESTION)
Shih and Allen (IJPRD,94): GTR in mucogingival defect, 86% root coverage.
Pini Prato (IJPRD 93): 5 pts with 4-6mm recession txd with GTR + FGG. 3/5 complete root coverage.
The other 2 had 1mm of gingival recession remaining.
Trombelli et al (JP,95): 24 pts. treated mucogingival defects with ePTFE, fibrin/fibrinogen, TCN
(100mg/ml), found that mean % root coverage 71.7%. (BOARD QUESTION)
Onlay Graft
Siebert (CCDE 93 39-26) Thick onlay grafts to reconstruct deformed ridges
Soft Tissue Ridge Augmentation:
Langer (IJPRD 89 39-28) uses CT grafts to reconstruct deformed ridges
Allen et al (JP 85 39-27): Use of HA for localized ridge augmentation.
Scharf and Tarnow (IJPRD,92): Modified Roll Technique, Split thickness from palate and repositioned
and sutured in the buccal.
Papilla Preservation:
Takei (JP 85 31-5) Papilla preservation
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Murphy (IJPRD 96) Papillary triangle for papilla preservation in GTR procedure. Used only on palate,
purse string suture technique.
Holmes if cut off papilla, will grow back 50% of the time. HORNING FAVORITE!!!!!!!!
Beagle (IJPRD,92): Split thickness flap from the palate, sutures (6.0) suspends tissue between teeth, a
broad interdental space is the best for lack of tissue trauma.
Anterior Esthetics:
Tarnow et al (JP 92 31-33): Effect of distance from contact point to crest of bone in the presence or
absence of interproximal papilla.
1) 5 mm or < the papilla was present 100% of the time
2) 6 mm papilla was present 56% of the time
3) 7 mm or > the papilla was present 27% of the time.
Allen EP (DCNA,88): Mucogingival Surgical Procedures to Enhance Esthetics
1) Excessive gingival display with insufficient clinical crown length
2) Asymmetry of gingival margins
3) Improper relationship of gingival margins
4) Flat marginal contour
5) Localized marginal tissue recession
6) Localized alveolar ridge deficiency
Vestibular extension
Bergenholtz (JP 73 39-8)): Lip switch procedure for vestibular extension buccal mucosa to bone,
periosteum to lip
Robinson (JP 64 39-6): Periosteal fenestration technique at the MGJ. Bone was denuded, healed like
attached gingiva. Technique an alternative to grafting??
Corn (JP 62 39-5) Periosteal separation technique to deepen vestibule
Allen (JP 67 39-7) Evald vestibular extension sx radiographically gain in vest 2.7 mm AG 2.3 mm.
Bohannan (63): Vestibular extension procedure, increase 1.5 mm, unpredictable
Creeping Attachment:
Matter (JP 80 39-14): 5 yr. study of FGGs, less than 3 mm. Of creeping attachment occurred between
1 month and 1 year
Listgarten, Rosenberg, and Lerner (JP,82): Rats, at as early as 3 weeks CT replacement of LJE after
OFD. This has never been repeated with no real proof that CT and Cementum was removed during the
procedure. Rats have continuously erupting teeth.
Dorfman (82) Described coronal creeping attachment in grafted sites (BOARD QUESTION)
Bell et al (JP,78): creeping attachment of 0.89 mm or 28%.
ROOT SURFACE MODIFICATION
Reasons to Modify
1) Surface demineralization
2) Irregular surface that impedes epithelial migration
3) Removal of endotoxin, antibacterial effect
4) Inhibit colonization of root surface aerobes and anaerobes from plaque of periodontally involved teeth in vitro
(Daly, 82)
5) Widened dentinal tubules
6) Exposure of inductive proteins.
IN VITRO STUDIES
Pitaru and Melcher (JPR 87): porcine root slices, EDTA, Human Gingival Fibroblasts. The collagen
exposed by demineralized cementum may regulate the physiological organization of CT cells and enhance
the strength of attachment of fibroblasts to the tooth during early stages of periodontal wound healing.
CITRIC ACID

185

Demineralizes peritubular dentin 7-10 m in depth, exposes collagen fibers in root, detoxifies.
Garret: Exposes fibers of dentin/cementum to get anastomoses with flap
Polson and Proye (83): Fiber linkage key to success, does not occur without demineralization, monkey
study
Gottlow: No new CT with CA
Tanaka (89): Use of CA to remove all debris and bacteria from partially scaled teeth
Animal Studies:
Dogs: Garret, Register & Burdick, Ririe & Crigger, Nilveus & Egelberg: All showed it was possible
to get CT attachment to previously diseased roots.
Monkeys: Polson & Proye, Nyman, Isidor: Minimal or no enhancement
Human Studies:
Cole (80): 9 human teeth, notch in calculus, CA 5 min, New CT, Some bone, AL 2.1 with CA / 1.5
without CA no one has repeated, 1st to describe a notch in calculus.
Dragoo: 21 human blocks, no bone, no CT, no advantage of CA over open flap curettage.
Albair (82): 5 min CA, extracted teeth, No CT attached to non-CA treated teeth, CT attached to old
cementum, new cementum, but not dentin of CA treated teeth.
Chaves (92): Citric acid use does not enhance the results of S/RP i.e. presence/absence of bacteria in
humans.
Technique:
Trombelli (JP 95): Topical application to root surfaces. Morphologic alterations of cementum and dentin
are related more to the application interval than concentration. 1 vs. 4 min. 10 vs. 100mg.
Sterrett and Murphy (93): Optimal CA concentration is 25-30%, pH 1.55, for 1 minute.
Register and Burdick (75): Optimal pH is 1, 3 minute application.
Wen (92): Paint it on for more smear layer removal, more demineralization.
Miller: Burnish until milky white appearance.
Sterrett, Murphy (JCP 95): CA lightly rubbed or burnished has significantly more tufting with greater
depth.
FIBRONECTIN
High molecular weight glycoprotein, cell surface binding (calcium chelator)
Caton: Effects upon healing with fibronectin
Caffesse: MWF 1.7 attach gain vs. MWF +CA +FN 1.9 attach gain ?significant
Terranova (86): In vitro fibroblast attachment enhanced with fibronectin, decreased with laminin
Wikesjo, et al (JCP 88, 34-27: CA & TCN enhance CT repair of furcation defects, but root resorption &
ankylosis are prevalent. FN did not enhance CT repair & slightly decreased resorption & ankylosis.
CA>TCN
Terranova, et al (JP 89, 34-28): FN + basic-FGF slightly more chemoattractant than b-FGF alone for
PDL cells.
TETRACYCLINE AS ROOT CONDITIONER
Max binding of TCN at 50mg/ml or greater.
Alger (J Perio 1990): human study showed TCN application as root conditioner to enhance new
connective tissue attachment.
TCN alone was better than TCN + fibronectin.
Labahn (92): TCN 100mg/ml vs. CA, CA opened tubules better.
Demirel, Baer (91): In vitro, tooth soaked in Doxy 3 mins, 100mg/ml had antimicrobial effects
persisting to 14 days
Claffey (87): PDL response to Tetracycline was greater than CA in beagles.
Wikesjo (86): Release of Tetracycline up to 48 hours post application with biocidal activity, reservoir for
TET 2 days.
Lafferty, Gher et al (JP 93 34-18) SEM of root surface treated with CA or TCN-HCl for 5mm, exposure
and removal of smear layer, devoid of debris, and network of collagen fibers. CA and TCN produce
similar root surfaces after conditioning. TCN from capsules may introduce fillers and other
sediment.
DOXYCYCLINE AS A ROOT CONDITIONER
Demirel (91): 100mg/ml inhibited Aa, Av, Pg on root surfaces in vitro.

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PERIDEX as a root conditioner

Alleyn et al (JP 91): CHX impairs fibroblast attachment to dentin in vitro (impacted 3rd molars)
Stabholz (93): CHX vs. TCN (100mg/ml), CHX had no long term antimicrobial effects 1-6 days POT.
Antiformin
Sodium hypochlorite, Na(OH)2, Sodium carbonate
ROOT SURFACE BIOMODIFICATION (with GTR)
CITRIC ACID with GTR
McClain and Schallhorn (93): 5 yr. follow-up of GTR with and without CA root conditioning and
composite grafts (DFDBA + autogenous bone). Long term results enhanced with CA + graft
Handelsman (91): 17 pts reentry at 9 months, CA with GTR = no enhancing effects
Kersten et al (JP 92): CA with e-PTFE in intrabony defects. No statistical difference. More recession in
CA treated defects.
TETRACYCLINE with GTR
Machtei (91 abs): Adjunctive effect with TCN root conditioning and GTR
Parashis (93): PTFE membranes vs. PTFE + TCN100mg/ml, 6 pts, bilateral Class 2 Mand molar furcas.
No sig. difference with TCN.
SAFETY:
Blomlof (JCP 95): Monkeys. Long time etching (3 min) at low pH impaired periodontal healing. Short
time etching appeared to promote CT formation despite low pH.
Why Extract teeth? Furcations, severe intractable pain, root fracture, non-functional/severe disease.
SUPPORTIVE PERIODONTAL THERAPY
COMPLIANCE
Wilson (JP 84): 16% full, 49% erratic, 34% non-compliant the longer the maintenance interval the more
compliant compliance overall very poor (BOARD QUESTION)
Wilson (JP 87 41-22) Compliant pts lost no teeth, Erratic group lost all the teeth.
Wilson (JP,93 41-31): Using compliance improvement methods was able to increase complete
compliance from 16% to 32% at the expense of the non-compliant group.
Becker, Karp (JCP 88 41-26): Surgery patients are more compliant with maintenance, better if good self
image, self confidence
Johansson (JCP 84 41-16) Possible to maintain perio status despite poor compliance by the patient. Pts
didnt use supplemental cleaning aids.
Mendoza (JP,91): 36% compliant, 48% dropped out the first year; 30% failed the first recall
Checchi (JCP 94): 38% completely compliant the 1st yr., only 20% completely compliant at 4 yrs.
Highest drop out rate occurred from the 1st to the 2nd year.
Derbyshire: Pt needs and motivation must be determined
Rayant and Sheiham: No relationship between perceived susceptibility and behavior.
Kuhert and Rachske (88): Both 5 visit (short), and 2 visit (long) OHI were equally effective in
improving pt OH at 12 weeks and 48 months with recall every 3 months.
Rosenstock " Health Belief Model"- perceived seriousness, perceived susceptibility, perceived barriers,
perceived benefit,
Demetriou et al (JP,95): Compliance 14 yr retrospective study in Europe, 27.4% complete, 14.4% erratic
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Schallhorn (JADA 81 41-6): preventive, trial, compromised, post-treatment
Untreated Periodontal disease:
Marshall-Day (1955): 5.2 teeth over a ten year
Becker et al (JP,79): Mean loss was 0.36 teeth/PT/year
Lindhe, Haffajee et al (JCP,83): Swedes: 11.6% sites measured more > 2mm, 37% lost 2mm, 78% lost
> 1mm Americans: 3.2% lost more than 2 mm, 4.3% gained more than 2 mm

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Maintenance and Non-Surgical Treatment

Caton (82 41-11): Patients well maintained following S/RP at 3 month intervals (actually closer than 3
months).
Axelsson, Lindhe (JCP, 81 41-8): After 6 yrs, pts receiving q 2-3 mon maintenance had control of perio
vs. once/year maintenance. Anti-GP maintenance Periodontist should be involved in maint.
Caton et al. (JP,89): Oral hygiene reduced interdental inflammation, but subG scaling in addition to OH
decreased the interdental inflammation to greater extent than OH alone, repair occurred within 4 weeks
and was the same for 4 months
Axelsson (JCP,91): Pts with q2-3 month recall had control, pts on 1 year recall (Back to GP) did not
have control.
Maintenance and Surgical Treatment
SWEDES: OH MOST IMPORTANT
Nyman (JCP 77, 41-4) Surgery in plaque infested dentitions, one session of OHI and periodontal
disease recurred
Nyman (JCP,75 41-2): Reverse bevel surgery, q 2 weeks verses 6 month maintenance (considered failed
surgery) Shorter, the better.
Rosling (JCP,76): Regenerative surgery, SPT q 2 wks on 12 pts gained 2.8 mm of bone, SPT q 1 yr. on
other 12, deteriorated.
Rosling (JCP 76 41-3): Different types of surgery all successful with good oral hygiene and close recall.
Lindhe, Nyman (JCP,84 41-14): Tx of advanced disease can be maintained over 14 years.
Wennstrom (JCP 93 41-15) Regular dental patients lost very few teeth over 12 years. Attachment lost
most frequently on the buccal surfaces
Lindhe (75): 75 pts with "severe" perio, surgery including tunneling, root resection, maint 3-6 months,
no teeth lost over 5 years.
MICHIGAN: MAINTENANCE Q3 MONTHS MOST IMPORTANT
Ramfjord (JCP 87 41-25) OH not critical if patients are maintained q3 months
Knowles et al (JP,79): Modified Widman, Curettage, pocket elimination: all stable for 8yrs with 3-4 mo
recall. Split mouth study design, Problems: No furcations, measured at line angles, pooled data.
Morrison (82): Gingivitis not related to PD and AL in 7 yrs maintenance of 78 Michigan study pts.
ARIZONA:
Becker. (BOARD QUESTION)
Perio treatment
SPT
0.11 tooth lost per year
Perio treatment
No SPT 0.22 tooth lost per year
No Perio Treatment
No SPT 0.36 tooth lost per year

41-18
41-17

TEXAS:
Nabers (88 41-28): 1535 pts, Ave. tooth loss was 0.29 teeth/pt/12.9 yrs. 444 teeth lost in 164 pts (due to
other factors) Splinted patients lost a lot of teeth. 74% of patients had surgery. 15.9% required
retreatment.
Meador (85): 620 pts treated with surgery/non surg over 22 yrs, surgical pts were 71.1% stable, non-surg
pts 54.8% stable
RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES:
% of Patients in Group

Average tooth loss/Patient

Study
H&W 78
McFall 82
(41-32)
Goldman et al 86

tooth / yr.
0.08
0.14
0.16

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(41-33)
How well does maintenance prevent gingival inflammation?
Suomi, Greene (JP,71): Large scale study (1248pts), showed oral hygiene and professional prophy @
multiple times during 3 yrs resulted in less radiographic bone loss, PAL, GI, and PI than matched
controls.
Morrison, Ramfjord (JP,82): Gingivitis was not related to PD and PAL levels in 7 yrs of maintenance
MAINTENANCE INTERVALS
Lovdal (61) Three month maintenance, showed decreased tooth loss regardless of OH. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Lindhe & Nyman (1975): Patients on 3-6 months interval maintenance for 5 years lost little or no
further attachment. Failure to contol supraG plaque following Sx may result in an extremely rapid rate of
loss of clinical attachment.
Hirschfeld & Wasserman (1978): 600 pts 4-6 months interval for 22 years. Most patients lost very few
teeth.
Listgarten (JCP 82. 41-12, 20, 21, 6-11) Used DDFM to set recall interval, didnt work well. Also found
that most gingivitis lesions did not progress to periodontitis
Westfelt (JCP 83 41-13) Studied different recall intervals, q2 weeks best, increasing recurrence of
disease with increasing maintenance intervals
Ramfjord (JCP 87. 41-25) OH not critical if patients are maintained q3 months
Magnusson et al. (1984): Microbiota returns to baseline after treatment within 4 months if good OH is
not accomplished.
Greenstein (92): Return of flora to baseline at 9-11 weeks.
When is it Necessary to re-treat?
Chace (JP 77, 41-5):
1) BOP
2) Increase in pockets
3) Radiographic bone loss
4) Increase in tooth mobility
Are vertical defects more prone to bone loss during maintenance?
NO!
Pontoriero (JCP 88 41-36) Sites with angular bony defects are not particularly susceptible to recurrent
periodontitis.
Prognosis vs. Outcome
McGuire (JP 91 41-30 19-27) Prognoses more accurate for single rooted teeth. Prognosis best for good category.
Prognoses for other categories switched between categories a lot. Very conservative estimates.
SupraG Plaque Control Effects on SubG Flora:
YES: Katsanoulas (92): Professional supraG plaque control can effect subG bacteria (spirochetes/motile rods
via darkfield). Seigrist & Kornman, Smulow supports.
Dahlen (92): 2 yr period, supraG scaling, caused a reduction in Pg, Aa, Fn, Selenomonas, marked
change in composition of flora.
McNabb et al. (JCP,92): SupraG cleaning 3X / week for 12 weeks showed a decrease in subG
microbiota.
Waerhaug ( 27-14) SupraG plaque determines subG
NO:

Kho (85): SupraG plaque control on deep pockets, 8 pts, prophies with supraG scaling failed to alter
quantity and composition of the subG flora after 18 weeks.
Listgarten (78): Effects of scaling on subG microflora, 6 pts, 8-25 weeks, Darkfield exam: no changes in
coccoid, rods, spirochetes.

MISC:
Kornman (JPRes 86, 8-6): Prevent disease by:
1) eliminating all detectable plaque
2) reduce plaque below individuals threshold for disease
189

3) alter plaque composition such that periodontitis will not develop.

Patient Satisfaction:
Kalkwarf & Kaldahl (92): 80-90% of patients were willing to repeat therapy, didn't know what kind of
surgery performed.
2nd molar most commonly lost during maintenance.
IMPLANTS
PRINCIPLES
Branemark (JPD 84 24-1): Concept of osseointegration, direct connection between living bone and a
load carrying implant at the LM level
Albrektsson (IJOMI 86 20-21): Proposed changes for the criteria for implant success,
1) immobile,
2) no periimplant radiolucency,
3) < 0.2 mm bone loss after the first year loading,
4) no pain, infection, neuropathies, paresthesia,
5) minimum 85 % success at 5 years and minimum 80% success at 10 years.
Meffert (87): Biointegration, LM direct biochemical bone to implant surface interface, confirmed at the
EM level.
Weiss (86): Fibro-osseous integration, i.e. the interposition of healthy dense connective tissue between the
implant and bone. Must have blade or spiral shaped implants for this to work.
IMPLANT SIZE
Langer, Langer (IJOMI 93): 5.0 mm diameter Branemark, self tapping good for areas of inadequate
bone height, poor bone quality, immediate placement in previous failure sites or extraction sites.
Bahat (IJOMI 93): Studied implants placed in the posterior maxilla of varying bone qualities. Length of
the implant was especially important in Type IV bone situations. The longer the implant the greater the
success.
Type IV bone and 7 mm implants 14.3% failure
Type IV bone and 10 mm and above implants, 1.6% failure rate
Saadoun (IJPRD 92) Titanium screw vs. HA cylinder. Implants placed in both maxilla and mandible,
anterior and posterior. Overall 8 mm implants were only
56.9% successful. Implants > 12 mm had
close to 100% success
IMPLANT SURFACE AREA
Daniels A screw increases the surface area by 7%, plasma spray increases surface

area by 6X

BONE QUALITY
Bone Types:
Lekholm and Zarb:
I
II
III
IV

Homogenous cortical bone

Thick cortical bone with a marrow cavity
Thin cortical bone with dense trabecular bone of good strength
Very thin cortical bone with low density trabecular bone of poor strength

Truhlar, Orenstein, Morris (JOMS 97): Multi-center examination Type 2 bone predominated in the
mandible and type 3 in the maxilla. Patents classified as healthy, had a lower proportion of type 1 and 2
bone than those with mild systemic disease. Males showed similar levels of type 1 compared with type 4
bone with females had more type 1 than type 4 bone.
Jaffin and Berman (91): Branemark fixture failures by bone type:
Type Bone
I, II, III
190

Mand
2.6 %

Max
3.6 %

Total
3%

IV

26 %

44 %

35 %

Friberg Jemt, Lekholm (IJOMI 91) Failure rates associated with type four bone in maxilla and type 1
in the mandible. Most fixtures were lost in the maxilla advanced resorption
IMPLANT SUCCESS RATES
Overall
Misch Need 25% bone to implant contact minimally for success
Adell (IJOMI 90 24-18) Long term follow-up on Branemark implants. 700 patients, 4636 implants 95%
continuous pros stability 5-10 years in maxilla. 99% for mandible Individual fixture success rate MX 8492% MN 86-98%.
Albrektsson (JP 88 25-20) Success rates of non-Gothenburg placed implants. MX 84.9%, MN 99.1%
Partial Edentulous Patients
Pylant, Triplett Retrospective of titanium implants MX 89.3% and MN 87.8%.
Single Implant Restorations
Jemt, Lekholm (IJPRD 90) at 3 years 91% success, 1 mm more bone loss than standard implants.
Jemt et al (IJOMI 91) multi-center study showed 2.8% failure at one year.
Ekfeldt (IJOMI 94) 98 single unit Branemark implants ranging from 1 year out to 5 years. 98% success
rate.
Overdentures
Quirynen et al (JCP 91) Implants in function a mean of 1 year. 1% failure in the MN.
Jemt (IJOMI 92) 1 year follow-up of 92 patients with overdentures in severely resorbed maxillae (16%).
failure rate at 1 year (84% success rate). Note Approximately 70% of the implants were 7 mm in length.
Hemmings (IJOMI 94) 25 patients 5 year data 91.2% success rate.
Fixed Prostheses:
Jemt (IJOMI 91) 2199 implants, (73% MN) overall success rate 99.5% for prosthesis, 98.1% fixtures.
Hemmings (IJOMI 94) 25 patients 5 year data 88.6% success rate.
Partial Bridges
Quirynen et al (JCP 92): 6 year period, failure rate 5.9%, cumulative rate means
down but can be replaced it is still considered a success.

if bridge breaks

Implants in Posterior Jaw

Jemt (IJOMI 93 25-16): Cumulative success rate 97% for fixtures, 100% for prostheses
Nevins and Langer (IJOMI 93):
Maxilla 652 implants >99% prosthetic success, 95.2% implant success
Mandible 551 implants 97% prosthetic success, 95.5% implant success
Bahat (IJOMI 93): Examined implants placed in the posterior maxilla with an average loading time of
30 months. 63% of implants placed in type II/III bone with the remainder placed in type III/IV bone.
Overall failure rate 4.8%
Type IV failure rate 5.5%
Type II/III failure rate 4.6%
7 mm failure rate 9.5%
10 mm + failure rate 3.8%
Short implants in type IV bone had a much higher failure rate (14.3%) than longer
implants in type
IV bone (1.6). Implants can be placed in type IV bone but they need to be at least 10 mm in length.
Saadoun (IJPRD 92) Comparison of SteriOss titanium screws, HA cylinders, and HA screws. Posterior
areas revealed a lower success rate than anterior areas in both the Max and MN
MX success rates
Anterior 95.1% Posterior 87.1%
MN success rates
Anterior 98.6% Posterior 93%
IMPLANT FAILURE
Morgan, James Pilliar (IJOMI 93): High lead stresses result of 3 conditions
1. Bone resorption coronally, developing higher bending stresses

191

2. Bone loss extends to a level corresponding to the end of the abutment screw
3. Sharp corner at root of a thread creates an area of stress concentration
Worthington (IJOMI 1988 26-9): Most implant problems are iatragenic and prevented by careful
treatment planning. Faulty placement, faulty alignment, excessive countersinking, wobbling drill,
echymosis, stripping bone threads and stitch abscess. Prosth problems: speech diff, prosth fracture, Au
screw fracture, inadequate lip support and ingestion/inhalation.
AILING IMPLANTS
Meffert (Impl Dent 92 26-20): Active infection: Flap, debride, remove contaminated HA, TCN paste 2-3
min, Graft rinse. No active infection: flap, detoxify with 40% CA 30-6- sec, rinse, graft.
IMPLANT TO BONE INTERFACE
Hansson (JPD 83 26-2) LM and SEM study of interface between bone and Ti implants. Found ground
substance consisting of proteoglycans 20 nm (200 A) wide between bone and implant
Lindner (AOS 83 26-1) On light microscope level, the bone titanium interface is melded. On the TEMs
there is a 20-50 nm gap - proteoglycans. Strength of bond inversely proportional to proteoglycan layer.
100-500 nm collagen layer peripheral to proteoglycan layer.
Piatelli, Trisi (JP 93) Bone Ha interface in human retrieved implant with stain morphology varied nonmineralized matrix interposed between HA and bone with only a small amount of calcified tissue directly
on the HA surface. Ca content increased from bone to coating and then decreased at the interface Ca-P
rich.
Piatelli et al (IJOMI 93) Human histology HA (IMZ) LM 70% intimate contact, no inflammation.
Laser Scanning Micro dark staining lines resembling reversal lines, WET-SEM amorphous granular
substance at interface of HA appears osseointegrated.
Gottlander (IJOMI 91) threaded HA implants vs. commercially pure titanium (CPTi) in rabbit tibia. 6
weeks and 1 year results. 6 weeks more direct bony contact with HA. 1 year more bone to implant
contact with CPTi.
Carlson (J Orthoped Res 94) Rough CPTi vs. smooth CPTi vs. HA coated implants inserted into human
arthritic knees. Smooth implants were mostly encapsulated in fibrous tissue.
Marrow space response to implants
Rahal, Branemark, Osmond (IJOMI 93) Mice femurs, the implants that impinged on the medullary
cavity became intimately surrounded by regenerating bone and with no attempt encapsulate implant.
IMPLANT EPITHELIAL ATTACHMENT
NO
Berglund, Lindhe Periimplant mucosa cufflike adhesion, well keratinized with good plaque control
implant tissues can be maintained
Arnim and Hagerman (53) CT band encircling teeth maintain gingival tone, only in keratinized tissue
YES

Gould (JPD 84 26-3) Noted hemidesmosomal attachment between epithelium and Ti coated epon
implant.
Bauman et al (IJOMI 93 24-3) Review article on Peri-implant sulcus, the attachment of implants was
compared to the natural tooth. Findings in the literature support similarities in sulcular epithelium,
junctional epithelium (basal lamina, hemidesmosomes, glycoprotein adhesion) but the difference is in the
connective tissue fiber insertion (no Sharpeys fibers) it hasnt been proven in implants although the fibers
have been sited in the area.
Listgarten (91) Junctional epithelium is attached to implants via a basal lamina and hemidesmosomes
McKinney et al (JP 85) Attachment complex on aluminum oxide (sapphire implants). saw internal basal
lamina, including sublamina lucida and hemidesmosomes
Carmichael, McCulloch (JDR 91) Immunohistological marker (keratin I) and desmoplakins
(desmosomes) found a different cell population and a JE subpopulation attached to implants
Schroeder (81) reported functional hemidesmosomes and basal lamina on Ti sprayed implants in
monkeys.

PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT FORMATION AROUND IMPLANTS

Buser (IJOMI 90 26-5) Placed implants next to retained apical root fragments, got cementum and PDL
to form on implant. Histo cant tell if cementum.
Warrer, Karring Gotfredson (JP 93) Ti implants placed in mandibular bone in areas contacting
retained root had healed with intimate bone -implant contact. In 8/14 a newly formed cementum layer

192

consisting of dentin or original cementum as well as the entire implant surface. In 4/14 a dome shaped
soft tissue area was between the root and the implant surface within this space were indistinct fibers with
varying orientation
IMPLANT IMAGING
Poon et al (92) X-sectional tomography is simple precise reproducible and economical
Ekestubbe (COIR 93) Spiral tomography offers images with slightly better reliability as compared to
images obtained with linear tomography.
Lindhe (JOMI 89) Canal could not be identified in 17% of tomos and 35% panos.
Sonick (94) PA vs. Pano vs. CT. Distortion CT 1.8%, PA 14% Pano 23.5%
Todd and Gher (JP 93 24-7) Linear vs. CT 8.7 mm difference between linear and CT IAC location. CT
was superior to linear tomos. The IAC was hard to identify in the linear tomos (only seen in 6/22)
MICROBIOLOGY OF IMPLANTS
General Studies Bacteria of periimplantitis and adult periodontitis similar
Mombelli (87) Microbiology of failing implants Gr.- anaerobes, BPBs, Fusos Staph and Candida. No
Aa found
Quirynen (JCP 95) Rough surfaces, crowns, implant abutments and denture bases, accumulate and
retain more plaque (thickness, area colony forming units)
Ong (92) Branemarks, cultured for Aa, Pg, Pi periimplant sites clinically healthy, 7 of 32 sites with Pi Aa
and Pg minimal.
Meffert (PP&Esth Dent 1993): Implants place in the partially edentulous mouth are at greater risk since
the bacteria are more pathogenic. Periodontitis and periimplantitis are one and the same caused by the
same bacteria.
Micro of Implants in Edentulous vs. Partially Edentulous
Quirynen (90) Plaque adheres better to titanium than enamel. Rough abutments
25X more
bacteria. Fewer cocci and more spirochetes around implants in partially edentulous than fully edentulous
patients. Used when citing microflora is different around implants placed in a partially edentulous
mouth vs. those placed in fully edentulous patients
Apse (89) Found few microbiological differences between teeth and implants. However did see a lot
fewer pathogens in fully edentulous cases. Suggests that natural teeth microflora may seed implants.
Rosenberg (91) Different flora associated with infected implant and those failing due to TFO more
partially edentulous failures than edentulous. More anterior implants lost due to trauma and posterior
implants due to infection
Micro of Teeth vs. Implants
Bauman Bacteria of implants and teeth the same
van Steenberghe (JP 93) A greater accumulation of plaque was noted on abutments than natural teeth
Leonhardt (COIR 93) Followed 19 patients out to 36 months. Proportion of bacteria is the same for
teeth and implants within 1 month. By 3 years, putative pathogens have reached the same levels around
implants as are seen around natural teeth.
Mombelli (JCP 95 26-14) Evaluated pathogens at residual pockets of periodontally treated patients and
implants in these patients that were exposed to the oral environment for 3 and 6 months. Individual
bacteria and their proportions were similar between the 2 groups at both 3 and 6 months. At 3 months
pathogen levels around the implants already mimicked those levels seed in residual pockets at baseline.
Cross-Infection From Teeth to Implants
Gouvoussis, Sindhusake, Yeung (IJOMI 97): Supports transmission of perio pathogens from
periodontitis sites to implant sites. When teeth had Aa or E corrodens, 100% of implants Aa and E
corrodens. This was 83% and *5% for Pi and F nucleatum.

IMPLANT SYSTEMS
HA IMPLANTS
SUPPORT
Gottlander (IJOMI 91 25-31) More bony contact with HA coated implant than Ti. After one year the Ti
implant had more bony contact

193

Saadoun (IJPRD 92) Different lengths of Ti screw vs. HA cylinder vs. HA screw implants placed in
maxilla and mandible, anterior and posterior Overall success rate 92.64%
Ti screw
85%
HA screw
97.14%
HA cylinder
98.5
Differences become even greater when looking at shorter implants
8 mm Ti screw
30% success rate
9 mm HA screw
88.9%
8 mm HA cylinder
100%
Suggests use of HA implants when shorter implants are indicated
Koster Better adhesion of epithelial cells to HA
Bowers More epithelial adhesion to a rough frosted collar
Harrell Bone will bridge to HA 0.5 mm
Block (87) More HA to bone interface than non-HA coated implants at ultrastructural level, HA-bone
contact 66%, Ti 50% contact. Bone maturation was faster around HA implants. Lack of osseointegration
at Phase 2 0.2%
Cook (87) HA has 5-8 X interfacial shear strength of grit blasted Ti at 10-32 weeks
Kent (88) Clinical biointegration as early as 8 weeks.
Bottom Line on HA. HA implants tend to integrate faster (as early as one month) which may be helpful in
an area of soft bone.
Against HA
Johnson (92) Screw shaped fixtures may provide greater resistance to relative motion than press fit
implants
Adell (86) 734 MX Branemarks 5-12 year success was MX 81% MN 91% success. mean crestal bone
loss was 1.5 for the first year and 0.1 mm thereafter.
Bahat (IJOMI 93) 5.5 years 213 consecutive Branemark posterior maxilla. Overall failure rate 4.8%
Type IV bone 5.5 % 7 mm implant in Type IV bone 14.3% compared to 1.6% with 10-20 mm implants.
BL: Long implants in adequate bone can be successful in post maxilla.
IMZ

Babbush (IJOMI 93) 5 year success rate 95%, 8.0 mm and 3.3 mm diameter have less success also those
placed in maxilla.
Intramobile element popularized to simulate the PDL so implants could be attached to natural teeth. It
was later found that there is enough give tin the screw assembly that the mobile element wasnt needed.

ITI One stage implant design. No second stage surgery.

Salonen et al (IJOMI 93) Analyze implant failure of TPS ITI, Bonefit, Biolox. The ITI had the highest
failure rate both fixture and prosthetically.
Buser (IJOMI 91 24-33) 3 year success rate 96.2%
Behneke et al (ITI World Symposium 95) ITI implants placed in edentulous and partially edentulous
patients. 774 implants (288 implants in function between 3 and 6 years). Overall failure rate 1.9%
1 Year success rate 98.1%
3 year success rate 97.3%
5 year success rate 97.3%
Mean bone loss between insertion and restoration 0.8 mm
Mean bone loss between restoration and 4th annual exam 0.1 mm annual bone loss
Behnek, Behneke, dHoedt (IJOMI 97): ITI implants had 98.1% success after 3 years. GCF correlates
with bone loss, more horizontal bone loss than vertical loss.
OTHER IMPLANT TYPES
Subperiosteal implants metal framework of Vitallium, introduced in the 1940s, poor success rates.
Blade implants Implants surrounded by fibrous connective tissue.
Smithloff and Fritz (87) 15 year evaluation of Linkow-type blades, 50% success
rate, 26 of 49
left, 13 of remaining were ailing
Vitreous Carbon Stainless steel core covered in 99.9% carbon, 65% success at five years.
Single crystal sapphire implant
Tubingen aluminum ceramic implant

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Tri-calcium Phosphate implant

Titanium Plasma Sprayed
Transosteal Mandibular staple

IMPLANT PLACEMENT CONCERNS

ANATOMIC CONCERNS
Mandibular Nerve
Anderson (JOI 91 25-1) Three types of IAN one as a single trunk and two with extensive branching.
Misch Text (93) Safety zone viewing the canal radiographically with Panorex, staying above canal 100%
to mesial to first molar, 97% distal to first molar, 43% mesial second molar, 5.5% distal to second molar.
Rosenquist (IJOMI 92 25-22) Ring of bone surrounding mental nerve removed, cortical plate removed,
alveolar nerve lifted from canal, implants placed, nerve allowed to lie passively against implants. All sites
had normal sensory function at one year.
Friberg Lekholm (IJPRD 92 25-23) Inferior alveolar nerve transposition, technique - remove buccal
plate of bone, carefully dissect. initial paresthesia definite with possible permanent damage, other
complications infection, osteomyelitis.
MENTAL NERVE AND ITS ANTERIOR LOOP
Arzouman (93): 25 skulls anterior loop measured directly with flexible tubing and also via a pano. 90+ %
of the skulls revealed loops of >2mm when measured directly. Loops >2mm were seen in 66% of the cases
according to the panos. The avg. loop length was 6.95mm by direct measurement and 3.33m by pano. Pano
radiographs may not indicate the true incidence or extent of anterior loops.
Bavitz (IJOMI 93 25-3): 24 cadavers. Loops measured anatomically and radiographically.
Anatomic
Radiographic
measurement
measurement
Dentate
avg. 0.2 mm
avg. 2.5 mm
range 0-1 mm
range 0-7.5 mm
Edentulous
avg. 0.0 mm
avg. 0.6 mm
range 0-2 mm
Implants can be placed as close as 1 mm anterior to the radiographic mental foramen
Solar (94): 37 human man specimens. 15/37 had no ant looping. 22/37 had looping ranging from 0.5 to
5mm with the average being 1.2mm. Looping was not dependent on the residual ridge type. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Misch Text (93) Presence of anterior loop 12% (5 mm average forward), absence 88%
Arsouman (IJOMI 93) Average length of the anterior loop based on direct measurements was 6.95 mm,
radiographic assessment 3.18 mm pano and
The loop of the inferior alveolar nerve at the mental canal is superior to the orifice of the mental foramen. (BOARD
QUESTION)
Vasculature
Bavitz (OOO 94 1-23) There can be an extra artery in the floor of the mouth. Watch out if you perforate
the lingual cortex when preparing an implant site.
Ten Bruggenkate (IJOMI 93 25-4) Hemorrhaging in floor of mouth after perforation of lingual cortex.
1 case described with late bleeding, the other with immediate bleeding. Careful!!!!
Sinus Lifts
Smiler (DCNA 92 25-29) Review article on sinus lifts. Indications: crestal bone less than 3-4 mm
(which is needed for initial stabilization of the implant) Likes using HA
Wood (88) Grafting of maxillary sinus with intraorally harvested autogenous bone prior to implant
placement.
Small Zinner (IJOMI 93) Simultaneous implant with surgical lift, grafting with nonresorbable, porous
HA and DFDBA
Whittaker (JOI 89 25-28) Histo of sinuses grafted with resorbable HA and DFDBA. Found implants to
be osseointegrated, HA osteoconductive, DFDBA osteoinductive.

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Maxillary Tuberosity
Bahat (IJOMI 92) 72 implants in tuberosity, 93% success rate.
Khayat (PPAD 25-24) Indications for tuberosity implants. Low sinus floor, cannot place implants in
molar regions, high smile line, pt desires restoration of all teeth. Contraindications: inadequate bone in
tuberosity, implants can be placed in molar regions, inadequate access.
Pterygomaxillary-Pyramidal Region
Valeron, Velazquez (IJOMI 97): Tech article 93.5% success after 3 years. Indications resorbed maxillary
tuberosity, can avoid sinus lift.
MEDICAL CONCERNS
Smith Berger and Dodson (IJOMI 92 26-11) The number of medical problems and the ASA status were
not statistically associated with an increased risk of implant failure.
Irradiated Bone
Albrektsson (JP 88 25-20) Good success rates in irradiated bone.
Ueda et al (IJOMI 93 26-13) Recommend implant surgery be performed at least 1 year after
radiation therapy, use of hyperbaric oxygen increased survival rate to 92.3% while Parel cited a
survival rate of 64.7% with tx after radiation.
Johnsson et al (IJOMI 93) Rabbits irradiated 15 Gy, then implant placement, 8 weeks removed
hyperbaric oxygenation increased the amount of torque required for removal 44% over non-HBO
sites.
Granstrom, Albrektsson (IJOMI 93) If irradiation is to be performed in areas where titanium
implants have been placed, it is recommended that all prostheses, frameworks, and abutments be
removed before irradiation, the fixtures should be allowed to remain intact but should be covered
with skin or mucosa.
Franzen (IJOMI 95) 5 patients treated with radiation and surgery for oral malignant tumors.
20 Branemark implants placed in irradiated bone of the mandible. 1/20 implants did not
integrate. The other 19 were stable after 3-6 years.
Osteoporosis
Lindsey Osteoporotic changes in the jaws are similar to other bones in the body. The structure of
the bone is normal, however the cortical plates are thinner , trabecular bone pattern more
discrete, and advanced demineralization occurs.
Dao, Anderson, Zarb (IJOMI 93) Osteoporosis as diagnosed at one particular site of the
skeleton is not necessarily seen at another distant site. 25% of women over 45 years suffer from
it. Results of this study which was on several older individual didnt show any difference in
success/failure although they did not identify the osteoporosis patients.
Von Wowern (IJOMI 90 24-14) Bone mineral content in mandible was measured after implant
therapy. Implants increased loading counteracted BMC loss.
Diabetes
Shernoff (DI 94) 178 implants in 89 type I diabetics, 4 failures at uncovering (2.2%) at one year
7.3% failed. Suggests that root form implants can be successful in these patients.
Smoking
Bain and Moy (IJOMI 93 24-17)
1. Total implant failures were 130 out of 2,194 (5.92%)
2. Smoker failure rate 11.28%.
3. Non smoker failure rate 4.76%.
4. Highest failure was in the posterior maxilla (12.3%) lowest in mandibular anterior 1.1%
5. Smokers had higher failure rates in all areas except the posterior mandible
6. Shorter implants (<7 mm) placed in the maxilla showed higher failure rates in smokers
Gorman, Winkler et al (DI 94) 2.066 implants in 310 patients
1. Implant failure was 3.31% in non-smokers 6.5% in smokers
2. Patient basis 8.77% in non-smokers, 21.95% in smokers.

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Jones, Triplet (JOMFS 92, 9-19): Cigarette smoking is strongly associated with
impaired healing in patients undergoing simultaneous autogenous bone graft/implant procedures.
Placement in children
Skeletal growth ends for girls 16 years, boys 18-21 years
Oesterle, Cronin (IJOMI 93) Placement before puberty is unwise.
Lekholm (IJOMI 93 24-5) Implants in growing jaws may become submerged, inhibit growth of
bone, alter eruption pattern
Refractory / RPP Patients
YES
Nevins Langer (JP 95 25-10) 59 refractory patients, 132 mandibular implants 177 maxillary,
success rate of 98% placed 1-8 years and loaded. Branemark
NO
Malmstrom Fritz (JP 90 26-8) Young RPP patient treated with surgery and non-surgical
therapy - unsuccessful. Patient also treated with antibiotics but had poor plaque control, placed
implants, 4 failed with dehiscences and abscesses.
PROSTHETIC CONCERNS
Lemmons (Imp Dent 1992 26-31): Nickel or brass components connected to Ti or Cobalt implants can
fail due to galvonic corrosion.
GUIDED BONE REGENERATION
GBR OVER IMPLANTS
Gher (JP 94 25-10) GTR +/- DFDBA over TPS vs. HA immediate implants. All had ePTFE membranes.
Phase II performed 6-7 months later. No difference was found between TPS and HA. Greater bone fill
with DFDBA + membrane (5.68 mm) than ePTFE alone (3.18 mm). Membrane exposure led to greater
crestal bone loss.
Gelb (IJOMI 93 25-8) Immediate implants with DFDBA, DFDBA + ePTFE, ePTFE alone. Results all
comparable.
Werbitt and Goldberg (92) GTR with and without DFDBA over Branemark fixtures in immediate
extraction sites. Reentry at 6-7 months. Better results with bone?
Sevor (93) Collagen barrier over implant dehiscences, more fill than control
Becker and Becker (IJPRD 90 25-7) Full coverage of GTAM over immediate extraction sites, good
results i.e. no fenestrations at phase 2.
Dahlin (IJPRD 91 25-16) GTAM over implants with dehiscences. At phase 2 bone gain ranged from 0.5
- 3 mm (1-5 threads of bone gain) More complete success in maxilla.
Becker (IJOMI 95 25-12) Dog study. Implants all with membranes. Compared DFDBA to autologous
bone. Autologous best (95% regeneration), membrane only (80%), DFDBA (75%), control (37%). AntiDFDBA
Becker (IJOMI 94 25-15) Do not load implants prematurely, will lose bone. Recommends progressive
loading.
Zitman, Naef, Scharer (IJOMI 97): Human study. Implants placed , grafted with Bio-Oss (deprotinized
cancellous bone material of bovine origin). Bio-Gide and Gore-Tex both result in good bone formation,
however, if Gore-Tex becomes exposed there will be less bone formation.
Caplanis, Sigurdsson Rohrer Wikesjo (IJOMI 97): Beagle study DBM (DFDBA) has no adjunctive
effect on GBR in supra-alveolar peri-implant defects.
Cochran, Nummikoski, Jones, Makins Turek Buser (IJOMI 97): rhBMP-2 can sig stimulate bone
formation in critical-sized defects around dental implants. rhBMP-2/mem (4.1 mm) > rhBMP-2/ mem
(3.7 mm) > rhBMP-2/mem (2.4 mm) > rhBMP-2/ mem (2.2 mm).
Schwartz-Arad, Chaushu (JP 97): 95% success rate in immediate implants placed with autog grafts,
without membranes, obtaining primary closure and using temporary immediate dentures.
MEMBRANE EXPOSURE IN GBR
Simion et al (IJPRD 94) e-PTFE GTAM implants inserted into extraction sites. Membranes not exposed
did not sow evidence of bacteria and demonstrated 96.6% regeneration. Membranes that became exposed
were removed 30-45 days later and showed many bacteria and regeneration of 41.6%. Bacteria were

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evaluated with TEM, exposed membranes were not maintained with CHX. Early membrane exposure
may result in complications that interfere with the effects of bone regeneration.
GRAFTS WITH IMPLANTS
Nystrom, Albrekson (IJOMI 93) Histo of hip graft 4 months after placement with 6 Branemark
implants which secured graft. Results: fusion between transplanted bone and alveolar process without
demarcation line, no sequestration noted, new bone formation but gap not bridged.
IMPLANT MUCOGINGIVAL CONCERNS
Adell - attached keratinized tissue is present at 65% of implants.
Keratinized tissue necessary around implants?
Kirsch (89) failure rate of 2.2%. Attributed the main cause of implant failure to insufficient width of
attached gingiva of insufficient mucogingival attachment. Keratinized tissues more resistant to Periimplantitis.
Warrer et al (ITI World Symposium 95) 30 implants placed in edentulous areas of 5 monkeys with KT
either present or absent. 3 month healing period with optimal plaque control, then disease induced by
ligatures. Ligated implants without KT demonstrated significantly more recession and slightly more
attachment loss than implants with KT. (BOARD QUESTION)
CRESTAL BONE CHANGES
Herman, Cochran Nummikoski Buser (JP 97): Location of rough/smooth interface and location of
microgaps may influence bony remodeling after implant placement. Rough surface - better around bone.
Smooth Surface - better around tissue. Microgap responsible for initial bone loss:
1) bacterial colonization of microgap leading to epithelial proliferation,
2) micromovements may cause epithelium forming around non-moving implant,
3) interruption of blood supply when abutments placed.
Keratinized tissue is generally easier for patients to keep clean, it is also more esthetic.
KT not necessary around implants
Wennstrom (COIR 94) Eval of 39 patients 171 implants with either a full arch FPD in function > 10
years or a partial FPD in function > 5 years. 24% of the implants lacked KT with an additional13%
containing <2 mm of KT. No difference was seen in clinical parameter in site with and without an
adequate width of KT.
Wennstrom and Lindhe (82) Keratinized tissue is not a prerequisite for health, movable mucosa around
the trans-epithelial extension does not increase vulnerability to disease.
EXPOSED THREADS
Lekholm (IJOMI 96 599) exposed threads do not pose soft tissue problems over 4-5 years. Exposed
threads do not increase risk for increased bone loss
IMPLANTS RELATED TO NATURAL TEETH
Klinge (91) Maintenance of periodontal disease is partially edentulous patients is important to prevent
establishment of a reservoir of pathogens
Gunne (92) Branemark fixtures supporting bridges by themselves or tied into teeth. Implants + teeth
bridge survival was better than free standing implants
SURGICAL PROCEDURES
The original Branemark protocol was very dogmatic in exactly how the implant surgery was supposed to be done.
It required psychological evaluations, mucobuccal incisions in a sterile OR and no radiographs were permitted post
operatively. These dogmas have been refuted by the following studies.
Incisions
Scharf and Tarnow (IJOMI 93 25-2) Mucobuccal fold incision vs. Crestal incision. No difference in
success rate. Mucobuccal incisions advocated to keep incisions and sutures away from the implant site
and to avoid premature exposure. Problems with mucobuccal incisions include swelling, bruising, and
problems wearing a removable prosthesis.

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Casino, Harrison, Tarnow, Morris, Ochi (JOMS 97): Use of crestal or remote (vestibular) incision
makes no difference in implant success rate.
Clean vs. Sterile Setting
Scharf and Tarnow (JP 93 24-23) No difference between clean and sterile (98.2% v. 98.9%)
Chlorhexidine
Lambert, Morris, Ochi (JOMS 97): Perioperative CHX rinses beneficial in reducing infectious
complications and failures during the closed healing period following implant placement (Failure 8.7%
vs. 4.1%).
Antibiotics
Dent, Olson, Farixh, Bellome et al (JOMS 97): Higher implant failure rate in patients who did not
receive preoperative antibiotics. Failure rates 4.0% Abs, 1.5% No Abs).
Diagnostic radiation
Basquill (JP 94) Implants placed in micropigs exposed to 0,2,10 doses of radiation. 14 week healing
period. No detrimental effect of radiation.
Heat Generation During Implant Placement
Eriksson, Adell (JOMS 86 25-5): Drilling according to Branemark technique does not cause any
impaired bone regeneration b/c of excessive heat production. Initial 29.2F (27.6-31.0), Max 30.3F
(25.2-33.8F). Well below level for impaired bone regeneration (47F).
Eriksson, Albrektsson (1983): Ti implants placed in rabbit tibias. Implants heated to 44,47,50 degrees
C for 1 minute. Heating to 47 or 50 significantly reduced bone formation. At 44 no significant effects
were observed. Heat is caused primarily by drilling of cortical bone.
Klein and Yacker (95): Effect of irrigation on osteotomy depth and bur diameter.
Insertion Torque
Ueda (IJOMI 91 25-6) Maximum torque for tightening fixtures before stripping bone was 70 Ncm in
bicortical bone and 50 Ncm in unicortical bone. Removal torque always lower than insertion torque by 515 Ncm.
Summers Osteotome Technique
Maintains all bone, pushes it aside. Great for maxilla and areas of soft bone. Minimal heat production.
Good success rates. Can be used for sinus elevations and future site development. Good tactile sensation,
visibility and control. Sedation is recommended for patient comfort.
Bone Splitting Technique
De Wijs, Cune (JOMS 97): Technique article, similar to Summers Osteotome Tech. Procedure seeks to
reconstruct the labial contour of the alveolar process, which is a prerequisite for optimal and lasting
implant esthetics.
Edentulous Ridge Expansion
Scipioni (IJPRD 94 25-26) Partial thickness buccal and lingual flaps, crestal and vertical intraosseous
incisions, and facial dislocation of the buccal cortical plate , implants placed at the appointment.
Prosthetic Concerns
Mericske-Stern (IJOMI 93) Axis of implant with respect to the occlusal plane of the corresponding
prosthesis had no significant influence on the peri-implant findings, health, and stability of implant
supporting overdentures.
Implants with superstructure attached to natural teeth
Rieder parel (IJPR 93) Intrusion of natural teeth in 3% of experience restorative personnel and 42% in
non-experienced (<100 cases). Possible mechanisms disuse atrophy, debris impaction, impaired rebound
and mechanical binding.
Weinberg (IJOMI 93) Implants always support the natural teeth rather than vice-versa, because of the
overwhelming differential in mobility between PDL micromovement and the osseointegrated implant
interface.
Misc

Wentz Average of 56 mm from mental foramen to mental foramen

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IMPLANT VS NATURAL TEETH - BREAKDOWN

Lindhe (COIR 92) 5 Beagles, 6 weeks ligature induced breakdown of periodontal tissues around
implants and natural teeth. Clinical and radiographic evaluations. More pronounced destruction was
seen around implants 3 mm of loss vs. 1 mm.
Brandes Holt Kornman (JDR 88) Monkeys. Ligature induced disease around teeth and implants. More
bone loss around teeth than implants
ROUGH VS SMOOTH COLLAR
Buser (JP 92) 24 non-submerged implants placed in beagles. Implant collars of 3 various types
1. rough sandblasted collar
2. fine sandblasted collar
3. polished collar
3 mo healing period. No soft tissue differences seen between the 3 groups. The rough surface implants
did reveal however a shorter distance from the top of the implant to the most coronal bone-implant
contact. Collar surface texture does have an influence on the location of the most coronal bone-implant
contact.
COMPLICATIONS
Prosthetic
Ekfeldt (IJOMI 94 ) 98 single unit implants. 43%of restorations with loose abutment screws over a
period of 3-46 months with the restorations in place
Jemt (IJOMI 94)
5 year results on 25 patients.
Most common problems with overdentures
1. clip fractures
2. loosening and reline of denture
with fixed hybrids
1. consistent inflammation
2. screw fracture
3. acrylic resin component failure
Altered Sensation
Ellies (IJOMI 93) Combination of follow-ups on Branemark and Calcitek implants.
Branemark - 37%of pts with altered sensation. (24% transient, 13% persistent)
Calcitek 36% of pts with altered sensation. (23% transient, 13 % persistent)
IMPLANT MAINTENANCE
Instrumentation
Thomson-Neal (89) Rotadent, Peridex, Rubber cup with nupro paste effective in cleaning implants, air
abrasive and Cavitron significantly altered implant surface
McCollum et al (JP 92) Plastic scalers, Air abrasives prophy cup with pumice all had the same level of
plaque accumulation at 1 week. Recommend placing healing abutment during cleaning to prevent
rounding off and decreasing seal.
Hallmon Implacare curettes
Baumann et al (92) parameters recommended for implant maintenance are probing, radiographs, PI can
also be beneficial.
Lekholm (86) 3 month recall effective in maintenance of implants.
Lindquist (88) 46 patients with Branemark implants, 3-6 years, bone loss was 0.5 mm during the first
year and 0.06-0.08 mm annually thereafter.
Rapley, Mills Wylam (IJOMI 90 26-21) Compared rubber cup, Cavi-Jet, Proxibrush, nylon toothbrush,
plastic scaler, ultrasonic scaler, and stainless steel curette. Dont use metal scalers or Cavitron, leaves
rough grooved surface. Remove plaque in rough surface with rubber cup and pumice.
REPAIR of IMPLANTS
AILING IMPLANTS Bone loss with pocketing but static at maintenance checks

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Jovanovic, Kenny, Carranza (OIMO 93) Defects created on Branemark, IMZ, Calcitek, Bony defects
around HA fixtures were significantly greater than the other types, but repair was also better around the
HA implants. More bone fill was noted in the membrane sites over the non-membrane sites.
FAILING IMPLANT
Bone loss with pocketing, bleeding on probing, purulence, continued bone loss irrespective of therapy.
Zablotsky (ID 92 26-15) Use citric acid (pH 1 30-40 sec) to detoxify HA or remove it TCN (250 mg 2-3
min) to detoxify titanium. TCN is left on surface and place allograft if detoxification complete, otherwise
use alloplast with GTR barrier for 10-12 weeks.
Sbordone et al (JP 95) Best antibiotics for failing implants Amoxicillin and Pen G were most effective
against Pg, Pi and Fn. TCN against Pg and Pi only. (BOARD QUESTION)
IMPLANT MOBILITY
Schulte (92) Periotest values correlate to bone loss. The test doesnt require fixation. It accelerates a
metal rod and taps the tooth, then measures deceleration. Values range from -8 to 50.
Millers Scale
0
1
2
3

Periotest Values
-8 to +9
10 to 19
20 to 29
30 to 50

Truhlar, Winkler et al (DI 94) Periotest of 1,838 root form implants, osseointegration at uncovering was -3.37
+/- 3.25, while no -integrated implants had mean 13.87 +/- 14.27. Coated cylinders recorded more negative
Periotest values than coated ledge or screw type implants. More negative readings were in large diameter
implants, also more negative as implant length increased.

201