Cracking Tendency of

Bridge Deck Concrete

Benjamin E. Byard, Anton K. Schindler, Robert W. Barnes, and Akash Rao
agencies that responded considered early-age transverse cracking to
be problematic. A survey conducted by FHWA found that more than
100,000 bridges suffered from early-age cracking (3).
Concrete cracks when the tensile stress that develops in the structure exceeds its tensile strength. Tensile stresses are induced in bridge
decks when concrete volume changes are restrained by the girders.
Early-age volume changes occur due to temperature changes, autogenous shrinkage, and drying shrinkage. The amount of stress
produced when volume changes are restrained is a function of the
modulus of elasticity (or stiffness), stress concentrations, creep, and
relaxation of the concrete, which all change based on the maturity of
the concrete.
Given the abundance of cracking observed in bridge decks, and
the impact of early-age cracking on long-term performance and
durability, it is imperative that bridge deck concrete be proportioned
and placed so as to minimize early-age cracking.

Early-age cracking can adversely affect the behavior and durability of

bridge deck concrete. Cracking of hardening concrete occurs when the
induced tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. The
development of in-place stresses is affected by the shrinkage, modulus of
elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, setting characteristics, restraint
conditions, stress relaxation, and temperature history of the hardening
concrete. Tensile strength increases as the hydration of the cementitious
system progresses. Rigid cracking frame (RCF) testing techniques
capture the combined effects of modulus of elasticity, creep and relaxation, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, autogenous
shrinkage, and tensile strength on the cracking potential of a mixture in
a specific application. This paper describes an experimental evaluation of
the effect of supplementary cementing materials, water-to-cement ratio
(w/c), and placement temperature conditions on the early-age cracking
tendency of bridge deck concrete through the use of RCF testing techniques. Specimens were tested under temperature conditions that match
those in an 8-in.-thick bridge deck to explore early-age cracking mechanisms. The laboratory testing program revealed that the placement
temperature and curing temperature significantly affected the time to
cracking of all the mixtures. Use of either fly ash or ground-granulated
blast-furnace slag was effective in reducing the heat generation and rate of
stiffness development in bridge deck concretes and thus in significantly
reducing restraint stresses and delayed the occurrence of cracking at early
ages. A decrease in w/c resulted in increased stresses, and it accelerated the
occurrence of cracking at early ages.

OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The primary objective of the study documented in this paper is to evaluate the inuence of supplementary cementing materials (SCMs),
water-to-cement ratio (w/c), and placement and curing temperatures
on the development of stresses and occurrence of cracking at early
ages. Due to the effect of temperature on the development of stresses,
cracking in bridge decks is more severe when they are constructed
under summer conditions (2). Therefore, the effectiveness of using
SCMs under summer placement conditions was determined. This was
accomplished by testing ve concrete mixtures under various, controlled temperature conditions, while measuring stress development
from concrete placement until onset of cracking.

Early-age cracking of concrete bridge decks, typically caused by

drying, autogenous, and thermal shrinkage, can have several detrimental effects on long-term behavior and durability. Darwin and
Browning recently reported that by controlling early age cracking,
the amount of cracking at later ages should remain low, and that
early-age cracking can signicantly increase the rate and amount of
chloride penetration (from deicing salts), which may accelerate the
rate of the corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel (1). Transverse
cracking occurs in most geographical locations and climates, and in
many types of bridge superstructures (2). The work of NCHRP 380
included a survey sent to all departments of transportation in
the United States and several transportation agencies overseas to
evaluate the extent of deck cracking (2). Sixty-two percent of the

BACKGROUND
Concrete Volume Changes

Thermal Effects
The development of thermal stresses (T) can be calculated by the
expression presented in Equation 1. For an accurate estimate of
the thermal stress, creep effects during early ages and over life
of the structure should be accounted for in Equation 1 (4):

B. E. Byard, 101E Harbert Engineering Center; A. K. Schindler, 238 Harbert

Engineering Center; and R. W. Barnes, 219 Harbert Engineering Center, Department of Civil Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5337. A. Rao,
Design Engineering, Inc., 3330 West Esplanade, Suite 205, Metairie, LA 70002.
Corresponding author: B. E. Byard, [email protected].

thermal stress = T = T i t i Ec i K r
where

Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,

No. 2164, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2010, pp. 122131.
DOI: 10.3141/2164-16

T = temperature change = Tzero-stress Tmin (C),

t = coefficient of thermal expansion (strain/C),
122

(1)

Byard, Schindler, Barnes, and Rao

123

Ec = creep adjusted modulus of elasticity (Pa),

Kr = degree of restraint factor,
Tzero-stress = concrete zero-stress temperature (C), and
Tmin = minimum concrete temperature (C).

Autogenous Shrinkage

Presented in Figure 1 is an illustration of the development of concrete

temperatures and thermal stresses over time under summer placement conditions for freshly placed concrete. In regard to stress development, the nal-set temperature is the temperature at which the
concrete begins to resist stresses induced by restraint of external volume changes. In Figure 1, it can be seen that due to hydration, the concrete temperature increases beyond the setting temperature, line (A).
As the expansion of the concrete caused by the temperature rise is
restrained, the concrete will be in compression when the temperature
peaks, line (B), is reached. The phenomenon of gradual decrease in
stress over time is called stress relaxation (5). When peak temperature is reached, the hydrating paste is still developing structure, its
strength is low, and high amounts of early-age relaxation may occur
when the concrete is subjected to high compression loads (6). When
the concrete temperature decreases, compressive stress is gradually
relieved until the stress condition changes from compression to tension, line (C). The temperature at which this transient stress-free condition occurs is denoted the zero-stress temperature. Due to the
effects of relaxation, the zero-stress temperature may be signicantly
higher than the nal-set temperature (6). If tensile stresses caused
by a further temperature decrease exceed the tensile strength of the
concrete, cracking will occur, line (D). Because the thermal stress is
proportional to the difference between the zero-stress temperature
and the cracking temperature, thermal cracking can be minimized by
decreasing the zero-stress temperature. This in turn can be accomplished by (a) minimizing the nal-set temperature, (b) minimizing
the peak temperature achieved during the high-relaxation phase, or
(c) delaying the attainment of the peak temperature. The test setup
employed in this study restrains concrete specimens to assess the
development of thermal stresses (and autogenous effects) in typical
bridge deck curing conditions.

The reaction products formed from cement hydration are smaller than
the initial components. Reduction of the absolute volume of the reactants due to hydration is chemical shrinkage. Before setting, this
phenomenon results in a volumetric change but generates no stress
due to the viscoelastic nature of fresh concrete. After setting, chemical shrinkage leads to the creation of internal water lled voids. As
water is consumed by the ongoing hydration process, the voids empty,
and capillary stresses are generated resulting in a volumetric shrinkage. Autogenous shrinkage is the concrete volume change occurring
without moisture transfer to the environment (7 ). Before setting,
chemical shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage are equal (8). When the
w/c is above 0.42, enough water is provided in the void spaces for
hydration, and stresses associated with autogenous shrinkage do not
develop (9). Decreasing the w/c below 0.42 will thus cause stresses
due to autogenous shrinkage.

Drying Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage occurs when water held by hydrostatic tension
in small capillary pores (< 50 nm) of the hydrated cement paste is
lost to the atmosphere due to differences in relative humidity (5).
When the voids empty, capillary stresses are generated that result
in volumetric shrinkage of the concrete. It is common practice to
delay the onset of drying shrinkage by curing bridge decks with
cotton mats for 7 days or more after placement. The experimental
work in this study was focused on the early-age cracking mechanisms that occur within the first 7 days after placement. Therefore,
the effects of drying shrinkage lie outside the scope of this paper.
Nonetheless, drying shrinkage effects will eventually add to thermal and autogenous shrinkage effects once the deck is exposed
to drying.

Hydration of Cementitious Materials

Concrete

Tcrack
Air

Stress
tzs
tfs

Tensile Strength
FIGURE 1

Time

Cracking

Placement

Comp.

Tfinal-set

Tension

Stress or Strength

Temperature

Tzero-stress

Development of early-age thermal stresses (4).

Time

Hydration of portland cement is a chemical reaction during which

heat is liberated at early ages. Factors such as cement content, cement
composition, cement neness, mixture proportions, replacement of
cement by SCMs, and curing temperature can increase or decrease
the rate of heat generated during hydration (5).
The rate and magnitude of heat generation are affected by the quantity of cement used (10). Because of the quantity of reactive products
that are available to hydrate and liberate heat, the potential for temperature rise increases with cement content. To reduce the heat liberated due to hydration, some SCMs can be used as a replacement for
portland cement. SCMs such as y ash and ground-granulated blastfurnace (GGBF) slag have been effectively used to lower the rate and
total heat of hydration released by a unit volume of cementitious
materials (11).
Both Class F and Class C y ashes are evaluated in this paper.
Class F y ash is generally more pozzolanic than Class C y ash,
which is more cementitious due to its higher calcium oxide content. Therefore, Class F fly ash reduces the total heat of hydration
more than Class C fly ash does (5, 11). GGBF slag replacements
have been found to reduce and delay the peak temperature rise during hydration (11). This reduction in peak temperature can reduce
thermal stress (12).

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Transportation Research Record 2164

TABLE 1

Concrete Mixture Proportions and Properties

Mixture Identication

Component

CTRL

Water, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)

Type I cement, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Class F y ash, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Class C y ash, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
GGBF slag, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Coarse aggregate, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Fine aggregate, lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Type D admixture, oz/yd3 (mL/m3)
Type F admixture, oz/yd3 (mL/m3)
Target slump, in. (mm)
Total air content (%)
w/cm

273
620
0
0
0
1,950
1,149
37
0
4
2
0.44

30C
(162)
(368)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(1,157)
(682)
(841)
(103)

20F

273
434
0
186
0
1,854
1,213
37
0
4
2
0.44

(162)
(258)
(0)
(110)
(0)
(1,100)
(720)
(841)
(103)

(162)
(294)
(74)
(0)
(0)
(1,100)
(717)
(841)
(103)

0.36

273
310
0
0
310
1,854
1,223
37
0
4
2
0.44

(162)
(184)
(0)
(0)
(184)
(1,100)
(726)
(841)
(103)

Experimental Plan and Concrete Mixtures

A control mixture with only portland cement and three mixtures
with a SCM used as a partial cement replacement, all having a w/c
materials ratio of 0.44, were tested. Mixture proportions are shown in
Table 1. Since cracking in bridge decks is more severe when placed
under summer conditions (2), the inuence of using SCMs on early
cracking tendency was evaluated only under summer placement conditions. The SCM mixtures had 20%, 30%, and 50% replacement of
cement by mass of Class F y ash, Class C y ash, and GGBF slag,
respectively. Chemical compositions of the SCMs are presented in
Table 2. A mixture with only portland cement and a w/c of 0.36 was
also tested at two placement temperatures to evaluate the effect of
w/c on the cracking tendency. The control mixture was tested at
three different temperatures to evaluate the effect of placement and
curing temperature on stress intensity and occurrence of cracking at
early ages.
Rigid Cracking Frame Testing
The test setup was adapted from the conguration developed by
Springenschmid as documented by RILEM Technical Committee

Properties of Cementitious Materials

Parameter
Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (%)
Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 (%)
Iron oxide, Fe2O3 (%)
Calcium oxide, CaO (%)
Magnesium oxide, MgO (%)
Alkalies (Na2O + 0.658K2O) (%)
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 (%)
Loss on ignition, LOI (%)
Tricalcium silicate, C3S (%)
Dicalcium silicate, C2S (%)
Tricalcium aluminate, C3A (%)
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C4AF (%)
Blaine neness (m2/kg)
Bulk specic gravity

250
696
0
0
0
1,950
1,146
0
35
4
2
0.36

(148)
(413)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(1,157)
(680)
(787)
(103)

119 (13). The rigid cracking frame (RCF), shown in Figure 2, consists of two mild steel crossheads and two 4-in. (100-mm) diameter
Invar side bars.
Fresh concrete is consolidated in the RCF, and its stress development is measured continuously until cracking occurs. The 6- 6-
49-in. (150- 150- 1,250-mm) concrete specimen is restrained by
dovetailed crossheads at each end. The dovetail is gradually tapered
to reduce stress concentration and is lined with teeth that grip the
concrete. To further prevent slippage of the concrete, crosshead
braces are used at the end of the crosshead to restrain opening of the
crosshead as the concrete goes into tension. The formwork shown
includes 0.5-in. (13-mm) diameter copper tubing throughout. A mixture of water and ethylene glycol is circulated from a temperaturecontrolled water bath through the formwork to control the curing
temperature of the concrete sample. The formwork of the RCF is lined
with plastic to reduce friction between the concrete and the form, and
to seal the concrete specimen on all surfaces. Because of the presence
of the sealed plastic layer around the concrete specimen, no moisture
is lost, and drying shrinkage effects do not develop while the forms
are in place on the RCF.
When concrete in the RCF starts to hydrate and volume changes
due to temperature and autogenous shrinkage effects develop, the
Invar bars provide restraint against movement and stress develops in
the concrete. Concrete stress development is monitored using strain

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

TABLE 2

273
496
124
0
0
1,854
1,208
37
0
4
2
0.44

50S

Portland
Cement

Class C
Fly Ash

Class F
Fly Ash

GGBF Slag

21.1
4.82
3.07
63.1
3.39
0.56
2.91
0.85
51.6
21.4
7.58
9.34
350
3.15

36.1
18.1
6.4
25.2
5.73
2.19
2.3
0.4

2.63

51.9
24.6
4.04
13.4
2.1
0.92
0.44
0.43

2.34

38.6
9.16
0.54
35.8
13.0
0.57
0.19
0.48

2.91

Byard, Schindler, Barnes, and Rao

CROSSHEAD
BRACE
SPECIMEN

125

STRAIN GAUGES

INVAR SIDE BAR

CROSSHEAD

INSULATED FORMWORK
(a)

the concrete to any temperature prole. A 6- 6- 24-in. (150-

150- 600-mm) concrete specimen is cast with two sacricial steel
plates connected with an Invar rod to a linear variable displacement
transducer to measure linear expansion and contraction. The fresh
concrete is placed on a double layer of plastic with a lubricant in
between to minimize the friction, and facilitating free movement of
the concrete specimen. When concrete in the FSF is cured to a temperature history that represents that expected in an 8-in. (205-mm)
thick bridge deck, the measured strain is caused by thermal and autogenous effects only. Each mixture was tested in the FSF using the
same temperature prole used in the RCF.

Concrete Mechanical Properties

A match curing box was used to cure 6- 12-in. (150- 300-mm)
cylindrical specimens to allow testing of the mechanical properties
of the concrete. The match curing box can be seen in the background
of Figure 2b. All cylinders were cured to the same temperature history as the concrete specimens in the RCF and the FSF. Twenty-four
cylinders were made per mixture. Two were tested for modulus
of elasticity according to ASTM C469 and compressive strength
according to ASTM C39, and two were tested for splitting tensile
strength according to ASTM C496 at concrete ages of 12, 1, 2, 3, 7,
and 28 days.

Modeling of Bridge Deck Temperatures

(b)
FIGURE 2 RCF test setup: (a) schematic of test (13) and
(b) actual equipment used.

gauges mounted on the Invar bars, calibrated to the bar forces, which
equilibrate the concrete stresses. The concrete stresses generated are
a function of the relaxation, coefficient of thermal expansion, modulus of elasticity, temperature history, and maturity of the concrete.
The RCF captures the combined effect of all these phenomena under
controllable temperature conditions.
Each mixture was placed in the RCF and was cured to a temperature prole developed to reect the temperature prole of a bridge
deck on a given placement date. The ConcreteWorks software program (15) was used to predict the concrete temperature history of
each specic mixture as it would develop in an 8-in. thick bridge
deck. Development of the temperature profile is discussed in a
following section.

The temperature prole that an in-place concrete element experiences

is a function of the geometry of the element; concrete mixture proportions; chemical composition of the cementing materials; hydration
parameters of the cementing materials; placement temperature; thermal conductivity of the aggregate; and environmental effects, such as
ambient temperature, wind speed, and incoming solar radiation.
To assess the effect of placement and curing temperature, the concrete modeling software ConcreteWorks (15) was used to determine
the temperature prole that an 8-in. (205-mm) thick bridge deck constructed on stay-in-place metal forms would to experience. In the
model, it is assumed that external curing is provided by a curing
blanket with an R-value of 2.9hft2 F/BTU (0.51 m2C/W). Three
placement situations were investigated: summer, fall, and winter conditions. Bridge deck temperatures for summer, fall, and winter placements were determined for Montgomery, Alabama, on construction
dates of August 15, October 15, and January 15, respectively. Average daily temperatures for this location and these summer, fall, and
winter placement dates are about 95F (35C), 73F (23C), and
50F (10C), respectively. Semi-adiabatic calorimetry was used to
determine the hydration parameters of each mixture (11). Using the
hydration parameters, as well as the placement date, city, bridge
geometry, aggregate type and thermal conductivity, mixture proportions, placement temperature, wind speed, ambient relative humidity,
and percent cloud cover, a temperature prole was generated.

Free Shrinkage Testing

A free shrinkage frame (FSF) similar to the one used by Bjntegaard
(16) was used to determine the unrestrained uniaxial strain of the
concrete specimen. It is shown in Figure 3. The FSF consists of a
thermally insulated box with 0.5-in. (13-mm) diameter copper tubing, and a supporting Invar steel frame. The box serves as the formwork for the freshly placed concrete and the system, to match cure

Temperature Conditions
and Material Conditioning
The control mixture was tested at each of the three temperature conditions to evaluate the effect of placement and curing temperature on
time to initial cracking. When mixtures were tested at a temperature

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Transportation Research Record 2164

Concrete specimen

Copper
tubing

Plastic
sheeting

Bolts to free
specimen after
final set

1/8 Invar
rod

Sleeve for Invar rod

removal

Formwork

20 effective
specimen length

Insulation

Anchorage
disk

Movable Steel end plate

steel plate
(a)

(b)
FIGURE 3

FSF test setup: (a) schematic of test (16 ) and (b) actual equipment used.

other than under fall conditions [73F (23C) placement temperature], the raw materials were placed in an environmental chamber
and conditioned to obtain fresh concrete temperatures of approximately 95F (35C) and 50F (10C) for summer and winter placement conditions, respectively. As discussed previously, the mixtures
with SCM replacements were tested only under summer placement
conditions. The no-SCM 0.36 mixture was tested under summer and
fall placement conditions.

Materials

Cementitious Materials
Type I portland cement, manufactured by Lafarge North America in
Calera, Alabama, was used in all the concrete mixtures. The result
of the chemical analysis and neness for the cement is shown in
Table 2. The following SCMs were used:
Class C y ashdistributed by Holcim Ltd. (Quinton, Alabama),
Class F y ashdistributed by Boral Materials (Cartersville,
Alabama), and

Grade 120 GGBF slagdistributed by Buzzi Unicem (New

Orleans, Louisiana).
Properties of the SCMs as tested by an external lab are shown in
Table 2.

Aggregate
The coarse aggregate for the project was an ASTM C33 No. 67 gradation, siliceous river gravel. The ne aggregate used throughout the
project was siliceous river sand. Both aggregate types were obtained
from Martin Marietta Materials, Shorter, Alabama.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The zero-stress time and temperature and the cracking time and
temperature for all tests are summarized in Table 3. For placement
under the same temperature conditions, the later the time to cracking and the lower the cracking temperature, the better the resistance
to early-age cracking of a mixture.

Byard, Schindler, Barnes, and Rao

TABLE 3

127

Important Values Obtained from RCF Tests

RCF Test Results

Mixture
CTRL

0.36
30C
20F
50S

Placement
Temperature
(condition)
50F (winter)
73F (fall)
95F (summer)
73F (fall)
95F (summer)
95F (summer)

Zero Stress
Time (h)
20.5
12.3
11.2
16.8
14.5
17.9
13.7
33.6

Influence of Temperature
The temperature prole data and the RCF and FSF results for the
control mixture at all three placement conditions are presented in Figure 4. Decreasing the placement and curing temperature delayed and
decreased the temperature peak, as shown in Figure 4a; the result in
turn decreased the zero stress temperature and increased the zero
stress time, as shown in Table 3. Decreasing the placement and curing temperature reduced stresses and delayed cracking, as shown in
Figure 4b. The free shrinkage data, as shown in Figure 4c, reveal that
a decrease in placement and curing temperature causes a decrease in
thermal strain, which in turn leads to reduced stresses. Breitenbcher
and Mangold also found that decreasing the temperature of the fresh
concrete signicantly increased the time to cracking (18). These
results conrm that the thermal stresses that develop during summer
placements are much higher than those that develop during winter
placements.

Influence of Fly Ash and Ground-Granulated

Blast-Furnace Slag
The temperature prole data and the RCF and FSF results for the
control mixture and the SCM mixtures for the summer placement
condition are presented in Figure 5a through 5c. The splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity development for the control
and SCM mixtures are shown in Figure 6a and 6b.
Increasing the replacement of cement with an SCM decreased
the rate of hydration and maximum temperature reached, as
shown in Figure 5a. The reduction in rate of hydration delayed the
rate of splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity development, as shown in Figure 6. The reduced rate of temperature
development and stiffness development that accompanied the use
of SCMs increased the time to zero stress, decreased the zerostress temperature, and increased the time to cracking, as shown
in Table 3.
The 30% Class C ash mixture had not cracked at 120 h. Inspection
of Figure 5b indicates that this mixture had undergone more than 2
complete days of approximately identical temperature cycles at that
point, and it was unlikely to crack under continued application of the
intended temperature prole. To determine the cracking temperature and stress, it was articially cooled at a rate of 1.8F/h (1C/h)
to induce cracking, which occurred 2.5 h later. Similarly, the 50%

Cracking
Temp., F (C)
58.2
103.2
134.3
109.2
131.4
117.6
125.9
108.9

(14.6)
(39.6)
(56.8)
(42.9)
(55.2)
(47.6)
(52.2)
(42.7)

Time (h)
76.3
47.1
42.7
41.7
39.5
122.5
73.8
173.4

Temp., F (C)
51.5
71.3
88.7
76.3
92.1
83.8
83.8
69.3

(10.8)
(21.8)
(31.4)
(24.6)
(33.4)
(28.8)
(28.8)
(20.7)

GGBF slag mixture did not crack under the summer temperature prole. However, similar articial cooling of this specimen was unintentionally delayed until 168 h. It cracked after about 5 h of articial
cooling. The control mixture and the 20% Class F y ash mixture
each cracked under the effects of the summer placement temperature
profile without artificial cooling. Considering that the true cracking times for the 30% Class C ash mixtures and 50% GGBF slag
mixtures would have been even greater than the values reported in
Table 3, it is evident that the cracking times for the SCM mixtures
were significantly greater than the cracking time for the control
mixture when placed under summer conditions.
The use of SCMs caused a signicant reduction of the free shrinkage in the rst 24 h relative to the control mixture, as shown in Figure 5c. This reduction in free shrinkage strain and the reduced rate
of modulus of elasticity development resulted in a reduced stress
development when SCMs were used. The 50% GGBF slag and 30%
Class C fly ash mixtures increased the time of cracking by more
than 100% over the control mixture placed under summer conditions.
Although the 20% Class F y ash mixture was not as effective in
reducing the cracking tendency of the concrete, it too reduced the
cracking tendency of the control mixture. These ndings are signicant, for the data in Figure 6a show that the use of SCMs reduces
early-age splitting tensile strength; however, the combined effect of
reduced rate of heat generation and modulus of elasticity development
results in an overall improvement in cracking resistance.
Springenschmid and Breitenbcher found y ash to reduce the
cracking temperature (19). In the present study, it was found that the
use of y ash or GGBF slag caused a reduction in the cracking temperature. In their study, Breitenbcher and Mangold concluded that
GGBF slag reduces temperature rises and tensile stresses (18).
These ndings are also valid for the GGBF slag mixtures evaluated
in this study. From results of this study, it may be concluded that the
use of SCMs under hot weather conditions can substantially reduce
the development of tensile stresses due to thermal and autogenous
shrinkage effects.
Influence of Water-to-Cement Ratio
The temperature prole data and the RCF and FSF results for the
control and w/c of 0.36 mixtures placed under summer and fall conditions are presented in Figure 7. As shown in Table 1, the w/c was
decreased by increasing the cement content and decreasing the water
content to maintain a constant paste volume. The increase in cement

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Transportation Research Record 2164

140

60

CTRL (95F)
CTRL (50F)

120

49

100

38

80

27

60

16

40
0

24

48
72
Concrete Age (hrs)
(a)

96

4
120

2.8

Concrete Stress (psi)

400
CTRL (50F)
300

2.1

CTRL (95F)
CTRL (73F)

200

1.4
0.7

100
Tension

0.0

0
Compression
-100
0

24

48
72
Concrete Age (hrs)
(b)

96

-0.7
120

Free Shrinkage Strain

(x 10-6 in./in.)

100
0
-100
CTRL (50F)
CTRL (73F)
CTRL (95F)

-200
-300
-400
0

24

48
72
Concrete Age (hrs)

96

120

(c)
FIGURE 4 Measured results for control mixture placed under summer, fall, and
winter placement conditions: (a) temperature profiles, (b) stresses from RCF,
and (c) FSF strains.

Concrete Stress (MPa)

Concrete Temperature (F)

CTRL (73F)

Concrete Temperature (C)

71

160

Byard, Schindler, Barnes, and Rao

129

CTRL (95F)
20F (95F)
50S (95F)
30C (95F)

140
120

71
60
49

100

38

80

27

60

16

40
0

24

48

72
96
120
Concrete Age (hrs)

144

168

Concrete Temperature (C)

Concrete Temperature (F)

160

4
192

400

2.8

300

2.1

200

1.4

100
Tension

Compression

30C (95F)
20F (95F)
50S (95F)
CTRL (95F)

-100
0

24

48

72
96
120
Concrete Age (hrs)
(b)

144

168

0.7
0.0
-0.7
192

Free Shrinkage Strain

(x 10-6 in./in.)

100
0
-100
CTRL (95F)
30C (95F)
20F (95F)
50S (95F)

-200
-300
-400
0

24

48

72
96
120
Concrete Age (hrs)
(c)

144

168

192

FIGURE 5 Measured results for control and SCM mixtures placed under summer
conditions: (a) temperature profiles, (b) stresses from RCF, and (c) FSF strains.

Concrete Stress (MPa)

Concrete Stress (psi)

(a)

600

4.1

500

3.5

400

2.8

300

2.1
30C (95F)
20F (95F)
50S (95F)
CTRL (95F)

100
0

Modulus of Elasticity (ksi)

24

48

72
96
120
Concrete Age (hrs)
(a)

144

168

1.4
0.7
0.0
192

7000

48

6000

41

5000

35

4000

28
30C (95F)

3000

21

20F (95F)

2000

14

50S (95F)

1000

CTRL (95F) 7

0
0

24

48

72
96
120
Concrete Age (hrs)

144

168

Modulus of Elasticity
(GPa)

200

Splitting Tensile Strength

(MPa)

Transportation Research Record 2164

Splitting Tensile Strength (psi)

130

0
192

(b)
FIGURE 6 Measured results for control and SCM mixtures: (a) splitting tensile strength
development and (b) modulus of elasticity development.

caused an increase in peak temperatures, as shown in Figure 7a. The

increased peak temperature decreased the time to cracking.

CONCLUSIONS
Early-age cracking in bridge decks is a severe problem that may
reduce their functional life. Testing of restrained and unrestrained
specimens was done under temperature conditions that match
those in an 8-in. bridge deck, to explore early-age cracking mechanisms of bridge deck concretes. The influence of SCMs, w/c,
and placement and curing temperature was evaluated. Five concrete mixtures were made under various controlled temperature
conditions, while measuring stress development from concrete
placement until cracking.
Results of this study support the following conclusions:
Higher placement and curing temperatures result in higher thermal stresses. Decreasing the placement and curing temperature can
reduce stresses and delay cracking.
The use of SCMs can be very effective in delaying cracking
under summer placement conditions. Increasing the replacement of
cement with an SCM decreases the rate of hydration and maximum

temperature. The resulting reduction of and delay in the development

of tensile stresses more than compensates for the slower development
of early-age tensile strength associated with cement replacement by
SCM. The combined effect of reduced rate of heat generation and
modulus of elasticity development results in an overall improvement
in cracking resistance.
The mixtures with 30% Class C Fly ash and the 50% GGBF slag
replacements were most effective in delaying cracking under summer
placement conditions, when thermal stresses are most severe.
Decreasing the w/c while maintaining a constant paste content
leads to an increase in cement content, an increase in peak temperature,
and a decrease in time to cracking.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the Texas Department of Transportation and the Alabama Department of Transportation for funding
components of this research. The guidance and assistance of Rupert
Springenschmid and Erwin Gierlinger to develop the cracking frame
test setup are appreciated. The contribution of Kevin J. Folliard and
Kyle A. Riding to help develop the test setup and analysis methods
used in this study is also greatly appreciated.

Byard, Schindler, Barnes, and Rao

131

Concrete Temperature (F)

CTRL (73F)
CTRL (95F)
0.36 (73F)
0.36 (95F)

140
120

60
49

100

38

80

27

60

16

Concrete Temperature (C)

71

160

40
0

12

18
24
30
Concrete Age (hrs)

36

42

48

400

2.7

300

2.1

200

1.4

100

0.7
Tension

0.0

Compression

-100

CTRL (73F)
CTRL (95F)
0.36 (73F)
0.36 (95F)

-200
-300
0

12

18
24
30
Concrete Age (hrs)

36

42

-0.7
-1.4

Concrete Stress (MPa)

Concrete Stress (psi)

(a)

-2.1
48

(b)
FIGURE 7 Measured results for control and 0.36 mixtures placed under
summer and fall conditions: (a) temperature profiles and (b) stresses from RCF.

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The Concrete Materials and Placement Techniques Committee peer-reviewed
this paper.