CHAPTER TWO

GENESIS, RISE AND SOCIO-CULTRUAL

DEVELOPMENT OF MAHARASHTRA

17

2.1 Introduction
According to tradition Christianity came to India in an early as the first century A.D.
Apostle Thomas is supposed to have landed on the southwest coast of India at a place
called Muzinis (Modern Cranganoor, north of Cochin in the state of Kerala in South
India.) in A.D. 52. His work led to the establishment of Seven Churches on the
Malabar Coast [Kerala State]. Evidently from Kerala he traveled east to the area of
Modern city of Madras. Finally he is supposed to have suffered martyrdom at a place
called Mylapore near Madras where there is a place called St. Thomas Mount dating
to centuries back, and a Roman catholic church.

While clear cut evidence is lacking to confirm this tradition, there are strong
indications in favour of it. A Christian community known as St. Thomas Christians
has existed on the Malabar Coast from every early time, they strongly hold that
Apostle Thomas founded the church there. There was a clear evidence of the
existence of a Christian community in Malabar from the early part of the fourth
century A.D. The strong trade relations that existed between the Middle East and the
Malabar Coast and the existence of a Jewish community there even further weight to
the tradition. In fact, Apostle Thomas is supposed to have come searching for Jews.

2.1.1 Roman Catholic Missionaries

Vasco da Gama from Portugal landed in Calicut, a port near Cranganoor on the
southwest coast in the summer of 1498 and thus brought Roman Catholic Christianity
to India. Till that time the knowledge of St. Thomas Christians of Kerala is scanty and
fragmentary. The Portuguese soon established trading centers in places like Goa and
to these settlements Catholic missionaries came. Francis Xavier, a companion of
Ignatius Loyola, arrived in Goa in 1542. His extensive missionary activities in south
India led to the conversion of many. In 1549 three Jesuit missionaries visited Emperor
Akbar in North India and stayed in the Mughal Court for a few years holding
discussions with the emperor and others. In 1606, an Italian Jesuit, Robert de Nobili ,
came to Madurai in South India(Madras State) and worked especially among the
1

upper caste Hindus with some success .

18

2.1.2 Protestant Missionaries

Early in the Seventh Century the British and the Dutch came to India as traders and
established their centers in various places along the western and eastern coasts. These
centers had chaplain to care for the spiritual needs of the traders. However, they did
not show much interest in evangelizing the local population. The Dutch brought as
Missionaries Bartholomew Zieganbolg and Henry Plutschau early in the eighteenth
century. These two Lutheran missionaries began their work at Tranquebar near
Pondicherry, South India. Translation of the New Testament and the establishment of
a school were their first priorities. A far-sighted missionary, Zieganbolg,
unfortunately died after thirteen years of service in 1719 at the age of thirty-six.

Another great missionary was Christian Fredric Schwartz who arrived in Tranquebar
in 1750 and worked till his death in 1798. In 1778, he had moved to Tanjore [Madras
state], then capital of a small kingdom, and soon came to be known as the royal
priest of Tanjore because of his close association with king.

2.1.3 William Carey

With the arrival of William Carey from England in 1793 at Calcutta, a new era in
Christian missions began. In 1800, he was joined by Joshua Marashman and William
Ward creating the Serampore Trio. William Careys contribution to the missionary
work and other fields such as education and social reforms, literature and the like was
remarkable. In 1806, Henry Martin came from among the Muslims. His translation of
the New Testament in Urdu was a remarkable achievement

2
.

The Indian mutiny of 1857 led to the taking over of the Indian Government by the
British Crown form the East India Company. The years that followed saw greater
progress in the work of Christian missions in India.

2.1.4 Missionary Educators and Medical Workers

The nineteenth century brought some great missionary educators from England.
Alexander Duff in Calcutta, John Wilson in Bombay, Robert Nobili in Masulipatnam,
Stephen Hislop in Nagpur, and Anderson and Braithwaite in Madras are names to be

19

remembered. Today there are nearly 150 Christian colleges in India out of which
nearly fifty of them are for women.

The first American group in India was the American Board of Commissioners for
foreign missions which came to Bombay in 1813. In 1835, John Scudder came to
Madras and set up the first medical mission in India. This developed into the now
famous Christian Medical College, Vellore. American Presbyterians worked in
Punjab and in the United Provinces, now Uttar Pradesh. Among them Charles W
3

Forman was the best known missionary

2.1.5 Anglican Bishopric

The first Anglican Bishopric was found in 1813 with Bishop Thomas E Middleton in
Calcutta. The Anglican Church missionary society carried on an aggressive
missionary programme in Northern India. The Basel Mission which had co-operated
with the Church Missionary Society began its separate work in 1834 and made a
substantial contribution in the field of industrial education and development. They
established major industrial units in Mangalore. In 1841, the Welsh Presbyterians
started working among the Khasi; people of Assam.

2.1.6 Pandita Ramabai and Narayanrao Tilak

One of the notable Indian Christian figures of the nineteenth century was Pandita
Ramabai. Born in a Brahmin family, she became a Christian, established the Mukti
mission in Maharashtra, and did pioneer work in the field of education and
4

emancipation of women. Maharashtra has also produced another great Indian

Christian, a poet, Reverend Narayanrao Vaman Tilak. He attempted to see the
message of Jesus Christ in the context of Indian life and culture.

2.1.7 Medical Missions

It was after 1858 that Christian Missions became conscious about the place of medical
missionary work in India. In 1854, the London missionary society opened a hospital
at Neyyoor in south India which grew to be one of the largest in India and famous
under Dr. T.H. Somervell. The church missionary society opened a range of hospitals
along the northwest frontiers. In 1872, Theodore Pennell served at Bhanu and he
20

followed by Sir Henry Holland who served for sixty years. About fifty miles from
Calcutta in a malaria-ridden area in 1892.The Ranaghat Medical Mission was opened
by James Muriro. Its hospital at Doyabari called The House of Mercy became well
known for its great service.

The first fully qualified woman doctor to come to India was Clara Swain, who came
in 1870 and opened a hospital for women at Bareilly in 1874. Next year came Sara
Seward to Allahabad to train women medical personnel. The Medical Missions
Training Institute of the United Presbyterian Mission was opened at Agra in 1881 by
Dr. Valentine. The North India School of medicine for Christian women was started
at Ludhiana by Dr. Edith Brown in 1894. In the south Dr. Ida Scudder started at
Vellore an institution for training women doctors. Both of these institutions became
full-fledged colleges training both men and women.

2.1.8 Latter Protestant Groups

In the second half of the nineteenth century and in the early part of the twentieth, a
number of Protestant Societies came to India. The American Methodist Episcopal
Church was established in 1856 which opened up extensive work especially in
Northern India. The American Lutherans worked in the Telugu areas and other
Lutherans groups in Tamil Nadu.

The Salvation Army began their work in 1883, especially for the underprivileged
groups. A farmer member of the Indian Civil Service Fredrick Booth-Tuchar was a
notable early leader. Among the aboriginals, the Grossner Mission in Chota Nagpur,
the Santal Mission, the work among the Khonds of Orissa, the gonds and bhils of
central India, the Khasis an Lushais, and Nagas of Northeast were met with success
both by the Protestant an Catholic Missions.

By 1914, the Christian population of India was about three-and-a half million of these
about two thirds were Roman Catholics. Much of the work of the Christians was
carried on through their institutions: Schools, Colleges, Training institution, Clinics,
hospitals, Orphanages, Vocational and industrial training centers, and homes for the
aged and destitute.

21

2.1.9 Ecumenical and National Movements

The formation of the National Missionary Conference in 1912 was an effort to bring
about some co-operation among Protestants. This was recognized in 1922 as the
6

National Christian Council of India. A move toward unity among certain protestant
denominations was evident in as early as the beginning of the twentieth century. In
1901, the first South India United Church was formed by the union of three
Presbyterian missions. This union was further expanded in 1908. In North India the
Congregationalists and Presbyterians came together in 1924 to set up the United
Church of North India. And finally in 1947, the Church of South India was formed by
the

Union

of

Anglicans,

Presbyterians,

Congregationalists

and

Methodist

denominations.

National independence in 1947 ushered in a new era of the Churches in India.

Administration and work of most of the Churches had fallen into the hands of
nationals. Even in financial matters many of the Churches had became independent.
Greater concern to express Christianity in the Indian Cultural framework has been
evident. Indian Christians have played an increasingly significant role in many areas
of community and national life.

Today, close to three percent of the population of India is Christians. This numbers
about 25 million Christians contribution to the national life in the areas of Education,
Medical and Social work is very significant.

The life and Teaching of Jesus Christ are highly regarded by many in India. Many
non-Christians have been influenced by that life. In the development of modern India,
Christianity has played a major role. The Christian witness in India is a relevant today
as it was when Apostle Thomas came in the first Century AD, and as it was when
William Carey landed in Calcutta in 1793.

2.2 Christian Missionary Movement in India

The missionaries first came to India in the 19th century. They entered India not only as
evangelizers but as erudite scholars, ideologists, grammarians, historians undertaking
public health, education and social services.

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2.2.1 The Missionary

Christianity was a missionary religion. It had a mission and the missionary was to
fulfill this mission. A missionary was a religious worker. His main responsibility was
to organize a group of believers, establish churches and develop the local leadership.
After accomplishing this he moved on to another place. St. Paul, the greatest
missionary, followed this pattern. He kept establishing churches and did not stay at
any one place for more then two to three years.

The missionaries were involved in the transmission of culture. Prof. Latourette writes,
Missionaries who labored among the primitive tribes did not hesitate to make use of
their cultural advantage. They also took advantage of most opportunities to
demonstrate their higher civilization. This process unfortunately continued on into the
colonial period of modern times. This laid the people of Asia to identify Christianity
with Western Civilization. But the truth is that Christianity was born in the Near East
and transported in the west.

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were epoch Making age in the history of
Maharashtra. It opened new vistas in many fields and helped create a civilization
based on western culture and education. Thus the Christian missionaries were the
pioneers who dauntlessly labored to introduce Western education and modern
allopathic treatments. This activity helped to bring fermentation with Maharashtra.
The missionaries used western education, social services, medical services, social
reform as a means to spread Christianity. The task undertaken by them was not easy.
They confronted many problems and faced lots of opposition. But they continued
their efforts ceaselessly. The missionaries were the first reformers of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries. The zeal of the missionaries influenced and inspired the
natives to launch a reform movement. The economical condition of Indian church
during these days was not good. This was the main reason the churches in India
welcomed foreign missionaries.

Western education, western culture, medical and social revolutions were introduced
in India by the missionaries. Many educated Indians realized that the western culture
and the rising tide of Christianity posed a challenge to their age old traditions and

23

beliefs. Many Indians reformers came forward and began searching ways to rid the
society of its evils. Such as caste-distinction, pardah system and the custom of Sati.
They wanted a new social order in keeping with the traditional values and modern
development. Many Indians were impressed by the progress made by science as well
as the doctrine of reason and humanism of the west. The social condition of the 19th
century led to the socio-religious reform movements. Some reform movement was the
Brahma Samaj, the Ramakrishna mission and the Arya Samaj. Among the great social
and religious reformers of the nineteenth century, the name of Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
Dayananda Sarswati, Mrs. Annie Besant, Ramakrishna Parmhansa and Swami
Vivekanand deserve special mention.

2.2.2 A Definition of Christianity

It was in Antioch of Syria that the term Christianity was first used. Christianity is a
Greek word derived from Latin. The term refers to group loyal to Christ to those
who are it is devotees. For many the term is a nick name for them who are the
followers of Christ and their feelings towards Christians express contempt. But to the
Christian Christianity became a name of honor.

Its well-known and universally accepted belief that St. Thomas, who was one of the
8

twelve apostles of our Lord, was the founder of the Church in South India. However;
some historians do not accept the credibility of this version. Several Western
Historians feel that the foundation and the truth of this version are very flimsy. Some
discard the story as not worthy of serious consideration. However the people of India
a strongly believe that it was St. Thomas who first brought the message of
Christianity into South India and it was he who established the first south Indian
Church. This theory has been accepted all over the world.

2.2.3 Tradition in a nut shell

It is believed that St. Thomas first landed in Cranganoor, a famous ancient port on the
9

coast of Malabar in the year A.D.52. He preached the Gospel of his master and won
many followers. He worked among the highest caste of Hindus, namely the Brahmins
and established seven churches at the following places, Malankara a Suburb of
Cranganoor, Kottakyal, Patur, Kokkamangalam, Nirinam, Quilon and Chayal. He

24

ordained several clergies to carry out the duties of the church. It is believed that later
St. Thomas went to Mylapore which presently is a part of the Modern Chennai City.
As a result of the massive conversion carried out by St. Thomas, the Hindu
community was angry and St. Thomas met his fate. He was found dead on a mountain
some 12 kms. Away from the city of Chennai. He had laid down his life as a martyr.
The hill where St.Thomas was found dead still bears the name, St.Thomas mount. It
is believed that his body was buried at Mylapore, and over the tomb today stands the
Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Thome. The supposed fragments of the bones of
the Apostle are kept there for the Veneration of the believers. Christianity was present
in India much before the missionaries came to India. Legends say the Jews and the
Christians who came to India because of the persecution brought Christianity to India.

2.3 Christianity came to India: Evidences

There are ample of evidences to suggest that Christianity came to India in 1st century
A.D. The evidences are as follows:

2.3.1 Christianity is the upshot of Judaism

In the Bible we find the mention of India. The following Bible verses from the book
of Esther have the references of India. This book was written during 473 B.C.

Esther 1:1, Now it came to pass in the days of A-has-u-rus,(this is A- h a s u e

rus who reigned from India even unto E-thi-opi-a, over an hundred and seven and
twenty provinces.)

Esther 8:9 It was written according to all the Morde-cai commanded unto the
Jews and to the lieutenants, and the deputies and rulers of the provinces which are
from India unto E-thi-opi-a.

10

2.3.2 Reasons why people considered that St. Thomas could have
come to India
1

Coins have been found in India bearing the name of Gondopharus and are
dated 1st century A.D.

Inscription & Cross in the Gondopharus language found in India.

25

In the 1st century A.D. South India and the Roman Empire had regular trade.
Ships sailed between these countries. Thus it was possible for St. Thomas to
come by ship to south India.

Some coins belonging to the Roman Empire were found in South India dating
1st A.D. Even in the 1st century A.D. people knew about monsoon wind and a
marine compass was used.

2.3.3 The Malabar Christian Tradition

The Malabar Christian tradition suggest that St.Thomas came to Cranganoor and built
seven churches.

11

2.3.4 General Tradition

Church Fathers who lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries believed that St. Thomas had
lived in foreign lands. According to them St. Thomas went to North India or Parthia
and not to South India.

2.3.5 The Apocryphal Tradition

In the book of the Acts of Thomas, there are links between the eastern churches and
India. This book supports the theory that St. Thomas had come to South India.

2.3.6 Council of Nicaea

The next record of the existence of the early Indian churches at the Council of Nicaea
in 325 A.D., Where a prelate of Indian Church, Johannes was present and signed his
name as Metropolitan of Persia and of the great India. The early Indian church
maintained cordial relations with the church in Persia, from which bishops continued
to come to them for many centuries.

2.4 Christians and the Adventist mission in Maharashtra

Adventist missionaries faced many problems in Maharashtra. It was difficult for them
to adjust in the hot climate. The Brahmin opposed the missionaries. The Peshwa ruled
the state. The system was rigid and conservative. People did not change their old
traditions and customs. All these factors made it difficult for the missionaries to work.
But the missionaries did not give up. They worked hard and maintained excellent
26

relation with the local rulers. They mastered the local language.

They engaged

themselves in social welfare work. They established a number of Adventist Schools,

hospitals, hostels for poor students.

2.4.1 The American Marathi Mission

The American Marathi Mission was the oldest mission in the Bombay Presidency. Its
constituents were congregational bodies of the United States then the official name of
the Home Society was The American Board of Commissioners for foreign
missions. Its headquarters was in Boston, Massachusetts. Its pioneer missionaries
went first to Calcutta. But The East India Company did not permit them to work in
Calcutta. However in 1813 three missionaries came to India. They were the first
Protestant Missionaries in western Maharashtra.

The American Marathi Mission started the first printing press in Maharashtra. It also
began to publish periodicals in Marathi language. Dnyanodaya published in 1842
was the first Mission Magazine. The purpose of the Magazine was to promote
missionary activities in Maharashtra. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule was influenced by the
activities undertaken by the American Marathi Mission. In 1917 the first Methodist
came to Maharashtra. With the establishment of Church Missionaries Society
(C.M.S.) several missionaries came to Maharashtra. Dr. John Wilson (S.M.S) a
Scottish missionary arrived in Bombay in the year 1918. He started the Wilson High
School in Bombay which emerged into the now famous Wilson College of Bombay.
Sir Stephen Hislop in the year 1845 landed in Nagpur and established the Hislop
School and college in Nagpur.

12

2.4.2 The Baptist Presbyterian Methodist

The Baptist Presbyterian Methodist missionaries had its headquarters in America. It
sought Western Maharashtra to be the center for their missionary activity in India. In
1874 Father Kawale of the Anglican Church worked hard in Bombay, Pune and
Ahmednagar. His contribution was great.

27

2.4.3 The Salvation Army

In the year 1882 the Salvation Army began its work in Bombay and Ahmednagar. The
American Board of Missions started its work in Ahmednagar. Later missionaries from
Australia established their work in Ahmednagar, Nashik, Aurangabad and Kolhapur.
German Missionary Gosner worked in Nagpur. Nazarene Mission concentrated their
efforts in and around Buldhana, Pusad and Vasimyeotmal became the center for
Methodist mission. The Biblical Seminary at Vetomal gained approval. In 1828
society Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) began its work in Western Maharashtra, the
work spread in the interior areas. Rev. C.Royal Wilder came to India through
American Marathi Mission in 1852. He worked in Kolhapur until 1870.Kolhapur
received Presbyterian Board status during his tenure. Later it was named Presbyterian
Indian Mission. The work spread in Miraj, Sangali, Kodoli, Panhala, Venguira,
Islampur and Ratnagiri.

13

A number of schools, hospitals, hostels and orphanages

were established. Through his Highness Shri Shahu Maharajas favorable outlook, the
Missionaries could do a splendid work. Rev. E. Burgess of American Maratha
Mission came to Satara in 1851 worked up to 1893. Rev. Wood also worked in Satara.

On October 1st, 1812 a treaty was signed between the British and Chatrapati of
Kolhapur. Accordingly British troops were established in Kolhapur. Dsouza a
catholic Father was the chaplain of the troops.

2.4.4 Medical Mission

The American Board of Commissioners for foreign mission was the first group to
come to India in 1813. It headquarters was Bombay in 1835, John Scudder landed in
Madras. He set up the first Medical Mission in India. This later developed into the
now famous Christian Medical College, Vellore. American Presbyterians worked in
Punjab and in the United Provinces. Charles W Forman was one of the most popular
Missionary.

After 1858 the Christian Missions became conscious about the importance of Medical
Missionary work in India. In 1854, the London missionary society opened a hospital
at Neyyoor in South India which grew to be one of the major and famous hospitals of

28

India. The church missionary society opened a range of hospitals along the Northeast
boundary. In 1872, Theodre Pennell served at Bhanu. Sir, Henry Holland who served
for sixty years in a Malaria-ridden area. Ranaghar Medical Mission was established
by James Murriro. The hospital at Doyabari called The House of Mercy became well
known for its great service.

The first fully qualified women doctor to come to India was Clara Swain, who came
in 1870 and opens a hospital for women at Bareilly in 1874. In 1875 Dr. Sara Seward
came to Allahabad. She trained women medical personnel. The medical mission
training institute of the United Presbyterian Mission was opened at Agra in 1881 by
Dr. Valentine. The North India School of Medicine for Christian women was started
at Ludhiana by Dr. Edith Brown in 1894.In south Dr. Ida Scudder started an
Institution for women doctors at Vellore. Later these institutions became full fledged
colleges.

To sum up, the medical work was not a part of missionary activity in the early 19th
century but it gained prominence at the end of the century. The Indian society
required medical facilities. Epidemics, particularly Cholera and Small Pox were
frequently and caused wide-spread misery. Cures for diseases common to tropical and
sub-tropical climates were known to some Indian hermits.

2.5

Influence of Adventist Missionary movement on Maharashtra

The Portuguese were over enthusiastic to convert Indians to Christianity. This made
them blind to the Biblical principles of conversion. As a result there arose a common
feeling of hatred towards them and it affected their trade adversely. However the
British learn a lesson out of the experience of the Portuguese and followed the policy
of non-intervention in the religions of India at least in the early stage. However in
1813 the British Parliament made it mandatory the East India Company to permit
missionary activities as a result of this change in the policy, missionary movement
became stronger in India.

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2.5.1 Missionaries and their Contribution in Marathi languages

Before the end of Peshwa Power in 1818, William Carey had already started
publishing books in Marathi language from Serampore in Bengal. In 1800 he started a
printing press. The works under taken by him are as follows:
1. Grammar of Marathi in the year 1805.
2. Dictionary in Marathi language in the year 1810.
3. Sinhasan Baltisi Marathi in the year 1814.
4. Panchtantra in Marathi in the year 1815.
5. Hitopadesh in Marathi in the year 1815.
6. Biography of Raja Pratapditya in the year 1816.
7. Chronology of Raghynath Bhonsale in the year 1816.
With the help of a Marathi Pandit Vaishanath Shashtri he had printed and published
these books. The Missionaries were the first in bringing out the following:
1. The first printed book in Marathi.
2. The first Grammar in Marathi.
3. The first dictionary in Marathi.
4. The first printing press with Marathi printing.
5. The first school for the women.

14

2.5.2 The American Mission and its contribution

The American Marathi Mission began in Bombay in 1813. They started the first
English Medium School in 1815; followed by few Marathi medium schools. This
mission started a printing press at Bombay in 1815. They brought the types from
Serampore press and printed books in Marathi language. The American Marathi
Mission started eleven schools the enrolment in 1818 was 600.The missionaries
contributed much to the development of Marathi language.

The literature was in the day to day language used by the common people. Baba
Padamji enriched Marathi by his writings. He was the first to write a novel in Marathi.
By 1873 missionaries started series of articles for the children in Balbodhmeva.
Missionaries encouraged natives to compose Christian Hymns and music on local
tradition. Narayan Waman Tilak composed hundreds of hymns in Marathi, which are

30

widely sung in churches of all denominations through out Maharashtra. However the
literary work of the missionaries could not make an impact upon Marathi literature of
that time because its motive was gospel propagation. The British utilized the services
of Shri Krishnashashtri Chiplunkar for translation of literature. The missionaries had
an advantage of being associated with the scholars of Marathi languages and Marathi
culture.

2.5.3 Missionary literary works and Social Reforms

The Indian Society was dominated by Hinduism it had a number of Socio-religious
evils. Some of the prominent evils in the society were the caste System, child
marriages, Sati, etc. The British tried to abolish these evils of the society by
converting the masses into Christianity. As Christianity did not have any such
practices. The drawbacks of the Hindu society now became prominent to the Hindu
scholars. This paved way for Social reforms in Maharashtra. Thus Several Social
reforms took birth in Maharashtra. There was a positive and progressive outlook
towards life in all its aspects.

The Marathi literature of this period encourages ideas such as equality, brotherhood,
empowerment of women, religious freedom, individuality, and remarriages of
widows, abolishment of Sati, Caste System and other social evils. This brought a
revival in the society. Men like Baba Padamji advocated these issues in their writings.
While orthodox Hindus like Vishnubuwa Brahmachari opposed this ideas and
condemned the influence of Christian literature. The reconversion movement of
Balushastri Jambhekar was an attempt to lessen the influence of Christian on the
orthodox Hindu Society. Morbhatt Dandekar and Krishnashashtri Chiplunkar mark
the revival in the 19th century.

15

The British ruled India for a long time. This gave them an opportunity to observe and
evaluate the drawback of the Hindu Society. They were smart to introduce
Christianity as a solution to the evil practices and drawbacks of the society. As a
result of this various socio-economic reforms within the Hindu society became
inevitable.

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2.6 Early Adventist Missionary work leading to establishment of

churches and institutions
Based on the survey by Elder E.F. Hanskell and P.T. Magan in 1893, Plans were laid
down for the work of Adventist church in Western India. Elder C.F.Hansen and his
wife arrived in Bombay in 1905. They mainly worked among the higher class of the
society. During the same period Dr. Lucinda Marsh came to Bombay and started a
sanitarium to work among the Parsee community. After treatment room were
constructed by R.L. Kimble. Sister Kurtz, sister Haegret. And Mrs. C.F. Hansen
worked as active colporteurs since Literature evangelist work was getting stronger in
Bombay. Unfortunately Mrs. C.F. Hansen fell ill and her family left Bombay in 1906.

This family was located in the best part of Bombay in 1906 with a rent only Rs.60 per
month. God has moved the hearts of people towards this family. Many times in
kindness they had given Bible studies to many familiars. Sister Haegret has placed the
Oriental Watchman magazine in many homes in Bombay They consider this a great
boon to the Bible work. Many books were printed and distributed to the people in
around Bombay. The Sanitarium is doing well. Patients are coming in among the
Parsee people.
According to survey conducted by Elder E.F. Hankell and P.T.Magan. The following
missionaries worked in Bombay as it had become the epicenter for the Adventist
church work.

Elder C.F. Hansen

1905

Missionary.

Mrs. C.F. Hansen

1905

Colporteur.

Sister Haegret

1906

Colporteur.

Dr. Lucinda Marsh

1906

Medical work.

Sister Kurtz

1906

Colporteur.

Brother Haga

1906

Assisting the medical work.

Elder and Mrs. G.F.Enoch arrived in Bombay in early 1908 with their two children.
They were asked to 90 to Poona. From there they went to Satara to learn Marathi
language. Elder G.W.Enoch writes Satara is the ancient capital of the Marathi
Country and the most favorable place to study the language. We have been fortunate

32

in securing one of the Pandits who is a Brahmin and is much interested in us because
of our vegetarian principles".

16

Elder G.W. Enoch, in 1911 after the completion of his studies in Marathi language he
came back to Poona. But his son Gerald died and the family had moved to Bombay.
This dedicated family gave faithful service to the church for about a quarter century.
In fact the plans and programs revolved around this family. This family became a
pivotal point in the development of Advent movement in Western India. This family
stayed at Bellasis Road, Byculla, and Bombay.

2.6.1 Panvel-Kalyan-Lonavala work

Two missionaries G.F. Enoch and J.L.Shaw moved to Panvel city and rented a
bungalow that belonged to a Parsee family. Perhaps it was due to the contacts of the
early missionaries namely Dr. Lucinda Marsh. It had ample space and adequate
furniture in it. The rent was very moderate. Perhaps this is the first headquarter of out
work in western India. By this time sister Kelsey also joined this team. She kept
herself studying Marathi language.

The Alliance mission had a rest home in Lonavala, Elder G.F. Enoch and other started
work from this place. Elder G.F. Enoch writes Lonavala has an elevation more than
2000 feet. We met two sisters who had recently begun to observe the Sabbath. A
meeting was held in the home of these sisters. Here we met Brother Balwantrao who
had worked with other missionary. Then G.F.Enoch visited Mukti Mission Kedgaon,
and gave a copy of Steps to Christ a Bible book to Pandita Ramabai. She
appreciated the book very much and invited him to start church work in Kedgaon.

Few days later Mr. &Mrs. G.F.Enoch, Elder S.A. Wellman and Mr. &Mrs. Kelsey
conducted meetings at Lonavala and given Oriental Watchman magazines to the
people. After reading many were ready to join the missionary work. These meetings
held four times a week and called Lantern meetings.17 There was a need of hour to
choose a center or missionary work. Therefore Kalyan was chosen as a center for

33

work as it was an important railway junction with hundreds of villages around. Two
schools were started here. These schools were managed by Elder and Mrs. Wood who
knew the Marathi language well. It was discovered that the book Steps to Christ was
published and sold for one paisa each.

As the missionaries done their work, there was a need for bigger organization to be
established. For the first time an organizational set up was formed in western India.
Bombay as its headquarters was been decided. The committee formed Bombay
Presidency Mission Section. Its territory being the West Coast, Panvel and Kalyan as
two mission sections with two vernacular languages, mainly Marathi and Gujarati.
Churches were organized at Bombay, Panvel and Kalyan. Many schools too were
organized. Brother and Sister Kelsey had set up a clinic at Panvel where in the very
first year 11,376 patients were treated. Under the leadership of pastor and Mrs. French
and Miss. Bose as Bible Workers. The work in these areas among the English
speaking people in Bombay was Strengthen.

As work was growing in Panvel and Kalyan a nine acre piece of land was purchased.
Kalyan mission station was established over here. This work here was largely
carried out by Elder G.W.Pettit and M.D. Wood who were stationed at Kalyan. First
Marathi Quarterly was printed which had 24 pages beside the cover page. This
17

quarterly had the theme, signs and coming of Christ.

2.6.2 New Schools

It was found that Elder G.F. Enoch paid much attention is establishing schools in
western India. The Adventist organization gives credit to him of starting the following
schools in the region:

Girls school at Panvel in 1911.

Boys school at Panvel in 1911.

School for higher Caste students at Kalyan in 1914.

School for lower caste students at Kalyan in 1913.

School for training for evangelists at Kalyan in 1913.

Marathi nurses training school at Kalyan in 1914

Lasalgaon Boarding school at Lasalgaon in 1919.

34

18

2.6.3 Boys & Girls School at Panvel

There was a small community of Jews in Panvel. On their request this school for the
Jewish girls was started at Panvel. Elder G.F. Enoch reported These Jews because of
our Sabbath keeping gladly welcomed us and requested us to start girls school. It had
enrolled 53 girls from Jewish, Hindu, Muslim, and Christian community. In addition
to this a boys school was opened with enrolment of 20 students from all
communities. All these children about 70 in number gathered regularly and learned
19

school lessons, Bible stories, Bible songs and Scriptures.

During this time

evangelistic work had been persistently carried on in the town and surrounding
villages. Hundreds scripture portions were sold.

2.7 The Patronage of Ruling family, Christian leaders, writers and

their support for the growth of Adventist mission in Maharashtra
Most of the Adventist schools are new functioning with good fame and are recognized
by the society. The credit goes to the Royal families who supported the growth of
Adventist schools. Many schools in their early days were established by the Patronage
of Ruling families. They donated huge areas of Land, money and moral support.

2.7.1 Raja Shri. Chatrapati Shahu, Maharaja of Kolhapur

As a great inspirer of the Indian social revolution, the work of Rajarishi Shahu
Chatrapati was unique. His thoughts and initiatives were all his own. He took
inspiration for his activities in social enlightened from his various experiences in life
both good and bad. Experience was his sole mentor. The Maharaja was confronted
with as completely hostile social, religious and political situation in Maharashtra.
Generally in Kolhapur state when he had ascended the throne in 1894.

20

It was

certainly a saving grace that the Maharaja was adopted in the Chatrapati family from
the Ghatage family at Kagal. He became the Ruler of Kolhapur state. But there were
naturally some limitations on his work and ability. Because of the fact that he was a
princely Ruler under the British Hegemony.
It is not a surprise such a great soul came in contact with Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj,
who was also a kindred soul holding aloft the flag of social revolution in Maharashtra.

35

Rebelling against religious slavery and fighting for social equality and justice. One
was a great medical missionary bringing solace to the ailing humanity. The other a
great social missionary compassionately devoted to alleviate the miseries of the
socially afflicted. One resided in Sangli, the other in Kolhapur. An environment of
just 30 miles. Each one was aware of the achievements of the other.

Dr. Wanless was an eminent and skilled surgeon; whenever there was any seriously
ailing person among the Maharajas household his relations, or servants, the Maharaja
used to send them for treatment to Miraj or he used to call specially Dr. Wanless. The
Maharaj himself used to take medical treatment from Dr. Wanless. The Maharaj also
had given two big devotions to Mission Hospital at Miraj. From A.D. 1903-04 to
1910 Dr. Wanless and from 1910 till his death Dr. Vail were the family Physicians of
the Maharaj.

21

The ordinances issued by Shahu Maharaj was the first attempt at abolition of
untouched ability on the administrative level in India. Dr. Wanless writes in his
autobiography about these ordinances as follows:
I had never heard of such a proclamation in the history of native state during my
thirty-six years in India, nor had I know of it in Indian history. When the Maharaja
issued these ordinances they caused a great deal of stir among the obscurantist and the
traditional Hindus. They met the Maharaj and asked him as to scriptural basis of his
ordinances. The Maharaj replied: I have not taken these rules from any Hindu
scriptural basis for his ordinances. I came across these rules for the first time in
practice for a number of years. I felt that it was most important to enforce similar
rules in my state on this.

When one considers the social revolution set in motion by Maharaj during his life
time. One realizes that he thought and inspirations behind it were his own. His
endeavor was self-propelling. Even then it must be said that his thoughts were
influenced more or less by Mahatma Phule and his satyashodhak Samaj, Swami
Dayanand and his Araya Samaj, Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj,
Justice Ranade and Dr. Bhandarkar and their Prathana Samaj, Dr.Annie Besant and
36

her theosophical society. Along with these the Maharaj was also deeply influenced by
the humanitarian service of Dr. Wanless and Dr. Vail and their American Mission. No
student at the social movements in Maharashtra and the life of the Maharaj can afford
to forget this.

2.7.2 Contribution made by other Christian leaders

The Christian community of western Maharashtra was the fortunate to have
outstanding leader who left a lasting impact on the life, literature and society in
Maharashtra. Those who enriched Marathi literature by their contributions were Baba
Padmaji and Narayan Vaman Tilak. In the field of social reform, Pandita Ramabai
became a pioneer in organizing a windows Home for destitute upper Caste widows.
Nehemiah Goreh was an outstanding intellectual who had developed deep knowledge
in the Vedas and the Bible. In promoting the Womens cause and their education,
Susie and Cornelia Sorabji had carved a place for themselves. The Sorabjis were
Parsis while Narayan Vaman Tilak, Pandita Ramabai and Nehemiah Goreh were
Chipawan Brahmins. Among these the names of Narayan Vaman Tilak and Pandita
Ramabai are well known. In fact, Ramabai is known both nationally and
internationally.

2.7.3 Narayan Vaman Tilak

Among the three outstanding Maharashtrian Christian leaders (Ramabai Tilak and
Goreh) who came from the Chitpavan Brahmin caste, Narayan Vaman Tilak was the
most gifted in terms of his contribution to Marathi literature. In 1997 when the
Marathi Sahitya Sammelah met at Ahmednagar, the gathered literate offered floral
tributes at his grave before commencing the proceedings. These first generation
Christians were initially attracted to Christ intellectually and when they grew
spiritually, they accepted him as their savoir. The new spiritual experience changed
the course of their life. During the first thirty-two years of his life, Narayan Vaman
Tilak lived like a true Chitpavan Brahmin learned in Sanskrit and Vedic literature. He
had discovered his literacy talents even before he came to Christ. His writings which
included his translation of Goldsmiths Deserted Village (1886), Sangita Anandavan
(drama) (1886) and Sri Devica Prasad (1891) bore the mark of the influence of
Sanskrit Poetry.

37

Narayan Vaman Tilaks most creative work as a poet was accomplished after he came
to Christ in 1895. During the five years that followed. His poems on flowers and
children (Phule-Mulanche Kavi) broke new ground in Marathi poetry and made him a
trail blazer along with Keshavsut, his younger contemporary. Like Wordsworth, he
sang about the breathless beauty of nature in pure Marathi uninhibited by Sanskrit.
The school to which they belonged brought poetry down from heaven to this world
or rather brought the poetic muse to find her delighted abode as much on earth as
beyond it. Like that Lark of Wordworth, Marathi poetry in their hand came to be true
both to heaven and home. While Keshavsut has often been compared with Shelley,
Narayan Vaman Tilak may be called the Wordsworth of Maharashtra. Twenty two
Maharashtrians discovered that Marathi poetry had found a new expression and
Vigour which brought artistic gems to them in their familys daily spoken languages,
thus appealing to them directly. Narayan Vaman Tilak had dared to make departures
in Marathi poetry from the classical models which had made gods and semi-gods their
main themes. He elevated simple villagers to the central place in many of his poems
such asSushila.

22

I.C. Winslow, his English Biographer, divides Narayan Vaman Tilak poetic career
into four periods. The first two have been described above already. During the third
period that lasted for twelve years [1900-1912]. Narayan Vaman Tilak was diversely
creative, producing both devotional and secular poetry on themes of life, home life
nature, nationalism and patriotism. His devotional poetical writings are found the
Bhajan Sangraha. During the final and fourth stage of his literacy life, he wrote
mainly on devotional themes that included christoyana, an epic like Ramayana on the
life of Christ. He left it incomplete, but his son and wife completed it later.

Narayan Vaman Tilak had a great fascination for journalism and started Christ in
which he wrote articles on the Christian faith for his non-Christian readers and on
Indian culture for his Christian readers. The newspaper Christi did not last long.
Tilak still pursed his interests with the co-operation of Bhaskarrao Kotak of Pune and
in December 1905, started another paper called Christi Nagarik. Kotak was its
Managing Director; Ganpatrao Navalkar became editor of its English section while

38

Tilak himself edited the Marathi section. During the three years it lasted, it created a
sensation and rudely shook up the Marathi Christian community. When he became the
editor of Dnyanodaya in 1912 he left his indelible mark on it.

Narayan Vaman Tilak along with his wife Laxmibai who elevated not only Marathi
Literature by their pioneering contribution but also helped to elevate Marathi
Christian literature to a level of high literary excellence. Tilaks Abhangs, kirtans and
Hymns have such rich spiritual appeal that they have continued to help uplift the
spiritual experience of Marathi speaking Christians.

Narayan Vaman Tilak was too a good true patriot. His spirituality was genuine and
his patriotism was no less intense than that of his namesake Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He
expressed his intense love of motherland in popular hymns- our Beloved Hindustan
(Priyakar Hindustan), Our Bharat (Amucha Bharat), My Country Dearer than life
(Swadesh hitachintan) and others.

Like Mahatma Gandhiji and many who liked Christianity even Narayan Vaman Tilak
had high respect towards Christ and Christianity. When he read the New Testament,
he found the Sermon on the Mount most satisfying. He said In three chapters I found
answers to the most abstruse problems of Hindu Philosophy. He continued, Five
points in regard to Jesus Christ impressed me most deeply. First, I found in him the
ideal man. Second, it is He and he alone who makes love to God to man of the same
importance. Third, His perfect identification with his father. Fourth, His inconceivable
faith in himself as the life and the light of the world. Fifth, cross and the whole history
of his crucifixion.

23

Narayan Vaman Tilak who had a deep understanding of Sanskrit and Hindu
scriptures. He brought this rich knowledge to strengthen Indian Christianity in his
efforts to indigenous it. His uncertain and weak spirituality with its roots in the Hindu
Bhakti movements was transformed by Christ into a definite, strong and luminous
spirituality that expressed itself in his selfless and humble life.

39

It is universally acknowledged that Narayan Vaman Tilaks greatest contribution

towards indigenisation of the Christian church in India. Lay in the treasury of
glorious devotional lyrics. Marathi Christians had no way expressing their devotion
and praise in worship until, Tilak poured forth the hearts devotional and the offering
poured fourth the hearts devotional and the offering of praise. Macnicol also
highlighting this contribution of Tilak. He said He brought to the Maratha church a
renaissance not only of religion but poetry and literature. Their language took a new
birth. Even outcaste Christians newly came up from slavery. They had some glimpse
as they sang of the possessions that were there to explore and appropriate not only in
Christ Jesus but also in their own Indian past.

Narayan Vaman Tilaks Christ Darbar was in innovative indigenous efforts to present
Christ to Indian and to relate Christianity to Indias dominant faith. Tilak was trying
an interesting experiment of bringing together all those who believed in Christ
whether baptized or not. This was a laudable and unique effort to make other Indians,
especially the majority community of Hindus, to understand and accept Indian
Christians as Indias very own.

2.7.4 Pandita Ramabai

Pandita Ramabai [1852-1922] was the greatest woman reformer produced by modern
India and one of the greatest Indian in all history. Her achievements as a champion of
womens rights and as a pioneer in the fields of education and social reform. They
remain unrivalled even after a lapse of nearly a century since she first appeared on the
scene. She was a Sanskrit scholar who at the young age of twenty was publicly
honored by the Shastris of Calcutta as a Pandita and a women incarnation of Sarswati,
the Hindu goddess of learning. She was the first to introduce the kindergarten system
of education and also the first to give a vocational base to school education in India.
Most important of all, she was the first to rebel against the inhuman slavery to which
widows were subjected in Hindu society and to lay the foundations of a movement for
24

womens liberation in India.

40

Born in the Chitpawan Brahmin family in 1852. She was nurtured in a liberal
atmosphere at home by her father Anant Shastri Dongre. He was a renowned Sanskrit
Scholar and reformer. He strongly believed in the education of women. He personally
educated first his wife and then Ramabais elder sister. Thus rebelling against the
prevailing taboo regarding teaching Sanskrit to women Pandita Ramabais mother
taught her Sanskrit. By the age of twelve, Ramabai could recite about twenty
thousand sacred verses. Anant Shastris dogmatic advocacy of education of women
against the age old custom and his determination to face the social protest from the
orthodox Brahmins were qualities which Ramabai, his youngest daughter inherited.

Her family background and wandering with her family in different parts of India had
strengthened her determination to fight for the liberation of Indian women. Her father
did not give her away in marriage in childhood. Her parents died within two months
of each other when she was 16 years of age. Soon she lost her sister.

Along with her brother she traveled for six years to various parts of India. In their
travel they were obliged to go on foot, not having the means to afford themes
conveyance. In this way they went a distance of 2000 miles. Thus they had a good
opportunity of seeing the sufferings of Hindu women and were much touched by their
sorrows. They served and established many churches and schools in many parts of
India such as Madras Presidency, Bombay Presidency, Punjab the North-west
province, Bengal, Assam and so on. This made them think much of how it was
possible to improve the condition of women and raise them out of their degradation.
She and her brother learnt their Hindi and Bengali and addressed gatherings of people,
impressing upon them the importance of educating girls and women.

Ramabais life had been a life of struggle all along. When her brother died in Decca in
1880, leaving her alone in the world. Bipin, belonging to the scheduled caste was an
orphan. He had raised himself in life by his bootstraps and had become a lawyer after
acquiring M.A. and B.L. degrees from Calcutta University. It was against the Hindu
religion for me being a Brahmin to marry a Shudra, Ramabai wrote. But neither my

41

husband nor believed in the Hindu religion. So we married under the Civil Marriage
25

Act.

It was this new found faith that gave her the power and source of inspiration to
undertake a task revolutionaries the life of women in India. Her greatest
accomplishment was to conscientise the country about the rights of women as human
beings with the same needs as men. After returning to India. She opened Sharada
Sadan, a widows Home at Girgaum in Bombay on 11th March 1889. It was named
after the first widow Sharada who joined her Home. At the opening ceremony Justice
K.T. Telang and M.G. Ranade and others eulogized her effort. The number of
widows in the home increased from 2 to 22 in three months. She was encouraged
further by her friend Francina Sorabji and Social reformers like D.K.Karve, M.G.
Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar and other leaders of the social reform movement. Agarkar
put his sister in Ramabais Sharada Sadan. R.G. Bhandarkar complemented her for
her pioneering effort.

Mukti Mission at Khedgaon is a unique institution where female infants and women
of all ages are sheltered and taken care of. Whether it is the abandoned girl child or
abandoned widow or wife. All can find a heaven there. Beginning with two upper
caste widows when Ramabai opened her Sharada Sadan. The Mukti Mission today
serves hundreds of intimates coming from all communities and castes. They are here
brought up in Christian atmosphere. Mukti Mission is a mini self-contained village
where the ignorant are educated. Sick are provided with medical care. Helpless babies
are nursed. Destitute are looked after. Jobless women are trained in skills. Animal
husbandry, horticulture and agriculture are practiced to provide sustenance for the
inmates. For over a hundred and ten years this noble task of providing hope for the
hopeless women has been going on. After Ramabai founded and molded its destiny
during the first 33 years between 1889 and 1922.

Though Ramabai wished that her daughter Manorama whom she had brought up with
love and great fare would wear the mantle after her. Manorama unfortunately was
called to her eternal rest a year by love Ramabais end came. But she had created an
42

institution under divine guidance and had provided it a strong Christian basis with a
constitution. A set of rules and means of support so that it is still going on today.
Seventy-seven years later with hundreds of inmates standing witness to the revolution
which Ramabai had begun.

The uniqueness of Mukti Mission is that it is an Indian enterprise, conceived, planned

and executed by an Indian woman inspired by Christian faith and Christs compassion
for the lowly and the downtrodden. Pandita Ramabai was a special instrument raised
up from the most unlikely soil. Indias women were desperately ignorant, bound by
custom and condemned by both Hinduism and Islam to the narrow, round of domestic
duty. One single enterprise could set the example for the whole country.

2.7.5 Sundarabai Powar

She received an invitation from the womens Anti-opium league to visit England to
enable her to study how the league worked among opium victims. Sundarabai
Powars two visits to Britain on behalf of the league were fruitful. She fully used her
knowledge in helping the opium victims in this country.

Pandita Ramabai needed some able assistants when she started Sharada Sadan at
Pune. She turned to Sundarabai and invited her to join her in her challenging work.
She stood by her during the first seven crucial years of the Sadan, both at Pune and
Khedgaon. In the absence of Ramabai, Sundarabai was in charge of the Sharada
Sadan. She left Khedgaon to be at the bedside of her dying father at Sasvad. Then she
returned to Pune to carry on the Zenana work on her own. She also took up the
translation of some of the good English books into Marathi.
Training Bible women was indeed her outstanding service to the Church. She opened
the Zenana Training Home at Poona to train Bible Women. The Boarding Home
began to overflow with destitute and abandoned girls. As the work grew Miss. Barder,
a missionary willingly joined Sundarabai in her work. The Bible women trained at
this Home were invited and appointed by various missions in Maharashtra to serve as
Bible women. Her training schools thus met a crucial need of the growing church.

43

2.7.6 Gurubai Karmarkar

Dr. Gurubai Karmarkar, wife of Rev. Sumantrao Karmarkar went to the U.S.A. along
with her husband. She took her M.D. from womens Medical College Philadelphia.
Thereafter she served for over thirty years in Bombay and worked as a doctor in a
dispensary run by the American Marathi Mission. She represented India at
international conferences such as the world YWCA conference held at Stockholm and
the congregational womens Board of Missions at Philadelphia. Her son Dr. Viswas
Karmarkar gave his life in the service of the people of the U.S.A. and died while
ministering to them during the flue epidemic of 1818. After her retirement she went to
live in Belgaum, her native town. A dispensary was opened up with her donation of
Rs. 60,000/- which she gave to American Marathi Mission. It was named as Dr.
Gurubai Karmarkar Wing at Lincoln House, now called Nagpada Neighbourhood
House in Bombay. There were many Maharashtrian Christian women in rural and
urban churches who made their own distinct contribution for the promotion of
Christs kingdom. However, it is possible to mention only a few, depending upon the
impact of their work on a wider section of life.

2.7.7 Many Christian Writers

Maharashtra had a number of Christian writers who were responsible for producing
Marathi Christian literature. Thus opening a new chapter in the history of Marathi
literature. Ram Krishna Modak contended in the Annual report of the Bombay Bible
and Tract Society of 1858. Those who have contributed original tracts or made
translators into Indian Languages were : Baba Padmaji, Dhanjibhai Naoroji, Narayan
Sheshadri and Shaik-Dawood. So many Indian Christian writers could write in one
year. There were still more who were left out. If Europeans were driven out, the seed
which has been sown has taken root, and would be able to produce Christian churches
and schools throughout this land.

26

But the Marathi written by missionaries and the

Indian Christians was different from the Marathi in common use in Maharashtra.
Therefore, Christian Marathi was criticized and ridiculed as half Marathi and half
English. While Lele, a gifted Brahmin convert wrote Marathi Christian lyrics and also
set them to familiar local melodies to be sung during the village preaching
tours.Ganpatrao Navalkar wrote a Marathi grammar which was widely used.

44

Most of the ministers in various missions in Maharashtra came from two castes.
Especially in the urban centers, during the early decades came mostly from the upper
castes. While in rural churches, the pastors and elders came from the local converts
who mostly came from a low caste background. They worked under the Supervision
of the missionaries. Some of such urban pastors included Ramakrishna and Shahu
Rao Modak, Haripant Khisty, Vishnupant Karmarkar, Narayan V.Athawale, Appaji
Yardi, V.M. Gadre, T.A. P.Acharya, D.L.Joshi and Harish Chandrarao Navalkar and
Narayanrao Navalkar, Sadashivrao Ramachandra Lele, Balwant Lotilikar and others.
Navalkar was however critical of the missionaries. Even wrote about it in local papers
condemning them for their life of Luxury while Indian Christian live in poverty.

The missionaries made the upper caste convert the front runners in their evangelistic
work. Most of them being first generation Christians. They were not only totally
committed to the cause of Christ, but were also enthusiastic about telling what they
had found in Christ. A mention may be made here among others of Bishop J.R.
(Jaswant Rao) Chitambar, the son of a Brahmin convert Rev. RajaRam Chitambar
form Nagpur. He became the first Indian principal of Lucknow Christian College and
the first Indian Methodist Bishop.

2.8 Adventist Movement and Nationalism

In Britain nationalism is based on language. While in India nationalism is based on
religious. Nationalism imparts a new interpretation to religion. Instead of being an
insulated and isolated factor in peoples lives, largely other worldly and spiritual,
27

religion is made part of this worldly and secular force of nationalism.

2.8.1 Revivalism and Nationalism

The aggressive protestant missionary often propagated Christianity by criticizing
Hinduism. This stimulated religious hatred between the British and the Hindus.
Religious detestation became an important factor for the growth of Indian nationalist
movement. In this respect the British made their contribution to the rise of Indian
nationalism. The British had started a number of English schools. The Indian students

45

were imparted western education. The Indian youth gained enlightenment through
education. This gave rise to various social reforms. This resulted in India became
aware of terms like brotherhood, liberty, freedom and nationalism. Thus the British in
some way were responsible for the national and political awaking Indians. This
resulted in the revolt of 1857 and later in independent India.

In India, the idea of nationalism was itself a result of cultural contact between the
Indians and the British. Indian nationalism soon came to feel that its moral mission
was to protect national customs and destiny of the country form the pernicious
influence of British culture. India was divided into two groups called the extremists
and the moderates. Bal Gangadhar Tilak from Maharashtra believes the Hindu middle
class had become denationalized under the powerful influence of missionary
educational institutions, western education and British rule. He therefore supported
the anti cow-slaughter society; opposed the Age of Consent Bill; was hostile to
government and mission schools. As a militant nationalist, B.G. Tilak believed that it
was only the revival of Hinduism that India could regain its dignity and independence.
Gandhi believed that Indians Salvation lay in a revivalist and conservative approach
to religious matters. He held the same view in economic matters as well when he
advocated the revival of Indias traditional handicrafts and a peasant golden age. He
rightly understood the psychology of the India. This rapport with the masses made
them follow Gandhi simplicity.

The Indian national congress founded in 1885. It was liberal and secular in its
outlook. It symbolized the rising patriotism of the Indian middle class. The early
leaders were liberal in their approach to religion, life culture and emphasized the
urgency to attend to the political, economic and religious sentiments of the unsaved
festival beginning in Poona in 1896.

2.8.2 Indian Christians and the Indian National Congress

An Indian Christian is always an Indian in blood, colour, thinking and way of life.
Christianity is as much as Indian religion as any other. When an Indian Christian goes

46

abroad he is identified as a Hindu not as a Christian. One of the reasons for

development of such a misconception about an Indian Christian was the increasing
identification of religion with nationalism in the 1890s. This trend began to grow in
Maharashtra with Bal Gangadhar Tilaks laudable effort in galvanizing the Indian
people. This identification of religion with nationality produced the intended result of
uniting the Hindus against the British rule. But it brought communalism in Indian
politics. Any non-Hindus nationalism became suspect in the eyes of the Hindus; the
nationalism of Indian Christians came under suspect.

Protestant Christian leaders like K.T. Paul and S.K. Datta were closely involved in the
nationalist struggle. They made a common cause with the Indian National congress.
They rejected the demand for communal electorates and advocated joint electorates.
They represented the protestant Christian community at the Round Table conference
held in London. S.K.Datta arranged a meeting between Gandhi and the British
leaders. The aim of the meeting was to persuade and influence the British government
to advocated joint electorates.

Complimenting the Indian Christians for identifying themselves with the nationalist
congress, K.Natrajan said in 1922: Constitutional reforms established the theory that
there is no dominant race in India. The handicap of Christian missions as
representatives at dominant race has consequently ceased to exist to a large measure.
The new angle of vision of Christian scholars, thinkers and workers in approaching
Indian life and thought as contributories to worlds spiritual heritage. The national
spirit, so prominent today among the Indian Christian community which by declining
communal electorates for the new councils and in other ways. It has effectively swept
aside the long standing impression that the Christian missions were activated by the
policy of denationalizing converts to Christianity and their descendants.

Nationalist and patriotism among Christians was seen before the founding of the
Indian National Congress. In 1871, an indigenous Christian association of all
Christian Alliance was established. It consisted of representatives from all Christian
denominations throughout Maharashtra. Around 150 members including 16 Indian

47

pastors attended a four day conference. During the conference various patriotic topics
were discussed. One of the topics discussed was Our duties to our Country.

28

The

Christians always supported Indian nationalist leaders.

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 at Bombay. Many Indian
Christians attended the annual congress sessions. Appaji Yardi, in his report of 1889,
wrote: Caste was breaking down, prejudices were lessening, and there was a growing
respect for Indian Christians and trust them. This was shown in the selection of 55
Christian delegates to attend the National Congress Session held in Bombay in 1889.
Some of whom were converts from the lowest class. The number of Christians who
attended the Congress Sessions seemed to have dwindled in the late 1890s as
nationalism came to be increasingly associated with religion.

The Swadeshi and Boycott movements further strengthened the nationalist favor of
Indian Christians. It encouraged them to free themselves from dependence and
subordination to foreign missionaries. It increased the Cleavage between the
missionaries and Indian Christians. The Indian Christians began to identify
themselves with nationalist aspirations. It became clear to the missionaries that they
could not remain indifferent to the political aspirations of the Indian people. By the
second decade of the 20th century, the nationalist movement gained a mass support.
Christian began to express their anger against the west-oriented church. They wanted
the church to be the model Indian church. The mission work came to be divided into
Mission and Church.

The church in India faced a problem. The Hindus felt the Indian Christians were
denationalized. The aspect could no longer be taken lightly. The Methodist church in
its Central Conference held in 1920, urging all its members to do everything possible
to get rid of the dales impression that Indian Christians were denationalized. The
order passed by the Church reads as follows: To this end we recommend that, in our
schools we teach our pupils that which is best in Indian art; sculpture, literature and
history; that they may grow up to know and loyally love their own country. It was
further stated that, It is their duty to take an active share in the present national
48

development of their country. With this in view every encouragement to be given to

them. To take their stand was members of a community among the sister communities
29

for the betterment of India.

2.8.3 Social Reformers and Reforms Supporting the Adventist

Mission in Maharashtra
The missionaries, the British officials and few liberal Indian reformers like: Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, M.G. Ranade, G.K. Gokhale believed that British rule was providential.

During a lecture in August 1878, M.G.Ranade explaining the benefit of English

education said the important thing about any body of knowledge is that it should tell
us that we are. Such like matters..now that knowledge has been more or less
discovered by the European learning. Where as even in the flourishing times of our
Indian learning, there is no trace of it.. The English rule should be regarded as
fortunate occurrence for Indian. It should not be reason for refusing the preferred
knowledge.. Japan and China and other nations seek with great expenditure and
labor to acquire this knowledge India is in a fortunate position as compared with
Chinese and Japanese. Since she is so favorably situated for acquiring it without
difficulty. Instead of decrying the impact upon India of western thought the True lover
of India will rejoice in it. He will himself acquire as much of it as he can, will get
acquainted with his rights, and by means of the modern knowledge will remove that
30

cloud that has enveloped his country for thousands of years.

The impact of Christianity was such that the orthodox Hindu leaders from renounced
Hindu organizations like the Paramhamsa Mandali and Prarthana Samaj were
influenced by ideas like secularism, freedom, and liberty. This led to various socioreligious reforms. The people were influenced by the idea of liberation and this gave a
new approach to life. The common man broke the generation old traditions and
accepted new notions which made life easy, beautiful and better. Thus Christianity
was responsible to induce in the common man an awaking to various social and
religious changes.

49

One of the greatest achievements of the missionaries was the awareness they created
among the Mahars and Mangs in the villages in Maharashtra. This growing awareness
sowed the seeds of unrest leading to the liberation movement of the Dalits. Bishop
Whitehead explaining this wrote, Two things have greatly struck me during the last
few years. The first is that in the villages, where our work among the outcastes has
been most powerful and most successful. There has already begun a movement
among the caste people. Already, the leaven is beginning to work, and the influence
of the elevation of these poor, degraded people is beginning to have its effect upon the
caste people themselves. Then the second thing is that there is no part of the work of
the church among the outcastes. When they see that the church has held our to them
the right hand of brotherhood and raised them out of their misery and despair, they are
obliged to admit that there is something in Christianity which Hinduism can never
hope to gain. It wins their admiration but now it has aroused their fears. A leading
Hindu paper from Madras wrote, We must remember that the conversion of the
31

outcasts to Christianity spell the downfall of the hoary civilization of India.

Jyotiba Phule contribution towards the Dalits movement was immense. Shahu
Maharaj of Kolhapur did all he could to support this reform. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar
fought for the rights of backward caste and his efforts yielded great fruits. He was
successful in liberating the Dalits in India from shackles of the caste system. In 1950
when the new constitution of India was adopted a guarantee for removal of
untouchables was provided. In 1955 by an Act of Parliament, the practice of
untouchables was made a criminal offence.
The contribution of the missionaries towards women liberation is immense. The
Christian mission schools were the first to educate women and created in them a
consciousness of their rights as human beings. It is necessary to highlight the role of
women missionaries. Especially of the single women missionaries NAME who, as
teachers, nurses, doctors, Bible women reached to women of all castes and creeds.
Enlightened them of their roles and rights as human beings in the society. These
missioners women taught that marriage, child bearing women and working were not
the only vocations for the ordinary women. This gradually inculcating the idea that in
marriage a women does not become the property of a man but she has her own dignity
and individuality. Educated Indian girls could now become teachers; establish schools
and colleges for women. The first women graduates of India universities were the

50

products of Christian educational Institutions. One of the most conspicuous

achievements of Christianity has been women liberation through education.

The missionaries established a number of hospitals exclusively for women and

children in Maharashtra. One of the most prominent is the Miraj Mission Hospital.
Nursing as a profession was considered low and beneath the dignity of women of
respectable standing. The working of a midwife was related to women who were
32

normally shunned. Childbirth was considered an unholy.

But the Christians proved

this wrong. Above so percent of all trained nurses and midwives in India are Christian
the influence of the Miraj Medical Hospital in Maharashtra was far reaching. It served
not only as a hospital that healed the sick and brought relief to the suffering, but it
also served as an agent of Social revolution. Dr. William Wanless wrote: When we
opened our hospital, for two months, only the lowest castes availed themselves of the
benefits. But in less than Six months, half a dozen different castes could have been
found in the same ward at the same time, and now, not infrequently one may find
Brahmins, Mahars, Chambars and the intermediate castes, side by side in the same
ward. We have been treated with the same Christian Consideration and Sympathy,
without respect to their creed or position in society. The Mission hospital was the
only places were leprosy was treated. Even today the hospital treats 90% of the
leprosy patients in India.

2.9 Introduction of Social cultural Development of Maharashtra

The history of Christianity in Maharashtra is viewed as an integral part of the sociocultural history of the Indian people rather than as a separate body from it. The history
will therefore, focus upon the Christian people in Maharashtra; upon their social ,
religious, cultural and political encounters , upon the changes which these encounters,
upon the changes which these encounters produced in them and in the appropriation
of Christian gospel, as well as in the Indian culture and society of which they
themselves are a part.

The Christian mission has been one of the potent factors that have produced modern
India. They have played a large part in the great intellectual and spiritual evolution

51

that has slowly gone in this country during the past century. how grateful we
feelfor valuable lessons we have learnt about love and service in the direction of
organized charity. how lives of men and women have to be dedicated in the service
of God and man, and how the possessions of this world are to be held as trust for
the furtherance of human welfare. Said G.K. Devadhar.

33

The reawakening of society leading to the social reform movement in Maharashtra.

Since the third decade of the century, was the result of a new spirit of enquiry and
criticism that engulfed the elite in the cities of Bombay and Poona. Impressed by the
achievements and superiority of the new rulers and challenged by a new band of
Christian missionaries, the elite in the Bombay Presidency, as in Bengal, Stressed the
need to critically examine the social system, religious beliefs and cultural heritage of
India. This made them aware of the short comings of the Indian society. In the 19th
and 20th centuries Maharashtra played a vital role along with Bengal in the
representation of Indian society and political liberation of India.
The social reform movement of 19th century in Maharashtra was a mixed result of
indigenous traditions and western education. The impact of western education led to
the establishment of Adventist education. This was the evident on the educated people
of mostly Bombay and Pune. The mass movement was carried by other leaders
inspired by traditions of saints like Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Chakradhar, Tukaram etc.
and Kings like Shivaji. In the 19th century Maharashtra reformists tried to examine
critically their social system and religious beliefs. They gave priority to social reform
as against political freedom. In their reform efforts. They had to contend with stiff
opposition from the conservatives. Foremost among the reformists were Balshastri
Jambhekar (1810-1846), who condemned the evil customs of sati and female
infanticide, Gopal Hari Deshmukh(1823-1892) who, through his shatpatre (a bunch of
letters numbering 100 exact no. is108) attacked orthodox Brahmans opposing social
and religious reforms and a system, and upheld the cause of untouchables and
education of women of lower castes.

Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837-1925) and Justice Ranade (1842-1901) were

the pioneers of Prarthana Samaj, an organization for general, social and religious

52

reform. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895) gave priority to social reform. Dhondo
keshav Karve (1858-1962) devoted his life to the cause of womens education.
Behramji Malbari (1853-1912), a Parsi of Bombay, started Seva Sadan for the care of
women of all castes. Pandita Ramabai (1858-1922) founded the Sharada Sadan in
1890 to help upper-class widows. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule established Satya Shodhak
Samaj, Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873-1944), fought for the eradication of untouchabilty
through his Depressed Classes Mission. Chatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur918741922) also plunged into this movement and defied the caste system, championed the
cause of the untouchables and promoted education in his state. Karmaveer Bhaurao
Patil (1887-1959), the architect of the Rayat Shikshan Sanstha, followed in the
footprints of Phule, Shinde and Shahu Maharaj. Maharashtra will always remain
proud of Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956), the chief architect of the Indian
Constitution and the creator of a social and political awareness among the scheduled
castes of India.

34

The Social reform measures brought about a renaissance and social-awakening in

Maharashtra. The efforts of D.K. Karve to improve womens education, of Bhaurao
Patil, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and Dr, Panjabrao Deshmukh and Dr. Abasaheb
Gopal Rao Khedkar who championed the downtrodden people, as well as those of
Tarabai Modak in Vidarbha and Anutai Waugh in the Adivasi areas, have set an
example for other states. The services rendered to victims of leprosy by Dr. Shivaji
Patwardhan and Baba Amte perhaps have no parallel. Vijay Merchant fought
relentlessly for facilities for physically handicapped. Vinoba Bhave, the spiritual heir
of Gandhi, sacrificed his life for Sarvodaya.

Thus, the works of the saint poets, the social reformers and social constructive
workers have made Maharashtra a progressive state. That is the one face of the coin.
The other face of coin was the Adventist schools which gives Adventist education to
Maharashtra state. With the above two theories Maharashtra has fully developed into
all-round socio, cultural ways of socio-educational life.

53

2.10 General Features of Maharashtra

It is necessary to know about the local people, their history and culture in order to
understand the conditions and the kind of people among whom the Christian
missionaries worked and led to establishment of Adventist schools and Adventist
education. This would help us to comprehend the difficulties and obstacles the
missionaries faced in their mission task and establishing Adventist education to
Maharashtra. When it comes to Indian states, one of the largest and commercially
advanced states is that of Maharashtra. The name itself implies its largeness:-Maha
means Big and Rashtra means state implying that it is one of the largest state in
India. Maharashtra has an area of 307762 sq.kms. With a population of 90 million.
The languages used in Maharashtra are Marathi, the mother tongue and other
languages used are Hindi, Gujarati, and English.

The picturesque state in Western India, with a 720 km. coastline is dotted by rugged
forts standing as mute witnesses down the ages to the march of warriors kings,
foreign trading vessels and invaders from across the seas. A large area of the state
rests on high plateau, historically the main centre of the Maratha Empire, which
successfully defied the might of the Mughals under the fearless rule of Chatrapati
Shivaji. Many of the Island and Coastal forts of Maharashtra are a legacy of Shivaji
rule. Running parallel to the coasts are Western Ghats, which harbor some of the most
scenic and inviting hill stations, particularly Matheran and Mahabaleshwar. The Ghats
divide the Deccan from the Konkan coast, with its unspoilt beaches, today being
developed as modern resorts, like Ganpatipule and Sindhudurg. Mumbai, the booming
capital of the state and the economic powerhouse of India, is the most affluent and
industrialized city in the country today. The people of Maharashtra are tough, hard
working and cheerful. Maratha peasantry has always shown an innate native
shrewdness and common sense. The Western Ghats or the Sahara Mountain ranges
rise majestically to heights of 3500 to 4000 feet along the west coast of the Arabian
sea, separating the Deccan also called Desh, from the narrow coastal strip called
Konkan. Konkan gets heavy rainfall on an average of 100 inches per annum and helps
paddy cultivation. The rainfall in the Deccan plateau is moderate to scanty ranging
from 15 to 45 inches annually. Larger part of the Deccan plateau lies to the east of the
Sahyadris. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people and is totally dependent

54

upon the monsoons. The life of the Maratha farmers is not easy. The Deccan red trap
soil is hard and they have to struggle round the year to raise enough to sustain
themselves. When the monsoon fall, life becomes more difficult. However, most of
the rivers that flow across the Deccan from west to east, (originating in the Sahyadris
and joining the Bay of Bengal) have provided deltas that water the Deccan. These
rivers are the Krishna, the Godavari and the Bhima. They flow full during monsoons
but almost dry up during the summers as the flow is reduced to a trickle. However,
modern dams provide water through irrigation for a better agricultural yield.

Maharashtra has seen a lot in its history right from the ideal rule of the Great Maratha
Ruler Raje Shivaji till the paradoxical ending of Chatrapatis, the period of unstability,
the loyalty of Peshwas, their reign of the Supreme power, to their total disasters and
eventually the fall to the British. The Further rise of leaders like Lokmanya Tilak,
Agarkar, Savarkar, their varying ideologies but their same significant aim of
achieving independence for their country and the people, birth of the Ganesh
Chaturthi festival and much more.

35

The state and its movements still echo the glory

of its history.

The state of Maharashtra has everything for a visitors right from pristine beaches,
impressive forts and monuments, cool hill station retreats, pilgrimages, sanctuaries
and lastly but not the forget its cities like Mumbai, Pune, Nashik, Aurangabad,
Kolhapur, of which Mumbai is the economic capital of our country that give a tourist
a fulfilling experience.

When its comes to education, Maharashtra now ranks one of the top educational
activity state. The Maharashtra state Government right from its formation on 1st may
1960 committed itself to planned development of primary education. The planning
process in the country started in the year 1951 with the First Five Year Plan.
Maharashtra joined this process of socio-economic development through planning
from the Third Five Year Plan onwards. At the village level, Village Education
Committees have been established as bridges between the schools and society. The
objective of establishing these committees was to get the cooperation of influential
and educated villagers in the implementation at the various Government schemes for

55

primary education. To raise resources for maintaining schools, to participate in the

socio-cultural activities of the school, to supervise the attendance of the students and
teachers, to make available educational material and help the sale of crafts prepared
by students, to maintain the school property through repairs and helping the students
to gain from their knowledge and experience.

The above efforts by Maharashtra Government shown a path to the establish many
Christian missionary schools later on changed to Adventist schools through out
Maharashtra. Seventh Day Adventist organization studied all these factors and
decided to start Adventist education to the people of Maharashtra. The people of
Maharashtra showed a great zeal in getting Adventist education. These encounters
produced in them and in the appropriation of the Christian gospel as well in the Indian
culture and society of which they themselves are a part.

One must not miss a great state like Maharashtra that has progressed in every sphere
be it art and culture or economy. All these general features made Maharashtra a
Maha state.

2.11 Socio-Economic System in Maharashtra

The socio-Economic life of Maharashtra people, in general, was conditioned by
geographical, physical and climatic factors on the one hand. By social organizations,
age old customs and religious faiths on the other. Through the ages the basic ways of
living were stabilized into fixed economic system which, more or less, maintained
continuity from ancient to medieval times. Economic conditions also have presented
certain paradoxical features at almost all periods of history.

The Maharashtra the religion and social life were inseparable, because of the Baluta
System

36
.

The economic life of the people came to be closely woven with socio-

religious life.

56

2.11.1 The Balutedars and Nature of Balutedari System

in Maharashtra
It is important to understand the Baluta system that prevailed in Maharashtra besides
the caste system. The Baluta System combined in itself the economic, political and
social functions of the village. Balutedars were village servants and they were paid for
the society was totally dominated by Brahmins. The caste systems were rigid and
oppressive especially for the lower castes. In Maharashtra the main caste groups, in
order of hierarchy were Brahmins, Maratha, kunbis, artisans and untouchables.
During the Peshwa regime the Brahmins were not only the privileged priestly class
but also the pampered class. Next were the Marathas who were landowners,
Chieftains, warriors and village headmen or Patils. The Marathas has been the ruling
class under the Shivaji and until the rise of Peshwas. They claim that they belongs to
the four great Kshatriya Vavshas (Surya, Soma, Brahma and Shesha).They claim to
have 96 (Shahnau Kuli) mythological Kshatriya families or Kulas; some of which
carry the names of Rajput clans such as Chauhan, Solanki, Powar and like.

Meaning of Balute is given by Molesworth as follows: The term Balute is used for a
share of the corn and garden-produce assigned for the subsistence of the twelve public
servants of a village.

37

Molesworth has given a meaning of the term Balutedar or

Baluta as a public servant of a village entitled to Balute. There are twelve

Balutedars inclusive of the regular government officers like Patil, Kulkarni, and
others as Sutar(Carpenter), Lohar (Blacksmith), Mahar, Mang, Kumbhar(Potter),
Chambhar (Cobber), Parit(Washerman), Njawi(Barber), Bhat(Priest), Maulana,
Gurav, Koli. Some papers included Veskar, Joshi, and Sonar also. Sometimes
Ramoshi in the list of Balutedars.

38

There were variations in the recognition of Balutedars from region to region. J. Grant
Duff, who wrote the History of the Marathas, gives a list of Balutedars. According to
him, Sutar, Lohar, Chambhar, Mang Kumbhar, Nhawi, Parit, Gurav, Joshi Bhat,
Maulana, Mahar were the Balutedars. It has been noticed that Balutedar of one district
was the Alutedar of another district.

57

These institutions of village servants existed everywhere in India. Some western

thinkers and scholars also thought over this system. Marx concluded in his work Das
Capital, that dozen of individuals (Balutedars) were maintained with their whole
expense by the whole community. German social thinkers, Max Weber, called this
system demiurgic mode of employment in his work, General Economic History
(1924). According to him, Balutedars were the serfs. So he called them demiurgically
labour. Another British historian Baden-Powell in his book. The Indian Village
community (1986) has discussed about village servants. He says that artisans and
servants of the village received fixed payment of free lands for their services and this
system was traditional in India. Farmers used to keep aside a share of Balutedars from
their production before paying the revenue of the government, the villagers supplied
raw materials to the artisans and the artisans produced the implements and other
articles. The artisans were given remuneration of the harvest and not from time to
time. Marx says that this was a traditional institution, and economic autonomy of
village depended upon village servants and so Indian society became unchangeable.

According to Max Weber, Magical traditionalism and caste institutions gives

stability to the Indian society. The theory of Demiurgic labour of Max Weber is not
accepted by W.H. Wizar, an anthropologist. He studied the Economic condition of
villagers in northern India and wrote. A book entitled The Hindu Jajmani System
(1925). This system was similar to Samantsnahi, but there are some differences
between these two. In this system, every artisan or GramSevak served some families
and received remuneration annually.

Dr. Hiroshi wrote research paper on Rural Servants in the 18th Century Maharashtra
Village- Demurring or Jajmani System. He raises a question in his article,
Balutedari System in Maharashtra. About demiurgic theory of Max Weber and
Jajmani System of Wizar. He remarked that Balutedar System in Maharashtra was
demiurgic system. Jajmani System could be applied to the Priest class and not to the
twelve Balutedars. Element not both these systems can be found in the Balutedari
system of Maharashtra. Division of labour also sometimes seems to be an important
factor in Balutedari system.

39

58

Another document of the year 1799 gives the names of twelve Balutedars. This
document moreover, tells about the gradation of Balutedars as following: Sutar,
Chambhar, Mang and Mahar belong to the senior grade while Kumbhar, Nhawi, Parit
and Lohar constituted the second grade. Gurav, Joshi, Sonar and Mulana are
mentioned in third grade.

40

In another document a Yadi of the year 1818, the names of Balutedars are mentioned:
Parit, Attar, Halalkhor, Maner, Pansare, Lohar, Chambhar, Mang, Mahar, Gurav,
Shimpi, Burud and Wani. These are thirteen in numbers.

41

In another unpublished document, mention has been made often of the Balutedars like
Sutar, Parit, Kumbhar, Hajam(Nhawi),Chambhar, Gurav, Lohar, Mahar, Mang and
Koli.

42

It seems that the number of Balutedars varied from ten to thirteen and in the

above mentioned three lists, the names of Chambhar and Gurav are common.
We find that the names of Balutedars vary from list to list. The name of Balutedars
has been mentioned in the list of 1765 also. This list mentions eleven Balutedars like
Sutar(Carpenter),

Njawi(Barber),

Chambhar(Shoemaker),

Gurav(Priest),

Kumbhar(Potter), Parit(Washerman), Sonar(Gold-Smith), Lohar(Blacksmith), Wani,

Dhangar(Shepherd), and Teli(Oilman).

43

Thus with the above account of Balutedar System in Maharashtra, Seventh Day
Adventist Education has always formed a continuum and basis for the development of
human society. As an organized social institution, Adventist education can be looked
upon as a process of inducting the younger generation of society into a kind of life
that is thought to be desirable both for the individual and the total group, civilized
society conceives this something in terms of kind of knowledge , skills attitudes,
values and behavior patterns. Through development of attitudes, values, capabilities
and skills, this Adventist education provides the strength and resilience to people to
respond to changing situations and enables them to cause and contribute to societys
development. Seventh Day Adventist schools as specialized agencies of education can
therefore play a crucial role in providing the environment that would help nurture
capabilities of younger generation in accordance with the aims and aspirations of
society.

59

The political, social as well as the religious fields of the life of Maharashtra after
conquering it.

2.11.2 Caste Taboos and other social practices

The caste system, through predominantly a social phenomenon was closely connected
with economic activities. The caste was the operative wheels which moved the village
community to action. The disadvantages and drawbacks of the caste system apart, it
carried with it a definite economic purpose, namely to give to each caste a hereditary
profession. Thus the village community was divided into a number of castes. Each
caste working as an economic unit.

One of the vital aspects of the social system was the caste rules that regulated human
relations in the villages. The caste rules were based taboos relating to inter-dining,
inter-marriage and social contacts. The higher castes practiced these taboos relating to
lower castes according to the accepted system of caste hierarchy. Dining or drinking
water by an upper caste person with a person of lower caste led to pollution of the
upper caste person. This was a taboo that a person of higher caste should not eat with
person of lower caste.

44

A number of social inhuman evil related to women were prominent in Maharashtra

during the Peshwas regime. Practices relating to women were particularly degrading
and dehumanizing. Practices such as polygamy, child marriage and prohibition of
widow remarriage, degraded women. The practice of sati prevailed among the upper
castes. However, women in general were otherwise treated well in Maharashtra and
they enjoyed a certain dignity and respect in their homes. The Maratha rule which
inherited the legacy of ancient regimes of Maharashtra also added something of its
own to the society of Maharashtra and bequeathed its own system of society to the
modern Maharashtra which roughly began in the first quarter of the 19th century. For
the purpose of review of the spread of Christianity in the 19th century, it is worth
investigating into the details of the society of the caste taboos and other social
practices found at the beginning of the19th century in Maharashtra.

60

In the Hindu society thy religion dominated. The idea of God was all powerful and
everything else was subordinate to it. Hindu system is based on the castes whose
origin again is believed to be Divine. The first principle of a Hindu was that the social
organization cannot be changed. Each caste was assigned its own duties and social
customs and The maintenance of the social system of the castes was one of the duties
of the King.

45

There can be no change in the said structure whatever may be the

political change.

At the top of society in Maharashtra stood a cluster of Brahmin caste of which the
most important were the Konkanastha and the Deshastha.

46

The Deshastas were

numerically the most significant of the Brahmin castes and they regarded themselves
as the first settlers in the region. They also believed that they were the highest of all
Brahmins. The Konkanasthas who came into prominence after the rise of the
Peshwas, looked down upon others with contempt and did not associate on terms of
equality with noblest of the dvijas.

47

The Deshasthas were closely integrated as

Kulkarnis and Joshis. They figured more prominently in the eyes if the peasants than
other Brahmin groups.

During Peshwa rule the Brahmins came to regard themselves as the governing class
with special privileges and exemptions which did not exists under the system founded
48

by Shivaji. The Brahmin Sovereignty created naturally a pride among the Brahmins
and disappointment in personal ambitions led the contemporary Marathas to exploit.

49

Another important class in the society was Marathas it included peasantry, the
shepherds, and cowherds. They were also known as kshatriyas because they
participated in the military activities.

50

With the exception of a few prominent

families they were looked on as sudras, the fourth class in the society.

51

Colonel

Tone, who was an officer in the Peshwas army, writes, the Maratha holds a very
inferior situation in the scale of rank and eminence of Hindu institution. He is happily
free from observances in the respect of washing, praying and eating. He can eat all
kinds of food with the exception of beef, can dress his meals at all times and at all
seasons can part take of rituals dressed by any caste superior to his own ; washing and

61

praying were not indispensable in his order. These advantages qualified for a military
life. Marathas everywhere were Patils at villages and Deshmukhs in districts or chief
land holders. There total strength was about one third in the entire population and
besides the Brahmins they were a powerful elements in the population.

52

The Vaishyas the third caste also was dominating in the society. It was known as the
Mercantile in the society. It was known as the Mercantile community. Gujarati and
Marwaris who were from Gujarat and Marwar were interested in trade only.

53

The

untouchables in Maharashtra were divided in five groups in the 19th century and all
these lived outside the villages. They were Cobblers, Tanners, Mahars, Mangs, and
Scavengers. The Mahars and the Mangs were much larger and had a status in village
system.

The caste of Mahars was the largest. Its members considered impure, had definite
duties in the villages. They always the village watchmen.

54

removing and disposing of dead cattle and other animals.

55

They had the duty of

They had land in the

village area called watan land. The watan land remained with the number of the
families wherever they might be so long as some members of the family were there to
perform the duties in his term.

The other caste which was commonly found in every village in the Deccan was that of
the Mangas. They had no stated duties. They two main occupations. Mang was a rope
makers.

56

In return for his services rendered to the cultivating caste he received what

was called Baluti. It was the duty of the Mangas to supply in demand traces for the
cultivators, plough and bullock-cart, cards for the binding the Sheaves and for
lowering the bucket in to the well, clings for driving the birds from the corn, a whip
for his team a muzzle for his bullocks mouth. As musician he was brought into
relation with the religious worship at the village. In some parts, it was his duty to beat
the drum daily before the chief village temple. Everywhere his services were required
in connection with marriage ceremonies. He frequently acted as watchman and by
profession a chief executioner.

57

The Peshwas supported Pathshalas which were run exclusively for high caste
children. These imparted religious education to young Brahmins. There were 164
62

Pahtashalas in Poona through the medium of Sanskrit. The Pathshalas were free
institutions since the Shashtris were not expected to exploit their learning and
scholarship for the sordid business of earning a livelihood.

58

The high caste pupil studied a few religious scriptures and memorized rituals which
enabled them to conduct religious worship at temples and at private houses and
ceremonies on occasions of births, marriages and deaths and so on. The rest of the
Brahmins and Kayastha Prabhus were literate but their learning did not go beyond the
knowledge of reading writing and a little arithmetic.

59

It was a period of moral

stagnation, cultural demoralization and religious petrifaction. A period of decline and

decay caused by intellectual and physical fatigue.

60

Thus, the people of Maharashtra in the beginning of the nineteenth century were
backward in many respects. They neglected the western culture and knowledge. They
were traditional minded praising only the achievements of their forefathers. Thus it
was difficult for any new ideas to take birth in the society. The English people took
the advantage of it and dominated

With the above account of caste taboos and other social practices, the spreading of
Christianity and Adventist education was a great difficult task. The Maratha kingdom
was the last major Indian state to fall before the establishment of British rule over
Maharashtra in 1818 provided an opportunity for the protestant missionaries to start
work in this part of India. The British found the Marathas the most defiant. It is
always difficult to introduce a totally new religion in an alien socio-religious system
and more so in a Brahmin dominated tradition bound society. The handicaps of
missionaries were many. The people of Maharashtra identified missionaries with the
British rulers and this became the first barrier between the missionaries and the upper
castes. It was not easy for the people of Maharashtra to understand and appreciated
the missionarys alien religion, culture and proselytizing zeal. Nevertheless the
missionaries worked day and night to establish Adventist schools all over the
Maharashtra state.

63

2.12 Socio-Political conditions in Maharashtra

Christianity came to India in two main periods: The first century missionary activity
of St. Thomas, the disciple of Jesus and the western missionary activity form 15001975. But it is observed that the Western India which had thrown open its doors to
gospel message could not focus its enough attention on the groups that were
respective of gospel message during the early period of its history. They were content
with partial success. Hence it is believed that various missions and churches that were
then operating in Western India territory were satisfied with small number of people
accepting the truth.
However, towards the end of 19th century the Christian periodicals played an
important role in spreading the message of the Lord Jesus Christ. The outstanding
journal introduced in 1842 by American Marathi Mission was called Dnyanodaya.
Even after 163 years this journal is still in print and it has become one of the most
popular mouth-piece of Christendom in Western India. If one has to scan through the
early issues of this journal it can be safely constructed that the socio-political
conditions then prevailing in Maharashtra was not decisive for the growth of
missionary movement.
The following reasons could be attributed to the socio-political conditions which
slowed down the momentum of the missionary activity and sources for establishing
Adventist schools in Maharashtra:
1. Many churches, schools in their zeal to spread the message of the Lord Jesus
Christ to the masses of Maharashtra did not follow the spirit of gospel
commission. That created a lot of disturbance in the minds of the people.
2. The battle of Vssaye gave a final death below to the Peshwa rule and people
realized that the end of the regime was inevitable. This created political
instability in Maharashtra and in turn hampered the work of missionary
movement in Maharashtra.
3. With the end of Peshwas rule in 1818 people realized that British Raj was the
only possible answer to political instability in Maharashtra.
4. The war of Independence in 1857 another blow to the instability issue and

64

caused further chaos already prevalent in the region. Thousands lost their
lives but the British were successful in crushing the revolt.
5. Brahmins enjoyed monopoly over education while the other classes were
deprived of this region. Those who had tried to take education to the common
masses had to face not only opposition but severe persecution. Anna Karve
and Mahatma Phule are the characteristic example of this kind.
6. Women were neglected: they did not enjoy the basic rights in the society.
Moreover the evil practices such as child marriages, child widows, sati was
very much prevalent in those days.
7. The Indian society was divided into rigid compartments and it was not easy to
accept the broad principles of love, peace and forgiveness. Strongly
advocated and cherished by Christian religion. Infact Christianity was
considered to be the western religion introduced in Maharashtra to undermine
the eastern religious of this region.

61

These major hurdles played an important role in restraining proper growth of

missionary movement in Maharashtra.

65

REFERENCES

1. Rosenita Christo; Adventist Mission Traditions, Journal of Southern

Asia Tidings, Vol. 7, July - August 1963, Madras, Pp.3.
2.

Kedas R W; Adventist Movement in Western India, Western India

Union of S.D.A. publication, Pune, 2005, Pp.6-10.

3. Secretariat; General Conference of Seventh Day Adventists Church

Manual, Oriental Watchman publishing house, Pune, 1995, p.39.
4. Ibid. p.41.
5. Ibid. p.45.
6. Ellen G. White; Christian Education, Oriental Watchman Publishing
House, Pune, 1949, p.63.
7. Ibid. p.65.
8. Moses K J; Southern Asia Division Constitution, By- laws and
Working Policy, Oriental Watchman Publishing House, Pune, 2000,
p.11.
9. Ibid. p.13.
10. Ellen G. White; The Acts of the Apostles, Pacific Press Publishing
Association, California, U.S.A., 1911 Pp.30-33.
11. Berkouwer G. C; The person of Christ, Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, Michigan, 1954, p.105.
12. Ibid. p.106.
13. Francis.D.Nichol; The Seventh Day Adventist Bible Commentary,
Review and Herald Publishing Association, U.S.A., 1949 Vol.2, p.39.
14. Ibid. p.40.
15. John M. Fowler; IMAGES 1893-1993, Oriental Watchman publishing
house, Pune, 1993, Pp.03-05.
16. Ibid. p.7.

66

17. Ibid. p.10.

18. Lee J. Gugliotto; Hand Book for Bible Study, Review and Herald
Publishing Association, U.S.A., 1995, Pp.196-198.
19. Ibid. p.200.
20. Graham Maxwell; The Seventh Day Adventists Bible Commentary,
Review and Herald Publishing Association; U.S.A., Vol.6, Pp.206-208.
21. Kedas; Op. Cit, Pp.20-21.
22. Rosenita Christo; Adventist Missionary Movement in Maharashtra,
Journal of Tiding, Vol. 4, September / October, Madras, 1988, Pp.14-16.
23. Ibid. p.18.
24 Francis; Op. Cit, Pp.73-74.
25 ark A. Finley; Growing as a Christian, Journal Of Adventist World,
May 1985, Lee Jairyong Publication, Korea, 1985, Pp. 27-28.
26 Ellen; Op. Cit, Pp.161, 164.
27 Ellen G. White; Testimonies for the Church, Pacific Press Publishing
House, U.S.A., Vol.9, 1920, Pp.258.
28 Ellen G. White; The Desire of Ages. Pacific Press Publishing House,
U.S.A., 1915, Pp.642.
29 Norval F. Pease; Think on These Things, Journal of Review and Herald,
Washington D.C., 1969. Pp.94.
30 Morris Venden; J Faith That Works, Journal of Review and Herald;
Washington D.C., 1980 Pp.286.
31 Methuselah

Y.S.;

Principles

of

Ministry,

Journal

of

BARN,

Oct/Nov.2000, Watchman Examiner Publishing; Madras, p.22.

32 Kedas; Op. Cit, Pp.26-28.
33 S.D.A. Encyclopedia, Seventh Day Publications, U.S.A Vol. 10, 1996.
34 Marvin Moore; Motivation to Move, A Journal of Signs of the Time,
April 1927, Pacific Press Publishing Association, U.S.A. P.26 Western
India Union Minutes, 1956, Pune.

67

35 Year End Reports, 1990, Pune.

36 Molesworth Marathi, English Dictionary, p. 564.
37 Molesworth idem.

Grant Duff J. History of the Marathas, Vol-I, Pp 482-483

38 Kulkarni A.R.; Shivkalin Maharashtra, Pp 41-43.

Goddin R. N. A Report of the Village Communities of the

Deccan, Bombay Education Societys. Press, Printed for Bombay
Government, 1852, P.10.

Hiroshi Fukazawa, Rural Servants in the 18th Century

Maharashtrian

Village

Demiurgle

or

Jujmani

System,

Kunitach, Tokyo , Japan, Pp 14 - 20.

Hiroshi Fukazawa, The Medieval Deccan, Peasants Social

System and States, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries, Pp. 199206.

Oturkar R.V.; Peshwekalin Samajikva Arthik Patravyavahar,

letter No. 75, p.55.

39 Sanshodhan Virtta, Vol. IV, p.60

40 Shahu Khand -1, Vibhag-2, Rumai No. 37, Pudake N.G., letter No.
54253.
41 Rajwade V.K. ; Maratha Yanchye Itihasachi, Sadhane, Vol.13 , Vol. 14,
letter 103, Pp.80-81
42 Lee J. Gugliotto; Culture Life of Maharashtra, A Journal of Review and
Herald, Washington D.C.; 1969, Pp.36-38.
43 Ibid, p-40.
44 Duff Grant; History of the Marathas, Vol. I , Delhi, 1971, Pp.5-6
45 Ibid, p.9.
46 Justice Randade; The Miscellaneous Writings, Bombay , 1841, Pp.
350-352
47 Nandkarni R.V.; Lokhitwadhinachi Shatpatre, (Marathi) Pp. 346.
68

48 Tone W.; Illustrations of some institutions of the Maratha People,

Vol. I, P.80.
49 Ibid, p.88.
50 Shivacharitra Sahitya, Vol. III, p.415
51 Dighe V.G. Maharashtra State Gazetteer, Part III, Maratha Period,
p.212.
52 Duff Op. Cit, p.483.
53 Bombay State Archives, General Department, Vol. 15/ 73. (Quoted in
Western India in nineteenth century Ravindra Kumar, p.40.)
54 Dighe V.G. Maharashtra State Gazetteer, Part III, Maratha Period, Pp.
234-235.
55 Keer, Dhananjay. M. Jotirao Phooley, Bombay 1964, p.5
56 Rajwade V.K. (Edited), Marthyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane, Vol. XV,
p.272.
57 Modok S. Directory of Protestant Indian Christians, 1900, Pp. 30-31.
58 Kedas; Op. Cit, p.32.
59 Ibid p.45.
60 Lee; Op Cit, p.42
61 Ibid p.46.

69