ELSEVIER

Geomorphology 417 (1995) xxx

Evolution and opening of closed depressions developed in a

quartz-kaolinitic sedimentary substratum at Taubat basin ( S
Paulo, Brazil), and analogy to the slope evolution
Heloisa F. Filizola ', Ren6 Boulet
a Pontificia Universidade Callica de S0 Paulo. S0 Paulo. Brazil
Orstom-UR12, Kupegel. Universidade de S0 P d o . S0 P d o . Brazil

Received I1 April 1994; accepted 8 December 1994

Abstract

The occurrence of dated peat (17,000-12.500 yr B.P.) in the soil in a closed depression in quartz-kaolinitic rocks of the
Taubat basin. Brazil, allowed (1) reconstruction of the evolution-of this depression, and (2) estimation of the rate of sinking.
The analogy with the soil cover of a slope in the same area has shown that this valley developed by the same mechanisms as
those of the depression. Chemical erosion is the main agent for the generation of landforms in this region.
1. Introduction

--,

Closed depressions, basin forms that lack a stream

outlet, are formed by loss of soluble material from
the base. The best known forms are karstic sinks in
limestone areas, but they are also encountered in
other types of rocks. In Brazil, these depressions can
he found in quartz-kaolinitic sedimentary rocks in
Vale do Paraba, where they are quite abundant. in
the Paulinia region (SPI. and in the Boa Vista region
(RR). They also occur in migmatites. as in the Serra
do Mar. Sorocaba do Sul region (SC) (Queiroz Neto.
1993). Furthermore. in Vale do Paraba. our study
area. several valley heads have an amphitheater shape
very similar to thos/of the closed depressions, sugsesting that they were previously closed depressions.
Therefore. the question is: have these depressions
been captured by valleys or were they formed by
another mechanism?
In Africa, closed depressions have been observed

on the Continental Terminal ironcrust in Niger

(Boulet, 1964; Busche and Erbe. 19871, in the southem part of Ivory Coast (also on the Continental
Terminal, Humbel, 1964), on cratonic rocks in
Madagascar (Soubies, 1974), on the Batek arenites
in Congo (Schwartz, 1988). In Uganda, these forms
are common in metasedimentary rocks (Doocnkamp,
1%8: McFarlane, 1976). Other examples can be
found on ultrabasic rocks in New Caledonia (Trescases, 1975), and on igneous rocks in Papua New
Guinea (Lffler, 1978) (see also McFarlane and
Twidale, 1987).
In Brazil, these closed depressions, al though explained as forms of geochemical origin (Ruellan,
1943; Ab'Saber and Bernardes, 1958: Suguio, 1969;
Coltrinari, 19751, have never been 'studied in detail.
They are, however, very interesting natural models
because they work as traps for sediments that migrate downslope. Development also appears to be
largely attributable to export of material in solution.

0169-555X/95/909.50 C 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

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This study attempts to differentiate the chemical

roje from that of surface mechanical transport in the
evolution of closed depressions and associated valleys.

2. Materials and methods

The Taubat basin, where the studied depressions

are located, is part of the Paraba Graben whose

450

40'

20'

L e
Fig. 1. Location map. I.Taubat basin.

Fig. 2. Topography of DI depression. location of transects and extension of peat and its relics.

'
ir'

H.F. Filizoia. R. Boulet/ Geomorphology O0 (1995) 000-000

25C to 30C and minimum temperatures from 5C

to 10C. The soil cover in the depressions and the
underlying weathered sedimentary rocks was studied
by means of transects.

origin is related to the evolution of the continental

rift system that borders the Santos basin (Almeida,
1976). The sediments that fill this graben are of
Tertiary and Quaternary age. The depressions are
m o s N recent rocks - the Pindamonhangaba Formation (Riccomini, 1989) - which are fluvial deposits made up mostly of fine quartz-kaolinitic sediments (mudrocks), interbedded with coarser layers
(sands and pebble layers). Tectonic activity was
intense during the Tertiary, becoming more quiescent
during the Quaternary (Suguio and Vespucci, 1986;
Riccomini, 1989).
The closed depressions are located on top of the
hills or on interfluves. Those under study are located
in the Caapava area (Fig. 1). The local climate is
humid tropical with rainfall ranging from 1000 to
i500 mm. Maximum annual temperatures range from
Dark gray horizon

3. Soil cover configuration of a valley and a

depression
3.1. The study of a closed depression: Depression

DI
&G-nBis
located at an altitude of 607 m
and has an almost flat bottom of elliptical shape (80
m x 100 m). The sideslopes surrounding it are
concave-convex with maximum gradients of 16%.
n e s e slopes are broken by cols; the lowest one, C1

Gray horizon with black peaty patches

Drilling location
Perched w a t e r table

9--

a: 11240 :70 years B P

b-13130+ l o 0years BP
c-13330+140years

BP

d: 16 160+90YearsBP

5m

10450 +130 years B P

f: 16 850

8 0 years B P

Fig. 3. DIT1 transect and location of data for radiocarbon analysis. I.Humic dark brown sandy clay loam horizon. becoming black (la) and
subsequently with ochre spots (lb). 2. Strong brown sandy clay horizon. 3. Yellowish red sandy clay horizon. 4. Red sandy clay horizon. 5.
Transition horizon between 4 and argillaceous rock. 6 . Argillaceous rock with violet patches. 7. Green argillaceous rock. 8. Yellowish
hrown sandy clay horizon. 9. Yellow and red argillaceous rock. IO. Grayish brown sandy clay horizon with red spots. 11. Light gray sandy
clav horizon with red spots.

H.F. Filizola. R. Boulet / Geomorphology O0 (1995) 000-000

(Fig. 2)is 1.7 m from the bottom of the depression.

Sugar cane is grown on the slopes, and, seasonally,
beans and com on its bottom.
3.2. Configuration of rhe soil cover and of the

underlying sedimentary materials

In the D l T l transect (Figs. 2 and 3), the soil
cover is thick upslope (4.5 m) and shows a sandy
clay microaggregated oxisol, with yellowish brown
upper horizons (1 and 2) and red lower horizons (3
and 4). It grades downwards into a white argillaceous rock (layer 6) with violet mottles, a centimetre
in diameter, and occasional sandy layers. Deeper
(8.50 m). a green argillaceous rock is encountered
(layer 7).with a 1 m transition over which the violet
mottles progressively disappear.
Cross-sections along road showed that this green
argillaceous rock with gley morphology is part of the
Pindamonhangaba Formation, and that it is not related to the current soil genesis. It is found at 1.5 m
depth in the centre of the depression and at 8.5 m
depth upslope.
Lateral soil cover variations mainly concern color.
The soil color upslope is dominantly red (Fig. 3:
horizons 3, 4) and progressively changes downslope

into a yellowish brown color (lOYR, horizons 2 and

8), whereas close to the bottom of the depression,
some reddish brown spots exist followed by red
ones. Downslope, a gray horizon (Fig. 3 ) is found at
1.4 m depth, within the well drained horizon, 7.5YR
(2). It is 30 cm thick and is richer in organic matter
than the surrounding horizons. It becomes darker and
thicker at the bottom of the slope, with peaty patches.
About 6m further downslope, fine black peat appears
in the middle of this dark horizon. The peat in DlTl
extends laterally for about 10 m. The continuous peat
layer ends abruptly at the margin of the base of the
depression and only isolated patches, gradually less
black and less numerous, occur over a distance of
approximately 4m beyond that. The peat and the
gray organic horizons, covered by mineral horizons 1
to 1.7 m thick, are found only in the eastern portion
of the depression, being absent in the center of it.
The gray horizon extends up to 3.9 m higher upslope
in adjacent transect (DlT5), as shown in fig. 2.
Samples of the peat and the gray horizon and its
extension upslope have been dated (Beta Analytic).
These locations are shown in Fig. 3. The apparent
- ages of these peats are between 13,130 f 100 yr B.P.
\
6 1 6 . 8 5 0 f 180 yr B.P. The gray materials ared-iyounger (10,450 130.yr B.P. up to 11,240 f 70 yr
i

D1 TI07

D1 T l l O

-_ _

Drilling location
Perched water t a b l e

_ -- - - - -

L
O

50

J
lOOm

Fig. 4. DIT7 Transect. I. Humic horizon. 2. Bright brown. sandy clay horizon with dark gray patches. 3. Reddish brown sandy clay horizon.
4.Ycllow sandy clay horizon with red spots. 7. Light gray sandy clay horizon with brown network and ochre spots. 8. Grayish brown sandy
clay horizon with red spots. 9. Green argillaceous rock.

H. F. Filizola. R. Boulet / Geomorphology O0 (19951 000-000

B.P.). Dating of the outcropping peat in the central

portion of another depression (Sony depression, Fig.
4) gave an age of 12,710 k 150 yr B.P. (Filizola and
Boulet, 1993).
3.3. Observations of the groundwater
On May 8, 1991, a day after a heavy rainfall (40
mm) that followed a dry period, a perched water
table was observed in DIT1 transect (Fig. 3). This
perched groundwater has a bevel shaped end at the
margin of the depression and the deep drilling further upslope did not reach free water. That day, the
depression was covered by a water layer of 20 cm.
The slight reversal of slope of the water table probably indicates that, after a heavy rainfall, the depression floods because of runoff and then, surface water
infiltrates into the slope. Fourteen days later, however, surface water had disappeared and the water
table was 135 cm lower. The water table level then

L.4'

,.

/
I

145' 47 ' 5 6

Fig. 5. Location map of Sony and Santa Catarina depressions and

of Sony valley transect. 1. Well incised drainage axis. 2. Drainage
.ISIS with no important incision. 3. Watershed. J. Highway. 5.
-\lluvial plain. 6 . Col.

sloped towards the centre of the depression, which

shows that after being r e c h x e d , this perched
groundwater flows towards the depression where it
drains away. The study of the DIT7 transect (Fig. 2
and 4) showed that the perched water table was
lower in col C1 than in the center of the depression,
a situation found only in this col.
At the summit of col CI (Fig. 4) the soil consists
of the following horizons: two upper horizons 70 cm
thick, one dark-brown (horizon I), the other bright
brown (horizon 2). Overlying these are various horizons that show ferruginous differentiation becoming
increasingly reddish brown with depth (horizon 3),
then with red spots in brown material (horizon 4)
and, at depth, red spots in yellow material (horizon
5). This indicates some iron mobilization and precipitation. The horizons are almost parallel to the
topographic surface of the col.
Towards the bottom of the depression, a bevelling
light gray horizon with brown networks and ochre
spots appears in contact with the green argillaceus
rock (layer 9). It is overlain by a light grayish brown
horizon with red spots (horizon 6). This assemblage
shows that hydromorphic conditions increase downwards. Downslope this hydromorphic horizons thickens and replaces the soil cover of the col.
The phreatic water table level was measured twice
alongside this transect (Fig. 4); the first time a month
after the above mentioned rainfall, on June 14, 1991;
the second time during a dryer period, on May 22,
1992. On both occasions, the water table had a
gradient of about 2%. opposite to the surface slope.
This shows that the perched groundwater flows from
the bottom of the depression towards the col CI.
During the first measuring, in June 14, 1991. the
water table was 15cm above the floor of the groundwater (horizon 9) in the col: thus, groundwater flow
was out of the depression. During the second period
of measuring (May 22, 1992),! the top of the groundwater table ended on this floor, before reaching the
col. The depression was dry. We assume that when
the depression tloods (which does not happen very
often and was seen only once, on May 8, 1991), this
perched groundwater level probabli reaches the top
of horizon 4 (Fig. 4). We also noticed that the top of
the water table had a gradient similar to the top of
the deep hydromorphic horizon (7).

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H. F. Filizola. R. Boulet / Geomorphology O0 (I

995) 000-000

4.1. Euolution of depression Dl as inferred from the

geometry of the peat and the gray organic horizon

On the other side of this col there is another

depression that receives overflow waters from the
D 1 perched water-table. This other depression located N N W from DI is drained by a small valley.

The continuity of the peat and the gray organic

batches buried in the slope shows that they belong to
the same original peaty formation. We can deduce,
by analogy with the present peatbogs, that this material was originally horizontal. This peat, now located
inside the slope soil cover, gradually disappears by
mineralization. Curiously, it also disappears in the
depression, being absent in the center and eastern
half of it (Fig. 2). The study of other depressions
(Sony and Santa Catarina, Fig. 41, whose bottoms
are always water-saturated or flooded, showed that
under these conditions the peat remains on the depression bottom. When the lateral drainage starts
(towards the col C1, in Dl), the peat is destroyed.
Thus, peat disappearance from the central portion of
D1 would be favored by rapid drainage.

3.4. Study of a concaue valley slope

The slope that was studied, near the Sony depression (Fig. 5), is in a dale-type valley, a shape typical
of the valleys in this area. Its soil cover (Fig. 61,
similar to that of depression D 1, is, however, thicker
(7 m versus 5 m in Dl). The parent rock is a sandy
clay sediment with coarse quartz skeleton. Downslope, buried peat 1.0-1.2 m thick underlies the mineral horizons. A gray organic horizon replaces it
upslope but is absent at the drainage axis.

4. Discussion

I -

"1' 10YR4/3

\
\

'
7,SYR 516
2

'.

Sm

Fig. 6. Sony valley transect. I. Humic dark brown sandy clay loam horizon. 2. Strong brown sandy clay horizon. 3. Yellowish red sandy
clay horizon. 4. Red sandy clay horizon. 5. Reddish brown sandy clay horizon with pink compact volumes. 6 . Pink sandy clay material. 7.
White sandy clay horizon with red spots.

H.F. Filizola. R. Boulet/ Geomovhology O0 (1995) 000-000

cl Colluvial

deposit

E24 P e a t
m71 Peat relics

I Peats

formation

well drained horizon, implies that the Oxisol cover

would have mineralized it.
According to the dating results, the peat began to
form at approximately 17,000 years B.P. It is possible to appraise the average rate of speed of sinking
of the depression on the basis of the oldest date and
on difference in altitude between the highest
of &-th eat and the depression bottom (3.9 m). An aver- .Cage rate of sinking is 0.23 mm per year (Filizola and
Boulet, 19931, or 23 m in 100.000 years. This rate is
higher than the usually measured weathering rates,
which vary from 0.5-2.5 m/100,000 yr depending
on parent rock and climate (for a review see Nahon,
1991 and Tardy, 1993). Export of matter in solution,
however, is more important from the lower slopes
than from the upper parts where water is lost by
lateral runoff, whereas the lower slopes are overfed
by rain water that flows and infiltrates, and by
oblique drainage. The average sinking rate that we
calculated allows the evaluation of the role of chemical erosion in increasing slope gradients, but not <the
average rate of lowering the weathering front.
The youngest ages obtained from the transforma-tion of the peat horizons can be attributed to recent
carbon introduction during its mineralization. The
age of sample e (Fig. 3), loFated below sample
d, presents an apparent age 6 0 0 years younger i-which demonstrates this rejuvenation.
The importance of colluvial processes since the
beginning of peat formation can also be assessed
because the colluvium overlying the peat came from
upslope. The maximum thickness of colluvium is 1.5
m in depression D1. The colluvial deposit compensates the geochemical sinking and tends to fill the
depression. The balance between both mechanisms
shows that chemical erosion is more efficient than
colluvial processes, as shown by the existence of the
depression.
The isochromatic contour line (Fig. 3) that limits
the bright brown materials (7.5YR) from the yellowish ones (IOYR) cuts the colluvial deposits. Thus.
pedogenesis in the colluvial material rapidly causes
toposequencial differentiation. In ;he absence of a
stratigraphic reference. like peat, it becomes difficult
to distinguish colluvial material from in situ material.

++

=10m
Fig. 7. Evolution of DI depression since peat formation. 2
estimated sinking of the depression since peat formation (underestimate).

On the basis of the present state of depression D1,

reconstruction of probable evolution is possible since
the time of peat deposition (Fig. 7). In stage I the
depression bottom was wider than now. reaching the
present upslope limits of peat relics (D 1T5 transect,
Fig. 2). This is the lowest limit because degradation
of peat is progressive. It may have had a greater
extension but those remains have disappeared. Then,
[he depression sinks and shrinks gradually (stages
II-IV). Because the lowering of the base level,
colluvial deposits gradually cover the peat. Another
interpretation would be to concede that the peat
originally formed on the slope. A water outlet would
be required on the slope, however. which is inconsistent with hydric dynamics of the Oxisol cover. Furthermore. peat relics upslope currently found in a

4.2. Probable ~nechaniniwfor rlie operiirig of closed

.c-*

H.F. Filizola. R. Boulet / Geomorphology O0 (1995) 000-000

depressions in which depression D 1 is located. These

lineaments must be deduced to be fault systems.
The study of a road cut (Carvalho Pint Highway)
that crosses an interfluve which shows a fault, reveals that the 20 m wide tectonic breccia bordering
the faults favors deep water infiltration, whereas the
adjacent intact clayey layers retard it (Filizola, 1993).
Nevertheless, this does not in itself explain the development of the closed depressions because it is
normal for drainage to follow faults. These depressions apparently are formed at fault intersections,
where brecciation is more intense and local deep
infiltration occurs. This hypothesis is supported by
the occurrence of depressions where lineament intersection is evident.

depressions
As seen, DI is a closed depression. The piezometric study, however, showed that, after heavy rainfalls, lateral flow of its perched groundwater through
col CI favors quick drainage of D1. This promotes
the lowering of the col by export in solution. Thus, it
seems that lateral flow of internal water through the
lower col will finally lower the col and open the
depression. Closed depressions somehow create an
outlet; valleys did not capture these depressions.
4.3. Origins of closed depressions

Karstic-type forms are not restricted to regions of

calcareous substratum but can also appear in regions
of less soluble substratum (see Introduction), as in
Vale do Paraiba. The development of closed depressions is obviously favored by vertical loss of water
through the underlying less permeable sediments
(argillaceous rock). A map of these depressions (Fig.
8) shows that they are located in accordance with
well marked lineaments, the clearest ones being N70
and N280. This is the case of the very dense series of
45-43' .

4.4. Evolution of the slopes of the dale-type valleys

(Fig. 9)

'-

The analogy of the soil cover of the slope that has

been studied with those of the depressions and'the
presence of peats that extend upslope suggest an
evolution similar to the one shown in Fig. 7. During
-the formation of the peat, the bottom of the valley

45'42'

45'41'

Fig. 8. Map of the depression distribution of DI area. I . Depression bottom. 2. Limit of the depression watersheds. 3. Well incised drainage
4. Drainage axis with no important incision. 5. Alluvial plain. 6. Incision.

:IXIS.

'

H. F. Filizola. R. Boulet / Geomorphology O0 (I

995) 000-000
Colluvial deposit

E 2 Peat
UIU P e a t

relics

I Peats

formation

Tr

I
T Present

state

O
O

5m

Fig. 9. Sony valley slope evolution since peat formation.

was flat and swampy, favoring the development of

abundant vegetation and organic matter accumulation. Then, this small alluvial plain begins to sink
and to shrink with no important incision because no
erosion was observed in the peat. This sinking, followed by colluvial processes, cover the peat, first at
its border and then all over its extension. Now, the
drainage axis, here a slightly marked bed (15 cm)
shows flow only during periods of rainfall and it is
fed by the outcropping water table, a hundred meters
upstream. As in DI, the mineral horizons overlying
the peat are attributed to the colluvial deposit. They
are slightly thinner (1.2 m) than the ones found in
the depressions which vary from 1.5-1.7 m. An
explanation may be the export of a small amount of
colluvial materials along the drainage axis. Thus, the
sinking of the dale-type valleys in this area is also
largely the result of chemical erosion which increases slopes, whereas colluvial processes tend to
reduce them; the balance clearly favors chemical
erosion.

5. Conclusions

The results found show that the chemical erosion

in a landform on quartz-kaolinitic sediments in a

humid tropical environment occurs rapidly. Closed
depressions are excellent natural models because they
are sumps for solid materials. Our model assessed
the rate of sinking of a depression because of the
presence of datable ancient peat. This adressed the
role of chemical erosion in slope increase but not the
average rate of lowering the weathering front.
Piezometric measures showed that the perched
groundwater confined inside the closed depression
flows internally through the lower col. Thus, the
opening of the depressions and the formation of an
outlet result from the internal dynamics of these
depressions rather than from capture.
Tectonics initiate these depressions because they
are located at fault intersections where water infiltrates deeply in to brecciated rocks, whereas the
undisturbed adjacent clayey layers decrease infiltration. The abundance of closed depressions and valley
heads in amphitheater shape at Vale do Parajba
could then be explained by the differential 1eachlng
of an area affected by intense tectonic activity (Riccomini, 1989).
- Finally, observations permit extrapolation to explain the evolution of the depressions into the slopes
of this region and the dale-type valley slopes quite
typical in this area. The evolution of the landforms
of Taubat basin is mainly a function of chemical
erosion.

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