Basic Management Skills

The following is a series of articles on Basic Management Skills which appeared in IEE
Engineering Management Journal bimonthly from Oct 1991 until Apr 1993 (and which
won the journal Premium Award :-)).
1. Teams and Groups.
2. Presentation Skills.
3. Time Management.
4. Quality in the Team.
5. Writing Skills (expanded here).
6. Delegation.
7. Managing People.
8. Oral Communication.
9. Project Planning.
10. Becoming a Great Manager.
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THE BOOK is better

The series has been expanded into a book together with exercises/suggestions to develop
the skills within your current work situation. The book is published in the UK by
Chartwell-Bratt Ltd and in the USA by the IEEE Press.

information about the book can be found here

some reviews can be found here
and ordering information can be found here

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STUDENT CREATED RESOURCES

As part of the annual team-building exercise for Masters students in Electrical
Engineering (within the Project Management module), we have web-resources on:

LEADERSHIP in the management of small teams and small projects

LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS
GROUP FACILITATION

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OTHER RESOURCES

Some articles on teaching these skills (especially to engineers)

and a few links to other web sites

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Gerard M Blair was a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design and Project Management in the
Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Scotland UK. He
welcomes feedback either by email [email protected] or by other methods found here

Groups that Work

by Gerard M Blair
Groups form a basic unit of work activity throughout engineering and yet the underlying
process is poorly managed. This article looks at the basics of group work and suggests
ways to accelerate development.
In the beginning, God made an individual - and then he made a pair. The pair formed a
group, together they begat others and thus the group grew. Unfortunately, working in a
group led to friction, the group disintegrated in conflict and Caian settled in the land of
Nod - there has been trouble with groups ever since.
When people work in groups, there are two quite separate issues involved. The first is the
task and the problems involved in getting the job done. Frequently this is the only issue
which the group considers. The second is the process of the group work itself: the
mechanisms by which the group acts as a unit and not as a loose rabble. However,
without due attention to this process the value of the group can be diminished or even
destroyed; yet with a little explicit management of the process, it can enhance the worth
of the group to be many times the sum of the worth of its individuals. It is this synergy
which makes group work attractive in corporate organization despite the possible
problems (and time spent) in group formation.
This article examines the group process and how it can best be utilized. The key is that
the group should be viewed as an important resource whose maintenance must be
managed just like any other resource and that this management should be undertaken by
the group itself so that it forms a normal part of the group's activities.

What is a Group?
A group of people working in the same room, or even on a common project, does not
necessarily invoke the group process. If the group is managed in a totally autocratic
manner, there may be little opportunity for interaction relating to the work; if there is
factioning within the group, the process may never evolve. On the other hand, the group
process may be utilized by normally distant individuals working on different projects; for
instance, at IEE colloquia.

In simple terms, the group process leads to a spirit of cooperation, coordination and
commonly understood procedures and mores. If this is present within a group of people,
then their performance will be enhanced by their mutual support (both practical and
moral). If you think this is a nebulous concept when applied to the world of industry,
consider the opposite effect that a self-opinionated, cantankerous loud-mouth would have
on your performance and then contrast that to working with a friendly, open, helpful
associate.

Why a Group?
Groups are particularly good at combining talents and providing innovative solutions to
possible unfamiliar problems; in cases where there is no well established
approach/procedure, the wider skill and knowledge set of the group has a distinct
advantage over that of the individual.
In general, however, there is an overriding advantage in a group-based work force which
makes it attractive to Management: that it engenders a fuller utilization of the work force.
A group can be seen as a self managing unit. The range of skills provided by its members
and the self monitoring which each group performs makes it a reasonably safe recipient
for delegated responsibility. Even if a problem could be decided by a single person, there
are two main benefits in involving the people who will carry out the decision. Firstly, the
motivational aspect of participating in the decision will clearly enhance its
implementation. Secondly, there may well be factors which the implementer understands
better than the single person who could supposedly have decided alone.
More indirectly, if the lowest echelons of the workforce each become trained, through
participation in group decision making, in an understanding of the companies objectives
and work practices, then each will be better able to solve work-related problems in
general. Further, they will also individually become a safe recipient for delegated
authority which is exemplified in the celebrated right of Japanese car workers to halt the
production line.
From the individual's point of view, there is the added incentive that through belonging to
a group each can participate in achievements well beyond his/her own individual
potential. Less idealistically, the group provides an environment where the individual's
self-perceived level of responsibility and authority is enhanced, in an environment where
accountability is shared: thus providing a perfect motivator through enhanced self-esteem
coupled with low stress.
Finally, a word about the much vaunted "recognition of the worth of the individual"
which is often given as the reason for delegating responsibility to groups of subordinates.
While I agree with the sentiment, I am dubious that this is a prime motivator - the bottom
line is that the individual's talents are better utilized in a group, not that they are
wonderful human beings.

Group Development
It is common to view the development of a group as having four stages:

Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing

Forming is the stage when the group first comes together. Everybody is very polite and
very dull. Conflict is seldom voiced directly, mainly personal and definitely destructive.
Since the grouping is new, the individuals will be guarded in their own opinions and
generally reserved. This is particularly so in terms of the more nervous and/or
subordinate members who may never recover. The group tends to defer to a large extent
to those who emerge as leaders (poor fools!).
Storming is the next stage, when all Hell breaks loose and the leaders are lynched.
Factions form, personalities clash, no-one concedes a single point without first fighting
tooth and nail. Most importantly, very little communication occurs since no one is
listening and some are still unwilling to talk openly. True, this battle ground may seem a
little extreme for the groups to which you belong - but if you look beneath the veil of
civility at the seething sarcasm, invective and innuendo, perhaps the picture come more
into focus.
Then comes the Norming. At this stage the sub-groups begin to recognize the merits of
working together and the in-fighting subsides. Since a new spirit of co-operation is
evident, every member begins to feel secure in expressing their own view points and
these are discussed openly with the whole group. The most significant improvement is
that people start to listen to each other. Work methods become established and
recognized by the group as a whole.
And finally: Performing. This is the culmination, when the group has settled on a system
which allows free and frank exchange of views and a high degree of support by the group
for each other and its own decisions.
In terms of performance, the group starts at a level slightly below the sum of the
individuals' levels and then drops abruptly to its nadir until it climbs during Norming to a
new level of Performing which is (hopefully) well above the start. It is this elevated level
of performance which is the main justification for using the group process rather than a
simple group of staff.

Group Skills
The group process is a series of changes which occur as a group of individuals form into
a cohesive and effective operating unit. If the process is understood, it can be accelerated.

There are two main sets of skills which a group must acquire:

Managerial Skills
Interpersonal Skills

and the acceleration of the group process is simply the accelerated acquisition of these.
As a self-managing unit, a group has to undertake most of the functions of a Group
Leader - collectively. For instance, meetings must be organized, budgets decided,
strategic planning undertaken, goals set, performance monitored, reviews scheduled, etc.
It is increasingly recognized that it is a fallacy to expect an individual to suddenly assume
managerial responsibility without assistance; in the group it is even more so. Even if
there are practiced managers in the group, they must first agree on a method, and then
convince and train the remainder of the group.
As a collection of people, a group needs to relearn some basic manners and peoplemanagement skills. Again, think of that self-opinionated, cantankerous loud-mouth;
he/she should learn good manners, and the group must learn to enforce these manners
without destructive confrontation.

Accelerating Development
It is common practice in accelerating group development to appoint, and if necessary
train, a "group facilitator". The role of this person is to continually draw the groups'
attention to the group process and to suggest structures and practices to support and
enhance the group skills. This must be only a short-term training strategy, however, since
the existence of a single facilitator may prevent the group from assuming collective
responsibility for the group process. The aim of any group should be that facilitation is
performed by every member equally and constantly. If this responsibility is recognised
and undertaken from the beginning by all, then the Storming phase may be avoided and
the group development passed straight into Norming.
The following is a set of suggestions which may help in group formation. They are
offered as suggestions, no more; a group will work towards its own practices and norms.

Focus
The two basic foci should be the group and the task.
If something is to be decided, it is the group that decides it. If there is a problem, the
group solves it. If a member is performing badly, it is the group who asks for change.
If individual conflicts arise, review them in terms of the task. If there is initially a lack of
structure and purpose in the deliberations, impose both in terms of the task. If there are
disputes between alternative courses of action, negotiate in terms of the task.

Clarification
In any project management, the clarity of the specification is of paramount importance in group work it is exponentially so. Suppose that there is a 0.8 chance of an individual
understanding the task correctly (which is very high). If there are 8 members in the group
then the chance of the group all working towards that same task is 0.17. And the same
reasoning hold for every decision and action taken throughout the life of the group.
It is the first responsibility of the group to clarify its own task, and to record this
understanding so that it can be constantly seen. This mission statement may be revised or
replaced, but it should always act as a focus for the groups deliberations and actions.

The mouse
In any group, there is always the quiet one in the corner who doesn't say much. That
individual is the most under utilized resource in the whole group, and so represents the
best return for minimal effort by the group as a whole. It is the responsibility of that
individual to speak out and to contribute. It is the responsibility of the group to encourage
and develop that person, to include him/her in the discussion and actions, and to provide
positive reinforcement each time that happens.

The loud-mouth
In any group, there is always a dominant member whose opinions form a disproportionate
share of the discussion. It is the responsibility of each individual to consider whether they
are that person. It is the responsibility of the group to ask whether the loud-mouth might
like to summarize briefly, and then ask for other views.

The written record

Often a decision which is not recorded will become clouded and have to be rediscused.
This can be avoided simply by recording on a large display (where the group can clearly
see) each decision as it is made. This has the further advantage that each decision must be
expressed in a clear and concise form which ensures that it is clarified.

Feedback (negative)
All criticism must be neutral: focused on the task and not the personality. So rather than
calling Johnie an innumerate moron, point out the error and offer him a calculator. It is
wise to adopt the policy of giving feedback frequently, especially for small things - this
can be couched as mutual coaching, and it reduces the destructive impact of criticism
when things go badly wrong.
Every criticism must be accompanied by a positive suggestion for improvement.

Feedback (positive)
If anyone does something well, praise it. Not only does this reenforce commendable
actions, but it also mollifies the negative feedback which may come later. Progress in the
task should be emphasised.

Handling failure
The long term success of a group depends upon how it deals with failure. It is a very
British tendency to brush off failure and to get on with the next stage with no more than a
mention - it is a very foolish tendency. Any failure should be explored by the group. This
is not to attribute blame (for that is shared by the whole group as an individual only acts
with delegated responsibility), but rather to examine the causes and to devise a
mechanism which either monitors against or prevents repetition. A mistake should only
happen once if it is treated correctly.
One practise which is particularly useful is to delegate the agreed solution to the
individual or sub-group who made the original error. This allows the group to
demonstrate its continuing trust and the penitent to make amends.

Handling deadlock
If two opposing points of view are held in the group then some action must be taken.
Several possibly strategies exist. Each sub-group could debate from the other sub-group's
view-point in order to better understand it. Common ground could be emphasised, and
the differences viewed for a possible middle or alternative strategy. Each could be
debated in the light of the original task. But firstly the group should decide how much
time the debate actually merits and then guillotine it after that time - then, if the issue is
not critical, toss a coin.

Sign posting
As each small point is discussed, the larger picture can be obscured. Thus it is useful
frequently to remind the group: this is where we came from, this is where we got to, this
is where we should be going.

Avoid single solutions

First ideas are not always best. For any given problem, the group should generate
alternatives, evaluate these in terms of the task, pick one and implement it. But most
importantly, they must also monitor the outcome, schedule a review and be prepared to
change the plan.

Active communication
Communication is the responsibility of both the speaker and the listener. The speaker
must actively seek to express the ideas in a clear and concise manner - the listener must
actively seek to understand what has been said and to ask for clarification if unsure.
Finally, both parties must be sure that the ideas have been correctly communicated
perhaps by the listener summarizing what was said in a different way.

Conclusion
Groups are like relationships - you have to work at them. In the work place, they
constitute an important unit of activity but one whose support needs are only recently
becoming understood. By making the group itself responsible for its own support, the
responsibility becomes an accelerator for the group process. What is vital, is that these
needs are recognized and explicitly dealt with by the group. Time and resources must be
allocated to this by the group and by Management, and the group process must be
planned, monitored and reviewed just like any other managed process.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

Presentation Skills for Emergent

Managers
by Gerard M Blair
Presentations are one of the first managerial skills which a junior engineer must acquire.
This article looks at the basics of Presentation Skills as they might apply to an emergent
manager.

Introduction
Management is the art of getting things done. A Presentation is a fast and potentially
effective method of getting things done through other people. In managing any project,
presentations are used as a formal method for bringing people together to plan, monitor
and review its progress.
But let us look at this another way: what can a presentation do for you?
Firstly; it puts you on display. Your staff need to see evidence of decisive planning and
leadership so that they are confident in your position as their manager. They need to be
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motivated and inspired to undertaking the tasks which you are presenting. Project leaders
from other sections need to be persuaded of the merits of your project and to provide any
necessary support. Senior management should be impressed by your skill and ability so
that they provide the resources so that you and your team can get the job done.
Secondly; it allows you to ask questions and to initiate discussion. It may not be suitable
within the presentation formats of your company to hold a discussion during the
presentation itself but it does allow you to raise the issues, present the problems and at
least to establish who amongst the audience could provide valuable input to your decision
making.
Finally; presentations can be fun. They are your chance to speak your mind, to strut your
stuff and to tell the people what the world is really like. While you hold the stage, the
audience is bound by good manners to sit still and watch the performance.

The Objectives of Communication

The single most important observation is that the objective of communication is not the
transimission but the reception. The whole preparation, presentation and content of a
speech must therefore be geared not to the speaker but to the audience. The presentation
of a perfect project plan is a failure if the audience do not understand or are not persuaded
of its merits. A customers' tour is a waste of time if they leave without realising the full
worth of your product. The objective of communication is to make your message
understood and remembered.
The main problem with this objective is, of course, the people to whom you are talking.
The average human being has a very short attention span and a million other things to
think about. Your job in the presentation is to reach through this mental fog and to hold
the attention long enough to make your point.

The Plan
It is difficult to over estimate the importance of careful preparation. Five minutes on the
floor in front of senior management could decide the acceptance of a proposal of several
months duration for the manager and the whole team. With so much potentially at stake,
the presenter must concentrate not only upon the facts being presented but upon the style,
pace, tone and ultimately tactics which should be used. As a rule of thumb for an average
presentation, no less than 1 hour should be spent in preparation for 5 minutes of talking.
Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?

Formulate your Objectives

The starting point in planning any speech is to formulate a precise objective. This should
take the form of a simple, concise statement of intent. For example, the purpose of your
speech may be to obtain funds, to evaluate a proposal, or to motivate your team. No two

objectives will be served equally well by the same presentation; and if you are not sure at
the onset what you are trying to do, it is unlikely that your plan will achieve it.
One question is: how many different objectives can you achieve, in say, 30 minutes - and
the answer: not many. In the end it is far more productive to achieve one goal than to
blunder over several. The best approach is to isolate the essential objective and to list at
most two others which can be addressed providing they do not distract from the main
one. Focus is key. If you do not focus upon your objective, it is unlikely that the audience
will.

Identify the Audience

The next task is to consider the audience to determine how best to achieve your
objectives in the context of these people. Essentially this is done by identifying their aims
and objectives while attending your presentation. If you can somehow convince them
they are achieving those aims while at the same time achieving your own, you will find a
helpful and receptive audience. For instance, if you are seeking approval for a new
product plan from senior management it is useful to know and understand their main
objectives. If they are currently worried that their product range is out of date and old
fashioned, you would emphasise the innovative aspects of your new product; if they are
fearful about product diversification you would then emphasise how well your new
product fits within the existing catalogue.
This principal of matching the audience aims, however, goes beyond the simple
salesmanship of an idea - it is the simplest and most effective manner of obtaining their
attention at the beginning. If your opening remarks imply that you understand their
problem and that you have a solution, then they will be flattered at your attention and
attentive to your every word.

Structure
All speeches should have a definite structure or format; a talk without a structure is a
woolly mess. If you do not order your thoughts into a structured manner, the audience
will not be able to follow them. Having established the aim of your presentation you
should choose the most appropriate structure to achieve it.
However, the structure must not get in the way of the main message. If it is too complex,
too convoluted or simply too noticeable the audience will be distracted. If a section is
unnecessary to the achievement of your fundamental objectives, pluck it out.

Sequential Argument
One of the simplest structures is that of sequential argument which consists of a series of
linked statements ultimately leading to a conclusion. However, this simplicity can only be
achieved by careful and deliberate delineation between each section. One technique is the

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use of frequent reminders to the audience of the main point which have proceeded and
explicit explanation of how the next topic will lead on from this.

Hierarchical Decomposition
In hierarchical decomposition the main topic is broken down into sub-topics and each
sub-topics into smaller topics until eventually everything is broken down into very small
basic units. In written communication this is a very powerful technique because it allows
the reader to re-order the presentation at will, and to return to omitted topics at a later
date. In verbal communication the audience is restricted to the order of the presenter and
the hierarchy should be kept simple reinforced. As with sequential argument it is useful
to summarise each section at its conclusion and to introduce each major new section with
a statement of how it lies in the hierarchical order.

Question Orientated
The aim of many presentations given by managers is to either explain a previous decision
or to seek approval for a plan of action. In these cases, the format can be question
orientated. The format is to introduce the problem and any relevant background, and then
to outline the various solutions to that problem listing the advantages and disadvantages
of each solution in turn. Finally, all possible options are summarised in terms of their
pro's and con's, and either the preferred solution is presented for endorsement by the
audience or a discussion is initiated leading to the decision. One trick for obtaining the
desired outcome is to establish during the presentation the criteria by which the various
options are to be judged; this alone should allow you to obtain your desired outcome.

Pyramid
In a newspaper, the story is introduced in its entirety in a catchy first paragraph. The next
few paragraphs repeat the same information only giving further details to each point. The
next section repeats the entire story again, but developing certain themes within each of
the sub-points and again adding more information. This is repeated until the reporter runs
out of story. The editor then simply decides upon the newsworthiness of the report and
cuts from the bottom to the appropriate number of column inches.
There are two main advantages to this style for presentations. Firstly, it can increase the
audiences receptiveness to the main ideas. Since at every stage of the pyramid they have
all ready become familiar with the ideas and indeed know what to expect next. This sense
of deja vu can falsely give the impression that what they are hearing are their own ideas.
The second advantage is that the duration of the talk can be easily altered by cutting the
talk in exactly the same way as the newspaper editor might have done to the news story.
This degree of flexibility may be useful if the same presentation is to be used several
times in different situations.

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The Meaty Sandwich

The simplest and most direct format remains the meaty sandwich. This is the simple
beginning-middle-end format in which the main meat of the exposition is contained in the
middle and is proceeded by an introduction and followed by a summary and conclusion.
This is really the appropriate format for all small sub-sections in all the previous
structures. If the talk is short enough, or the topic simple enough, it can indeed form the
entirity of the presentation.

The Beginning
It is imperative to plan your beginning carefully; there are five main elements:

Get their attention

Too often in a speech, the first few minutes of the presentation are lost while people
adjust their coats, drift in with coffee and finish the conversation they were having with
the person next to them. You only have a limited time and every minute is precious to
you so, from the beginning, make sure they pay attention.

Establish a theme
Basically, you need to start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your
presentation. This can be done by a statement of your main objective, unless for some
reason you wish to keep it hidden. They will each have some experience or opinions on
this and at the beginning you must make them bring that experience into their own minds.

Present a structure
If you explain briefly at the beginning of a talk how it is to proceed, then the audience
will know what to expect. This can help to establish the theme and also provide
something concrete to hold their attention. Ultimately, it provides a sense of security in
the promise that this speech too will end.

Create a rapport
If you can win the audience over in the first minute, you will keep them for the
remainder. You should plan exactly how you wish to appear to them and use the
beginning to establish that relationship. You may be presenting yourself as their friend, as
an expert, perhaps even as a judge, but whatever role you choose you must establish it at
the very beginning.

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Administration
When planning your speech you should make a note to find out if there are any
administrative details which need to be announced at the beginning of your speech. This
is not simply to make yourself popular with the people organising the session but also
because if these details are over looked the audience may become distracted as they
wonder what is going to happen next.

The Ending
The final impression you make on the audience is the one they will remember. Thus it is
worth planning your last few sentences with extreme care.
As with the beginning, it is necessary first to get their attention, which will have
wandered. This requires a change of pace, a new visual aid or perhaps the introduction of
one final culminating idea. In some formats the ending will be a summary of the main
points of the talk. One of the greatest mistakes is to tell the audience that this is going to
be a summary because at that moment they simply switch off. Indeed it is best that the
ending comes unexpectedly with that final vital phrase left hanging in the air and ringing
round their memories. Alternatively the ending can be a flourish, with the pace and voice
leading the audience through the final crescendo to the inevitable conclusion.

Visual Aids
Most people expect visual reinforcement for any verbal message being delivered. While
it would be unfair to blame television entirely for this, it is useful to understand what the
audience is accustomed to, for two reasons: firstly, you can meet their expectations using
the overhead projector, a slide show, or even a video presentation; secondly, if you depart
from the framework of a square picture flashed before their eyes, and use a different
format, then that novelty will be most arresting. For instance, if you are describing the
four functions of a project manager then display the four "hats" he/she must wear; if you
are introducing the techniques of brainstorming then brandish a fishing rod to "fish for"
ideas.
With traditional visual aids however, there are a few rules which should be followed to
ensure they are used effectively. Most are common sense, and most are commonly
ignored. As with all elements of a speech, each different viewfoil should have a distinct
purpose - and if it has no purpose it should be removed. With that purpose firmly in mind
you should design the viewfoil for that purpose. Some viewfoils are there to reinforce the
verbal message and so to assist in recall; others are used to explain information which can
be more easily displayed than discussed: and some viewfoils are designed simply for
entertainment and thus to pace the presentation.
If your viewfoil is scruffy then your audience will notice that, and not what is written
upon it. Do not clutter a viewfoil or it will confuse rather than assist. Do not simply
photocopy information if there is more data on the page than you wish to present; in these

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cases, the data should be extracted before being displayed. Make sure that your writing
can be read from the back of the room. Talk to the audience, not the visual aid.

The Delivery
"The human body is truly fascinating - there are some I could watch all day" - Anon
Whatever you say and whatever you show; it is you, yourself which will remain the focus
of the audience's attention. If you but strut and fret your hour upon the stage and then are
gone, no-one will remember what you said. The presenter has the power both to kill the
message and to enhance it a hundred times beyond its worth. Your job as a manager is to
use the potential of the presentation to ensure that the audience is motivated and inspired
rather than disconcerted or distracted. There are five key facets of the human body which
deserve attention in presentation skills: the eyes, the voice, the expression, the
appearance, and how you stand.

The Eyes
The eyes are said to be the key to the soul and are therefore the first and most effective
weapon in convincing the audience of your honesty, openness and confidence in the
objectives of your presentation. This impression may of course be totally false, but here is
how to convey it.
Even when in casual conversation, your feelings of friendship and intimacy can be
evaluated by the intensity and duration of eye contact. During the presentation you should
use this to enhance your rapport with the audience by establishing eye contact with each
and every member of the audience as often as possible. For small groups this is clearly
possible but it can also be achieved in large auditoriums since the further the audience is
away from the presenter the harder it is to tell precisely where he or she is looking. Thus
by simply staring at a group of people at the back of a lecture theatre it is possible to
convince each of them individually that he or she is the object of your attention. During
presentations, try to hold your gaze fixed in specific directions for five or six seconds at a
time. Shortly after each change in position, a slight smile will convince each person in
that direction that you have seen and acknowledged them.

The Voice
After the eyes comes the voice, and the two most important aspects of the voice for the
public speaker are projection and variation. It is important to realise from the onset that
few people can take their ordinary conversation voice and put it on stage. If you can, then
perhaps you should move to Hollywood. The main difference comes in the degree of
feedback which you can expect from the person to whom you are talking. In ordinary
conversation you can see from the expression, perhaps a subtle movement of the eye,
when a word or phrase has been missed or misunderstood. In front of an audience you
have to make sure that this never happens. The simple advice is to slow down and to take
your time. Remember the audience is constrained by good manners not to interrupt you

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so there is no need to maintain a constant flow of sound. A safe style is to be slightly

louder and slightly slower than a fire-side chat with slightly deaf aunt. As you get used to
the sound, you can adjust it by watching the audience.
A monotone speech is both boring and soporific, so it is important to try to vary the pitch
and speed of your presentation. At the very least, each new sub-section should be
proceeded by a pause and a change in tone to emphasise the delineation. If tonal variation
does not come to you naturally try making use of rhetorical questions throughout your
speech, since most British accents rise naturally at the end of a question.

Expression
The audience watch your face. If you are looking listless or distracted then they will be
listless and distracted; if you are smiling, they will be wondering why and listen to find
out. In normal conversation your meaning is enhanced by facial reinforcement. Thus in a
speech you must compensate both for stage nerves and for the distance between yourself
and the audience. The message is quite simply: make sure that your facial expressions are
natural, only more so.

Appearance
There are many guides to management and presentation styles which lay heavy emphasis
upon the way you dress and in the last analysis this is a matter of personal choice. That
choice should however be deliberately made. When you are giving a presentation you
must dress for the audience, not for yourself; if they think you look out of place, then you
are.
As an aside, it is my personal opinion that there exists a code of conduct among engineers
which emphasizes the scruffy look, and that in many organisations this tends to set the
engineer apart, especially from management. It conveys the subliminal message that the
engineer and the manager are not part of the same group and so hinders communication.

Stance
When an actor initially learns a new character part, he or she will instinctively adopt a
distinct posture or stance to convey that character. It follows therefore that while you are
on stage, your stance and posture will convey a great deal about you. The least you must
do is make sure your stance does not convey boredom; at best, you can use your whole
body as a dynamic tool to reinforce your rapport with the audience.
The perennial problem is what to do with your hands. These must not wave aimlessly
through the air, or fiddle constantly with a pen, or (worst of all visually) juggle change in
your trouser pockets. The key is to keep your hands still, except when used in unison with
your speech. To train them initially, find a safe resting place which is comfortable for
you, and aim to return them there when any gesture is completed.

15

The Techniques of Speech

Every speaker has a set of "tricks of the trade" which he or she holds dear - the following
are a short selection of such advice taken from various sources.

Make an impression
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands and wives, schedules and
slippages, cars and mortgages; and although they will be trying very hard to concentrate
on your speech, their minds will inevitably stray. Your job is to do something, anything,
which captures their attention and makes a lasting impression upon them. Once you have
planned your speech and honed it down to its few salient points, isolate the most
important and devise some method to make it stick.

Repeat, Repeat
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands or wives etc, etc - but repetition
makes them hear. The average audience is easily distracted, and their attention will slip
during the most important message of your speech - so repeat it. You don't necessarily
have to use the resonant tonal sounds of the repeated phrase, but simply make the point
again and again and again with different explanations and in different ways. The classic
advice of the Sergeant Major is: "First you tell 'em what you are going to tell 'em, then
you tell 'em, then you tell 'em what you told 'em!"

Draw a Sign
Research into teaching has yielded the following observation: "We found that students
who failed to get the point did so because they were not looking for it". If the audience
knows when to listen, they will. So tell them: the important point is ... .

Draw a Picture
The human brain is used to dealing with images, and this ability can be used to make the
message more memorable. This means using metaphors or analogies to express your
message. Thus a phrase like "we need to increase the market penetration before there will
be sufficient profits for a pay related bonus" becomes "we need a bigger slice of the cake
before the feast".

Jokes
The set piece joke can work very well, but it can also lead to disaster. You must choose a
joke which is apt, and one which will not offend any member of the audience. This
advice tends to rule out all racist, sexist or generally rude jokes. If this seems to rule out
all the jokes you can think of, then you should avoid jokes in a speech.

16

Amusing asides are also useful in maintaining the attention of the audience, and for
relieving the tension of the speech. If this comes naturally to you, then it is a useful tool
for pacing your delivery to allow periods of relaxation in between your sign-posted major
points.

Plain Speech
Yes!

Short and Sweet

One way to polish the presentation of the main point of your speech is to consider it thus.
The day before your presentation, you are called to to the office of the divisional vicepresident; there you are introduced to the managing director and a representative of the
company's major share holder; "O.K." says the vice president "we hear you have got
something to say, we'll give you 30 seconds, GO". Can you do it?
If you can crystallise your thoughts and combine your main message with some
memorable phrase or imagery, and present them both in 30 seconds then you have either
the perfect ending or the basis for a fine presentation.

The Narrative
Everyone loves a story and stories can both instruct and convey a message: Zen
Philosophy is recorded in its stories, and Christianity was originally taught in parables. If
you can weave your message into a story or a personal annocdote, then you can have
them wanting to hear your every word - even if you have to make it up.

Rehearsal
There is no substitute for rehearsal. You can do it in front of a mirror, or to an empty
theatre. In both cases, you should accentuate your gestures and vocal projection so that
you get used to the sound and sight of yourself. Do not be put off by the mirror remember: you see a lot less of yourself than your friends do.

Relaxation
If you get nervous just before the show, either concentrate on controlling your breathing
or welcome the extra adrenaline. The good news is that the audience will never notice
your nerves nearly as much as you think. Similarly, if you dry-up in the middle - smile,
look at your notes, and take your time. The silence will seem long to you, but less so to
the audience.

Conclusion

17

Once the speech is over and you have calmed down, you should try to honestly evaluate
your performance. Either alone, or with the help of a friend in the audience, decide what
was the least successful aspect of your presentation and resolve to concentrate on that
point in the next talk you give. If it is a problem associated with the preparation, then deal
with it there; if it is a problem with your delivery, write yourself a reminder note and put
it in front of you at the next talk.
Practice is only productive when you make a positive effort to improve - try it.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

Personal Time Management for Busy

Managers
by Gerard M Blair
Time passes, quickly. This article looks at the basics of Personal Time Management and
describes how the Manager can assume control of this basic resource.

The "Eff" words

The three "Eff" words are [concise OED]:

Effective - having a definite or desired effect

Efficient - productive with minimum waste or effort
Effortless -

seemingly without effort; natural, easy

Personal Time Management is about winning the "Eff" words: making them apply to you
and your daily routines.

What is Personal Time Management?

Personal Time Management is about controlling the use of your most valuable (and
undervalued) resource. Consider these two questions: what would happen if you spent
company money with as few safeguards as you spend company time, when was the last
time you scheduled a review of your time allocation?

18

The absence of Personal Time Management is characterized by last minute rushes to

meet dead-lines, meetings which are either double booked or achieve nothing, days which
seem somehow to slip unproductively by, crises which loom unexpected from nowhere.
This sort of environment leads to inordinate stress and degradation of performance: it
must be stopped.
Poor time management is often a symptom of over confidence: techniques which used to
work with small projects and workloads are simply reused with large ones. But
inefficiencies which were insignificant in the small role are ludicrous in the large. You
can not drive a motor bike like a bicycle, nor can you manage a supermarket-chain like a
market stall. The demands, the problems and the payoffs for increased efficiency are all
larger as your responsibility grows; you must learn to apply proper techniques or be
bettered by those who do. Possibly, the reason Time Management is poorly practised is
that it so seldom forms a measured part of appraisal and performance review; what many
fail to foresee, however, is how intimately it is connected to aspects which do.
Personal Time Management has many facets. Most managers recognize a few, but few
recognize them all. There is the simple concept of keeping a well ordered diary and the
related idea of planned activity. But beyond these, it is a tool for the systematic ordering
of your influence on events, it underpins many other managerial skills such as Effective
Delegation and Project Planning.
Personal Time Management is a set of tools which allow you to:

eliminate wastage
be prepared for meetings
refuse excessive workloads
monitor project progress
allocate resource (time) appropriate to a task's importance
ensure that long term projects are not neglected
plan each day efficiently
plan each week effectively

and to do so simply with a little self-discipline.

Since Personal Time Management is a management process just like any other, it must be
planned, monitored and regularly reviewed. In the following sections, we will examine
the basic methods and functions of Personal Time Management. Since true understanding
depends upons experience, you will be asked to take part by looking at aspects of your
own work. If you do not have time to this right now - ask yourself: why not?

Current Practice
What this article is advocating is the adoption of certain practices which will give you
greater control over the use and allocation of your primary resource: time. Before we start
on the future, it is worth considering the present. This involves the simplistic task of
19

keeping a note of how you spend your time for a suitably long period of time (say a
week). I say simplistic since all you have to do is create a simple table, photocopy half-adozen copies and carry it around with you filling in a row every time you change activity.
After one week, allocate time (start as you mean to go on) to reviewing this log.

Waste Disposal
We are not looking here to create new categories of work to enhance efficiency (that
comes later) but simply to eliminate wastage in your current practice. The average IEE
Chartered Engineer earns about 27,000 pounds per annum: about 12.50 pounds per hour,
say 1 pound every 5 minutes; for how many 5 minute sections of your activity would you
have paid a pound? The first step is a critical appraisal of how you spend your time and to
question some of your habits. In your time log, identify periods of time which might have
been better used.
There are various sources of waste. The most common are social: telephone calls, friends
dropping by, conversations around the coffee machine. It would be foolish to eliminate
all non-work related activity (we all need a break) but if it's a choice between chatting to
Harry in the afternoon and meeting the next pay-related deadline ... Your time log will
show you if this is a problem and you might like to do something about it before your
boss does.
In your time log, look at each work activity and decide objectively how much time each
was worth to you, and compare that with the time you actually spent on it. An afternoon
spent polishing an internal memo into a Pulitzer prize winning piece of provocative prose
is waste; an hour spent debating the leaving present of a colleague is waste; a minute
spent sorting out the paper-clips is waste (unless relaxation). This type of activity will be
reduced naturally by managing your own time since you will not allocate time to the
trivial. Specifically, if you have a task to do, decide before hand how long it should take
and work to that deadline - then move on to the next task.
Another common source of waste stems from delaying work which is unpleasant by
finding distractions which are less important or unproductive. Check your log to see if
any tasks are being delayed simply because they are dull or difficult.
Time is often wasted in changing between activities. For this reason it is useful to group
similar tasks together thus avoiding the start-up delay of each. The time log will show
you where these savings can be made. You may want then to initiate a routine which
deals with these on a fixed but regular basis.

Doing Subordinate's Work

Having considered what is complete waste, we now turn to what is merely inappropriate.
Often it is simpler to do the job yourself. Using the stamp machine to frank your own
letters ensures they leave by the next post; writing the missing summary in the latest

20

progress report from your junior is more pleasant than sending it back (and it lets you
choose the emphasis). Rubbish!
Large gains can be made by assigning secretarial duties to secretaries: they regularly
catch the next post, they type a lot faster than you. Your subordinate should be told about
the missing section and told how (and why) to slant it. If you have a task which could be
done by a subordinate, use the next occasion to start training him/her to do it instead of
doing it yourself - you will need to spend some time monitoring the task thereafter, but
far less that in doing it yourself.

Doing the work of Others

A major impact upon your work can be the tendency to help others with their's. Now, in
the spirit of an open and harmonious work environment it is obviously desirable that you
should be willing to help out - but check your work log and decide how much time you
spend on your own work and how much you spend on others'. For instance, if you spend
a morning checking the grammar and spelling in the training material related to you last
project, then that is waste. Publications should do the proof-reading, that is their job, they
are better at it than you; you should deal at the technical level.
The remaining problem is your manager. Consider what periods in your work log were
used to perform tasks that your manager either repeated or simply negated by ignoring it
or redefining the task, too late. Making your manager efficient is a very difficult task, but
where it impinges upon your work and performance you must take the bull by the horns
(or whatever) and confront the issue.
Managing your manager may seem a long way from Time Management but no one
impacts upon your use of time more than your immediate superior. If a task is ill defined
- seek clarification (is that a one page summary or a ten page report?). If seemingly
random alterations are asked in your deliverables, ask for the reasons and next time
clarify these and similar points at the beginning. If the manager is difficult, try writing a
small specification for each task before beginning it and have it agreed. While you can
not tactfully hold your manager to this contract if he/she has a change of mind, it will at
least cause him/her to consider the issues early on, before you waste your time on false
assumptions.

External Appointments
The next stage of Personal Time Management is to start taking control of your time. The
first problem is appointments. Start with a simple appointments diary. In this book you
will have (or at least should have) a complete list of all your known appointments for the
forseeable future. If you have omitted your regular ones (since you remember them
anyway) add them now.
Your appointments constitute your interaction with other people; they are the agreed
interface between your activities and those of others; they are determined by external

21

obligation. They often fill the diary. Now, be ruthless and eliminate the unnecessary.
There may be committees where you can not productively contribute or where a
subordinate might be (better) able to participate. There may be long lunches which could
be better run as short conference calls. There may be interviews which last three times as
long as necessary because they are scheduled for a whole hour. Eliminate the wastage
starting today.
The next stage is to add to your diary lists of other, personal activity which will enhance
your use of the available time. Consider: what is the most important type of activity to
add to your diary? No:- stop reading for a moment and really, consider.
The single most important type of activity is those which will save you time: allocate
time to save time, a stitch in time saves days. And most importantly of all, always
allocate time to time management: at least five minutes each and every day.
For each appointment left in the diary, consider what actions you might take to ensure
that no time is wasted: plan to avoid work by being prepared. Thus, if you are going to a
meeting where you will be asked to comment on some report, allocate time to read it so
avoiding delays in the meeting and increasing your chances of making the right decision
the first time. Consider what actions need to be done before AND what actions must be
done to follow-up. Even if the latter is unclear before the event, you must still allocate
time to review the outcome and to plan the resulting action. Simply mark in your diary
the block of time necessary to do this and, when the time comes, do it.

Scheduling Projects
The most daunting external appointments are deadlines: often, the handover of
deliverables. Do you leave the work too late? Is there commonly a final panic towards the
end? Are the last few hectic hours often marred by errors? If so, use Personal Time
Management.
The basic idea is that your management of personal deadlines should be achieved with
exactly the same techniques you would use in a large project:
check the specification - are you sure that you agree on what is to be delivered
break the task down into small sections so that you can estimate the time needed for
each, and monitor progress
schedule reviews of your progress (e.g. after each sub-task) so that you can respond
quickly to difficulties
Like most management ideas, this is common sense. Some people, however, refute it
because in practise they find that it merely shows the lack of time for a project which
must be done anyway. This is simply daft! If simple project planning and time
management show that the task can not be done, then it will not be done - but by knowing
at the start, you have a chance to do something about it.

22

An impossible deadline affects not only your success but also that of others. Suppose a
product is scheduled for release too soon because you agree to deliver too early.
Marketing and Sales will prepare customers to expect the product showing why they
really need it - but it will not arrive. The customers will be dissatisfied or even lost, the
competition will have advanced warning, and all because you agreed to do the
impossible.
You can avoid this type of problem. By practising time management, you will always
have a clear understanding of how you spend your time and what time is unallocated. If a
new task is thrust upon you, you can estimate whether it is practical. The project planning
tells you how much time is needed and the time management tells you how much time is
available.
There are four ways to deal with impossible deadlines:

Get the deadline extended

Scream for more resources
Get the Deliverable redefined to something practical
State the position clearly so that your boss (and his/her boss) have fair warning

If this simple approach seems unrealistic, consider the alternative. If you have an
imposed, but unobtainable, deadline and you accept it; then the outcome is your assured
failure. Of course, there is a fifth option: move to a company with realistic schedules.
One defence tactic is to present your superior with a current list of your obligations
indicating what impact the new task will have on these, and ask him/her to assign the
priorities: "I can't do them all, which should I slip?". Another tactic is to keep a data base
of your time estimates and the actual time taken by each task. This will quickly develop
into a source of valuable data and increase the accuracy of your planning predictions.
There is no reason why you should respond only to externally imposed deadlines. The
slightly shoddy product which you hand-over after the last minute rush (and normally
have returned for correction the following week) could easily have been polished if only
an extra day had been available - so move your personal deadline forward and allow
yourself the luxury of leisured review before the product is shipped.
Taking this a step further, the same sort of review might be applied to the product at each
stage of its development so that errors and rework time are reduced. Thus by allocating
time to quality review, you save time in rework; and this is all part of project planning
supported and monitored by your time management.
Finally, for each activity you should estimate how much time it is worth and allocate only
that amount. This critical appraisal may even suggest a different approach or method so
that the time matches the task's importance. Beware of perfection, it takes too long allocate time for "fitness for purpose", then stop.

23

Monitoring Staff
Your Personal Time Management also effects other people, particularly your
subordinates. Planning projects means not only allocating your time but also the
distribution of tasks; and this should be done in the same planned, monitored and
reviewed manner as your own scheduling.
Any delegated task should be specified with an (agreed) end date. As a Manager, you are
responsible for ensuring that the tasks allocated to your subordinates are completed
successfully. Thus you should ensure that each task is concluded with a deliverable (for
instance, a memo to confirm completion) - you make an entry in your diary to check that
this has arrived. Thus, if you agree the task for Tuesday, Wednesday should have an entry
in your diary to check the deliverable. This simple device allows you to monitor progress
and to initiate action as necessary.

Long term Objectives

There are many long term objectives which the good Manager must achieve, particularly
with regard to the development, support and motivation of his/her work-team. Long term
objectives have the problem of being important but not urgent; they do not have
deadlines, they are distant and remote. For this reason, it is all too easy to ignore them in
favour of the urgent and immediate. Clearly a balance must be struck.
The beauty of Time Management is that the balance can be decided objectively (without
influence from immediate deadlines) and self-imposed through the use of the diary.
Simply, a manager might decide that one hour a week should be devoted to personnel
issues and would then allocate a regular block of time to that activity. Of course if the
factory is on fire, or World War III is declared, the manager may have to re-allocate this
time in a particular week - but barring such crises, this time should then become
sacrosanct and always applied to the same, designated purpose.
Similarly, time may be allocated to staff development and training. So if one afternoon a
month is deemed to be a suitable allocation, then simply designate the second Thursday
(say) of each month and delegate the choice of speakers. The actual time spent in
managing this sort of long term objective is small, but without that deliberate planning it
will not be achieved.
Once you have implemented Personal Time Management, it is worth using some of that
control to augment your own career. Some quiet weekend, you should sketch out your
own long term objectives and plan a route to them. As you would any long term
objective, allocate time to the necessary sub-tasks and monitor your progress. If you do
not plan where you want to go, you are unlikely to get there.

Concluding Remarks.

24

Personal Time Management is a systematic application of common sense strategies. It

requires little effort, yet it promotes efficient work practices by highlighting wastage and
it leads to effective use of time by focusing it on your chosen activities. Personal Time
Management does not solve your problems; it reveals them, and provides a structure to
implement and monitor solutions. It enables you to take control of your own time - how
you use it is then up to you.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

How to Build Quality into your Team

by Gerard M Blair
Quality is primarily viewed in terms of corporate culture, multi-departmental ad-hoc task
forces and the salvation of entire companies. This article, instead, will view these ideas
as they might be applied by a Team Leader with a small permanent staff.
Quality has become the philosophers' stone of management practice with consultants and
gurus vying to charm lead-laden corporations into gold-winning champions. Stories
abound of base companies with morose workers and mounting debts being transformed
into happy teams and healthy profits; never a day goes by without a significant
improvement, a pounds-saving suggestion or a quantum leap in efficiency. With this
professed success of "Quality" programmes, there has evolved a proscriptive mythology
of correct practise which has several draw backs:

the edicts call for nothing less than a company wide, senior-management led
programme
the adherence to a single formula has a limited effect, precludes innovation
outside these boundaries, and reduces the differentiation which such programmes
profess to engender
the emphasis on single-task, specially formed groups shifts the focus away from
the ordinary, daily bread-and-butter

Of course, these criticisms do not invalidate the ideas of Quality but are simply to suggest
that the principles might well be viewed from a new angle - and applied at a different
level. This article attempts to provide a new perspective by re-examining some of the
tenets of Quality in the context of a small, established team: simply, what could a Team
Leader do with his/her staff.

What is "Quality"?

25

In current management writings "Quality" has come to refer to a whole gambit of

practices which themselves have resulted in beneficial side-effects; as a Team Leader,
you will want to take advantage of these benefits also.

The Customer
In simple terms, attaining Quality has something to do with satisfying the expectations of
the customer. Concern for the wishes and needs of customers becomes the focus for
every decision. What the customer wants, the company provides. This is not
philanthropy, this is basic survival. Through careful education by competitors, the
customer has begun to exercise spending power in favour of quality goods and services;
and while quality is not the sole criterion in selecting a particular supplier, it has become
an important differentiator.
If one ten-pence ball-point runs dry in one month and another ten-pence ball-point lasts
for three then the second ball-point is the make which the customer will buy again and
which he/she recommends to others - even if it costs a little more. The makers of the first
ball-point may have higher profit margins, but eventually no sales; without quality in the
product, a company sacrifices customers, revenue and ultimately its own existence. In
practical terms, Quality is that something extra which will be perceived by the customer
as a valid reason for either paying more or for buying again.
In the case where the product is a service, Quality is equated with how well the job is
done and especially with whether the customer is made to feel good about the whole
operation. In this respect Quality often does cost more, but the loss is recouped in the
price customers are prepared to pay and in the increase of business.

Reliability
The clearest manifestation of Quality is in a product's reliability: that the product simply
works. To prevent problems from arising after the product is shipped, the quality must be
checked before-hand - and the best time to check quality is throughout the whole design
and manufacturing cycle. The old method of quality control was to test the completed
product and then to rework to remove the problems. Thus while the original production
time was short, the rework time was long. The new approach to quality simply asserts
that if testing becomes an integral part of each stage of production, the production time
may increase but the rework time will disappear. Further, you will catch and solve many
problems which the final "big-bang" quality-check would miss but which the customer
will find on the first day.
To achieve this requires an environment where the identification of errors is considered
to be "a good thing", where the only bad bugs are the ones which got away. One of the
most hallowed doctrines of Quality is that of zero defects. "Zero defects" is a focus, it a
glorious objective, it is the assertion that nothing less will suffice and that no matter how
high the quality of a product, it can still be improved. It is a paradox in that it is an aim
which is contrary to reason, and like the paradoxes of many other religions it holds an

26

inner truth. This is why the advocates of Quality often seem a little crazy: they are
zealots.

People as Resource
While Quality has its own reward in terms of increased long-term sales, the methods used
to achieve this Quality also have other benefits. In seeking to improve the quality of the
product, manufacturers have found that the people best placed to make substantial
contributions are the workforce: people are the most valuable resource. It is this shift in
perspective from the management to the workforce which is the most significant
consequence of the search for quality. From it has arisen a new managerial philosophy
aimed at the empowerment of the workforce, decision-making by the front line, active
worker involvement in the company's advancement; and from this new perspective, new
organizational structures have evolved, exemplified in "Quality Circles".
Without digressing too much, it is important to examine the benefits of this approach. For
such delegation to be safely and effectively undertaken, the management has to train the
workforce; not necessarily directly, and not all at once, but often within the Quality
Circles themselves using a single "facilitator" or simply peer-coaching. The workforce
had to learn how to hold meetings, how to analyse problems, how to take decisions, how
to present solutions, how to implement and evaluate change. These traditionally highlevel managerial prerogatives are devolved to the whole staff. Not only does this develop
talent, it also stimulates interest. Staff begin to look not only for problems but also for
solutions. Simple ideas become simply implemented: the secretary finally gets the filing
cabinet moved closer to the desk, the sales meetings follow an agenda, the software
division creates a new bulletin board for the sports club. The environment is created
where people see problems and fix 'em.
Larger problems have more complex solutions. One outcome of the search for Quality in
Japan is the system of Just-In-Time flow control. In this system, goods arrive at each
stage of the manufacturing process just before they are needed and are not made until
they are needed by the next stage. This reduces storage requirements and inventory costs
of surplus stock. Another outcome has been the increased flexibility of the production
line. Time to change from one product run to the next was identified as a major obstacle
in providing the customer with the desired range of products and quantities, and so the
whole workforce became engaged in changing existant practices and even in redesigning
the machinery.

The Long Term

However, I believe that the most significant shift in perspective which accompanies the
introduction of Quality is that long term success is given precedence over short term
gains. The repeat-sale and recommendation are more important than this month's sales
figures; staff training and development remain in place despite immediate schedule
problems; the product's reliability is paramount even over time-to-market. Time is

27

devoted today to saving time in the future and in making products which work first and
every time.

Team Quality
While the salvation of an entire corporation may rest primarily with Senior Management,
the fate of a team rests with the Team Leader. The Team Leader has the authority, the
power to define the micro-culture of the work team. It is by the deliberate application of
the principles of Quality that the Team Leader can gain for the team the same benefits
which Quality can provide for a corporation.
The best ideas for any particular team are likely to come from them - the aim of the Team
Leader must be to act as a catalyst through prompts and by example; the following are
possible suggestions.

Getting Started
There will be no overnight success. To be lasting, Quality must become a habit and a
habit is accustomed practise. This takes time and training - although not necessarily
formal training but possibly the sort of reinforcement you might give to any aspect of
good practise. To habituate your staff to Quality, you must first make it an issue. Here are
two suggestions.
The first idea is to become enthusiastic about one aspect at a time, and initially look for a
quick kill. Find a problem and start to talk about it with the whole team; do not delegate it
to an individual but make it an issue for everybody. Choose some work-related problem
like "how to get the right information in time" and solicit everybody's views and
suggestions - and get the problem solved. Demand urgency against a clear target. There is
no need to allocate large amounts of resource or time to this, simply raise the problem
and make a fuss. When a solution comes, praise it by rewarding the whole team, and
ensure that the aspects of increased efficiency/productivity/calm are highlighted since this
will establish the criteria for "success". Next, find another problem and repeat.
The second idea is the regular weekly meeting to discuss Quality. Of course meetings can
be complete time wasters, so this strategy requires care. The benefits are that regularity
will lead to habit, the formality will provide a simple opportunity for the expression of
ideas, and the inclusion of the whole group at the meeting will emphasize the collective
responsibility. By using the regular meeting, you can establish the "ground rules" of
accepted behaviour and at the same time train the team in effective techniques.
One problem is that the focus on any one particular issue may quickly loose its efficacy.
A solution is to have frequent shifts in focus so that you maintain the freshness and
enthusiasm (and the scope for innovative solutions). Further benefits are that continual
shifts in emphasis will train your team to be flexible, and provide the opportunity for
them to raise new issues. The sooner the team takes over the definition of the "next
problem", the better.

28

Initial Phases
The initial phases are delicate. The team will be feeling greater responsibility without
extra confidence. Thus you must concentrate on supporting their development.
Essentially you will be their trainer in management skills. You could get outside help
with this but by undertaking the job yourself, you retain control: you mould the team so
that they will reflect your own approach and use your own criteria. Later they will
develop themselves, but even then they will understand your thinking and so your
decisions.
One trap to avoid is that the team may focus upon the wrong type of problem. You must
make it clear any problem which they tackle should be:

related to their own work or environment

something which they can change

This precludes gripe sessions about wages and holidays.

As with all group work, the main problem is clarity. You should provide the team with a
notice board and flip-charts specifically for Quality problems. These can then be left on
display as a permanent record of what was agreed.
If you can, steer the group first to some problem which has a simple solution and with
obvious (measurable) benefits. A quick, sharp success will motivate.

Team Building
To succeed, a Quality push must engage the enthusiasm of the entire team; as Team
Leader, you must create the right atmosphere for this to happen. Many aspects of team
building can be addressed while Quality remains the focus.
You must create the environment where each team member feels totally free to express
an idea or concern and this can only be done if there is no stigma attached to being
incorrect. No idea is wrong - merely non-optimal. In each suggestion there is at least a
thread of gold and someone should point it out and, if possible, build upon it. Any
behaviour which seeks laughter at the expense of others must be swiftly reprimanded.
One crude but effective method is to write down agreed ground rules and to display them
as a constant reminder for everyone, something like:

all criticism must be kind and constructive

all our-problems are all-our problems
BUGS WANTED: DEAD OR ALIVE (but not for long)
if it saves time later, do it now

29

Another method is to constantly talk about the group as the plural pronoun: "we decided",
"we can do this", "we'll get back to you". This is especially effective if it is used in
conversation with outsiders (especially management) within ear-shot of the team. Praise
and reward the whole team; get the team wider fame by a success story in an internal
newspaper.
Most importantly, you must enable failure. If the team is unable to try out ideas without
rebuke for errors, then the scope of their solutions will be severely limited. Instead, a
failure should be an opportunity to gain knowledge and to praise any safe-guards which
were included in the plan.

Mutual Coaching
An important aspect of team interaction is the idea of mutual support. If you can instill
the idea that all problems are owned by the entire team then each member will be able to
seek help and advice when needed from every other team member. One promoter of this
is to encourage mutual coaching. If one team member knows techniques or information
which would be useful to the rest, then encourage him/her to share it. Specifically this
will raise the profile, confidence and self-esteem of the instructor at the same time as
benefiting the entire group. And if there is one member who might never have anything
useful to impart - send him/her to a conference or training session to find something.

Statistics
One of the central tenets of Quality programmes is the idea of monitoring the problem
being addressed: Statistical Quality Control. Quite simply, if you can't measure an
improvement, it probably isn't there. Gathering statistics has several benefits in applying
Quality:

it identifies (the extent of) the problem

it allows progress to be monitored
it provides an objective criterion for the abandonment of an idea
it can justify perceived expense in terms of observed savings/improvements
it motivates staff by providing a display of achievement

and, of course, some problems simply disappear when you try to watch them.
The statistics must be gathered in an objective and empirical manner, the outcome should
be a simple table or graph regularly updated to indicate progress, and these results must
be displayed where all the team can watch. For example, if your team provides product
support, then you might monitor and graph the number of repeat enquiries or the average
response time. Or if you are in product development, you might want to monitor the
number of bugs discovered (i.e. improvement opportunities).
In the long term, it may be suitable to implement the automatic gathering of statistics on a
wide range of issues such as complaints, bug reports, machine down-time, etc. Eventually

30

these may either provide early warning of unexpected problems, or comparative data for
new quality improvement projects. It is vital, however, that they focus upon an agreed
problem and not upon an individual's performance or else all the positive motivation of
staff involvement will be lost.

Projects
Clarity of purpose - this is the key to success. You need a simple, stated objective which
everybody understands and which everybody can see achieved.
Any plan to improve the quality or effectiveness of the group must contain:

the objective
the method
the statistical display for monitoring the outcome
the agreed criteria for completion or curtailment

By insisting on this format, you provide the plan-owners with a simple mechanism for
peer recognition (through the displayed notice board) and yet enable them to manage
their own failure with grace.
For a small established team, the "customer" includes any other part of the company with
which the team interacts. Thus any themes regarding customer satisfaction can be
developed with respect to these so called internal customers. In the end, the effectiveness
of your team will be judged by the reports of how well they provide products for others.
A simple innovation might be for a member of your team to actually talk to someone
from each of these internal customer groups and to ask about problems. The interfaces
are usually the best place to look for simply solved problems. The immediate benefit may
be to the customer, but in the long run better communications will lead to fewer
misunderstandings and so less rework.

Building Quality
Quality costs less than its lack; look after the pennies and the profits will take care of
themselves. To build a quality product, you must do two things:

worry the design and the procedures

include features to aid quality checking

It is a question of attitude. If one of the team spots a modification in the design or the
procedures which will have a long term benefit, then that must be given priority over the
immediate schedule. The design is never quite right; you should allocate time specifically
to discussing improvement. In this you should not aim at actual enhancements in the
sense of added features or faster performance, but towards simplicity or predicting

31

problem areas. This is an adjunct to the normal design or production operations - the
extra mile which lesser teams would not go.
Many products and services do not lend themselves to quality monitoring. These should
be enhanced so that the quality becomes easily tracked. This may be a simple invitation
for the "customer" to comment, or it could be a full design modification to provide selfchecking or an easy testing routine. Any product whose quality can not be tracked should
naturally become a source of deep anxiety to the whole team - until a mechanism is
devised.
One of the least-used sources of quality in design and production in the engineering
world is documentation. This is frequently seen as the final inconvenience at product
release, sometimes even delegated to another (non-technical) group - yet the writing of
such documentation can be used as an important vehicle for the clarification of ideas. It
also protects the group from the loss of any single individual; the No.7 bus, or the headhunter, could strike at any time.
In devising a mechanism for monitoring quality, many teams will produce a set of test
procedures. As bugs emerge, new procedures should be added which specifically identify
this problem and so check the solution. Even when the problem is solved the new
procedures should remain in the test set; the problem may return (perhaps as a side effect
of a subsequent modification) or the procedure may catch another. Essentially the test set
should grow to cover all known possibilities of error and its application should, where
possible, be automated.

Role Change
As your team develops, your role as leader changes subtly. You become a cross between
a priest and a rugby captain, providing the vision and the values while shouting like crazy
from the centre of the field. Although you retain the final say (that is your responsibility),
the team begins to make decisions. The hardest part, as with all delegation, is in accepting
the group decision even though you disagree. You must never countermand a marginal
decision. If you have to over-rule the team, it is imperative that you explain your reasons
very clearly so that they understand the criteria; this will both justify your intervention
and couch the team in (hopefully) good decision-making practices.
Another role which you assume is that of both buffer and interface between the team and
the rest of the company: a buffer in that you protect the team from the vagaries of less
enlightened managers; an interface in that you keep the team informed about factors
relevant to their decisions. Ultimately, the team will be delegating to you (!) tasks which
only you, acting as manager, can perform on its behalf.

Quality for Profit

By applying the principles of Quality to an established team, the Team Leader can enjoy
the benefits so actively sought by large corporations. The key is the attitude - and the

32

insistence on the primacy of Quality. As a Team Leader, you have the power to define the
ethos of your staff; by using Quality as the focus, you also can accrue its riches.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

How To Write Right

by Gerard M Blair
Writing is an essential skill upon which all engineers and managers rely. This article
outlines simple design principles for engineering's predominate product: paper.
"Sex, romance, thrills, burlesque, satire, bass ... most enjoyable".
"Here is everything one expects from this author but thricefold and three times as
entertaining as anything he has written before".
"A wonderful tissue of outrageous coincidences and correspondences, teasing
elevations of suspense and delayed climaxes".
(reviews of Small World by David Lodge)
This has nothing to do with engineering writing. No engineering report will ever get such
reviews. The most significant point about engineering writing is that it is totally different
from the writing most people were taught - and if you do not recognize and understand
this difference, then your engineering writing will always miss the mark. However, this
article outlines a methodical approach to writing which will enable anyone to produce
great works of engineering literature.

Why Worry?
Writing is the major means of communication within an organisation; paper is thought to
be the major product of professional engineers; some estimate that up to 30% of worktime is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely vital for you as a
Professional Engineer to actively develop the skill of writing; not only because of the
time involved in writing, but also because your project's success may depend upon it.
Indeed, since so much of the communication between you and more senior management
occurs in writing, your whole career may depend upon its quality.

Two Roles

33

In an industrial context, writing has two major roles:

it clarifies - for both writer and reader

it conveys information

It is this deliberate, dual aim which should form the focus for all your writing activity.
There are many uses for paper within an organization; some are inefficient - but the
power of paper must not be ignored because of that. In relation to a project,
documentation provides a means to clarify and explain on-going development, and to
plan the next stages. Memoranda are a simple mechanism for suggestions, instructions,
and general organisation. The minutes of a meeting form a permanent and definitive
record.
Writing is a central part of any design activity. Quality is improved since writing an
explanation of the design, forces the designer to consider and explore it fully. For
instance, the simple procedure of insisting upon written test-plans forces the designer to
address the issue. Designs which work just "because they do" will fail later; designs
whose operation is explained in writing may also fail, but the repair will be far quicker
since the (documented) design is understood.
If you are having trouble expressing an idea, write it down; you (and possibly others) will
then understand it. It may take you a long time to explain something "off the cuff", but if
you have explained it first to yourself by writing it down - the reader can study your logic
not just once but repeatedly, and the information is efficiently conveyed.

Forget the Past

Professional writing has very little to do with the composition and literature learnt at
school: the objectives are different, the audience has different needs, and the rewards in
engineering can be far greater. As engineers, we write for very distinct and restricted
purposes, which are best achieved through simplicity.
English at school has two distinct foci: the analysis and appreciation of the great works of
literature, and the display of knowledge. It is all a question of aim. A novel entertains. It
forces the reader to want to know: what happens next. On the other hand, an engineering
report is primarily designed to convey information. The engineer's job is helped if the
report is interesting; but time is short and the sooner the meat of the document is reached,
the better. The novel would start: "The dog grew ill from howling so ..."; the engineer's
report would start (and probably end): "The butler killed Sir John with a twelve inch
carving knife".
In school we are taught to display knowledge. The more information and argument, the
more marks. In industry, it is totally different. Here the wise engineer must extract only
the significant information and support it with only the minimum-necessary argument.
The expertise is used to filter the information and so to remove inessential noise. The

34

engineer as expert provides the answers to problems, not an exposition of past and
present knowledge: we use our knowledge to focus upon the important points.

For the Future

When you approach any document, follow this simple procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Establish the AIM

Consider the READER
Devise the STRUCTURE
DRAFT the text
EDIT and REVISE

That is it. For the rest of this article, we will expand upon these points and explain some
techniques to make the document effective and efficient - but these five stages (all of
them) are what you need to remember.

Aim
You start with your aim. Every document must have a single aim - a specific, specified
reason for being written. If you can not think of one, do something useful instead; if you
can not decide what the document should achieve, it will not achieve it.
Once you have established your aim, you must then decide what information is necessary
in achieving that aim. The reader wants to find the outcome of your thoughts: apply your
expertise to the available information, pick out the very-few facts which are relevant, and
state them precisely and concisely.

The Reader
A document tells somebody something. As the writer, you have to decide what to tell and
how best to tell it to the particular audience; you must consider the reader.
There are three considerations:

What they already know affects what you can leave out.
What they need to know determines what you include.
Wha

t they want to know suggests the order and emphasis of your writing.
For instance, in a products proposal, marketing will want to see the products
differentiation and niche in the market place; finance will be interested in projected
development costs, profit margins and risk analysis; and R&D will want the technical
details of the design. To be most effective, you may need to produce three different
reports for the three different audiences.

35

The key point, however, is that writing is about conveying information - conveying; that
means it has to get there. Your writing must be right for the reader, or it will lost on its
journey; you must focus upon enabling the reader's access to the information.

Structure
Writing is very powerful - and for this reason, it can be exploited in engineering. The
power comes from its potential as an efficient and effective means of communication; the
power is derived from order and clarity. Structure is used to present the information so
that it is more accessible to the reader.
In all comes down to the problem of the short attention span. You have to provide the
information in small manageable chunks, and to use the structure of the document to
maintain the context. As engineers, this is easy since we are used to performing
hierarchical decomposition of designs - and the same procedure can be applied to writing
a document.
While still considering the aim and the reader, the document is broken down into distinct
sections which can be written (and read) separately. These sections are then each further
decomposed into subsections (and sub-subsections) until you arrive at simple, small units
of information - which are expressed as a paragraph, or a diagram.
Every paragraph in your document should justify itself; it should serve a purpose, or be
removed. A paragraph should convey a single idea. There should be a statement of that
key idea and (possibly) some of the following:

a development of the idea

an explanation or analogy
an illustration
support with evidence
contextual links to reinforce the structure

As engineers, though, you are allowed to avoid words entirely in places; diagrams are
often much better than written text. Whole reports can be written with them almost
exclusively and you should always consider using one in preference to a paragraph. Not
only do diagrams convey some information more effectively, but often they assist in the
analysis and interpretation of the data. For instance, a pie chart gives a quicker
comparison than a list of numbers; a simple bar chart is far more intelligible than the
numbers it represents. The only problem with diagrams is the writer often places less
effort in their design than their information-content merits - and so some is lost or
obscure. They must be given due care: add informative labels and titles, highlight any key
entries, remove unnecessary information.

Draft, Revise and Edit

36

When you have decided what to say, to whom you are saying it, and how to structure it;
say it - and then check it for clarity and effectiveness. The time spent doing this will be
far less than the time wasted by other people struggling with the document otherwise.
The following are a few points to consider as you wield the red pen over your newly
created opus.

Layout
The main difference between written and verbal communication is that the reader can
choose and re-read the various sections, whereas the listener receives information in the
sequence determined by the speaker. Layout should be used to make the structure plain,
and so more effective: it acts as a guide to the reader.
Suppose you have three main points to make; do not hide them within simple text - make
them obvious. Make it so that the reader's eye jumps straight to them on the page. For
instance, the key to effective layout is to use:

informative titles
white space
variety

Another way to make a point obvious is to use a different font.

Style
People in business do not have the time to marvel at your florid turn off phrase or
incessant illiteration. They want to know what the document is about and (possibly) what
it says; there is no real interest in style, except for ease of access.
In some articles a summary can be obtained by reading the first sentence of each
paragraph. The remainder of each paragraph is simply an expansion upon, or explanation
of, the initial sentence. In other writing, the topic is given first in a summary form, and
then successively repeated with greater detail each time. This is the pyramid structure
favoured by newspapers.
A really short and simple document is bound to be read. This has lead to the "memo
culture" in which every communication is condensed to one side of A4. Longer
documents need to justify themselves to their readers' attention.

The Beginning
Let us imagine the reader. Let us call her Ms X.
Ms X has a lot to do today: she has a meeting tomorrow morning with the regional VP, a
call to make to the German design office, several letters to dictate concerning safety
37

regulations, and this months process-data has failed to reach her. She is busy and
distracted. You have possibly 20 seconds for your document to justify itself to her. If by
then it has not explained itself and convinced her that she needs to read it - Ms X will
tackle something else. If Ms X is a good manager, she will insist on a rewrite; if not, the
document may never be read. action).
Thus the beginning of your document is crucial. It must be obvious to the reader at once
what the document is about, and why it should be read. You need to catch the readers
attention but with greater subtlety than this article; few engineering reports can begin
with the word sex.
Unlike a novel, the engineering document must not contain "teasing elevations of
suspense". Take your "aim", and either state it or achieve it by the end of the first
paragraph.
For instance, if you have been evaluating a new software package for possible purchase
then your reports might begin: "Having evaluated the McBlair Design Suite, I
recommend that ...".

Punctuation
Punctuation is used to clarify meaning and to highlight structure. It can also remove
ambiguity: a cross section of customers can be rendered less frightening simply by
adding a hyphen (a cross-section of customers).
Engineers tend not to punctuate - which deprives us of this simple tool. Despite what
some remember from school, punctuation has simple rules which lead to elegance and
easy interpretation. If you want a summary of punctuation, try The Concise Oxford
Dictionary (1990); and if you want a full treatise, complete with worked examples (of
varying degrees of skill), read You Have A Point There by Eric Partridge.
For now, let us look at two uses of two punctuation marks. If you do not habitually use
these already, add them to your repertoire by deliberately looking for opportunities in
your next piece of writing.
The two most common uses of the Colon are:
1) To introduce a list which explains, or provides the information promised in, the
previous clause.
A manager needs two planning tools: prescience and a prayer.
2) To separate main clauses where the second is a step forward from the first: statement
to example, statement to explanation, cause to effect, introduction to main point.
To err is human: we use computers.
The two most common uses of the Semicolon are:

38

1) to unite sentences that are closely associated, complementary or parallel:

Writing is a skill; one must practise to improve a skill.
Engineers engineer; accountants account for the cost.
2) to act as a stronger comma, either for emphasis or to establish a hierarchy
The report was a masterpiece; of deception and false promises.
The teams were Tom, Dick and Harry; and Mandy, Martha and Mary.

Spelling
For some, spelling is a constant problem. In the last analysis, incorrect speling distracts
the reader and detracts from the authority of the author. Computer spell-checking
programmes provide great assistance, especially when supported by a good dictionary.
Chronic spellers should always maintain a (preferably alphabetical) list of corrected
errors, and try to learn new rules (and exceptions!). For instance (in British English)
advice-advise, device-devise, licence-license, practice-practise each follow the same
pattern: the -ice is a noun, the -ise is a verb.

Simple Errors
For important documents, there is nothing better than a good, old-fashioned proof-read.
As an example, the following comes from a national advertising campaign/quiz run by a
famous maker of Champagne:
Question 3: Which Country has one the Triple Crown the most times?
Won understands the error, but is not impressed by the quality of that company's product.

Sentence Length
Avoid long sentences. We tend to associate "unit of information" with "a sentence".
Consequently when reading, we process the information when we reach the full stop. If
the sentence is too long, we lose the information either because of our limited attention
span or because the information was poorly decomposed to start with and might, perhaps,
have been broken up into smaller, or possibly better punctuated, sentences which would
better have kept the attention of the reader and, by doing so, have reinforced the original
message with greater clarity and simplicity.

Word Length
It is inappropriate to utilize verbose and bombastic terminology when a suitable
alternative would be to: keep it simple. Often the long, complex word will not be

39

understood. Further, if the reader is distracted by the word itself, then less attention is
paid to the meaning or to the information you wished to convey.

Jargon
I believe that a digital human-computer-interface data-entry mechanism should be called
a keyboard; I don't know why, but I do.

Wordiness
When one is trying hard to write an impressive document, it is easy to slip into grandiose
formulae: words and phrases which sound significant but which convey nothing but
noise.
You must exterminate. So: "for the reason that" becomes "because"; "with regards to"
becomes "about"; "in view of the fact that" becomes "since"; "within a comparatively
short period of time" becomes "soon".
Often you can make a sentence sound more like spoken English simply be changing the
word order and adjusting the verb. So: "if the department experiences any difficulties in
the near future regarding attendance of meetings" becomes "if staff cannnot attend the
next few meetings". As a final check, read your document aloud; if it sounds stilted,
change it.

Conclusion
Writing is a complex tool, you need to train yourself in its use or a large proportion of
your activity will be grossly inefficient. You must reflect upon your writing lest it reflects
badly upon you.
If you want one message to take from this article, take this: the writing of a professional
engineer should be clear, complete and concise. If your document satisfies these three
criteria, then it deserves to be read.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

The Art of Delegation

40

by Gerard M Blair
Delegation is a skill of which we have all heard - but which few understand. It can be
used either as an excuse for dumping failure onto the shoulders of subordinates, or as a
dynamic tool for motivating and training your team to realize their full potential.
"I delegate myne auctorite" (Palsgrave 1530)
Everyone knows about delegation. Most managers hear about it in the cradle as mother
talks earnestly to the baby-sitter: "just enjoy the television ... this is what you do if ... if
there is any trouble call me at ..."; people have been writing about it for nearly half a
millennium; yet few actually understand it.
Delegation underpins a style of management which allows your staff to use and develop
their skills and knowledge to the full potential. Without delegation, you lose their full
value.
As the ancient quotation above suggests, delegation is primarily about entrusting your
authority to others. This means that they can act and initiate independently; and that they
assume responsibility with you for certain tasks. If something goes wrong, you remain
responsible since you are the manager; the trick is to delegate in such a way that things
get done but do not go (badly) wrong.

Objective
The objective of delegation is to get the job done by someone else. Not just the simple
tasks of reading instructions and turning a lever, but also the decision making and
changes which depend upon new information. With delegation, your staff have the
authority to react to situations without referring back to you.
If you tell the janitor to empty the bins on Tuesdays and Fridays, the bins will be emptied
on Tuesdays and Fridays. If the bins overflow on Wednesday, they will be emptied on
Friday. If instead you said to empty the bins as often as necessary, the janitor would
decide how often and adapt to special circumstances. You might suggest a regular
schedule (teach the janitor a little personal time management), but by leaving the decision
up to the janitor you will apply his/her local knowledge to the problem. Consider this
frankly: do you want to be an expert on bin emptying, can you construct an instruction to
cover all possible contingencies? If not, delegate to someone who gets paid for it.
To enable someone else to do the job for you, you must ensure that:

they know what you want

they have the authority to achieve it
they know how to do it.

41

These all depend upon communicating clearly the nature of the task, the extent of their
discretion, and the sources of relevant information and knowledge.

Information
Such a system can only operate successfully if the decision-makers (your staff) have full
and rapid access to the relevant information. This means that you must establish a system
to enable the flow of information. This must at least include regular exchanges between
your staff so that each is aware of what the others are doing. It should also include
briefings by you on the information which you have received in your role as manager;
since if you need to know this information to do your job, your staff will need to know
also if they are to do your (delegated) job for you.
One of the main claims being made for computerized information distribution is that it
facilitates the rapid dissemination of information. Some protagonists even suggest that
such systems will instigate changes in managerial power sharing rather than merely
support them: that the "enknowledged" workforce will rise up, assume control and
innovate spontaneously. You may not believe this vision, but you should understand the
premise. If a manager restricts access to information, then only he/she is able to make
decisions which rely upon that information; once that access is opened to many others,
they too can make decisions - and challenge those of the manager according to additional
criteria. The manager who fears this challenge will never delegate effectively; the
manager who recognizes that the staff may have additional experience and knowledge
(and so may enhance the decision-making process) will welcome their input; delegation
ensures that the staff will practise decision-making and will feel that their views are
welcome.

Effective control
One of the main phobias about delegation is that by giving others authority, a manager
loses control. This need not be the case. If you train your staff to apply the same criteria
as you would yourself (by example and full explanations) then they will be exercising
your control on you behalf. And since they will witness many more situations over which
control may be exercised (you can't be in several places at once) then that control is
exercised more diversely and more rapidly than you could exercise it by yourself. In
engineering terms: if maintaining control is truly your concern, then you should distribute
the control mechanisms to enable parallel and autonomous processing.

Staggered Development
To understand delegation, you really have to think about people. Delegation cannot be
viewed as an abstract technique, it depends upon individuals and individual needs. Let us
take a lowly member of staff who has little or no knowledge about the job which needs to
be done.

42

Do you say: "Jimmy, I want a draft tender for contract of the new Hydro Powerstation on
my desk by Friday"? No. Do you say: "Jimmy, Jennifer used to do the tenders for me.
Spend about an hour with her going over how she did them and try compiling one for the
new Hydro Powerstation. She will help you for this one, but do come to me if she is busy
with a client. I want a draft by Friday so that I can look over it with you"? Possibly.
The key is to delegate gradually. If you present someone with a task which is daunting,
one with which he/she does not feel able to cope, then the task will not be done and your
staff will be severely demotivated. Instead you should build-up gradually; first a small
task leading to a little development, then another small task which builds upon the first;
when that is achieved, add another stage; and so on. This is the difference between asking
people to scale a sheer wall, and providing them with a staircase. Each task delegated
should have enough complexity to stretch that member of staff - but only a little.
Jimmy needs to feel confident. He needs to believe that he will actually be able to
achieve the task which has been given to him. This means that either he must have the
sufficient knowledge, or he must know where to get it or where to get help. So, you must
enable access to the necessary knowledge. If you hold that knowledge, make sure that
Jimmy feels able to come to you; if someone else holds the knowledge, make sure that
they are prepared for Jimmy to come to them. Only if Jimmy is sure that support is
available will he feel confident enough to undertake a new job.
You need to feel confident in Jimmy: this means keeping an eye on him. It would be fatal
to cast Jimmy adrift and expect him to make it to the shore: keep an eye on him, and a
lifebelt handy. It is also a mistake to keep wandering up to Jimmy at odd moments and
asking for progress reports: he will soon feel persecuted. Instead you must agree
beforehand how often and when you actually need information and decide the reporting
schedule at the onset. Jimmy will then expect these encounters and even feel encouraged
by your continuing support; you will be able to check upon progress and even spur it on a
little.
When you do talk to Jimmy about the project, you should avoid making decisions of
which Jimmy is capable himself. The whole idea is for Jimmy to learn to take over and so
he must be encouraged to do so. Of course, with you there to check his decisions, Jimmy
will feel freer to do so. If Jimmy is wrong - tell him, and explain very carefully why. If
Jimmy is nearly right - congratulate him, and suggest possible modifications; but, of
course, leave Jimmy to decide. Finally, unless your solution has significant merits over
Jimmy's, take his: it costs you little, yet rewards him much.

Constrained Availability
There is a danger with "open access" that you become too involved with the task you had
hoped to delegate. One successful strategy to avoid this is to formalize the manner in
which these conversation take place. One formalism is to allow only fixed, regular
encounters (except for emergencies) so that Jimmy has to think about issues and
questions before raising them; you might even insist that he draw-up an agenda. A second

43

formalism is to refuse to make a decision unless Jimmy has provided you with a clear
statement of alternatives, pros and cons, and his recommendation. This is my favourite. It
allows Jimmy to rehearse the full authority of decision making while secure in the
knowledge that you will be there to check the outcome. Further, the insistence upon
evaluation of alternatives promotes good decision making practices. If Jimmy is right,
then Jimmy's confidence increases - if you disagree with Jimmy, he learns something
new (provided you explain your criteria) and so his knowledge increases. Which ever
way, he benefits; and the analysis is provided for you.

Outcomes and Failure

Let us consider your undoubtedly high standards. When you delegate a job, it does not
have to be done as well as you could do it (given time), but only as well as necessary:
never judge the outcome by what you expect you would do (it is difficult to be objective
about that), but rather by fitness for purpose. When you delegate a task, agree then upon
the criteria and standards by which the outcome will be judged.
You must enable failure. With appropriate monitoring, you should be able to catch
mistakes before they are catastrophic; if not, then the failure is yours. You are the
manager, you decided that Jimmy could cope, you gave him enough rope to hang
himself, you are at fault. Now that that is cleared up, let us return to Jimmy. Suppose
Jimmy gets something wrong; what do you want to happen?
Firstly, you want it fixed. Since Jimmy made the mistake, it is likely that he will need
some input to develop a solution: so Jimmy must feel safe in approaching you with the
problem. Thus you must deal primarily with the solution rather than the cause (look
forward, not backwards). The most desirable outcome is that Jimmy provides the
solution.
Once that is dealt with, you can analyse the cause. Do not fudge the issue; if Jimmy did
something wrong say so, but only is very specific terms. Avoid general attacks on his
parents: "were you born this stupid?", and look to the actual event or circumstance which
led to the error: "you did not take account of X in your decision". Your objectives are to
ensure that Jimmy:

understands the problem

feels confident enough to resume
implements some procedure to prevent recurrence.

The safest ethos to cultivate is one where Jimmy actually looks for and anticipates
mistakes. If you wish to promote such behaviour, you should always praise Jimmy for his
prompt and wise action in spotting and dealing with the errors rather that castigate him
for causing them. Here the emphasis is placed upon checking/testing/monitoring of ideas.
Thus you never criticise Jimmy for finding an error, only for not having safe-guards in
place.

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What to delegate
There is always the question of what to delegate and what to do yourself, and you must
take a long term view on this: you want to delegate as much as possible to develop you
staff to be as good as you are now.
The starting point is to consider the activities you used to do before you were promoted.
You used to do them when you were more junior, so someone junior can do them now.
Tasks in which you have experience are the easiest for you to explain to others and so to
train them to take over. You thus use your experience to ensure that the task is done well,
rather than to actually perform the task yourself. In this way you gain time for your other
duties and someone else becomes as good as your once were (increasing the strength of
the group).
Tasks in which your staff have more experience must be delegated to them. This does not
mean that you relinquish responsibility because they are expert, but it does mean that the
default decision should be theirs. To be a good manager though, you should ensure that
they spend some time in explaining these decisions to you so that you learn their criteria.
Decisions are a normal managerial function: these too should be delegated - especially if
they are important to the staff. In practice, you will need to establish the boundaries of
these decisions so that you can live with the outcome, but this will only take you a little
time while the delegation of the remainder of the task will save you much more.
In terms of motivation for your staff, you should distribute the more mundane tasks as
evenly as possible; and sprinkle the more exciting onces as widely. In general, but
especially with the boring tasks, you should be careful to delegate not only the
performance of the task but also its ownership. Task delegation, rather than task
assignment, enables innovation. The point you need to get across is that the task may be
changed, developed, upgraded, if necessary or desirable. So someone who collates the
monthly figures should not feel obliged to blindly type them in every first-Monday; but
should feel empowered to introduce a more effective reporting format, to use Computer
Software to enhance the data processing, to suggest and implement changes to the task
itself.

Negotiation
Since delegation is about handing over authority, you cannot dictate what is delegated nor
how that delegation is to be managed. To control the delegation, you need to establish at
the beginning the task itself, the reporting schedule, the sources of information, your
availability, and the criteria of success. These you must negotiate with your staff: only by
obtaining both their input and their agreement can you hope to arrive at a workable
procedure.

When all is done for you

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Once you have delegated everything, what do you do then?

You still need to monitor the tasks you have delegated and to continue the development
of your staff to help them exercise their authority well.
There are managerial functions which you should never delegate - these are the
personal/personnel ones which are often the most obvious additions to your
responsibilities as you assume a managerial role. Specifically, they include: motivation,
training, team-building, organization, praising, reprimanding, performance reviews,
promotion.
As a manager, you have a responsibility to represent and to develop the effectiveness of
your group within the company; these are tasks you can expand to fill your available time
- delegation is a mechanism for creating that opportunity.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

The Human Factor

by Gerard M Blair
In the management of a small team, the human factor is crucial to success. This article
considers possible motivators and a simple framework for dealing with people.
When you are struggling with a deadline or dealing with delicate decisions, the last thing
you want to deal with is "people". When the fight is really on and the battle is undecided,
you want your team to act co-operatively, quickly, rationally; you do not want a
disgruntled employee bitching about life, you do not want a worker who avoids work,
you do not want your key engineer being tired all day because the baby cries all night.
But this is what happens, and as a manager you have to deal with it. Few "people
problems" can be solved quickly, some are totally beyond your control and can only be
contained; but you do have influence over many factors which affect your people and so
it is your responsibility to ensure that your influence is a positive one.
You can only underestimate the impact which you personally have upon the habits and
effectiveness of your group. As the leader of a team, you have the authority to sanction,
encourage or restrict most aspects of their working day, and this places you in a position
of power - and responsibility. This article looks briefly at your behaviour and at what
motivates people, because by understanding these you can adapt yourself and the work
environment so that your team and the company are both enriched. Since human
psychology is a vast and complex subject, we do not even pretend to explain it. Instead,

46

the article then outlines a simple model of behaviour and a systematic approach to
analysing how you can exert your influence to help your team to work.

Behaviour
Consider your behaviour. Consider the effect you would have if every morning after
coffee you walked over to Jimmy's desk and told him what he was doing wrong. Would
Jimmy feel pleased at your attention? Would he look forward to these little chats and
prepare simple questions to clarify aspects of his work? Or would he develop a Pavlovian
hatred for coffee and be busy elsewhere whenever you pass by? Of course you would
never be so destructive - provided you thought about it. And you must; for many
seemingly simple habits can have a huge impact upon your rapport with your team.
Take another example: suppose (as a good supportive manager) you often give public
praise for independence and initiative displayed by your team, and suppose (as a busy
manager) you respond brusquely to questions and interruptions; think about it, what will
happen?
Probably your team will leave you alone. They will not raise problems (you will be left in
the dark), they will not question your instructions (ambiguities will remain), they will
struggle on bravely (and feel unsupported). Your simple behaviour may result in a
quagmire of errors, mis-directed activity and utter frustration. So if you do want to hear
about problems, tell the team so and react positively when you hear of problems in-time
rather than too-late.

Motivation
When thinking about motivation it is important to take the long-term view. What you
need is a sustainable approach to maintain enthusiasm and commitment from your team.
This is not easy; but it is essential to your effectiveness.
Classic work on motivation was undertaken by F. Herzberg in the 1950's when he
formulated the "Motivation-Hygiene" theory. Herzberg identified several factors, such as
salary levels, working conditions and company policy, which demotivated (by being
poor) rather that motivated (by being good). For example, once a fair level of pay is
established, money ceases to be a significant motivator for long term performance.
Herzberg called these the "Hygiene" factors to apply the analogy that if the washrooms
are kept clean, no one cares if they are scrubbed even harder. The point is that you can
not enhance your team's performance through these Hygiene factors - which is fortunate
since few team leaders have creative control over company organization or remuneration
packages. What you can influence is the local environment and particularly the way in
which you interact with your team.
The positive motivators identified by Herzberg are: achievement, recognition, the work
itself, responsibility, and advancement. These are what your team needs; loads-o-money
is nice but not nearly as good as being valued and trusted.

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Achievement
As the manager, you set the targets - and in selecting these targets, you have a dramatic
effect upon your team's sense of achievement. If you make them too hard, the team will
feel failure; if too easy, the team feels little. Ideally, you should provide a series of targets
which are easily recognised as stages towards the ultimate completion of the task. Thus
progress is punctuated and celebrated with small but marked achievements. If you stretch
your staff, they know you know they can meet that challenge.

Recognition
Recognition is about feeling appreciated. It is knowing that what you do is seen and
noted, and preferably by the whole team as well as by you, the manager. In opposite
terms, if people do something well and then feel it is ignored - they will not bother to do
it so well next time (because "no one cares").
The feedback you give your team about their work is fundamental to their motivation.
They should know what they do well (be positive), what needs improving (be
constructive) and what is expected of them in the future (something to aim at). And while
this is common sense, ask yourself how many on your team know these things, right
now? Perhaps more importantly, for which of your team could you write these down now
(try it)?
Your staff need to know where they stand, and how they are performing against your
(reasonable) expectations. You can achieve this through a structured review system, but
such systems often become banal formalities with little or no communication. The best
time to give feedback is when the event occurs. Since it can impact greatly, the feedback
should be honest, simple, and always constructive. If in doubt, follow the simple formula
of:
1. highlight something good
2. point out what needs improving
3. suggest how to improve
You must always look for something positive to say, if only to offer some recognition of
the effort which has been put into the work. When talking about improvements, be
specific: this is what is wrong, this is what I want/need, this is how you should work
towards it. Never say anything as unhelpful or uninformative as "do better" or "shape up"
- if you cannot be specific and say how, then keep quiet. While your team will soon
realize that this IS a formula, they will still enjoy the benefits of the information (and
training). You must not stint in praising good work. If you do not acknowledge it, it may
not be repeated simply because no one knew you approved.

The work itself

The work itself should be interesting and challenging. Interesting because this makes
your staff actually engage their attention; challenging because this maintains the interest
and provides a sense of personal achievement when the job is done. But few managers

48

have only interesting, challenging work to distribute: there is always the boring and
mundane to be done. This is a management problem for you to solve. You must actually
consider how interesting are the tasks you assign and how to deal with the boring ones.
Here are two suggestions.
Firstly, make sure that everyone (including yourself) has a share of the interesting and of
the dull. This is helped by the fact that what is dull to some might be new and fascinating
to others - so match tasks to people, and possibly share the worst tasks around. For
instance, taking minutes in meetings is dull on a weekly basis but quite
interesting/educational once every six weeks (and also heightens a sense of
responsibility). Secondly, if the task is dull perhaps the method can be changed - by the
person given the task. This turns dull into challenging, adds responsibility, and might
even improve the efficiency of the team.

Responsibility
Of all of Herzberg's positive motivators, responsibility is the most lasting. One reason is
that gaining responsibility is itself seen as an advancement which gives rise to a sense of
achievement and can also improve the work itself: a multiple motivation! Assigning
responsibility is a difficult judgement since if the person is not confident and capable
enough, you will be held responsible for the resulting failure. Indeed, delegating
responsibility deserves another article in itself (see the article on Delegation).

Advancement
There are two types of advancement: the long-term issues of promotion, salary rises, job
prospects; and the short-term issues (which you control) of increased responsibility, the
acquisition of new skills, broader experience. Your team members will be looking for the
former, you have to provide the latter and convince them that these are necessary (and
possibly sufficient) steps for the eventual advancement they seek. As a manager, you
must design the work assignment so that each member of the team feels: "I'm learning,
I'm getting on".

Problems
We are going to look at a simple system for addressing people-problems. It is a step-bystep procedure which avoids complex psychological models (which few managers
can/should handle) and which focuses upon tangible (and so controllable) quantities.
One work of warning: this technique is often referred to as Behavioural Modification
(BM) and many balk at the connotations of management-directed mind control. Do not
worry. We are simply recognising that staff behaviour IS modified by the work
environment and by your influence upon it. The technique is merely a method for
analysing that influence to ensure that it is positive and to focus it to best use.
In any group of people there are bound to be problems - as a manager, you have to solve
or at least contain them. You ignore them at your peril. Such problems are usually
described in terms like: "Alex is just lazy" or "Brenda is a bad-tempered old has-been".
49

On the one hand, such people can poison the working environment; the other hand, these
descriptions are totally unhelpful.
The underlying philosophy of BM is that you should concentrate upon specific, tangible
actions over which you have influence. For instance "Alex is lazy" should be transformed
into "Alex is normally late with his weekly report and achieves less than Alice does in
any one week". Thus we have a starting point and something which can be measured. No
generalities; only specific, observable behaviour.
Before proceeding, it is worth checking that the problem is real - some "problems" are
more appearance than substance, some are not worth you time and effort. So, stage 1 is to
monitor the identified problem to check that it is real and to seek simple explanations. For
instance Alex might still be helping someone with his old job.
Stage 2 is often missed - ask Alex for his solution. This sort of interview can be quite
difficult because you run the danger of making personal criticism. Now you may feel that
Alex deserves criticism, but does it actually help? Your objective is to get Alex to work
well, not to indulge in personal tyranny. If you make it personal, Alex will be defensive.
He will either deny the problem, blame someone else, blame the weather, tell you that he
knows best or some combination of the above. If, on the other hand, you present the
situation in terms of the specific events, you can focus upon Alex's own view of the
problem (why is this happening?) and Alex's own solution (what can Alex do about it can you help?).
Stage 2 will sometimes be sufficient. If Alex had not realised there was a problem, he
might act quickly to solve it. If he had thought his behaviour would pass unnoticed, he
now knows differently. By giving Alex the responsibility for solving his own problem,
you can actually motivate him beyond the specific problem: he may suggest on improved
reporting system, or a short training course to deal with a technical short-coming. Finally,
the demonstration alone that you are interested in Alex's work may be enough to make
him improve. Never assume that you know better, always ask first - then if no solution is
forthcoming, proceed to ...
Stage 3 is the analysis stage and is based upon a simple model of behaviour: every action
is preceded by a trigger, and is followed by a consequence or payoff. Thus baby is hungry
(trigger), baby wails (action), baby gets fed (payoff); or the report is due today (trigger),
Alex goes for coffee break "to think about it" (action), Alex has a relaxing afternoon
(payoff).
Sometimes, good behaviour is blocked by negative payoffs. For instance, if every time
Clive informs his boss Diane about a schedule change (action), Diane vents her
annoyance on Clive (payoff), then Clive will be less inclined to approach Diane with
information in the future. One of the problems with communication in Ancient Greece
was that the bearer of bad news was often executed.

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Once you have analysed the problem, stage 4 is to find a solution. With most peopleproblems at work, you will find that the "bad" behaviour is reinforced by a payoff which
that person finds attractive. There are two solutions: 1) modify the payoff either by
blocking it, or by adding another consequence which is negative, or 2) create a positive
payoff for the alternative, desired "good" behaviour. In the long term, the latter is
preferable since it is better for motivation to offer encouragement rather than reprimand;
optimally you should implement both.
This is where you have to be creative. BM provides a manageable focus and a framework
for analysis; you, as manager, must provide the solution. It is best to work on one
problem at a time because this simplifies the analysis. Further, by addressing one, other
related problems are often affected also. Let us consider "late reporting". Firstly, add a
negative consequence to Alex's current behaviour. State explicitly that you need the
report by 3.30 on Friday (so that you can prepare your weekly schedule update) - and, if
this does not happen, summon Alex at four o'clock to demand the report before he leaves
for the weekend. This will probably ruin his "hour before the weekend" and he will wish
to avoid it. Secondly, if Alex does get the report in by 3.30 make a habit of responding to
it on Monday morning: if there is an issue raised, help Alex to solve it; if there is a
schedule change, talk it over - but make it clear (say it) that you are only able to do this
because you had time on Friday to read over his report. Thus Alex learns that he will
receive help and support IF he gets the report in on time.
Stage 5 is necessary because such plans do not always work. You must continue to
monitor the problem and after a trial period, review your progress. If the plan is working,
continue; if the plan has failed, devise a new one; if the plan has worked, look for a new
problem to solve.

Where to Seek Solutions

The range of problems is so large, that it is impossible to offer more than generalities as
advise. Each person is different, each situation is different, so each solution must be
carefully crafted. This being said, here are a few ideas.
Look for aspects of motivation - any problem which stems from lack of commitment or
interest can only successfully be addressed by providing motivation, and any of the
motivators described earlier can be applied.
Be flexible with regards to personal problems. No parent is immune to the "joys" of a
new born baby, no one is uneffected by bereavement. When circumstances and the
human factor impinge upon your ordered plans, adapt; since you cannot change it, work
with it. Focus upon the problem (say, schedule slippage) and deal with that in the existing
situation. For instance if you sanction half a day's "sick-leave" to see a solicitor, you
might save a week's worry and distraction.
On a larger scale, look carefully at the "systems" which exist in your team, at those work
practices which you and they follow through habit. Some of these can work against you,

51

and the team. For instance, the way you hold team meetings may suppress contributions
(at 4 o'clock on a Friday, say); the way you reward the exceptional may demotivate those
responsible for the mundane.
Take a long term view. Constant pressure will eventually destroy your team members. If
you acknowledge that a relaxed yet engaged workforce is (say) 10% more efficient than
one which is over-stressed and fretful, then you should realize that this amounts to half-aday per week. So why not devote half-a-day to: peer-group teaching, brainstorming on
enhanced efficiency, visits to customers (internal and external), guest lectures on work
tools, or all four on a four-weekly cycle. You lose nothing if you gain a skilled,
committed, enthusiastic team.
Finally, look carefully at how you behave and whether the current situation is due to your
previous inattention to the human factor: you might be the problem, and the solution.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

CONVERSATION AS
COMMUNICATION
by Gerard M Blair
Communication is best achieved through simple planning and control; this article looks
at approaches which might help you to do this and specifically at meetings, where
conversations need particular care.
Most conversations sort of drift along; in business, this is wasteful; as a manager, you
seek communication rather than chatter. To ensure an efficient and effective
conversation, there are three considerations:

you must make your message understood

you must receive/understand the intended message sent to you
you should exert some control over the flow of the communication

Thus you must learn to listen as well as to speak. Those who dismis this as a mere
platitude are already demonstrating an indisposition to listening: the phrase may be trite,
but the message is hugely significant to your effectiveness as a manager. If you do not
explicitly develop the skill of listening, you may not hear the suggestion/information
which should launch you to fame and fortune.

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AMBIGUITY AVOIDANCE
As a manager (concerned with getting things done) your view of words should be
pragmatic rather than philosophical. Thus, words mean not what the dictionary says they
do but rather what the speaker intended.
Suppose your manager gives to you an instruction which contains an ambiguity which
neither of you notice and which results in you producing entirely the wrong product. Who
is at fault? The answer must be: who cares? Your time has been wasted, the needed
product is delayed (or dead); attributing blame may be a satisfying (or defensive) exercise
but it does not address the problem. In everything you say or hear, you must look out for
possible misunderstanding and clarify the ambiguity.
The greatest source of difficulty is that words often have different meanings depending
upon context and/or culture. Thus, a "dry" country lacks either water or alcohol;
"suspenders" keep up either stockings or trousers (pants); a "funny" meeting is either
humorous or disconcerting; a "couple" is either a few or exactly two. If you recognize
that there is a potential misunderstanding, you must stop the conversation and ask for the
valid interpretation.
A second problem is that some people simply make mistakes. Your job is not simply to
spot ambiguities but also to counter inconsistencies. Thus if I now advocate that the wise
manager should seek out (perhaps humorous) books on entomology (creepy crawlies)
you would deduce that the word should have been etymology. More usual, however, is
that in thinking over several alternatives you may suffer a momentary confusion and say
one of them while meaning another. There are good scientific reasons (to do with the
associative nature of the brain) why this happens, you have to be aware of the potential
problem and counter for it.
Finally, of course, you may simply mishear. The omission of a simple word could be
devastating. For instance, how long would you last as an explosives engineer if you failed
to hear a simple negative in: "whatever happens next you must [not] cut the blue wi..."?
So, the problem is this: the word has multiple meanings, it might not be the one intended,
and you may have misheard it in the first place - how do you know what the speaker
meant?

Rule 1: PLAY BACK for confirmation

Simple, you ask for confirmation. You say "let me see if I have understood correctly, you
are saying that ..." and you rephrase what the speaker said. If this "play back" version is
acknowledged as being correct by the original speaker, then you have a greater degree of
confidence in you own understanding. For any viewpoint/message/decision, there should
be a clear, concise and verified statement of what was said; without this someone will get
it wrong.

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Rule 2: WRITE BACK for confidence

But do not stop there. If your time and effort depend upon it, you should write it down
and send it to everyone involved as a double check. This has several advantages:

Further clarification - is this what you thought we agreed?

Consistency check - the act of writing may highlight defects/omissions
A formal stage - a statement of the accepted position provides a spring board from
which to proceed
Evidence - hindsight often blurs previous ignorance and people often fail to recall
their previous errors

Rule 3: GIVE BACKground for context

When speaking yourself, you can often counter for possible problems by adding
information, and so providing a broader context in which your words can be understood.
Thus, there is less scope for alternative interpretations since fewer are consistent. When
others are speaking, you should deliberately ask questions yourself to establish the
context in which they are thinking. When others are speaking, you should deliberately
ask questions yourself to establish the context in which they are thinking.

PRACTICAL POINTS
As with all effective communication, you should decide (in advance) on the purpose of
the conversation and the plan for achieving it. There is no alternative to this. Some people
are proficient at "thinking on their feet" - but this is generally because they already have
clear understanding of the context and their own goals. You have to plan; however, the
following are a few techniques to help the conversation along.

Assertiveness
The definition of to assert is: "to declare; state clearly". This is your aim. If someone
argues against you, even loses their temper, you should be quietly assertive. Much has
been written to preach this simple fact and commonly the final message is a three-fold
plan of action:

acknowledge what is being said by showing an understanding of the position, or

by simply replaying it (a polite way of saying "I heard you already")
state your own point of view clearly and concisely with perhaps a little supporting
evidence
state what you want to happen next (move it forward)

Thus we have something like: yes, I see why you need the report by tomorrow; however,
I have no time today to prepare the document because I am in a meeting with a customer
this afternoon; either I could give you the raw data and you could work on it yourself, or
you could make do with the interim report from last week.

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You will have to make many personal judgement calls when being assertive. There will
certainly be times when a bit of quiet force from you will win the day but there will be
times when this will get nowhere, particularly with more senior (and unenlightened)
management. In the latter case, you must agree to abide by the decision of the senior
manager but you should make your objection (and reasons) clearly known. For yourself,
always be aware that your subordinates might be right when they disagree with you and if
events prove them so, acknowledge that fact gracefully.

Confrontations
When you have a difficult encounter, be professional, do not lose your self-control
because, simply, it is of no use. Some managers believe that it is useful for "discipline" to
keep staff a little nervous. Thus, these managers are slightly volatile and will be willing
"to let them have it" when the situation demands. If you do this, you must be consistent
and fair so that you staff know where they stand. If you deliberately lose your temper for
effect, then that is your decision - however, you must never lose control.
Insults are ineffective. If you call people names, then they are unlikely to actually listen
to what you have to say; in the short term you may feel some relief at "getting it off your
chest", but in the long run you are merely perpetuating the problem since you are not
addressing it. This is common sense. There are two implications. Firstly, even under
pressure, you have to remember this. Secondly, what you consider fair comment may be
insulting to another - and the same problem emerges. Before you say anything, stop,
establish what you want as the outcome, plan how to achieve this, and then speak.
Finally, if you are going to criticise or discipline someone, always assume that you have
misunderstood the situation and ask questions first which check the facts. This simple
courtesy will save you from much embarrassment.

Seeking Information
There are two ways of phrasing any question: one way (the closed question) is likely to
lead to a simple grunt in reply (yes, no, maybe), the second way (the open question) will
hand over the speaking role to someone else and force them to say something a little
more informative.
Suppose you conduct a review of a recently finished (?) project with Gretchen and it goes
something like this:

"Have you finished project X Gretchen?"

"Yes"
"If everything written up?"
"Nearly"
"So there is documentation left to do?"
"Some"
"Will it take you long?"
"No, not long"

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Before your fingers start twitching to place themselves around Gretchen's neck, consider
that your questions are not actually helping the flow of information. The same flow of
questions in an open format would be: what is left to do of project X, what about the
documentation, when will that be completely finished? Try answering Yes or No to those
questions.
Open questions are extremely easy to formulate. You establish in your own mind the
topic/aim of the question and then you start the sentence with the words:

WHAT - WHEN - WHICH - WHY - WHERE - HOW

Let others speak
Of course, there is more to a conversation (managed or otherwise) than the flow of
information. You may also have to win that information by winning the attention and
confidence of the other person. There are many forms of flattery - the most effective is to
give people your interest. To get Gretchen to give you all her knowledge, you must give
her all your attention; talk to her about her view on the subject. Ask questions: what do
you think about that idea, have you ever met this problem before, how would you tackle
this situation?
Silence is effective - and much under-used. People are nervous of silence and try to fill it.
You can use this if you are seeking information. You ask the question, you lean back, the
person answers, you nod and smile, you keep quiet, and the person continues with more
detail simply to fill your silence.

To finish
At the end of a conversation, you have to give people a clear understanding of the
outcome. For instance, if there has been a decision, restate it clearly (just to be sure) in
terms of what should happen and by when; if you have been asking questions, summarize
the significant (for you) aspects of what you have learnt.

MEETING MANAGEMENT - PREPARATION

In any organization, "meetings" are a vital part of the organization of work and the flow
of information. They act as a mechanism for gathering together resources from many
sources and pooling then towards a common objective. They are disliked and mocked
because they are usually futile, boring, time-wasting, dull, and inconvenient with nothing
for most people to do except doodle while some opinionated has-been extols the virtues
of his/her last great (misunderstood) idea. Your challenge is to break this mould and to
make your meetings effective. As with every other managed activity, meetings should be
planned beforehand, monitored during for effectiveness, and reviewed afterwards for
improving their management.
A meeting is the ultimate form of managed conversation; as a manager, you can organize
the information and structure of the meeting to support the effective communication of

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the participants. Some of the ideas below may seem a little too precise for an easy going,
relaxed, semi-informal team atmosphere - but if you manage to gain a reputation for
holding decisive, effective meetings, then people will value this efficiency and to prepare
professionally so that their contribution will be heard.

Should you cancel?

As with all conversations, you must first ask: is it worth your time? If the meeting
involves the interchange of views and the communication of the current status of related
projects, then you should be generous with your time. But you should always consider
canceling a meeting which has little tangible value.

Who should attend?

You must be strict. A meeting loses its effectiveness if too many people are involved: so
if someone has no useful function, explain this and suggest that they do not come. Notice,
they may disagree with your assessment, in which case they should attend (since they
may know something you do not); however, most people are only too happy to be
released from yet another meeting.

How long?
It may seem difficult to predict the length of a discussion - but you must. Discussions
tend to fill the available time which means that if the meeting is open-ended, it will drift
on forever. You should stipulate a time for the end of the meeting so that everyone
knows, and everyone can plan the rest of their day with confidence.
It is wise to make this expectation known to everyone involved well in advance and to
remind them at the beginning of the meeting. There is often a tendency to view meetings
as a little relaxation since no one person has to be active throughout. You can redress this
view by stressing the time-scale and thus forcing the pace of the discussion: "this is what
we have to achieve, this is how long we have to get it done".
If some unexpected point arises during the meeting then realize that since it is
unexpected: 1) you might not have the right people present, 2) those there may not have
the necessary information, and 3) a little thought might save a lot of discussion. If the
new discussion looks likely to be more than a few moments, stop it and deal with the
agreed agenda. The new topic should then be dealt with at another "planned" meeting.

Agenda
The purpose of an agenda is to inform participants of the subject of the meeting in
advance, and to structure the discussion at the meeting itself. To inform people
beforehand, and to solicit ideas, you should circulate a draft agenda and ask for notice of
any other business. Still before the meeting, you should then send the revised agenda with
enough time for people to prepare their contributions. If you know in advance that a
particular participant either needs information or will be providing information, then
make this explicitly clear so that there is no confusion.

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The agenda states the purpose of each section of the meeting. There will be an outcome
from each section. If that outcome is so complex that it can not be summarized in a few
points, then it was probably too complex to be assimilated by the participants. The
understanding of the meeting should be sufficiently precise that it can be summarized in
short form - so display that summary for all other interested parties to see. This form of
display will emphasize to all that meetings are about achieving defined goals - this will
help you to continue running efficient meetings in the future.

MEETING MANAGEMENT - CONDUCTING

Whether you actually sit as the Chair or simply lead from the side-lines, as the manager
you must provide the necessary support to coordinate the contributions of the
participants. The degree of control which you exercise over the meeting will vary
throughout; if you get the structure right at the beginning, a meeting can effectively run
itself especially if the participants know each other well. In a team, your role may be
partially undertaken by others; but if not, you must manage.

Maintaining Communication
Your most important tools are:

Clarification - always clarify: the purpose of the meeting, the time allowed, the
rules to be observed (if agreed) by everyone.
Summary - at each stage of the proceedings, you should summarize the current
position and progress: this is what we have achieved/agreed, this is where we
have reached.
Focus on stated goals - at each divergence or pause, re-focus the proceedings on
the original goals.

Code of conduct
In any meeting, it is possible to begin the proceedings by establishing a code of conduct,
often by merely stating it and asking for any objections (which will only be accepted if a
demonstrably better system is proposed). Thus if the group contains opinionated windbags, you might all agree at the onset that all contributions should be limited to two
minutes (which focuses the mind admirably). You can then impose this with the full
backing of the whole group.

Matching method to purpose

The (stated) purpose of a meeting may suggest to you a specific way of conducting the
event, and each section might be conducted differently. For instance, if the purpose is:

to convey information, the meeting might begin with a formal presentation

followed by questions
to seek information, the meeting would start with a short (clear) statement of the
topic/problem and then an open discussion supported by notes on a display, or a
formal brainstorming session

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to make a decision, the meeting might review the background and options,
establish the criteria to be applied, agree who should make the decision and how,
and then do it
to ratify/explain decisions, etc etc

As always, once you have paused to ask yourself the questions: what is the purpose of the
meeting and how can it be most effectively achieved; your common sense will then
suggest a working method to expedite the proceedings. You just have to deliberately
pause. Manage the process of the meeting and the meeting will work.

Support
The success of a meeting will often depend upon the confidence with which the
individuals will participate. Thus all ideas should be welcome. No one should be laughed
at or dismissed ("laughed with" is good, "laughed at" is destructive). This means that
even bad ideas should be treated seriously - and at least merit a specific reason for not
being pursued further. Not only is this supportive to the speaker, it could also be that a
good idea has been misunderstood and would be lost if merely rejected. But basically
people should be able to make naive contributions without being made to feel stupid,
otherwise you may never hear the best ideas of all.
Avoid direct criticism of any person. For instance, if someone has not come prepared
then that fault is obvious to all. If you leave the criticism as being simply that implicit in
the peer pressure, then it is diffuse and general; if you explicitly rebuke that person, then
it is personal and from you (which may raise unnecessary conflict). You should merely
seek an undertaking for the missing preparation to be done: we need to know this before
we can proceed, could you circulate it to us by tomorrow lunch?

Responding to problems
The rest of this section is devoted to ideas of how you might deal with the various
problems associated with the volatile world of meetings. Some are best undertaken by the
designated Chair; but if he/she is ineffective, or if no one has been appointed, you should
feel free to help any meeting to progress. After all, why should you allow your time to be
wasted.
If a participant strays from the agenda item, call him/her back: "we should deal with that
separately, but what do you feel about the issue X?"
If there is confusion, you might ask: "do I understand correctly that ...?"
If the speaker begins to ramble, wait until an inhalation of breath and jump in: "yes I
understand that such and such, does any one disagree?"
If a point is too woolly or too vague ask for greater clarity: "what exactly do you have in
mind?"

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If someone interrupts (someone other than a rambler), you should suggest that: "we hear
your contribution after Gretchen has finished."
If people chat, you might either simply state your difficulty in hearing/concentrating on
the real speaker. or ask them a direct question: "what do you think about that point."
If someone gestures disagreement with the speaker (e.g. by a grimace), then make sure
they are brought into the discussion next: "what do you think Gretchen?"
If you do not understand, say so: "I do not understand that, would you explain it a little
more; or do you mean X or Y?"
If there is an error, look for a good point first: "I see how that would work if X Y Z, but
what would happen if A B C?"
If you disagree, be very specific: "I disagree because ..."

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The tower of Babel collapsed because people could no longer communicate; their speech
became so different that no one could understand another. You need to communicate to
coordinate your own work and that of others; without explicit effort your conversation
will lack communication and so your work too will collapse though misunderstanding
and error. The key is to treat a conversation as you would any other managed activity: by
establishing an aim, planning what to do, and checking afterwards that you have achieved
that aim. Only in this way can you work effectively with others in building through
common effort.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

PLANNING A PROJECT
by Gerard M Blair
The success of a project will depend critically upon the effort, care and skill you apply in
its initial planning. This article looks at the creative aspects of this planning.

THE SPECIFICATION
Before describing the role and creation of a specification, we need to introduce and
explain a fairly technical term: a numbty is a person whose brain is totally numb. In this

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context, numb means "deprived of feeling or the power of unassisted activity"; in general,
a numbty needs the stimulation of an electric cattle prod to even get to the right office in
the morning. Communication with numbties is severely hampered by the fact that
although they think they know what they mean (which they do not), they seldom actually
say it, and they never write it down. And the main employment of numbties world-wide
is in creating project specifications. You must know this - and protect your team
accordingly.
A specification is the definition of your project: a statement of the problem, not the
solution. Normally, the specification contains errors, ambiguities, misunderstandings and
enough rope to hang you and your entire team. Thus before you embark upon the the next
six months of activity working on the wrong project, you must assume that a numbty was
the chief author of the specification you received and you must read, worry, revise and
ensure that everyone concerned with the project (from originator, through the workers, to
the end-customer) is working with the same understanding. The outcome of this
deliberation should be a written definition of what is required, by when; and this must be
agreed by all involved. There are no short-cuts to this; if you fail to spend the time
initially, it will cost you far more later on.
The agreement upon a written specification has several benefits:

the clarity will reveal misunderstandings

the completeness will remove contradictory assumptions
the rigour of the analysis will expose technical and practical details which
numbties normally gloss over through ignorance or fear
the agreement forces all concerned to actually read and think about the details

The work on the specification can seen as the first stage of Quality Assurance since you
are looking for and countering problems in the very foundation of the project - from this
perspective the creation of the specification clearly merits a large investment of time.
From a purely defensive point of view, the agreed specification also affords you
protection against the numbties who have second thoughts, or new ideas, half way
through the project. Once the project is underway, changes cost time (and money). The
existence of a demonstrably-agreed specification enables you to resist or to charge for
(possibly in terms of extra time) such changes. Further, people tend to forget what they
originally thought; you may need proof that you have been working as instructed.
The places to look for errors in a specification are:

the global context: numbties often focus too narrowly on the work of one team
and fail to consider how it fits into the larger picture. Some of the work given to
you may actually be undone or duplicated by others. Some of the proposed work
may be incompatible with that of others; it might be just plain barmy in the larger
context.

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the interfaces: between your team and both its customers and suppliers, there are
interfaces. At these points something gets transferred. Exactly what, how and
when should be discussed and agreed from the very beginning. Never assume a
common understanding, because you will be wrong. All it takes for your habitual
understandings to evaporate is the arrival of one new member, in either of the
teams. Define and agree your interfaces and maintain a friendly contact
throughout the project.
time-scales: numbties always underestimate the time involved for work. If there
are no time-scales in the specification, you can assume that one will be imposed
upon you (which will be impossible). You must add realistic dates. The detail
should include a precise understanding of the extent of any intermediate stages of
the task, particularly those which have to be delivered.
external dependencies: your work may depend upon that of others. Make this very
clear so that these people too will receive warning of your needs. Highlight the
effect that problems with these would have upon your project so that everyone is
quite clear about their importance. To be sure, contact these people yourself and
ask if they are able to fulfil the assumptions in your specification.
resources: the numbty tends to ignore resources. The specification should identify
the materials, equipment and manpower which are needed for the project. The
agreement should include a commitment by your managers to allocate or to fund
them. You should check that the actual numbers are practical and/or correct. If
they are omitted, add them - there is bound to be differences in their assumed
values.

This seems to make the specification sound like a long document. It should not be. Each
of the above could be a simple sub-heading followed by either bullet points or a table you are not writing a brochure, you are stating the definition of the project in clear,
concise and unambiguous glory.
Of course, the specification may change. If circumstances, or simply your knowledge,
change then the specification will be out of date. You should not regard it as cast in stone
but rather as a display board where everyone involved can see the current, common
understanding of the project. If you change the content everyone must know, but do not
hesitate to change it as necessary.

PROVIDING STRUCTURE
Having decide what the specification intends, your next problem is to decide what you
and your team actually need to do, and how to do it. As a manager, you have to provide
some form of framework both to plan and to communicate what needs doing. Without a
structure, the work is a series of unrelated tasks which provides little sense of
achievement and no feeling of advancement. If the team has no grasp of how individual
tasks fit together towards an understood goal, then the work will seem pointless and they
will feel only frustration.

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To take the planning forward, therefore, you need to turn the specification into a
complete set of tasks with a linking structure. Fortunately, these two requirements are
met at the same time since the derivation of such a structure is the simplest method of
arriving at a list of tasks.

Work Breakdown Structure

Once you have a clear understanding of the project, and have eliminated the vagaries of
the numbties, you then describe it as a set of simpler separate activities. If any of these
are still too complex for you to easily organise, you break them down also into another
level of simpler descriptions, and so on until you can manage everything. Thus your one
complex project is organised as a set of simple tasks which together achieve the desired
result.
The reasoning behind this is that the human brain (even yours) can only take in and
process so much information at one time. To get a real grasp of the project, you have to
think about it in pieces rather than trying to process the complexity of its entire details all
at once. Thus each level of the project can be understood as the amalgamation of a few
simply described smaller units.
In planning any project, you follow the same simple steps: if an item is too complicated
to manage, it becomes a list of simpler items. People call this producing a work
breakdown structure to make it sound more formal and impressive. Without following
this formal approach you are unlikely to remember all the niggling little details; with this
procedure, the details are simply displayed on the final lists.
One common fault is to produce too much detail at the initial planning stage. You should
be stop when you have a sufficient description of the activity to provide a clear
instruction for the person who will actually do the work, and to have a reasonable
estimate for the total time/effort involved. You need the former to allocate (or delegate)
the task; you need the latter to finish the planning.

Task Allocation
The next stage is a little complicated. You now have to allocate the tasks to different
people in the team and, at the same time, order these tasks so that they are performed in a
sensible sequence.
Task allocation is not simply a case of handing out the various tasks on your final lists to
the people you have available; it is far more subtle (and powerful) than that. As a
manager you have to look far beyond the single project; indeed any individual project can
be seen as merely a single step in your team's development. The allocation of tasks
should thus be seen as a means of increasing the skills and experience of your team when the project is done, the team should have gained.
In simple terms, consider what each member of your team is capable of and allocate
sufficient complexity of tasks to match that (and to slightly stretch). The tasks you
allocate are not the ones on your finals lists, they are adapted to better suit the needs of
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your team's development; tasks are moulded to fit people, which is far more effective
than the other way around. For example, if Arthur is to learn something new, the task
may be simplified with responsibility given to another to guide and check the work; if
Brenda is to develop, sufficient tasks are combined so that her responsibility increases
beyond what she has held before; if Colin lacks confidence, the tasks are broken into
smaller units which can be completed (and commended) frequently.
Sometimes tasks can be grouped and allocated together. For instance, some tasks which
are seemingly independent may benefit from being done together since they use common
ideas, information, talents. One person doing them both removes the start-up time for one
of them; two people (one on each) will be able to help each other.
The ordering of the tasks is really quite simple, although you may find that sketching a
sequence diagram helps you to think it through (and to communicate the result). Pert
charts are the accepted outcome, but sketches will suffice. Getting the details exactly
right, however, can be a long and painful process, and often it can be futile. The degree to
which you can predict the future is limited, so too should be the detail of your planning.
You must have the broad outlines by which to monitor progress, and sufficient detail to
assign each task when it needs to be started, but beyond that - stop and do something
useful instead.

Guesstimation
At the initial planning stage the main objective is to get a realistic estimate of the time
involved in the project. You must establish this not only to assist higher management
with their planning, but also to protect your team from being expected to do the
impossible. The most important technique for achieving this is known as: guesstimation.
Guesstimating schedules is notoriously difficult but it is helped by two approaches:

make your guesstimates of the simple tasks at the bottom of the work break down
structure and look for the longest path through the sequence diagram
use the experience from previous projects to improve your guesstimating skills

The corollary to this is that you should keep records in an easily accessible form of all
projects as you do them. Part of your final project review should be to update your
personal data base of how long various activities take. Managing this planning phase is
vital to your success as a manager.
Some people find guesstimating a difficult concept in that if you have no experience of
an activity, how can you make a worthwhile estimate? Let us consider such a problem:
how long would it take you to walk all the way to the top of the Eiffel Tower or the
Statue of Liberty? Presuming you have never actually tried this (most people take the
elevator part of the way), you really have very little to go on. Indeed if you have actually
seen one (and only one) of these buildings, think about the other. Your job depends upon
this, so think carefully. One idea is to start with the number of steps - guess that if you
can. Notice, you do not have to be right, merely reasonable. Next, consider the sort of

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pace you could maintain while climbing a flight of steps for a long time. Now imagine
yourself at the base of a flight of steps you do know, and estimate a) how many steps
there are, and b) how long it takes you to climb them (at that steady pace). To complete,
apply a little mathematics.
Now examine how confident you are with this estimate. If you won a free flight to Paris
or New York and tried it, you would probably (need your head examined) be mildly
surprised if you climbed to the top in less than half the estimated time and if it took you
more than double you would be mildly annoyed. If it took you less than a tenth the time,
or ten times as long, you would extremely surprised/annoyed. In fact, you do not
currently believe that that would happen (no really, do you?). The point is that from very
little experience of the given problem, you can actually come up with a working estimate
- and one which is far better than no estimate at all when it comes to deriving a schedule.
Guesstimating does take a little practice, but it is a very useful skill to develop.
There are two practical problems in guesstimation. First, you are simply too optimistic. It
is human nature at the beginning of a new project to ignore the difficulties and assume
best case scenarii - in producing your estimates (and using those of others) you must
inject a little realism. In practice, you should also build-in a little slack to allow yourself
some tolerance against mistakes. This is known as defensive scheduling. Also, if you
eventually deliver ahead of the agreed schedule, you will be loved.
Second, you will be under pressure from senior management to deliver quickly,
especially if the project is being sold competitively. Resist the temptation to rely upon
speed as the only selling point. You might, for instance, suggest the criteria of: fewer
errors, history of adherence to initial schedules, previous customer satisfaction, "this is
how long it takes, so how can you trust the other quotes".

ESTABLISHING CONTROLS
When the planning phase is over (and agreed), the "doing" phase begins. Once it is in
motion, a project acquires a direction and momentum which is totally independent of
anything you predicted. If you come to terms with that from the start, you can then enjoy
the roller-coaster which follows. To gain some hope, however, you need to establish at
the start (within the plan) the means to monitor and to influence the project's progress.
There are two key elements to the control of a project

milestones (clear, unambiguous targets of what, by when)

established means of communication

For you, the milestones are a mechanism to monitor progress; for your team, they are
short-term goals which are far more tangible than the foggy, distant completion of the
entire project. The milestones maintain the momentum and encourage effort; they allow
the team to judge their own progress and to celebrate achievement throughout the project
rather than just at its end.

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The simplest way to construct milestones is to take the timing information from the work
breakdown structure and sequence diagram. When you have guesstimated how long each
sub-task will take and have strung them together, you can identify by when each of these
tasks will actually be completed. This is simple and effective; however, it lacks creativity.
A second method is to construct more significant milestones. These can be found by
identify stages in the development of a project which are recognisable as steps towards
the final product. Sometimes these are simply the higher levels of your structure; for
instance, the completion of a market-evaluation phase. Sometimes, they cut across many
parallel activities; for instance, a prototype of the eventual product or a mock-up of the
new brochure format.
If you are running parallel activities, this type of milestone is particularly useful since it
provides a means of pulling together the people on disparate activities, and so:

they all have a shared goal (the common milestone)

their responsibility to (and dependence upon) each other is emphasised
each can provide a new (but informed) viewpoint on the others' work
the problems to do with combining the different activities are highlighted and
discussed early in the implementation phase
you have something tangible which senior management (and numbties) can
recognise as progress
you have something tangible which your team can celebrate and which constitutes
a short-term goal in a possibly long-term project
it provides an excellent opportunity for quality checking and for review

Of course, there are milestones and there are mill-stones. You will have to be sensitive to
any belief that working for some specific milestone is hindering rather than helping the
work forward. If this arises then either you have chosen the wrong milestone, or you have
failed to communicate how it fits into the broader structure.
Communication is your everything. To monitor progress, to receive early warning of
danger, to promote cooperation, to motivate through team involvement, all of these rely
upon communication. Regular reports are invaluable - if you clearly define what
information is needed and if teach your team how to provided it in a rapidly accessible
form. Often these reports merely say "progressing according to schedule". These you
send back, for while the message is desired the evidence is missing: you need to insist
that your team monitor their own progress with concrete, tangible, measurements and if
this is done, the figures should be included in the report. However, the real value of this
practice comes when progress is not according to schedule - then your communication
system is worth all the effort you invested in its planning.

THE ARTISTRY IN PLANNING

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At the planning stage, you can deal with far more than the mere project at hand. You can
also shape the overall pattern of your team's working using the division and type of
activities you assign.

Who know best?

Ask your team. They too must be involved in the planning of projects, especially in the
lower levels of the work breakdown structure. Not only will they provide information and
ideas, but also they will feel ownership in the final plan.
This does not mean that your projects should be planned by committee - rather that you,
as manager, plan the project based upon all the available experience and creative ideas.
As an initial approach, you could attempt the first level(s) of the work breakdown
structure to help you communicate the project to the team and then ask for comments.
Then, using these, the final levels could be refined by the people to whom the tasks will
be allocated. However, since the specification is so vital, all the team should vet the
penultimate draft.

Dangers in review
There are two pitfalls to avoid in project reviews:

they can be too frequent

they can be too drastic

The constant trickle of new information can lead to a vicious cycle of planning and
revising which shakes the team's confidence in any particular version of the plan and
which destroys the very stability which the structure was designed to provide. You must
decide the balance. Pick a point on the horizon and walk confidently towards it. Decide
objectively, and explain beforehand, when the review phases will occur and make this a
scheduled milestone in itself.
Even though the situation may have changed since the last review, it is important to
recognise the work which has been accomplished during the interim. Firstly, you do not
want to abandon it since the team will be demotivated feeling that they have achieved
nothing. Secondly, this work itself is part of the new situation: it has been done, it should
provide a foundation for the next step or at least the basis of a lesson well learnt. Always
try to build upon the existing achievements of your team.

Testing and Quality

No plan is complete without explicit provision for testing and quality. As a wise manager,
you will know that this should be part of each individual phase of the project. This means
that no activity is completed until it has passed the (objectively) defined criteria which
establishes its quality, and these are best defined (objectively) at the beginning as part of
the planning.

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When devising the schedule therefore you must include allocated time for this part of
each activity. Thus your question is not only: "how long will it take", but also: "how long
will the testing take". By asking both questions together you raise the issue of "how do
we know we have done it right" at the very beginning and so the testing is more likely to
be done in parallel with the implementation. You establish this philosophy for your team
by include testing as a justified (required) cost.

Fitness for purpose

Another reason for stating the testing criteria at the beginning is that you can avoid futile
quests for perfection. If you have motivated your team well, they will each take pride in
their work and want to do the best job possible. Often this means polishing their work
until is shines; often this wastes time. If it clear at the onset exactly what is needed, then
they are more likely to stop when that has been achieved. You need to avoid generalities
and to stipulate boundaries; not easy, but essential.
The same is also true when choosing the tools or building-blocks of your project. While it
might be nice to have use of the most modern versions, or to develop an exact match to
your needs; often there is an old/existing version which will serve almost as well
(sufficient for the purpose), and the difference is not worth the time you would need to
invest in obtaining or developing the new one. Use what is available whenever possible
unless the difference in the new version is worth the time, money and the initial, teething
pains.
A related idea is that you should discourage too much effort on aspects of the project
which are idiosyncratic to that one job. In the specification phase, you might try to
eliminate these through negotiation with the customer; in the implementation phase you
might leave these parts until last. The reason for this advice is that a general piece of
work can be tailored to many specific instances; thus, if the work is in a general form,
you will be able to rapidly re-use it for other projects. On the other hand, if you produce
something which is cut to fit exactly one specific case, you may have to repeat the work
entirely even though the next project is fairly similar. At the planning phase, a manager
should bare in mind the future and the long-term development of the team as well as the
requirements of the current project.

Fighting for time

As a manager, you have to regulate the pressure and work load which is imposed upon
your team; you must protect them from the unreasonable demands of the rest of the
company. Once you have arrived at what you consider to be a realistic schedule, fight for
it. Never let the outside world deflect you from what you know to be practical. If they
impose a deadline upon you which is impossible, clearly state this and give your reasons.
You will need to give some room for compromise, however, since a flat NO will be seen
as obstructive. Since you want to help the company, you should look for alternative
positions.
You could offer a prototype service or product at an earlier date. This might, in some
cases, be sufficient for the customer to start the next stage of his/her own project on the
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understanding that your project would be completed at a later date and the final version
would then replace the prototype.
The complexity of the product, or the total number of units, might be reduced. This
might, in some cases, be sufficient for the customer's immediate needs. Future
enhancements or more units would then be the subject of a subsequent negotiation which,
you feel, would be likely to succeed since you will have already demonstrate your ability
to deliver on time.
You can show on an alternative schedule that the project could be delivered by the
deadline if certain (specified) resources are given to you or if other projects are
rescheduled. Thus, you provide a clear picture of the situation and a possible solution; it
is up to your manager then how he/she proceeds.

Planning for error

The most common error in planning is to assume that there will be no errors in the
implementation: in effect, the schedule is derived on the basis of "if nothing goes wrong,
this will take ...". Of course, recognising that errors will occur is the reason for
implementing a monitoring strategy on the project. Thus when the inevitable does
happen, you can react and adapt the plan to compensate. However, by carefully
considering errors in advance you can make changes to the original plan to enhance its
tolerance. Quite simply, your planning should include time where you stand back from
the design and ask: "what can go wrong?"; indeed, this is an excellent way of asking your
team for their analysis of your plan.
You can try to predict where the errors will occur. By examining the activities' list you
can usually pinpoint some activities which are risky (for instance, those involving new
equipment) and those which are quite secure (for instance, those your team has done
often before). The risky areas might then be given a less stringent time-scale - actually
planning-in time for the mistakes. Another possibility is to apply a different strategy, or
more resources, to such activities to minimise the disruption. For instance, you could
include training or consultancy for new equipment, or you might parallel the work with
the foundation of a fall-back position.

Post-mortem
At the end of any project, you should allocate time to reviewing the lessons and
information on both the work itself and the management of that work: an open meeting,
with open discussion, with the whole team and all customers and suppliers. If you think
that this might be thought a waste of time by your own manager, think of the effect it will
have on future communications with your customers and suppliers.

PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE

With all these considerations in merely the "planning" stage of a project, it is perhaps
surprising that projects get done at all. In fact projects do get done, but seldom in the

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predicted manner and often as much by brute force as by careful planning. The point,
however, is that this method is non-optimal. Customers feel let down by late delivery,
staff are demotivated by constant pressure for impossible goals, corners get cut which
harm your reputation, and each project has to overcome the same problems as the last.
With planning, projects can run on time and interact effectively with both customers and
suppliers. Everyone involved understands what is wanted and emerging problems are
seen (and dealt with) long before they cause damage. If you want your projects to run this
way - then you must invest time in planning.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential
skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA). He welcomes feedback either by email ([email protected]) or by any
other method found here

WHAT MAKES A GREAT MANAGER

by Gerard M Blair
The first steps to becoming a really great manager are simply common sense; but
common sense is not very common. This article suggests some common-sense ideas on
the subject of great management.
The major problem when you start to manage is that you do not actually think about
management issues because you do not recognize them. Put simply, things normally go
wrong not because you are stupid but only because you have never thought about it.
Management is about pausing to ask yourself the right questions so that your common
sense can provide the answers.
When you gain managerial responsibility, your first option is the easy option: do what is
expected of you. You are new at the job, so people will understand. You can learn
(slowly) by your mistakes and probably you will try to devote as much time as possible to
the rest of your work (which is what your were good at anyway). Those extra little
"management" problems are just common sense, so try to deal with them when they
come up.
Your second option is far more exciting: find an empty telephone box, put on a cape and
bright-red underpants, and become a SuperManager.
When you become a manager, you gain control over your own work; not all of it, but
some of it. You can change things. You can do things differently. You actually have the
authority to make a huge impact upon the way in which your staff work. You can shape
your own work environment.

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In a large company, your options may be limited by the existing corporate culture - and
my advice to you is to act like a crab: face directly into the main thrust of corporate
policy, and make changes sideways. You do not want to fight the system, but rather to
work better within it. In a small company, your options are possibly much wider (since
custom is often less rigid) and the impact that you and your team has upon the company's
success is proportionately much greater. Thus once you start working well, this will be
quickly recognized and nothing gains faster approval than success. But wherever you
work, do not be put off by the surprise colleagues will show when you first get serious
about managing well.

STARTING A REVOLUTION
The idea of starting alone, however, may be daunting to you; you may not see yourself as
a David against the Goliath of other peoples' (low) expectations. The bad news is that you
will meet resistance to change. Your salvation lies in convincing your team (who are
most effected) that what you are doing can only do them good, and in convincing
everyone else that it can do them no harm. The good news is that soon others might
follow you.
There is precedent for this. For instance, when a British firm called Unipart wanted to
introduce Japanese methods (Honda's to be precise) into their Oxford plan (The
Economist - 11th April 1992 - page 89) they sent a small team to Japan to learn what
exactly this meant. On their return, they were mocked by their workmates who saw them
as management pawns. So instead they were formed into their own team and sent to work
in a corner of the plant where they applied their new knowledge in isolation. Slowly, but
surely, their example (and missionary zeal) spread through the factory and changes
followed. Now Unipart have opened a new factory and the general manger of the first
factory attributes the success to "releasing talent already on the shop floor". Of course
one can always find case studies to support any management idea, but it does exemplify
the potential of a small cell of dedicated zealots - led by you.

THREE FACES OF A MANAGER

The manger of a small team has three major roles to play:

Planner
A Manager has to take a long-term view; indeed, the higher you rise, the further you will
have to look. While a team member will be working towards known and established
goals, the manager must look further ahead so that these goals are selected wisely. By
thinking about the eventual consequences of different plans, the manager selects the
optimal plan for the team and implements it. By taking account of the needs not only of
the next project but the project after that, the manager ensures that work is not repeated
nor problems tackled too late, and that the necessary resources are allocated and
arranged.

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Provider
The Manager has access to information and materials which the team needs. Often he/she
has the authority or influence to acquire things which no one else in the team could. This
role for the manager is important simply because no one else can do the job; there is
some authority which the manager holds uniquely within the team, and the manager must
exercise this to help the team to work.

Protector
The team needs security from the vagaries of less enlightened managers. In any company,
there are short-term excitements which can deflect the work-force from the important
issues. The manager should be there to guard against these and to protect the team. If a
new project emerges which is to be given to your team, you are responsible for costing it
(especially in terms of time) so that your team is not given an impossible deadline. If
someone in your team brings forward a good plan, you must ensure that it receives a fair
hearing and that your team knows and understands the outcome. If someone is in your
team has a problem at work, you have to deal with it.

Version Two
That was rather formal. If you like formal, then you are happy. If you do not like formal
then here is an alternative answer, a manager should provide:

VISION - VALUES - VERVE

Vision in that the future must be seen and communicated to the team; Values in that the
team needs a unifying code of practice which supports and enhances co-operation; Verve
in that positive enthusiasm is the best way of making the work exciting and fun. If you do
not think your work is exciting, then we have found a problem. A better word than Verve
might be Chutzpah (except that it does not begin with a "V") which means "shameless
audacity". Is that not refreshing? Inspiring even? A manager should dare to do what
he/she has decided to do and to do it with confidence and pride.

VISION
One of the most cited characteristics of successful managers is that of vision. Of all the
concepts in modern management, this is the one about which the most has been written.
Of course different writters use it in different ways. One usage brings it to mean
clairvoyance as in: "she had great vision in foreseeing the demise of that market". This
meaning is of no use to you since crystal balls are only validated by hindsight and this
article is concerned with your future.
The meaning of vision which concerns you as a manager is: a vivid idea of what the
future should be. This has nothing to do with prediction but everything to do with hope. It
is a focus for the team's activity, which provides sustained long-term motivation and
which unites your team. A vision has to be something sufficiently exciting to bind your
team with you in common purpose. This implies two things:

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you need to decide where your team is headed

you have to communicate that vision to them

Communicating a vision is not simply a case of painting it in large red letters across your
office wall (although, as a stunt, this actually might be quite effective), but rather
bringing the whole team to perceive your vision and to begin to share it with you. A
vision, to be worthy, must become a guiding principle for the decision and actions of
your group.
Now, this vision thing, it is still a rather nebulous concept, hard to pin down, hard to
define usefully; a vision may even be impractical (like "zero defects"). And so there is an
extra stage which assists in its communication: once you have identified your vision, you
can illustrate it with a concrete goal, a mission. Which leads to the creation of the famous
"mission statement". Let us consider first what is a mission, and then return to a vision.
A mission has two important qualities:

it should be tough, but achievable given sufficient effort

it must be possible to tell when it has been achieved

To maintain an impetus, it might also have a time limit so that people can pace their
activity rather than getting winded in the initial push. The scope of your vision depends
upon how high you have risen in the management structure, and so also does the time
limit on your mission statement. Heads of multinational corporations must take a longer
view of the future than the project leader in divisional recruitment; the former may be
looking at a strategy for the next twenty-five years, the latter may be concerned with
attracting the current crop of senior school children for employment in two-three years.
Thus a new manager will want a mission which can be achieved within one or two years.
If you are stuck for a mission, think about using Quality as a focus since this is something
on which you can build. Similarly, any aspects of great management which are not
habitual in your team at the moment could be exemplified in a mission statement. For
instance, if your team is in product design, your mission might be to fully automate the
test procedures by the next product release; or more generally, your team mission might
be to reduce the time spent in meetings by half within six months.
Once you have established a few possible mission statements, you can try to
communicate (or decide upon) your vision. This articulates your underlying philosophy in
wanting the outcomes you desire. Not, please note, the ones you think you should desire
but an honest statement of personal motivation; for it is only the latter which you will
follow with conviction and so of which you will convince others. In general, your vision
should be unfinishable, with no time limit, and inspirational; it is the driving force which
continues even when the mission statement has been achieved. Even so, it can be quite
simple: Walt Disney's vision was "to make people happy". As a manager, yours might be
something a little closer to your own team: mine is "to make working here exciting".

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There is no real call to make a public announcement of your vision or to place it on the
notice board. Such affairs are quite common now, and normally attract mirth and disdain.
If your vision is not communicated to your team by what you say and do, then you are
not applying it yourself. It is your driving motivation - once you have identified it, act on
it in every decision you make.

PRESCIENCE
Prescience is something for which you really have to work at. Prescience is having
foreknowledge of the future. Particularly as a Protector, you have to know in advance the
external events which impact upon your team. The key is information and there are three
type:

information you hear (tit-bits about travel, meetings, etc)

information you gather (minutes of meetings, financial figure, etc)
information you infer (if this happens then my team will need ...)

Information is absolutely vital. Surveys of decision making in companies reveal that the
rapid and decisive decisions normally stem not from intuitive and extraordinary
leadership but rather from the existence of an established information system covering
the relevant data. Managers who know the full information can quickly reach an informed
decision.
The influences upon you and your team stem mostly from within the company and this is
where you must establish an active interest. Let us put that another way: if you do not
keep your eyes open you are failing in your role as Protector to you team. Thus if your
manager comes back from an important meeting, sit down with him/her afterwards and
have a chat. There is no need to employ subterfuge, merely ask questions. If there are
answers, you hear them; if there are none, you know to investigate elsewhere. If you can
provide your manager with suggestions/ideas then you will benefit from his/her gratitude
and future confidence(s). You should also talk to people in other departments; and never
forget the secretaries who are normally the first to know everything.
Now some people love this aspect of the job, it makes them feel like politicians or
espionage agents; others hate it, for exactly the same reasons. The point is that it must be
done or you will be unprepared; but do not let it become a obsession.
Gathering information is not enough on its own: you have to process it and be aware of
implications. The trick is to try to predict the next logical step from any changes you see.
This can get very complicated, so try to restrict yourself to guessing one step only. Thus
if the sales figures show a tailing off for the current product (and there are mutterings
about the competition) then if you are in development, you might expect to be pressured
for tighter schedules; if you are in publicity, then there may soon be a request for launch
material; if you are in sales, you might be asked to establish potential demand and
practical pricing levels. Since you know this, you can have the information ready (or a

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schedule defence prepared) for when it is first requested, and you and your team will
shine.
Another way of generating information is to play "what if" games. There are dreadfully
scientific ways of performing this sort of analysis, but reasonably you do not have the
time. The sort of work this article is suggesting is that you, with your team or other
managers (or both), play "what if" over coffee now and then. All you have to do is to
postulate a novel question and see how it runs.
A productive variation on the "what if" game is to ask: "what can go wrong?" By
deliberately trying to identify potential problems at the onset, you will prevent many and
compensate for many more. Set aside specific time to do this type of thinking. Call it
contingency planning and put in in your diary as a regular appointment.

FLEXIBILITY
One of the main challenges in management is in avoiding pat answers to everyday
questions. There is nothing so dull, for you and your team, as you pulling out the same
answer to every situation. It is also wrong. Each situation, and each person, is unique and
no text-book answer will be able to embrace that uniqueness - except one: you are the
manager, you have to judge each situation with a fresh eye, and you have to create the
response. Your common sense and experience are your best guide in analysing the
problem and in evolving your response.
Even if the established response seems suitable, you might still try something different.
This is simple Darwinism. By trying variations upon standard models, you evolve new
and potentially fitter models. If they do not work, you do not repeat them (although they
might be tried in other circumstances); if they work better, then you have adapted and
evolved.
This deliberate flexibility is not just an academic exercise to find the best answer. The
point is that the situation and the environment are continually changing; and the rate of
change is generally increasing with advancing technology. If you do not continually
adapt (through experimentation) to accommodate these changes, then the solution which
used to work (and which you still habitually apply) will no longer be appropriate. You
will become the dodo. A lack of flexibility will cause stagnation and inertia. Not only do
you not adapt, but the whole excitement of your work and your team diminish as fresh
ideas are lacking or lost.
Without detracting from the main work, you can stimulate your team with changes of
focus. This includes drives for specific quality improvements, mission statements, team
building activities, delegated authority, and so on. You have to decide how often to "raise
excitement" about new issues. On the one hand, too many focuses may distract or prevent
the attainment of any one; on the other hand, changes in focus keep them fresh and
maintain the excitement.

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By practising this philosophy yourself, you also stimulate fresh ideas from your team
because they see that it is a normal part of the team practice to adopt and experiment with
innovation. Thus not only are you relieved of the task of generating the new ideas, but
also your team acquire ownership in the whole creative process.
The really good news is that even a lousy choice of focus can have a beneficial effect.
The most famous experiments in management studies were conducted between 1927 and
1932 by E Mayo and others at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electric Company in
Chicago. The study was originally motivated by a failed experiment to determine the
effect of lighting conditions on the production rates of factory workers. This experiment
"failed" because when the lighting conditions were changed for the experimental group,
production also increased in the control group where no changes had been made.
Essentially, Mayo took a small group of workers and varied different conditions (number
and duration of breaks, shorter hours, refreshments, etc) to see how these actually
affected production. The problem was not that production was uneffected but rather that
whatever Mayo did, production increased; even when conditions were returned to the
original ones, production increased.
After many one-to-one interviews, Mayo deduced that the principal effect of his
investigations had been to establish a team spirit amongst the group of workers. The girls
(sic) who had formally worked with large numbers of others were now a small team, they
were consulted on the experiments, and the researchers displayed a keen interest in the
way the girls were working and feeling about their work. Thus their own involvement
and the interest shown in them were the reasons for the girl's increased productivity.
By providing changes of focus you build and motivate your team. For if you show in
these changes that you are actively working to help them work, then they will feel that
their efforts are recognized. If you also include their ideas in the changes, then they will
feel themselves to be a valued part of the team. If you pace these changes correctly, you
can stimulate "multiple Hawthorne effects" and continually increase productivity. And
notice, this is not slave driving. The increased productivity of a Hawthorne effect comes
from the enthusiasm of the workforce; they actually want to work better.

A GENERAL APPROACH
In management there is always a distant tune playing in the background. Once you hear
this tune, you will start humming it to yourself: in the shower, in the boardroom, on the
way to work, when watching the sunrise. It is a simple tune which repeats again and
again in every aspect of your managerial life; if goes:

PLAN - MONITOR - REVIEW

Before you start any activity you must STOP and THINK about it: what is the objective,
how can it be achieved, what are the alternatives, who needs to be involved, what will it
cost, is it worth doing? When you have a plan you should STOP and THINK about how
to ensure that your plan is working. You must find ways of monitoring your progress,
even if it is just setting deadlines for intermediate stages, or counting customer replies, or

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tracking the number of soggy biscuits which have to be thrown away, whatever: choose
something which displays progress and establish a procedure to ensure that happens. But
before you start, set a date on which you will STOP again and reTHINK your plan in the
light of the evidence gathered from the monitoring.
Whenever you have something to do, consider not only the task but first the method.
Thus if there is a meeting to decide the marketing slogan for the new product you should
initially ignore anything to do with marketing slogans and decide: 1) how should the
meeting be held, 2) who can usefully contribute, 3) how will ideas be best generated, 4)
what criteria are involved in the decision, 5) is there a better way of achieving the same
end, 6) etc. If you resolve these points first, all will be achieved far more smoothly. Many
of these decisions do not have a single "right" answer, the point is that they need to have
"an" answer so that the task is accomplished efficiently. It is the posing of the questions
in the first place which will mark you out as a really great manager - the solutions are
available to you through common sense.
Once the questions are posed, you can be creative. For instance, "is there a better way of
producing a new slogan?" could be answered by a quick internal competition within the
company (answers on a postcard by tomorrow at noon) asking everybody in the company
to contribute an idea first. This takes three minutes and a secretary to organise, it provides
a quick buzz of excitement throughout the whole company, it refocuses everyone's mind
on the new product and so celebrates its success, all staff feel some ownership of the
project, and you start the meeting with several ideas either from which to select a winner
or to use as triggers for further brainstorming. Thus with a simple -- pause -- from the
helter-skelter of getting the next job done, and a moment's reflection, you can expedite
the task and build team spirit throughout the entire company.
It is worth stressing the relative importance of the REVIEW. In an ideal world where
managers are wise, information is unambiguous and always available, and the changes in
life are never abrupt or large; it would be possible for you to sit down and to plan the
strategy for your group. Unfortunately, managers are mortals, information is seldom
complete and always inaccurate (or too much to assimilate), and the unexpected always
arrives inconveniently. The situation is never seen in black and white but merely in a fog
of various shades of grey. Your planning thus represents no more than the best guess you
can make in the current situation; the review is when you interpret the results to deduce
the emerging, successful strategy (which might not be the one you had expected). The
review is not merely to fine-tune your plan, it is to evaluate the experiment and to
incorporate the new, practical information which you have gathered into the creation of
the next step forward; you should be prepared for radical changes.

LEADERSHIP
There is a basic problem with the style of leadership advocated in this article in that
nearly every historic "Leader" one can name has had a completely different approach;
Machiavelli did not advocate being a caring Protector as a means of becoming a great
leader but rather that a Prince ought to be happy with "a reputation for being cruel in

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order to keep his subjects unified and loyal". Your situation, however, is a little different.
You do not have the power to execute, nor even to banish. The workforce is rapidly
gaining in sophistication as the world grows more complex. You cannot effectively
control through fear, so you must try another route. You could possibly gain compliance
and rule your team through edict; but you would lose their input and experience, and gain
only the burdens of greater decision making. You do not have the right environment to be
a despot; you gain advantage by being a team leader.
A common mistake about the image of a manager is that they must be loud, flamboyant,
and a great drinker or golfer or racket player or a great something social to draw people
to them. This is wrong. In any company, if you look hard enough, you will find quiet
modest people who manager teams with great personal success. If you are quiet and
modest, fear not; all you need is to talk clearly to the people who matter (your team) and
they will hear you.
The great managers are the ones who challenge the existing complacency and who are
prepared to lead their teams forward towards a personal vision. They are the ones who
recognise problems, seize opportunities, and create their own future. Ultimately, they are
the ones who stop to think where they want to go and then have the shameless audacity to
set out.

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