,

Proceeding from a philosophical generalisation

of problems in the methodology of science, psychology of knowledge, psycholinguistics, and history of science, this book offers a comprehensive
analysis of the cognitive relation between subject and object, a study of the various forms
and types of links between the object-related practical activity and the cognitive one, the relationships between self-consciousness and cognition, the
components of the system of knowledge, and problems in ' its substantiation and development.
In the book, a number of unresolved vital philosophical and methodological problems are dealt
with. The author also critically considers the approaches to the cognitive relation characteristic of
pre-Marxian and non -Marxist philosophy.
The book is intended for readers interested in
problems of epistemology, the methodology of sci ence, the science of science, and the psychology of
knowledge.

Progress Publishers. Moscow

Vledillev tektonkv. D. Sc. (Philosophy),

.. heed of the Eplmmologic:al Sector. Insti.... of PhilOlOphy of tht USSR Acedemy of
.ienc... Hi. lChoiarly Inlei.1tS range wide,
IDVering dialectical Iogk:, the methodology
fill leianee, history of philotOphy. psycholo.
IV of knowledge, etc, He has published
",ar., of Pipe" and books on these subjects
t wer, highly appreciated by scholars. A
mblr of hi, peper. hIVe appeared in
Ign scientific publlCitions.

,
I

R. 7. 0 0

Y.A. Lek,.torsk,y
VI8C!III.v L.ktouky, D. Se.
ts ht8C! 01 the EpilttmologiClI
... r. of PhilOlOphy 01 the USSf
$(:1'1lCft, Hi, llehol.rly int.r..cov.ring di.lecticel logic, Ihe
of lel.nee, history of philolOp
!IV of koowllKlOl, ltC, He 1
1COf" 01 Plperl .nd books on
ttI.t w.re highly IPPrecl.ted 1
number of hi. Pipers hIVe
tOflogn sclenllflc public.tlonl

SUBJECT
OBJECT
COGNITION

PROGRESS PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW

CONTENTS

TranllaW by &rgei SyrolJQtkin

DeliJrled by Vladimir Biue",o/ieu

Vltd,.11'I lektouk
" head of 1he Epilter
1Utt of PhilotOphy of
Sciences. His .chal.,1
cower ing di.lectic.1 It
of .:;ience, history of
gy of knowledge,

B. A. fleKTOpCKHM
Cy6~eKT. o6~eKT,

Jla

n03HaHHe

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INTRODUCTION, . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . ..

IIJjZ/lUUCKOM 1I''>IKe

Part One

of paper, .nd I
that were highly IPP

ICOfIl

CONCEPTIO NS
OF COGN ITI V E
RELAT ION IN TH E NONMA RX IST
EPISTEMOLOGICAL T HEOR I ES

number of hi l PIP
forllgn scientific publ

Ch8Pta. 1. INTERPRETATION OF COGNITION AS I NTER ACTION

OF TWO NATURAL SYSTEMS

... _ . _ . . . . . . . _ . . . . .

21

1 Interpretation of Knowledge as the Result of a Causal

Errf'oCt of the Object on the Subject. . . .. , . . . . . . .

21

2. The Theory of Cognitive "i":qu ilibriu m " Between S ubjec=t and Object
. _
... __ . .. 'J:1
3. The View of Cognition .. an En8emble of the Subject',
Phylical Operations,
. .
. . _. _. _ . , . _ 38
0I1IP1Ir 2_ THE INTERPRETATION OF COGNITION AS DETER.
MINED BY THE STRUCTURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS ... _ . . . . _ .,

1. The Problem of Substantiating Knowledge and "Radical" Renexion

. _
,. ,
. _ . , . , . . . . __ .. -.
2. Tranacendental Subject, Empirical Subject. The Co nception of Self-('ertainty of Transcendental Consciousnell" Guarantee of the Objectiveness of K nowledge .
3. The Fact of Knowledge and the Transcendental Interpretation of the Condition. of It. POllibility. , . .
.
-I. The Conception of the "Life World" and the U niquenell of the Pillce of the Empirical Subjec=t in the Structure of Experience.
. . _ , ..... _ .... - 5, The Interpretation of Cognition III Conditioned by the
Individual ConsciouNlell and, lit the Same Time,
Myatifyin. the ElM' nce of the LaUer. The Ego, "the
Othen", and the World of Objects . . . . . . . . . _ ... _

48
48

62

79

87

95

Part Two

THE MARX IST APPROACH: COGNIT ION

AS SOCIALL YMED IATED H ISTORICAlL Y
DEVELOPING ACT IV ITY OF REFLECTION

03020201QO
21~
014(01) _ 84
- 11

011,""1.
REFLECTION
OBJECT-RELATED
ACTIVITY AND COMMUNICATION

84

PRACTICAL

1 SenlOry Information and Object-Related Knowledge

118
118

2. Illusions and Reality

. 127
3. Co~nition and Object:Rela"ted Pr~~ti~i A~t.. 134
4. RClricatlon of Knowledge Commu . r I'll Y
Social Nature of Cognition' . .
mea lOn, and th,

144

-i

LektCM
of the Epil
PhilOIOphy

His lChol
di.lectiCil
history
kno'Jdedge,
of Plpers.r
highly.
of his t=
scientific p:

~.pllr 2. THEORY AND THE WORLD OF OBJECTS

l. Observable and Non-Observable Objects2. Idealised and Real Objects.

. .

...

, 155
155

.. 166

Chepter 3. "ALTERNATIVE" WORLD

CONTINUITY OF eXPERIENCE _
5 AND THE PROBLEM OF

of Kn?"';'l~dge and the Possi'b'iJitof' - 174

c.:ap Between, PerceptIve and Conceptual System:
a
2. 1he Con.ceptlon of Ontological Relativity
- - .. 174
3. Translation and the Problem of Unde ta
160
4. ':Other Worl?.!!" and the Successive R:Splanc~'~!nt'~fth 193
1- orms of Objectification of Knowl~d., .. " , . , " ' 210

1.

~bjectiveness

d'" . -- -...

g';:~~T40~e;oL~~i~~N

ABOUT KNOWLEDGE AND THE DEVEL

l. "'K Jf.consciousness and Refiexion , Explicit and Implicit 214

nowledge. , .. , . , .

2.
3,

Sub8ta~tiation an~ Devel;'p~~~i ~f' Kn~wledge ...

: . 214

~;f!:xO~~e~~ a Umty of Renection and Tran.rormatio~

J

.......

.1. Th~ Col1~ctive Subject, 'Th~ ') ~di~id~~l' S'ubject :

5. How Is a Theory or Cognition Possible?
CONCLUSION
NOTES

Name Index

.
:.

218

227

232
248

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION

A great interest is shown in recent English and American

literature on epistemology and the philosophy of science
in the problem of the development of knowledge, of the
socio.cultural conditions for scientific cognition, and the
possibility and fruitfulness of the so-called realistic interpretation of scientific knowledge. I believe that the reader
abroad is not always fully aware that the view of know
ledge in general and scientific knowledge in particular as
historically developing, the orientation at studying cognition in a socio.cultural context, and perception of knowledge as reproduction of objective reality are not something
entirely new to Marxist philosophers. These approaches
express the most significant traits of the Marxist study of
knowledge and cognition. It is important to note that the
interpretation of these problems in Marxist philosophy is
essentially different from those of other philosophical
trends. Here I have made an attempt at a Marxist presentation of these problems at the present level of their
development. In all cases, of course, I offer my own interpretation and solution of the problems considered. At the
same time I endeavour to take into account the results obtained by other Soviet scholars (e. g.,in the philosophical
interpretation of psychological data in tenns of the socalled theory of activity).
I believe that the critical analysis from the Marxist positions of the conceptions of some influential modem English and American philosophers, methodologists, ~nd
historians of science (P. W. Bridgman, 'fh.K uhn, W. Qume,
K. Popper, and others) will be of some interest to the
reader of the English edition.
I would like to point out a growing interest of the Soviet researchers today in the study of problems of knowledge with due reference to the datB: of t~e special sciences
about cognition and at the same time m a broad worldview socio-cultural and historical context, in terms of the
d.ial~ti.cs 01 S~b.iecj. an? ,object, of the object-related practical and COgOltlve activIty, I assume that th~ nearest future will see further publications. on the s~bJe~t. In any
case , I intend to continue the studies begun in thiS book.
v. Lektorsky
Moscow
XOl~mber

1982

INTRODUCTION

Vladislav Lekt(
head of the Epi
of PhilOSOph"
. His $Ch(

dialectiCl

We are all aware that man .

t n1
.
being but .also a ~ognizing on:' no 0 y a practically acting
Recordmg this fact is no problem Problem d
.
t t
d
S 0 anse
h Qwever. as soon as we att
ticn and the cognitive relafe~p 0 un erstand what cogni:
e the properties of the specific produc~oof ~~!nd Wht~t .ar
t
knowledge.
an ac IVI y that we call
These questions necessaril
.
attem~ts. of theoretical inter;re~~T~~e o'f1thaltthe very first

place in It. Formulation d d"

.
re 1 y and man's
lems at the theoretical l~n I lSCUSSlon of worldview prob
to the abstractions used

~d assum~ a con~ious attitude

genuine knowled e

an un erstandmg of what is
mere claim to kfl(~Wledg~.Pposed to false wisdom, that is,
The ~erms "to know" and "knowled "
.
veral distinct senses in everyda I
ge are u~d m seone may speak of "kno I d .. y an,~age, For mstance,
("I know how to use thO e ,ge as ability to do something
build a house"),
15 mstrument", "I know how to
We also speak of "kno I d .. ' n
recognise an object or pe~soen ~~'I
the ~nse of ability to
h'vF~ known this person for twenty ;e:':s")oscow well", "I
mally "knowledge'"
k
'
human ac'tivity which ch 15 ta ~n to mean a product of
rectly) a certain state of arffc~n~s (an,d characterises corcertain properties in defini e rurs, In reahty: ~he presence of
relations, the realisation ; O~J~cts, the eXIStence of some
("I know that such and s~chc~ham events,~r processes, etc.
It should be
lIlgS occur ).
knowledge has b~eo;e~ that analys~s of the last type of
men started
'
glven preferential treatment ever since
pened a1mos~~~lOtt~n what .knowledge is - and that hap-

~~~e;h~t~~~~:~~u~e~:~~d~hl:, f~r~~\I~~~~h{y;fi~~~~:
theoretical knowledge)WI~~,e (though certainly not only
sophers' activity and th~
b. was both t~e res,:!lt of philoIC
SU

can the specificity of the I t Jtect of theIr cOgltation. But

stood in isolation from th .5 ype of knowledge be under ul
e 0 th er two?
In partIC ar what i th
I
.
understanding the con sere atlOn between ~nowledge as
tent, structure, properties, and rela6

tions of the given object, and knowledge in the sense of

ability to reproduce this object in human activity including practical activity?
'
This question, along with others, kept arising throughout the history of philosophical thought and variow
trends and schools in philosophy endeavow.ed to answer
them.
Contemplation of the structure of the cognitive relation
leads to the conclusion that it is specified by a certain type
of connection between the cognising man (the subject of
cognition) and the object cognised (the object of cognitive
activity). If I assert that I know something about something else, that implies my simultaneous realisation of the
following: first, that my knowledge relates to some object
that does not coincide with that knowledge, that is external with regard to it; second, that this knowledge belongs
to me, that it is I who implement the process of cognition;
third, that I claim to express an actual, or real, state of
things in knowledge and can support that claim by some
procedure for substantiating knowledge.
Stating these points immediately gives rise to a nwnber
of questions. For instance, what is the object of knowledge
and what is its nature? Can the cognising subject be the object of cognition himself, and if so, in what sense? How is
it possible to know the object that is external relative to
the subject and at the same time to be conscious of the
subject himself as the "focus" of cognitive activity? And in
general, what is "I"? Is it man's body or something else?
What are the modes of substantiating knowledge, the
norms and standards which permit to distinguish between
that which corresponds to reality and illusion or empty
"opinion"? Do such norms and standards exist? IT they
do, in what way are they substantiated, in their turn? Can
unconscious knowledge exist, i.e., the kind of knowledge
where I do not realise that I know something? Does knowledge of something coincide with its understanding? Finally, what are the mechanisms of the cognitive process?
What is the actual interaction between the two terms of
the cognitive relation, subject and object (if this interaction does exist at all, of course)?
It should be stated that for a long time all these questions which have been discussed in aU their aspects since
antiq'uity, were analysed in philosophy (in its sp,ecial
branch termed "epistemology") largely on the basIs. of
studying the features of such syste~s of knowledge WhICh
were embodied on the one hand, 10 everyday knowledge
("common sense"), and on the other, in philosophy .itself
as the first form of theoretical reasoning (some phtloso7

Vladislav Le
.. head of the'
'lUte of PhiloSOf

Sciences. His $j
covering dialec
at science, hist
tzi of knowle.
lCOfes of paper
that were high
number of hi
foreign scientif

phers also included mythology among the systems of

knowledge under analysis). True; science also existed in
antiquity, first of all as one of the branches of mathe
matics, geometry. Contemplation of the specificity of the
cognitive process in mathematics had from the outset a
substantive impact on the modes of Cannulation and
discussion of many epistemological problems. But science
became an independent kind of theoretical activity distinct
from philosophy only in the 17th century, that is, with the
emergence of experimentally based natural science. From

that moment, SCientific knowledge , its structure, content

and potential, as well as the modes of its sUbstantiation
and correlation with everyday knowledge, became, along
with other questions, the subject of careful consideration
by philosophers. It is thus impossible to understand the )
specific traits of the epistemological
conceptions of
Descartes and Kant, which had a significant effect on the
development of philosophy, unless one takes into account
their relation to contemporary science, of which classical
mechanics was a model or paradigm.
At the same time, the epistemological cogitations of
the scientists specialising in the particular areas of knowledge were not typical then; they sometimes appeared irrelevant to what they did as professionals. Science is, of
course, an area of human activity specialising in obtaining
or producing knowledge. However, questions as to what
science is, what the ways of substantiating it, the standards
of cognitive activity , etc. are, at one time seemed to many
natural scientists and specialists in the particular fields of
knowledge to be abstruse and even probablY scholastic,
and in any case not at all obligatory for success in scientific work.
Undo.ubtedly, every scientist knew that the knowledge
he obtamed pertained to real objects existing outside th is
knowle?ge and independent of it (that is to say, h e shared
th~ attitudes of so-called spontaneous materialism). The
eXIstence of the objective domain of knowledge was not
problematic. As for the standards to be met for the result
of. th~ ~ientist's. activity to be included in the system of
SCIentIfIc (expenmental or theoretical) knowledge, they
were more or less spontaneously assimilated in masteri ng
th7 cO!ltent ~d the research methods of the accepted theones (m the fIrst place of the model theories that served as
researc~ p;:uadigms), in learning to handle apparatus and
measurn~g mstru.ments, to process experimental data, inte rpret devIce readmgs, etc. The question of substantiatio n of
the stan~ards. themselves did not, as a rule, arise.
The SitUatIon changed radically at the tum of this cen8

tury, when the problematic nature of the foundations of

classical
science (including mathematics) became
well
an all-sided Marxist analysis of
~~iri in h~

.os.ophers made a c~I~.sil

the
phenomenon. We shall not
in
on the essence of the revolution in natural science referring the reader to available literature. 1
'
Let us note merely that changes in the modes of theoretical reasoning and methods of comparing different scientific theories in the wake of the scientific revolution at the
beginning of the present century, substantively changed
the attitude of workers in the special sciences to epistemological problems. There is literally not a single creator of
any major scientific theory in the 20th century who would
not endeavour to provide an
of his special scientific
raising in
process general questions about
of cognition,
criteria of knowledge, etc. It is even said
the epistemological problem of the correlation between subject and object, which was for a long time mostly of interest for philosophers, becomes at this time one of the cardinal problems
of specialised scientific knowledge as well.
This circumstance is largely due to the actually increased
complexity of the relation of scientific knowled~e to
the corresponding system of objects. The point is that any
cognitive process assumes the use of certain mediators between the cognisin~ subject and the cognised object. In
pre.scientific cognitive practice, this role was perfonned,
first of all, by the labour implements, by all objects
created by man for man and embodying certain socio-cultural values (that is, actually the whole of man-made
"second nature", the artificial environment), and finally
various sign-symbolic systems (in the first place the natural
language) and various conceptual formations expressed in
these systems and terms oi these systems. In science,
added to this are, on the one hand , a system of devices and
measuring instruments, and on the other, the totality. of
theories standing in certain relations to one another, WhICh
are expressed in artificial, specially constructed languages
along with the natural language. In these days the system
of such mediators in science has become so complicated
and their relations to one another and to the object cognised so far from elementarY that in some cases a special
study is required to single out the objective domain of a
1 See Notes at the end or the book.
9

Vladillav
Is head of tI
. , . of Philc
Sciencel. H i
covering die
of science, I
'It of kl'\O\
ICCr" of pa
1hat were h
.number of
oreign sciel

theory and to ascertain its objective meaning. In the

process, it becomes apparent that the choice of one type
of mediators over another (that is, the choice of a definite
type of apparatus, modes of description of the research
results, frames of reference, etc.) is not indifferent (or the
objective meaning of the knowledge obtained but essen
tially affects the singling out of certain aspects of the
objective reality that is cognised. Because of this, man
himself, as a being constructing apparatus and systems of
theoretical knowledge, comes to the attention of specialists in those sciences which deal with nature rather than
man.
lt was especially noticed, among other things, that the
specific physical, psychical, and other traits of man as the
cognising being affect the nature of the research instruments used. It should be pOinted out in this connection \
that objective interpretation of scientific knowledge and
establishment of its objective meaning is not merely the
product of idle philosophical curiosity but a necessary ele- '
ment of scientific work, a condition of successful implementation of a given research programme.
The establishment of significant and essential elements
of the cognitive relation and the discovery of an intimate
connection between epistemological contemplation and
success in the special sciences have in some cases entailed
certain losses of philosophical nature. The reasons for that
are numerous, one of them being that some major Western
scientists who tackle general philosophical problems (and
the interrelation between subject and object in the cognitive process is one of them) do not always possess the necessary philosophical training and a knowledge of the
scientific philosophy of dialectical materialism. The need
for determining the place of the subject in the production )
of lmowledge is sometimes idealisticallY interpreted as
elimination of the distinction between subject and object,
as the impossibility of conceiving of objective reality
outside its realisation, etc.
In any case, many important and interesting epistemological deliberations of modem Western scientists need a
thorough Marxist philosophical analysis for separating their
rational meaning from idealistic irrelevancies.
Let us now cite just a few instances of the discussion of
the epistemological problem of the subject-object relationship by specialists in the sciences.
Thus, in studying the objects of classical physics one
could either ignore the effect of the research instruments
on them or take this effect into account in processing the
information about the events under study. But in the me

thad.ology .of

q~an.tum

m.echan.icI, physical objects are

co~slde~ed .11; thetr mteractlon WIth the measurina: devices,
which slgmflcantly affect the behaviour of the objects of
study. 2 The mode of describing an individual quantwn
phenomenon is essentially dependent on the class (inner
structure) of ~he measu:ing devices used for localising this
phenomenon m space-time. Accordingly, "the unambigu- \
ous account of proper quantum phenomena must in principle,. include a description of all relevant features of the
e?,perunental arrang.ement".3 The well-known Soviet phySICist V. A. Fok wntes, that "the result of interaction be
~ween an atomic object and a classically described device"
IS "t~e basic el~~ent" constitutinl( "the subject-matter of
physlcal.t~eo~ .4 A number of prominent modern Western phYSl?lStS (mcluding even such scientists as Werner Heisenberg~ mferred. fr?m .this circumstance that in quantwn
mechaOics the dlstmctlon between the cognising subject
and the cognised object is obliterated.
. Furth.ermore, the problems of substantiating mathematiCS, which became very acute in connection with the discovery of. set-theoretical paradoxes early in this century
cal1~d to hfe one of the trends in the philosophy of mathe~
matlcs - .intuitionism, which offered a mode of handling
~e question of the permissible objects of mathematical
discourse.
"In rclassical mathematics], the infinite is treated as ac
tual or completed or extended or existential. An infinite
set.is regarded as existing as a completed totality, prior to
or mdependently of any human process of generation or
construction and as though it could be spread out com ple~l:r .for .our inspection. In (intuitionist mathematicsJ, the
mftmt.e i~, treale<! ~::mly as potential or becoming or con
!tructlUe . . 5 IntUitiOnists created new mathematics, includmg the t~eory of the continuum and set theory. This
~athemattcs does not use actual infinity as an object of
discourse. At the same time it contains concepts and rules
that are absent in classical mathematics.
Intuitionists base their conception of the nature and
meaning of.mathema~ic~ discou.rse on certain philosophical assumptions that mtncately mtenveave attainments of
mathe~atical thought and their idealistic interpretations.
Thus, m the view of Heyting, there is for mathematics "no
othe~ source than an intuition, which places its concepts
and mferences before our eyes as immediately clear".6
This intuition, euting as it were before mathematical
language and discursive logical reasoning, coincides at the
same time with a specific activity of consciousness. As
Brouwer remarks in passing, "mathematics is more an
11

10

Vladislav
is head of th
... te of Philo'
Sciencfl. Hi!
covering die
at science, I'
IV of knov
ltC)fel of pa
. .t were h
~mber of
peweion sciel

...

"- ........

"

. . . . . ..

. -~-

activity (Tun) than a. th~ory:' ..7 Activi~y, in its t.u m ,

coincides, in his view, with tntult1~e con.sclousne~ of time,
so that the objects of mathematICs eXIst only m human
consciousness.
.
Finally let us cite the so-called conception of ontolOgical relativity propounded quite. recently ~Y Wil!ard QUine,
a major American specialist In sy.mbohc.loglc and t he
philosophy of logic and mathematics. Qume started out
directly from problems in the foundations of mathematics
discovering that defining the essence of the <?bjects of ~
given mathematical theory ass,!mes t!anslation of this
theory into another language wl~h a dlffe.re~t sy~tem o f
objects, and drawing the conclusIOn that It IS thIS translation that determines its ontology_ He formulates the
proposition that one can .de~cribe .the ontology of a given
theory (that is, charactense ItS objects) not absolutely but
only relatively, i.e., relatively to another theory which is
the model of the given one. Quine ascribes to this pro po sition a significance greater than the purely mathematical,
believing that it is extremely important for understanding
the nature of theoretical knowledge in general. 8
The development of special scientific knowledge now
spotlights other aspects of the problem of the relationship
of the subject and the object of cognitive activity. We refer
here to the rapid growth of special sciences studying certain forms and mechanisms of the cognitive pl:Ocess (these
sciences are sometimes termed "the sciences of man").
Psychology, undoubtedly. belongs among them.
Psychological thinking goes back quite a few centuries,
and psychology as an independent science based on experiment is at least a hundred years old. The concepts of "su bject", "object", "consciousness", "self~onsciousness" and
others
fundamental in psychology. As a
rule,
tlleir unaerStan"(Ung of the
fundamental
the relation between subject
an~
the nature of the cognitive process from
vanous
conceptions.
One
.
features of modern psychology is
an a~~mpt at extensive experimental investigation o f t he
cogmtlve process by the methods of the special sciences .
~uch branches of this science as the psychology of perceptl.0!1 and the psrchology of intelligence have obtained sign.lflcant results 10 the last few decades. The so-called cognitive psychology commences to develop, which endeavours
t~ take a new ~pproa~h ~o the study of cognitive processes
~ rough. studymg theIr mtegration in complex structures
ormed 10 the fr.amework of a definite cognitive task.
The conceptIon of the genesis of the mechanisms of
12

cognitive activity worked out in detail by the well-known

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget has attracted considerable
attention. Offering a theoretical interpretation of his experimental data, Pia get claims to have solved the basic
epistemological problems. He studies various structures of
which subject and object are component elements, and
analyses the connections between intellectual and objectrelated practical activity.
Linguists, ethnolinguists, cultural anthropologists, and
psycholinguists still debate with some animation the SapirWhorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity that gained wide
currency in the late 1940s .
The starting point of the hypothesis is that we cannot
be fully con~ious of reality without the help of language,
the latter bemg not only a secondary means of solution of
some special problems of communication and thinking but
also a mode of constructing our world.
Noam Chomsky, a well-known American linguist and
author of the generative transformation model in linguistics, propounded a critique of the behaviourist, empiricist
theory of language learning. Chomsky believes that this
theory does not take into account a number of important )(
aspects of the language, such as the creative character of
language using; the existence of an abstract generative
structure of language ("the deep structure"); the universal
character of certain elements of language structure. To
explain these aspects of language, Chomsky postulates the
existence of certain fundamental psychological structures
-the subject's innate ideas, consciously reviving certain
elements of Cartesian epistemological conception.9
Let us finally point out the rapid development of scientology as a special interdisciplinary area of study whose
goal is investigation of science by the methods of the special sciences. Scientology studies not only the economic
sociological, sociopsychological, and communication as:
pects of scientific activity but also the process of production and transformation of scientific knowledge. There are
beginnings of a rapprochement between scientolo~ and
certain aspects of studies in the history of science. Of special interest in this connection is the book The Structure
of Scientific Revoiutions 10 by Thomas Kuhn, an American specialist in the history of science, which met with
considerable response. On the basis of theoretical analysis
of extensive historical-scientific materials, the author discloses the important role for scientific research of the
so-called paradigms, that is, theories accepted as model
ones in the given scientific community at a given time
along with their characteristic methods of specifying and
13

Vladislav Lek'
is head of the EI
1Utl of Philosopl-.
Sciencrs. His sd
covering dillectil
of science, hillo'
gy of knowled~
ICOrH of papers
#tIt were highly
number of his
foreign scientific

solving scientific problems and modes of comprehending

empirical facts. Kuhn places special emphasis on the collec.
tive nature of scientific activity. pointing out that an in.
~vidua1 ~ie~tist c~~ot be regarded as an adequate subJ~t of sclen~lfic actIVl~y. Kuhn draws far.reaching conclu.
Slons from hiS conceptIOns, mostly of epistemological and
method?l.ogical natu:e. That is precisely the area where the
U?tenabllity of ('ertam elements of his theory becomes par.
ticu1~~y apparent. In Kuhn's view, there are no logical )
trans~tlons between t~e sep~te paradigms (he likens them
~ dlffere~t worlds 10 which researchers live). The para.
digms ~re mcommensurable, which produces gaps between
the vanous ~undamental theoretical conceptions in science.
ThdUS, c~~. aspects of Kuhn's theory warrant relativist
an subJectmst conclusions.
, W~ have cited here only some examples of the discusSion I~ the modem ~pecial, sciences of fundamental epistemolo.~cal problems III the mterpretation of knowledge and
~ilJltlrn and of the subject-object relation that is of the
byn 0 tro,hlems that a hundred years ago were believed
Sio~o;hil~~~~t~~.to be the exclusive domain of profes-

co~ ~ ~mp~rt~t

and fruitful in this connection to

devefopment ~~~a;lOns fO,r gen,eral epi~emology of the
of formulation and d ,m S~lal scIences With the traditions
shape in the histo lS~uSSl,on of these questions that took
Indeed, these pr~l~mPh~~s~p~y as a sp~ial discipline,
become of imme<!'
s
a
ave relatively recently
SCiences, have a l!te c?ncem to ~peCi~ists, in the various
where different gen~ ~lSiOry of dlscu~lon III philosophy
analysis have been est b ' ypes of thea specification and
fundamental difficulti:s ~sr:d, ~d test~, a whole series of
ed, and ways found (in M p~stemohl~lJlcal research reveal_
work in this area,
arx.t
p ilosophy) for fruitful
At the same time the d
3Cien,ces, and in the first evelopme~t of modern special
prOVides material for d pl~ce ~he SCiences of knowledge
general ,epistemological rawmg ImpO~nt conclUSions of ~
fore phtlosophy or throwing
new problems beo n , new aspects of
old prob!ems, One such
tentu:,n, 15 the question
now agam attracting atof epistemological
status, and methods
A number of
8?me structuralists
and
I'I:ght to exist as a'
its
clble to the sum
cognition. AU mt)le:rn

"

tion are solved, in this view, either in psychology or

in semiotics or in the general theory of form al structures,
One of the propositions which we shall endeavour to
substantiate in the present work is as follows, Epistemology does indeed change its form~ and. certain methods
that have traditionally taken shape m philosophy, The relation of scientific epistemology to special scientific knowl
edge also ch anges, T he essence of t hese changes has bee n
analysed by the fo unders of Marxist-Leninist philosophy
which has formulated t he basis of a sc ientific epistemological conception adequate to the development of human
cognition, At the same, time the fundamental probl~ms in
epistemology do not dIsappear, and the nature of thIS the
ory as a special philosophical discipline irreducible to the
sum total of scient ific knowledge remains
t he fundamental works of

a' con
and
of
to the an;.
the place of
of reflection j
many works have
on he links be
tween cognition a nd
activit y ; great attent ion has
been given t o t he fo rms of the activity o f t he subject in
reflecting reality; some works analysed the problem of the
interrelatio nship of t he individual a nd the social in cogni
tion; t he relation o f the object and t he subject-matter of
knowledge has been investigated ; many works have inquired
into the interrelation of the subjective and the objective
in the development of knowledge. I I A considerable num
ber of works deal with t he dialectics of the subject and t he
object in cognition in connection with the analysis of the
philosophical proble ms arising in the development of the
modern natural sciences. These works focus on the
relationship between the object and the instruments of reo
search the nature of physical reality, and the objectivity
of natural sc ientific knowledge, 12 Finally, a number of
significant aspect s of the cognitive relation have been con
sidered in connection with the discussion of the philoso
phical p roblems of psychology, such as the interrelations
of activity and consciousness, the role of object-related
practical activity in the genesis of percept ion, the nature of
the socalled cognitive actions, and t he problem of the
ego,I3
The present work attempts, first. to sum up the studies
in this fie ld of both the aut hor himself14 and of other So
viet specialists in epistemology, and, second , to analyse a
15

Vladillav lek
is head of the E
1Ute of Philo$OpI

Sciences. His sci

c:overing dillecti
of science, histo
gy of knowled.
scores of papers
thlt were highh
number of his
foreign scientific

number of aspects of the given problem that nrc of n general and fundamental nature and at the sum' time have not
been sufficiently studied in Soviet literatur'.
We shall try to specify and consid'r h're the main types
of conceptions of the cognitive relation, of the subject-ob_
ject relationship, i.e., the. vari~us mode~ of formulation
and discussion of the baSIC epistemological themes. Our
objective is a clear formulation of those ~onditions of study_
ing this problem which ensure the frUitfulness and scien_
tific quality of the theoretical quest on the basis of the dialectical-materialist epistemology and at the same time ac.
cord with the specificity of the cognitive situation created
by the development of modern science.
We begin our analysis of the cognitive relat ion with a
critique of the modes of formulation of the problem c haracteristic of pre-Marxian and present-day non-Marxist, bourgeois philosophy. Our investigation in this Part of the work
has a double significance. First, it fixes those modes of
epistemolOgical analysis which necessarily lead the research
into a cul-de-sac, generating contradictions between the
philosoph~cal conception and the real facts of cognition
and consclOusness as well as internal contradictions in t he
epistemological conception itself. The identification and
~scardi~g of the methods of studying the cognitive relati?n ~~Ich ~o not ensure the construction of a genuinely
scle~t~fIC epistemology help to outline more precisely the
speclf!c ~pproach ~ the analysis of cognition which is charactenstlc of MarxISt-Leninist epistemology.
In
of the pre-Marxian and non-Marxist t hewe have endeavoured to carefully sepa\1
-:
.
with which these

",t.

used' these
in order to
mo_ves 6[ph:l1oso tfie un enability
"

J?ethods of inquiry into t he

" h .
of the pre-Marxian and
t eones of knowledge has another 5l"gu"f"
"
ep:st
l '
I Icance
duced
. ' emf0 ogIcal approaches are often repro_
.
.
In one orm or another by spe . \.
.
vanous sciences (in psychology in the . Cta.lStS III the
~hilosophical problems of physi~s, in stu~ls.cuSSlon of the
tlfons of ma.thematics, etc.). A critical anaIY~il~~/thee fo~nda_
o . perception of the cognitive relation f
. se ypes
object, therefore, proves to be of great import sUbJefct and
ance or cor_

lS

rect philosophical interpretation of many branches of modern scientific knowledge.

The first chapter of the Frat part ~ritically anal~ses the
interpretation of the cogmtlve. relation ~ a. relatIOn b~
tween two physical systems. ThiS conceptI?n 15 charactenstic of metaphysical materialism .. The basiC w~aknesses of
metaphysical materialism cO!."-p'ell~s reJ?r~sentabves to.ma~e
conceSSIOns Eo subjective ideaJi~m on a num~r of e~n.tial
pOints. In the past, the conception of the subJect-obJect relation as a relation of two physical systems was on the whole
materialistic, although it did contain som.e ele,:"ents of su~
jectivism, while in present-day bourgeOIS philos~phy thIS
conception of cognition is formulated, as ~ rule, I~ the ~ra
mework of subjective idealism, only occasIOnally Includmg
elements of mechanistic materialism (Russell). We also consider in a critical light further modificatio."s of this.sch~m.e
of the cognitive relation produced b~ th~ mtr~~uctlo." m ~t
of a naturalistically interpreted subject s actIVIty: Plaget s
genetic epistemology and Bridgn:tan'~ operationalism. Prominent specialists in their respectIVe fields (psychology and
physics), these scientists established a num~~ of fac~
essential for understanding the process of cogmtlon. Theuattempts at philosophical .
of these facts,
however do not go beyond
of c.onception of
the cogn'itlve relation, which . .
serious defects
in their epistemological constructions.
.
The community in the
understandmg of the subject-object
in
justify bringing under o~e
heading the
conceptions which differ m
other
or Russell,
and Bridgis inclined
of subjecwith certain
tivism, and Bridgman, to
elements of materialism).
The second chapter of the first part contains critical
analysis of a type of understand.ing o~ cognition that is ~x
tremely influential in bourgeOIs philoso~~y--one whICh
endeavours to explain the essence o~ cognition ~y analysing t he structure of ind~v idual conSCIOusness. ThiS concep.
tion of cognition was first clearl y expressed. by. D~art~s
and later developed by various sc~oo ls of s.ub~ectlVe I~ealls
tic epistemology. This appr.oac~ IS of special mt~rest In the
study of the cognitive relatIOn III transcendentalist conceptions (Kant, Fichte, Hussed's phenomeno!ogy). The m~m
problem of the ep.istemolog1c~. concep'tions proc~lng
from the interpretatIOn of cogmtlon conSidered ~ere 1.5 one
of substantiating knowledge. In t~e course. of l.tS diSCUSsion , a number of important epistemological Issues are
17

Vledillav Lek
is heed of the EI
1Ule of Philosopl"
Sciences. His sct
covering dialectil
of science, histol
flY of knowled!
ICOres of papers
that were highly
number of his
foreign scientific

'd ed' the interrelation of consciousness and knowlcon!1 ~~o~ledge of the world and k!'owlffige. of seH, the
edg 't
f the act of reflexion the Interrelation between
strucureo
. .'In t.he process o.f cogllltIon.
the e 0 and the other subjects
AU t~ese questions, however , are Interpreted tn. ~ fundamentally erroneouS way : th.e ~al f~cts ~f cognttl~n and
consciousness which subjectlVe-ldeahst eplste.molo~ts e~te are mystified. The present book consl~ers In detail
~~u~;se defects of subjectivist epistemolog1cal. ~oncep
ti
which make a scientific study of the cogmtlVe relati~~s impossible. Besides, it is shown that all these defe~ts
are rooted in the fundamentally erroneo~s unders~andmg
of the cognitive relation itself as one that IS dete!mmed by /
the structure of a self-contained individual conscIOusness.
It should be noted that in the first and second parts of
the book we do not pursue the goal of a n:taximally c.omprehensive analysis of all those non-MarXist. conceptl?ns
that could be included under the general eplstemologlcal
viewpoints under analysis. Our choice of the objects of criticism is guided by a desire ~o specif~ and a~a!yse tho~
modes of expression of the epIStemological positions conSIdered which, on the one hand, represent their classical
form, and on the other, are widespread in modern Western
philosophy, affecting also specialists in the various sciences.
Thus, the first two chapters are by no means a "h istorical introduction" to the rest of the work. H)
These traits of the critical analysis determine the fact
that the order in which the conceptions are criticised does
not always coincide with the sequence of their emergence
in the history of philosophy.
To a considerable extent the materials critically analysed ~ere (e.g., some aspects of Husserl's epistemology,
the epIstemology of Sartre) are considered from Marxist
positions for the first time. Besides, we endeavoured to
specify those aspects of the epistemological conceptions of
Descartes, Kant, and Fichte which have not yet attracted
the attention of Marxist philosophers.
The secon~ part of ~he monograph studies the specific
traits of the ~nte~pretat.lOn. of the cognitive relation in the
system of sc.lentlflc. that IS, Marxist-Leninist, epistemology, and outlmes the prospects which open up in this approach for t.he analY~ls of a number of fundamental problems no.w discusse~ 10 ter~s of the dialectical-materialist
conceptIOn of subject, object, and cognition in work
the methodology of science, scientology and psycholos on
The work shows that the dialectico-~aterialist inte gy.
tation of the cognitive relati.on does not onlY.R.erm't rpreswer to questions that confound nonanist eprit.e~o~~:
18

gy or provide a scientific explanation of the real facts

which bourgeois philosophe.ra encQu!'lter and ar~ unable to
grasp the meaning or. Marxlst-Lemnlst conception of cognilion opens up fundamentally new horizons of epistemologieal studies, posing before epistemology.tasks and problems that are impossible in the type orepistemology that
is traditional for bourgeois philosophy.
.
..
We undertake a detailed analysis of the basiC positIOn of
the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of the cognitive relation between subject and object, a position tha~ invol~es a
fundamental recognition of the unity of reDectlve. obJectrelated practical and communicative activity and a recognition or social mediation and the h1storical nature of cognition. The dialectico-materiaJist epistemology provides
the basic principles for working out a number of problems
raised by the development of the modem special sciences and of scientific epistemology itself. Many of these
questions have not been considered in Marxist epistemological literature at all or else have not been studied comprehensively enough; then again, .they were studied in aspects
different from those analysed In the present work. ThIS applies to the role of object stand,,:,"ds in the fo~ma~ion of
sensory knowledge the interrelation of the objective and
operational compo'nents in the system of know!edge, of
different types of links between ideal and real objects, the
interrelations of "alternative" conceptual systems and corresponding objects, the connectio.n between continui~y and
discontinuity of cognitive expenences, the correlatIon of
substantiation and development of knowledge, the relationships between knowledge, self-consciousness, and reflexion between explicit and implicit knowledge, the relations of individual and collective subjects of cognition, of
the status and specific traits of scientific epistemological
research its relations to the specialised sciences of cognition, ek. Analysis of these problems is Ii~ked up with the
philosophical interpretation of the matenals of a. number
of special disciplines (the psychology of perceptIon, ~og
nitive psychology, ethnolinguistics,. scientC?logr ~ the hl~to
ry of science, formal logical analysIs of sclentlfl~ .theo~les,
etc.). Side by side with elaboratl.o.ns of the .p~slttve views
on the problems considered, a ~ntlcal an~ysls IS undertak
en of some modern non-Marxist conceptlon~ erroneous~y
interpreting the epistemological proble~ns which have ansen from the development of modern science ' - the conceptions of Kuhn, Sapir and Whorf, Quine, Popper,.and oth~~.
Some of them (e.g., Quine's theory of ontolo.gJ.cal r~l~tIvI
ty) are analysed for the fi~t time. ~rom Marx.lst POSitIOns.
The second part also contains a cntical analysIs of the con19

Vl!ldislav Lekl
is head of the Ef
tute of Philosoph

Sciences. His sct\

coYering diale<:t;i
of science, hillor
gy of know led~
ICOrel of papers
that were highly
number of his
foreign scientific

ception of cognition which was formulated on an objective

idealistic basis by Hegel. Hegel came closest. to u':!derstanding a number of import8:n.t features of t.h~ dlalec~lcs ~f sub
ject and object in cognitIOn but, remammg an Ideahst, he
. .
could not formulate a scient!fic epistemology.
The monograph substantiates a number of pro~<?s~bons
which, in the author's view, .follow from the speclfICI~Y: of
the MarxistLeninist conceptIOn of the nature of c,ognl~lon
and are essential for further study of problems m sCientific epistemology.
, ,
In particular, these include th~ following pr<?posl~lons:
1) The conception of the subject as a material bemg and
the recognition of the importance of.th~ subj,ec~'s m3;t~rial
activity in cognition is necessary but m Itself IS 10sufflclent
for a scientific treatment of the cognitive relation. A lim ited naturalistic interpretation of the subject's practical and
cognitive activity cannot stand up to subjectivism, A scien
tific conception of the cognitive relation implies a consis
tent defence of the unity of reflection and activity. But
that in its tum only becomes possible if the subject himself and his activity are understood as socio-culturally and
historically conditioned, if it is recognised that the sub
ject's objectrelated and cognitive activity is mediated by
his relation to other subjects.
2) Human cognition as the highest form of reflection of
reality assumes not only the subject's conscious attitude to
the object but also a conscious attitude to himself. Ele.
me~tary forms of knowledge (e,g., perception) are accom.
'Pam~d by a realisation of the place of the individual subJec~ m, the system of the spatiotemporal relations of the
ob]~t~ve world. Scientific activity is only possible where
cogmtlOn encompasses the objects under study and where
furth,e~ore"fi.1er~ is a realisation of the modes and norms of
cogmtlve a,ctlV!tr mh~rent in the collective subject.
. 3) A SCientific epistemology is a special kind of reflexIon about kn,o:wledge, one that pUrports to find out the necessary conditions
of0any knowledge ' to ,,-ngle out umver-tsal cogOi Ive norms. ne of the important spe -I- 1 t
of this theory IS
- th at th e ch
'
CI IC ea' ures
aractenstics
of actuall
t'
knowledge are reflected in it in close un't
, y eXI~ ~ng
defi~i~ive norms of cognitive activity, Th~ y with ~scnbmg
~ogOitlon and science created by e iste generalll?a~e of
!nc1uded in the actuaJ course of cogn1ti mology IS .Itse~f
m certain respects,
on, restructuring It
It is up to the reader to judge whether th
co'p~ with his task. The auL'lor will grateful e author has
cntlcaJ suggestions inspired by a desire to d Iy accept any
cussion of the problems studied in the bo o k _eepen the dis

Pa rt One
CONCEPTIONS OF TH E COGNITIVE
RELATI ON IN NONMARXIST
EPISTEMOLOGICAL THEORIES

Chapter 1

x:

INTERPRETATION OF COGNITION AS
INTERACTION OF TWO NATURAL SYSTEMS

The epistemology of metaphysical ma te~iali~m starts

from a premise t hat is entirely correct: realit y IS ,unde~.
st ood as a syste m of m aterial structures connected 10 defInite ways by certain relations and actu~ dependen~es.
This conception e m p h asise~ th~t both SUbJact and .0bJect
must be considered as definite mterconn eCfe matenal systems. ltis correctly noted that t he subject is not some s1:1pramaterial being outside the objective real world but IS
included in the objective reality itself. "Subject" and "object" are distinctions within t his reality. Therefore both
the interactions of subject and object and the processes
within the subject are objectively real.
In metaphysical materialism, however, these correct rna
terialist premises are combined with ~ssumptio~s which
drive the study of some fundamental epistemologIcal questions into a culdesac, and also compel on,e to make se
rious concessions to subjectivism on some pomts, abandoning the materialist theory o~ reflection. We refer here t? )
the interpretation of the subject as a purely natural phYSI'
I
cal body or biological being interacting with the w,orld of
\
material objects acco:rding to n3;tural law,S, laws gIVen by
nature. This conceptIOn of the mterrelatlon between the
cognizing subject and the cognized, o~ject ~s unacceptable
in a scientific dialectical and materIalist, epistemology.
Let us try to point out the fundamental defects of in
terpretation of cognition as interaction of two natural sys
terns,
1. INTERPRETATION OF KNOWLEDGE
AS T H E RESULT OF A CAUSAL EFFECT OF THE
OBJECT ON THE SUBJEC T

Already in antiquity, the view is form~ that the knowl

edge of an object results from a causa1 Impact of the ob21

Vladislav lekt
is head of the E~
tute of PhilOSOph
Sciences. His sch
covering dillecti(
of science, histor
gy of koowledg
scores of papers ;

thlt were highly

number of his
foreign lCientific

.
th ubject True that action is interpreted in an
Je<;t . o~ e / an '~mage'" of the object is separated or
~~:::na~~, irom it and n.oa~ in the spac~ betwee~ the object and the subject; gettIng mto the subject, the unage assumes the quality of knowledge .
.
.
The philosophy of the New TlJ~es lends a dlffer~nt
shape to a basically similar conception o~ the mechan~sm
of origin of knowledge. In terms of the Ide~s of classIcal
mechanics which had taken shape by that time, only m aterial phy~ical bodies can af~ect one a~othe~, the on~y qualities immediately inherent 10..!he.boches be~ng den,~lty, ex
tension, and form. There can be no questlon ?f emanation" of "images". Bodies can leave only ma~en~ traces of
impact in each other. The result of the phYSlcal.unpact on
the sense organs (whether it be d.irect impact, !is 10 the case
of tactile impressions, ?r a medlate.d one, as 10 t~e c!ise of
vision) is sense perception -the pnmary and baSIC kind o f
knowledge. All other kinds or types of knowledge are, in
one way or another, derivative from perception. Therefore
to discover its mechanism would in fact mean to discover
the essence of knowledge, of the cognitive relation in
general.
Here is how one of the classical adherents of such conceptions, the English philosopher John Locke, reasoned :
" ... Simple ideas [that was the term Locke used for wh at
is now called sense perception - V. L. 1 are not fictions of
our fancies, but the natural and regular productions of
th.ings without us, really operating upon us; and so carry
WIth them all the conformity which is intended or which
our state requires; for they represent to us things under
those appearances which they are fitted to produce in us;
whereby ~e are en~bled to distinguish the sorts of particular substances, to dIscern the states they are in and so to
take th~m for our ~ecessities, and apply them to our uses.
~d thIS conf?rmlty between our simple ideas and the
eXlste~ce of thmgs is .s,;!fficient fo r real knowledge. "1
. It IS by the speclftc formatio ns arising in t he subject
~unself, by the "ideas" or sense perceptions that m
Judges of t~e really existing objects. The relation of t~
syst~m of mterconnected perceptions to the real b'
remmds 0!le of the relation of a map to the act all
lects
The map IS not the terrain itself. At the s u t. an scape.
who can read the map will clearly underst arne lIl."le a man
tions of the real objects in the area descri~\th~~nterrelaThe argument seems clear and 10 'cal The Y e map.
of modem neurophysiology indeed~e~ 'be development
dependences characterising causal chain~ th~a eat :many
external objects, then pass through man'
orm 10 the
s senses and fur-

22

ther to the brain. These descripti0!1s tak~ into a~cou~t the

I
f diffusion, reflection and dIffractIon of lIght 1fl t~e
: ; : ~f vision, t he specificity of the spread of sound o~il
lation in the case o f hearing, the structure of the ret1fl~,
the laws of excitatio n of the conductor n~rves, etc. It IS
important t o e mphasise that modem s~udles h~ve established t hat the cortex plays an exceptIonally unportant
role in t he process of perception. Where a certam cen~re
(visual , auditory, .etc) is damaged, the correspondmg
perception process IS dIsrupted.
.
Neurophysiological studies undoubtedl~ have an. Imme nse significance for disclosing ~he material mech'~JlIs~s
of perception and a great deal will have to be done In thiS
direction. The question, however, is whether these.studies
by themselves are sufficient to understand perceptIon a~ a
special kind of kno.wledge, and. whether the neurophY~lO
logical data can be 10terpreted m the theory of perception
which we have briefly outlined here and which has been
termed in philosophy representationism.
Let us note that in representationist terms, not al1 that
exists in perception corresponds to the features of actually
existing objects. Since the natural sciences, and in the first
place physics, do not use the concepts of colour, taste,
smell , etc., the corresponding properties of perception, the
upholders of this view believe, should be regardedasemerging through the object influencing the subject rather than
inherent in the actually existing objects (characterised by
the concepts of extension, density, quantity, form, motion, etc.). Thus the theory of the so-called primary and se- )
condary qualities is formulated, a theory that was presented
in clear form by Locke and still has some supporters. The
" primary" qualities of our perceptions (perception of
spatial relatio ns between objects, their size, etc.) reproduce
more or less precisely the real properties of the objects
themselves. As for the "secondary" qualities, they do not
reproduce the properties of objects existing outside us, although they have objective causes. The "secondary" qua
lities, though not fully subjective and illusory, are thus
more subjective than the "primary" ones.
Let us now consider the )og}c of the represe:ntationi!it
conception. This will enable us to see its weak pOints. 2
(1) Let us begin with the fact that the very division into I
" primary" and "secondary" qualities is extremely shaky. J \
It is true, of course, that the natural sciences do not use
such concepts as colour, taste, smell, etc. (although these
sciences might, of course, use concepts correlative with
those of colour, taste, and smel) - e.g., the concept of
electromagnetic wave length). Neither does such a science
23

Vladislav Lt
is head of the
tute of PhiioSOI
Sciench. His s
covering di.lec
of science, hin
gy of knowle
ICOres of paper
thet were high
number of hi

foreign $Cientif

as neurophysiology resort to ~,he concepts o~ colour and

taste, explaining the me~haO!sm of perception through
description of various spatial arrangements .of the conduct.
or nerves and brain centres and also studyang the frequency of propagation of excitation along the nerve paths. The
so-ca1led secondary quali!ies do not appear. as <?bj~cts of
neurophysiological analysIs. for ther ca~mot an prIncIple be
introduced inlo the system of physical mteroctlon. ;But the
question arises then, where do they emerge an.d .m w~at
"space" do they exist? We can no longer be satisfied wIth
the answer that they emerge "in the process" of the 0 bject
operating on the subject, for analysis of this process in
terms of interaction between natural bodies does not make
use of a concept pertaining to these "qualities".
The assertion also appears unconvincing that the "primary" qualities, as distinct from the "secondary" ones, reo
produce more or less precisely the properties of real objects.
The subjective element in the perception of colour, in gustatory senses and others is rather prominent. But the ele \ (
ment of subjectiveness is always present in the perception )
,
of spatial forms and relations of actual objects, too . In
some cases this subjectiveness is so great that it necessarily
produces various illusions of perception that have been
studied in detail in modern psychology. In everyday life,
however, it is correctly believed that perception of spatial
forms of things is on the whole objective. Why then is subjectiveness ascribed to the perception of sound colour
smell, etc.? It is correct that the conceptual pictw.e of th~
world drawn by the natural sciences does not include
colours, .sounds, or s~ells. But it does not include many of
the. spatlO-temporal mterrelations fixed in material bodies
which from the standpoint of pre-scientific "common
sense" are necessary attributes of the objective, real world.
IC we should :,-ccept. that only those characteristics of reality actually eXlSt W~IC~ ~e expr~ssed in the concepts of the
~odem natural-scientific theones, we arrive at the coneluSl~? th~t .not only prol?erties corresponding to "secondary quahlles are n.on-exlstent, but so are the objective cor.
relates
of
thOthe "primary" qualities " fo that w h'ICh we per.
c.elve .as. mgs more or less distinctly localised in space a nd
time IS, m terms of modern physics merel
I
giomeration of processes
gl'
I thO
_ . . on
. .the
. qua~tum mYec'hcof!1Palelx
amc eve
n }S case, our olumary notlOns of space t'
dI
.
lisation of objects no longer work The ~ d~e, an ocatio~ of external objects including both "s~c~~:l p~,rcePd
"pnmary" qualities will here appear as Som U~!y an
does not accord with their nature as a
e mg that
specific structure of our sense organs
'oOt( thhe
u, t at
24

our body size is on th(' macroscale.

But docsn't this assumption take us too far along the
path of subjectivism?
~t us po!n.t .out finally ~hat the other assumption on
which the diVISion of perceived qualities into "primary"
and "secondary" is based is open to criticism. We mean ascribing some fundamenta] affinity between the result of
impact of the " primary" qualities of the object on the
sense organs and the qualities themselves. As shown by
neurophysiological research, the processes that take place
in the nervous system at the moment of perception have
as a rule, no externa] similarity to the phenomena that ar~
the objects of perception.
(2) It fo ll ows from the "causal theory" of perception
that the subject is d irectly concerned with the "traces" of
the object's impact on the perc::eivfngapparaius rather tfian
with the object itself. The subject "transports outside" as
it were, the features or "qualities" of these "traces"
jecting" them onto the real object and ascribing them to
the object itself, although not all of them are actually inherent in the latter.
It is not clear, however, just why the subject necessarily
ascribes to the object qualities that are not characteristic
of it, and how it does so. The mechanism of projection is
impossible to understand in tenns of action of one physical system on another.
(3) Then there is this puzzle: how can the subject "read ",
i.e., perceive the "imprints" or "traces" of the action of
the object on his perceiving apparatus?
Indeed, according to the given conception, all percep- '\. '
tion is necessarily mediated by the sense organs and the A.
nervous apparatus. What are the sense organs that can
perceive the "imprints" given in the apparatus itself that
realises the process of perception? Even if we assume that
such special "sense o rgans" do exist, that is no solution of
the problem, for in these "sense organs" there must be
some n ew "im prints" which again have to be "read" by
someone, etc. And who is that "someone" reading the
im print s? The subject? But the basic premise of this ) (
concep tio n is that the subject is a physical body, a natural
m aterial system, which cann ot exist somewhere in its own
nervous ap paratus reading im prints in its own brain.
The only way out is to recognise that the process of
perception of "imprints" in the perceiving system is fundamen tall y d ifferent from the perception of external objects
and t hat t he former process is realised directly, without \.
sense organs or "reading" the corresponding traces. How
)
ever, that would mean rejecting the view that the origin of

"pro-

25

\l1~isllrW

l.

is head of the
1Ute of Philosc

Sciences. His ~
covering diale!
of scie~ , his
'IV of knowll
lCOI"es of pape
that were higl
number of

foreign scienti'

sense perception as a special kind .of knowledg<' ~an be

fully and exhaustively Interpreted m terms of action of
one physical system upon another.,
,"
(4) Consistent adherence ,to thIS conc,ep~lOn mevltablr
entails subjectivistic cpncluslon~ contradlctmg the m~ten
alist theory of reflection. Here IS one of them. The causal" theory of perception pos~ulates tha~ di~ect pe!c.eption
is characteristic of processes m the subject s recewmg apparatus and can be correlated with the real obj~ct in a very mediated manner. The actual. processes dunng perception may be disclosed by studymg the work of analysers
and the brain and nerve structures. If we follow the logic
of this conception we shall have to accept that the physiologist studying th~ work of the brain does not, in actual
fact, deal directly with that brain but only with his own,
for any object is accessible to the scientist only through
the "imprints" in his own brain, which "symbolise" external reality rather approximately, being similar to that reality only in some respects. Bertrand Russell, an adherent of
the "causal" theory of perception, draws this ,conclusion,
insisting that it is a mistake to assume "that a man can see
matter. Not even the ablest physiologist can perform this
feat. His percept when he looks at a brain is an event in his
own mind, and has only a causal connection with the brain
that he fancies he is seeing."3
Following the path of subjectivism, Russell, unlike
Locke and other metaphysical materialists includes the
"causal theory" of perception within the fr'amework of a
subjective id~istic phil~sophical conception. That which
'Y3S a concession to subJectivism in metaphysical materialists, becomes t~e nucleu~ of Russen's epistemology.
(5~ Let us fmally pomt out an essential circumstance
that IS h~d to explain, if .one regards perception as simple
causal acbon of one phYSical system on another. We refer
to the fact that ~e!cepti~n always assumes realisation of
percep~s and theu lOcluSlOn (i~ the process of perception
Itself) 10 sC?me catego~y of objects, which is expressed in
unders~andlO~. the object perceived. Understanding means
a ?ertai':l act.lVlty of th~ subject, manifested, am on other
t~mgs, 10 different objective in~rpretations and ~erce .
bons of one and the same action of the ob'
p
subjec~'s receptive aPI?aratus. The objective ini:~ ~t" t~he
of reality takes place m the framework of a cert l.nr a Ion
of ~bjective "standards". Perception thus has dear . .stystem
matlve features.
101 e nor<?,enerally speaki~g, ~t is those features of
.
p
c
WhICh have to do wIth ItS conscious and no
t1?er e tlon
ter that are least amenable to interpretatiorm<l; we characn 10 terms of
26

causal impact of one physical system upon another The

need to view perception as a special structure, a phenomenon of consciousness rather than a simple "imprint" has
come up in .o~her cases, e.g.,. when we spoke of the prob.
lem of locallsmg the sensual Image, explaining the mechan.
ism of "projection", e~. Most supporters of the "causal"
theory of perception recognise, in one way or another
that the chains of natural causation in the subject's recep:
tive apparatus result in the emergence of a specific phenomenon that cannot . be directly understood and explained
in the concep~ oT mechanics, physics, chemistry, and
other natural sciences":"" the phenomenon of sensual image
consciously realised by the subject (that is Russell~s position). This recognition, however, means in fact a rejection
of the interpretation of the cognitive relation as merely a
special type of connection between two physical systems.
Let us stress that critique of the "causal" conception of
perception does not at all mean rejecting the idea that the
subject is in some respects indeed a complex natural system, that the object does indeed act on the sense organs of
the cognizing subject. and that cognition is in general impossible without this action.
Then
it is impossible to ignore the enormous mass
of
accumulated by neurophysiology . The task liftS.
in a philosophical-theoretical interpretation of

2. THE THEORY OF COGNITIVE

"EQUILIBRIUM" BETWEEN SUBJECT
AND OBJECT

Some modem adherents of the interpretation of the

cognitive relation as a special type of interaction between
two natural systems believe that the defects of epistemological conceptions criticised in the previous section are not
determined by cognition being regarded as a purely natural
process but by a one.sided view of the subject-object interaction: the action of the object on the subject is studied
but the reverse action of the subject on the object is not.
In this connection it is believed that proper attention to
the subject's own activity in the analysis of cognition, in
particular to his extemal material activity. would allow to
overcome the fundamental shortcomings of the epistemological conception of ~.etaphysi?al materi~ism: the nor
mative nature of cognition, for mstance, will then be explained. It should b.e stressed t~a~ the .activity the necessi~y
of studying which IS asserted IS 10 thiS case understood 10
27

. >1
t h e spin

Vladislav I
Is head of ttM
..~ of Philos
$ci.ncft. His
cov.ri"'iJ di.l,

of lCi.nee, hi

gy of know
ICOr.. of PI~
thlt
hig
number of

w.r.

for_ign scient

(nalu-'
philosophy , as a purely
natural
li:U
.
b>
h cteristic of a specific body - the cognlzmg su ]ect.
Th~aapproach to the analysis of activitr is quite a~cept!ibl~
to the adherents of this view. ,In fact, It does ~C?t 10 pnfo\clpie go beyond the interpretatIon o~ the cogmtlve relatu:m
as a natural interaction of a special type. AI,though Its
dherents analyse some cognitive problems with greater
&scrimination and precision than La,eke and. the otber
'(fleoreticfan-s who stressed t~e. one-~Id~d ~ctlon ?f the
object on the subject, it is still 10 I?nnclple lm,?osSI?le to
construct an adequate epi~temologlca1. conception tn the
framework of a modernised .naturallst mode~ o! cognition. The theoreticians who mte~pret ~he sub~ect 5 cognitive activity in a naturalistic fashton, eIther stick to the
positions of metaphysical materialism or a~cept the standpoint of subjective idealism, or even aSSimilate both of
these positions.
. .
. .
An illustration of thIs conceplton of the cogmtlve relation is the system of the so-called genetic epistemology of
Jean Piaget one of the most prominent Western psychologists. "Gen~tic epistemology", which is extremely influential abroad, has arisen as an attempt to philosophically
interpret the extensive results of experimental and theoretical psychological studies carried out by Piaget and his
collaborators during several decades. In analysing "genetic
epistemology", we shall endeavour to separate the actual
facts discovered by Piaget (we shall return to these facts,
characterising important aspects of the process of cognition, il\ our positive inquiry into the problem) from his
theoretical interpretation, which is largely untenable in its
philosophical aspects.
T\vo. features distinguish the approach of the Swiss psyc}lologlst. First, he recognises the subject's active role at all
h'vels o~ the .cognitive p~ocess, beginning with perception
and endmg with complex mtellectual structures. This activeness o~ the .subject is expressed in the transformation of
the obJ~ct, tn the fact t~at t~e.latter can only affect the
subJect!n the cC?urse of Ius activity, which varies in charac.
ter. at ~If.rerent mtell~ctual levels. Second, the cognitive relation IS tnterprete~ m the f~a~ework of the system-struc~ural approach: vanous cogmtlVe formations are viewed as
mtegral structures: and the subject-object relation itself is
reg.arded as a Special type of system in which subJect and
object are mutually "balanced".
. The main. ideas of the operational conception of intelligence (as Plaget refers to his psychological th
)
follows:
eory are as
1. Intelligence is defined in the context of behaviour,

2.

that is, of specific exchange (interaction) between the ex

ternal world and the subject.
" ... Unlike physiological interactions, which are of a
material nature and involve an internal change in the bodies
which are present, the responses studied by psychology
are of a functional nature and are achieved at greater and
greater distances in space (perception, etc.) and in time
(memory, etc.) besides following more and more complex
paths (reve~sals, d 7t.?urs, etc.)."4 AccC?r~ing to Piaget,
intelligence IS a deflrute form of the cogmltve aspect of behaviour whose functional purpose is the structurin~ of reo
lations between environment and the organism.
(
2. Intelligence, just as all the other biological processes
and functions, is of adaptive nature, in Piaget's view. Adaptation is in this case understood as equilibrium between assimilation (of the given material by the existing systems of
behaviour) and accommodation (of these schemes to a
definite situation). Adaptation may obviously vary quite
extensively in its nature. It may be material, with equi
librium attained by "interpenetration between some part of
the living body and some sector of the external environment" 5 or functional which is not reducible to such
materi~ interpenetratio'n (or exchange). A most important
element in this understanding of the nature of intelligence
is the assertion of the specifically functional nature of
\
adaptation in the intellectual sphere.
3. Cognition realised by intelligence .is not, ac~ording to
Piaget, a static copy of reality. To c,?gTlIze an object !U eans
to act on it to reproduce it dynamically, and that IS why
the essence 'of intelligence lies in its ~ctive ~atu:;e .. Psychi
cal and, consequently. intellectual hfe begms. With f,;,nctional interaction that is to say from the pomt at which
assimilation no l~nger alters assimilated obiects in. a
physico-chemical manner but simply incorporates.them 10
its own forms of activitl (and whe n accommodatiOn only
modifies this activity)":.
.'
. ,
4 Intellectual actiVity IS derwatwe from the subject s
mat~rial actions; its elements, or opera~ions . are interiorised actions which prove to be operations m the proper
sense of the word only if they are mutual ly c?or(hnat~,
forming reversible, stable, and at the same time mobile
integral structures.
5. These integral structures may differ essentially bo.~
in the deglee of their reversibility an~ the nature of m?bllity and in their being related to. a gwen sphere of objects.
M~reover, other cognitive functions (for example . percep
tion) are also characterised by structural or~a.msation. he
problems of genetic affinity between cogrlltlve functions

:r

29

\
\

I/lidisllV
is head of t~
tuft of Philo
Sciences. Hi!
covering dia
of science, h
gy of knOVI
scorll of PII
that were hi
number of
foreign scien

(and behaviour as a whole) and tht> sP.'cificity of intel

ligence are solved by PiagE't in the follo~\"ln${ manner. In~E'I.
li ence "is an extension and a. perfeclion of all ndnp~lve
p~ocesses. Organic adaptation, tIl fact,. ~nl.y E'nsures an im
mediate and consequently limited eqUlhbnum betwt>en lh~
individual and the present envi~onment. Elemt>ntary COgnl
tive functions, such as perct>pllon, habit and memory, ex
tend it in the direction of present space (perceptual con
tact with distant objects) an~ of .short.range reconstruc
tions and anticipations. Only mte~lg;ence ... tend~ t~wa!ds
an all..embracing equilibrium by 8Ullmg at the a~lmtiatio.n
of the whole of reality and the accommodation to It
of action which it thereby frees from its dependence on
the initiai hic and nunc."7 Hence the principle of genetic
deduction of the intellectual operations, the reverse side of
this principle being the impossibility of indicating the
strict boundaries of intelligence: the latter has to be
defined only "by the direction towards which its development is turned". 8
Thus intelligence is, according to Piaget, a special form
of interaction between subject and object, specific activity
which, being derivative from external object-related activi
ty, emerges as the totality of interiorised operations mu
tually coordinated and formina: reversible, stable, and at
the same time mobile inteKlal structures. Intelligence, says
Piaget, may be defined "in terms of the progressive reversi
bility of the mobile structures" or, which is the same,
as "the state of equilibrium towards which tend all the
successive adaptations of a sensorimotor and cognitive
nature, as well as all assimilatory and accommoda
tory interactions between the organism and the environ
ment".9
Piaget's psychological and epistemolo~cal conception
(
~us prov.es to be derivative from his interpretation of the
mten:elatu~n .between the of'Ranism and the environment,
showlt~,a- dlstlllct biological orientation. We shall later see
that P.ia~et .endeavours to interpret the biological processes
of asslmll.alton and accommodation, in their turn, in terms
of a physical and mechan.istiC ~heory of equilibrium.
. The core of the. geneSIS o~ mte~i~ence is, accordin g to
~age.t, the. formation of logical thmkinp;, ability for w hich
18 neither mnate nor preformed in the hum
'd L '
al thO ki . h
an mm
ogl
o h' '"I n.g IS t ~ product of the subject's growing a~tivity
10 ~s re at!ons With the external world.
f rla~e~ smgled. ou~ four ~asic stages in the development
I' tell'
o oglc reasonmg. senson-motor pre-ope t'
gence concrete operations and r ' _.
ra.lona III I
, a n n ... operaltons 10
I. ln'te II ectual acts at the
st'.>"e
of "'"
......nsonmotor
'
'
,
"'?>
Intel.
30

ligcnce (up to the age of Lwo) art> baJed on coordination of

movemcnt.s and percepLions and do not involve any notions. AILhough &ensorimotor intelligcnce is not yet logi.
cal it "functionally" prepares lOA:ical reasoning proper.
h. Preoperational intelligence (between two and seven
years) is characterised by wellformed speech, notions, in
teriorisation of action in Lhought (action is replaced by
some sign: word, image, or symbol).
At the stage of preoperational intelligence, the child is
not yet capable of appl~in~ ar;a earlier acquired ~cheme of
action with constant objects eIther to remote objects or to
definite sets and quantities. The child does not yet have
re-/ersible operations and the concepts of retainina: appli
cable to actions at 8 level higher than sensorimotor
actions.
III. At t he stage of concrete operations (between eight
and eleven) different types of intellectual activity that
have appea!"~d during the previous period finally reach a
state of " mohile equilibrium", that is., they become rever
sible At the same time the basic concepts of retention are
formed, the child is capa?le of concrete logical operations.
He can fonn both relations and classes out of concrete
things. But the logical operations have not yet become ge.
neralised. At this stage children cannot construct correct
speech independently of real action.
IV. At the formal operations stage (between 1112 and
14-15) the genesis of intelligence is completed. The ability
to reason hypothetically and deductively develops at this
stage, and the system of operations of propositio,?-al logic
is formed. The subject can equally well operate With both
objects and propositi<?ns ..The ,em~rgence o~ the~ systems
of operations sho ws, m Piaget S VIew, that mtelhgence has
.
been formed.
Altho ugh t he develo pment ~f log.ical ~asomn~ forms an
important aspect of the geneSIS of mtelhgence, It does. not
fully exhaust this process. In t he course and <?n the baSIS of
formation of o perational structures of varymg deipees of
complexity, t he child graduaUy masters the refllity s':!r
rounding him " During t he first seven years of hfe I wnte
Piaget and InhelderJ th~ c h ~d graduallr .discovers the. elementary principles of mvanance pe~mng to t~e o.bJect,
quant ity number space and t ime, which lend hIS picture
of the ~orld an ~bjective structure; "11 The .most impor
tant components in the interpretation of thiS proce~, as
suJ,tgested by Pia~et, are (1) depende!1ce of ~e a';l~YslS of
the reality as constructed by the child on. hIS actiVIty; (2)
the child 's spiritual development as a growmg syste~ of m
variants mastered by him; (3) development of logtcal rea
31

Vl adislav
is head of th
tute of PhilOi
Sciences, His
covering dia l
of science, h
tlV of know
ItOres of pap
that were hil
number of

foreign scien1

soning as the basis for the child's entire intellectual deve_

lopment.
.
.
.
Piaget's psychologIcal ~d iOfitlcai con~eption was the
concrete material on WhICh the conceptIOn of "genetic
12
epistemolollY" developed.
Piagel believes that the numerous attempts at constructing a scientific epistemology in the past have been fru itless, because they proceeded from a static standpoint.
Piaget's "genetic epistemology" substantiates the existence of a "dialectical connection" between the subject
and the object, the indivisibility of the subject S and the
object O. It is, writes Piaget, from the interaction S:;';=' 0
that action, the source of cognition, follows. The starting
point of this cognition is neither S nor 0 but the interconnection ,.,=, characteristic of action, It is on the basis of this
dialectical interaction that the object and its properties
gradually c?me to lilo'(ht-throu~h decentration, which
frees cognitlOn from external illusions, Startine: from this
interaction ~, the subject discovers and cognizes the object, organising actions in a consistent system constituting
the operations of his intellect or reasoning, 1 3
The ~evelopment of cognition, Piaget believes, leads to
the subJe:ct's ~nowledge of the object becoming increasinlo'(ly 'f!Iore mvanant relative to the changing conditions of expenen~e and the subject's position relative to the object,
On thl~ path the au~hor of "genetic epistemology" arrives
at the Idea of applymg the theory of invariants (in particular, of the mathemati~~ the?ry of groups) to the study of
the processes ~f, COjl;l1It,l~n, Plaget presents in mathematical
ih~m the c~filttve ent!ttes ~aking shape at various stages in
development of mtelhe:ence as different structures
namely
. Rroups (and groupings), order struc-'
tures ~das alg e b r~lc
"
, topological structures. From Piaget's standpoint
th e mvanant of a t
f
'
'
structure is kno I ~ans brmatlOn group in an intellectual
own pro ertie \': e ge a ,out the object itself, about its
frame in ~hich\h~espectlve ,of any ,particular reference
sibility of operatio: prope~les are discovered. The reverIy linked with th
s m the m~llectual structures is directIn Piaget's the~ pre~~c~ of mvariants in them,
ject relative to so~'
~lna!1ce of knowledge about an obthe actual interactio~UbJ~ctlve, "perspective" is ensured by
with the subject's actio~ subJe~t and object, connected
h,y the properties of the and,qult~ unambiguously defined
tIVely .a~d actually. In Pi ob~ct . Itself, which exists objecmat~tiahsm as the basic agh,t s dlsc,usslOn of this problem,
ceptlOn stands out Partie ~ I{OSOPhlCai premise of his conThe appearance of ~ Y clearly,
a e and reversible operational

;/

bl

32

do("~ not" ,?f course, mean, in Piaget's view, that

situatlO~s ~f mst.ablhty cannot henceforth arise at all in
the subject s kno~ledge, KnowledJte is always knowledge

struct,ures

of an external object, whose properties are inexhaustible'

it presents to the subject ever new aspects and poses eve~
new, -problems. When Piaget points out the growth in the
stability of knowledge of the object in intellectual development, he has in mind, first of all the formation of reversible structures of intellectual o~rations that is of logical instruments which permit the subject'to solve' those
tasks which reality poses before him. Inasmuch as Piaget
believes tbat the solution of tasks is based on well-formedness of operational structures permitting to solve classes
of problems of the same type, the growth in the stability
of intelligence structures also indicates a Rrowth in the stability ~d, invariance of the subject's knowledge as a whole,
. BU,t It IS a ,we~-known fact that, however important the
mvanance cntenon may be as an indicator of the obiectiveness of knowledEe, it is not the only or the main
criterion, and that becomes quite clear at the highest staJtes
of the development of cognition, particularly in the
const,ructi,on o~ scientific knowledge.
It lS thlS varIety of forms which the invariance criterion
can assume, and its derivation from other more fundamental criteria, that are not taken into ac~otult in Piaget's
~orks. He singles out mostly those aspects of the formation of invariant knowled~e of the obiect which may be
adequately described by the available mathematical appar~tus and, in the first place, by group theory. The proposition concerning the role of reversibility of operations as a
~eans of attaininE invariant knowledge is also derived bv
Plaget from group theory. But if one takes into account
the diversity of forms which invariance of knowledEe
assumes, one will have to admit that reversibility of cognitive operations is not apparently the kind of universal ind icator of objectiveness of knowledge which Piaget believes
it to be.
Attem pts to solve t he problem of objectiveness of
knowledge wit h the help of the invariance concept are
numerous in the foreign literature on epistemology and
the methodology of science, Thus Max Born, one of the
prominent modern physicists, points out in his discourse )
on the nature of "physical reality" that the concept of
invariant of a group of transformations is a key to the
concept of reality not only in physics but also in any
aspect of the world,
"Invariants are the concepts of which science speaks in
the same way as ordinary lanln1a~e speaks of 'thinlo'(s', and
2 __ 163

'3

w~ich it frovides with names as if they were ordinary

Vledisl81
is he~ of
tu te of Phil
Sciences. H
c:overing di
of science,
gy of knc
ICOrelof Pl
hat were I
number 01

foreign $Cie

things. "1
Most measurements in physics. Born believes
d,o not pertain to ?bjects themselves but to their projec:
tion~ on other objects. "The projection ... is defined in
relatIon tc! a system of reference... There are in general
many eQulV~ent syste~s of reference. In every physical
theory t~ere IS a ~uJe which connects the projections of the
same object on different systems of reference. "15
. ~owever, the attempts to identify construction of obJectlve knowl~~e with ~stablishment of the object's iovaria!lt charactenstlcs run mto serious philosophical difficultIes. The a~p~tus .used by the physicist durinE experi
!1lents f~nctl~n in thlS aspect as quite real physical bodies
mteractmg wIth other. bodies according to objective laws
~ that the res~ts of. l!lteraction, just as, generall s eak:
~g, ;~e pr~perttes ans10g from the relation of on~ object
~
0 }ects, the so:calle~ pro)ections, must exist objee Ive y ~n~ really. Besides, mvanance is not an absolute
~hdeff~~~~~~fr: ~;e~~[operty, ~eing esta?lis~~ only in
in one system rna r
Ions.. an . that. which IS mvariant
nothing of all possful~ ~on-mvanant 10 another, to say

. r

=~a:hi~~
h~~~e\h~J~~~;~~~u:hP~~!~~~~c~f
;;lit
it.
r searc ers abroad ascribe to
16
.
thePiaget's
theo "ge
of n~t"IC ~pistem.ology"
endeavours to link u
Here the
th.e theory of eQuilibriuni.
con~eptions comes to li&ht :~it~~allweakness of Piaget's
Piaget believes that th
ar y.
structure of intelli ence e emergence of invariants in the
ance of reversible ~perati~~s~" ccisequently, the appearmutual balancing of 0 e . IS lTectly connected with
with the subject-object ~q~~~bn~ and, as a result of this
re~i must therefore Provid~ ~u~y T~e thedory of equilib:
ectual development E Ub
. . un erstandin~ inget as the maximum ~ q':l I num IS Interpreted by Pia~mpensating for certai~~!~~alf hthe subject's activity
lance ?[ ~orces in the state of restc anges, rather than as
n buildmg the model [
.'
~~ ~~~g;: of the equilib~u~b~~!;~~ject equ~ibrium on
li~rium ~oh~~f~~ ~n~ later <:,n the ~~l~~s~f~hsyste~
Piaget cannot ded glC orgamsm with the
. e equI~ies
of the kind or~~eqfUroil'?b~his model the S~C"IYfll"I'onment,
jeet d'
1 num" bet
c properties ~to Ih!h:;::~: &ompelled to int~:~c~u~~ect and obwith his own basic mo~~. the outside, in appar:nset dP!operlscord

rrundam~~t!:ltsh~lth

34

In mechanics, a closed system is believed to be in eQuilibrium if the sum of all possible types of work within the
system equals zero.
Using the term "equilibrium" in his theoretical aI1l\1ments, Piaget at first understood it in the sense that is
close to the above. The subject-object system (and by "object" he means, first of all, that part of the subiect's environment with which he directlv interacts, practically and
c09;nitively) may be regarded as being in eQuilibrium if the
sum of all possible interactions between the subject and
the object equals zero (that means that the sub.iect can
always perform an action reversin9; the first action thus
re~ainin~ the original situation). The external equilibrium
between the subject and the object is ensured by establishing an equilibrium within the operational structure: the
existence in this structure of an operation that is the
reverse of the basic one gives precisely this effect that the
sum of all possible operations within the structure equals
zero. 17
It soon turned out, however, that Piaget's analoy between equilibrium in a mechanical system and equilibrium
in the structure of intellectual operations is extremely imprecise. First, the mechanical principle deals with a closed
system, that is, one that is isolated from the influence of
the environment, whereas the whole purpose of the "balancing" of intellectual operations of which Piaa:et speaks
is the attainment of stability of the knowledge about the
object relative to the mutable experience. In other words,
Piaget deals with an "open" rather than "closed" system.
Second, it came to light that in physics itself system equilibrium is only rarely expressed by the above principle. In
the more general cases of system equilibrium, considered,
e.g., in thermodynamics, there is a minimum of potential
energy in the system (which is conditioned by the attainment of the most probable state by the system). Mechanical equilibrium proves to be only a special case of the
more general eqUilibrium state. In recent years, a number
of physicists and mathematicians (I. Prigozhin and others)
have ..s.eneralised the concept of equilibrium to include
"dynamic eQuilibrium". It provea to be possibleto apply
the mathematical theory of dynamic equilibrium of a system to the study of "open systems", Le., systems exchanging matter and energy with the environment. Some biologists have made attempts to apply the theory of dynamic
equilibrium to the study of living organisms as "open systems".
Piaget speaks of "balancing" operations within a cognitive structure , believing this
"balance" attainable due
.

Vled;sl,
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awering d
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to complete reversibility of operations. Endeavouring to

get rid of teleology in explaining the inner trend of the
subject's actions towards mutual balancing, Piaget aims at
constructing his conception on the basis of the physical
theory of equilibrium. As we know, the tendency of a
closed physical system towards the most probable state is
explained by ~he action of statistical laws, without any
r~ference to h~dden goals. How~ver, equilibrium in phy .
~ICal s~stems 18 very often achieved by attaining some
irreversible state rather than by increasing the reversibility
of processes within the system.
Finding it impossible to deduce from the physical model
?f equil~bri~m cognitive "equilibrium" of subiect and obJ~t, whIch ~s of fun~amental importance for his psycholoIZical and eplstemoloJHcal conception, Piaget was compelled
to s~es~ more and more the specific character of psychical
equlhbnum.
Piaget believes it necessary to distine:uish between " intitrumeT~IY possible" a~d "structurally possible" operah~:ms'lf e former ope.ratlons are those which the subject
unse. regards a~ a gIVen moment as possible, that is as
o~r~tlrnh he n:tlght .perform. Although from the sta'ndp~~n 0 t e subject hunself "instrumentally possible" oper~ Ions are not those actually performed b h'
the givin
su
possihle actions is "ust as re jec s contef!lplation of his
an external activity J"Stru tu ~a psyc.holex!"lcal process as
tions of the subje~t who ~ ~ ~.posslble"arethoseoperathe given moment as IC. e Imself does not regard at
of his ability to perf~~ss~~~~)~ h: m~:y even ,be unaware
~ess capable of performing f h ~ W IC~ h~ IS nevertheJectively formed 0 eratio~ or e as at. hiS diSposal an oberations. The basisPof all 0 al stI"?-cture mcludinR: these op
"structurally possible" 0 ePer.atlOns o.f the subject is th us ')
!he operational structur~ ir:;fn~,. COinciding in fact w ith
mteUect~al operational structure th"get a~~rt~ that in t he /
and POSSible chru:'ges is expressed i e equihbnum ?f act ual
rent from a phYSIcal system Whil ~ a m~ner QUite diffetUre the~ .exist "instrumentall e In ~he !~tellectual struc~e medl~tmg links, as it wer/ ~~sslble operations that
ween real and possible
changes, 10 a phYsical system th
.ere can only be a shar dic otomy between real and
intellectual and
.. So the
"'!" ar.
I num cannot be
. AnalYSIS of the actual"
".
)ect and the object in the pr~~~ihbnum" between the su
a recolUlition of such charac~i~i~ognitio~ led Piaget ~
s of thIS equil"b "
36
I num

~~~dei~~!h:sp:%~hf~~~~estu~~in:,

f:k~t:e,!nf

~~~~~~:l ~hq~7~bes

p~~~~ ~~;

a~alo-

which can in no way be deduced from the model of equilibrium of a physical system or a biological organism. Referring to "instrumentally" and "structurally" possible
operations, Piaget is compelled to speak of consciousness,
of contemplation by the subject of his possible actions and
of other specifically psychical states as the necessary component of the subject-object equilibrium.
Recognisinji! the insufficiency of the physical theory of
equilibrium for understanding the subject-object equilibrium, Piaget demonstrated, in fact, the weakness of his own
epistemological stand, although he failed to work out a
conception that would adequately explain the facts which
he analysed.
Characteristically when Piaget had to define the concept of " reversibility" of an action (i.e., the concept of
operation, for an operation is a reversible action), he could
not restrict himself to pointin~ out the connection between
reversibility and the possibility of performing an action in two opposite directions and had to indicate the importance of realisation of t he fact that the action remains
18
the same as it is performed in either of the directions.
NaturallY, t he concept of reversibility cannot be defined in
this way in physics.
Piaget admits that the reversibility of intellectual operations of which he speaks has nothing to do with the reversibility of actual physical processes. Thus, speaking of the
formation of the concept of time, he remarks that reversibility of time does not mean for the subject that actual
physical time can flow in the opposite direction (actual
time is irreversible) but merely the fact that the subject
can mentally proceed not only from the previous moment
of time to the subsequent one but also from the subsequent to the preceding (i.e., he can not only perform the
operation A -+ B but also the operation B -+ A), realiSing,
however , that t he actual sequence of moments does not
change (i. e., A precedes B). "Constructing time ... is an excellent example of joint action of the reversible processes
of t he subjec t and the irreversible processes of the object,"
remarks Piaget.19
Thus Piaget fails to deduce in the framework of his can
ception the normative character of cognit ive s~ructures
without resorting to the phenomena of conSCiousness,
those phenomena whose study cannot be carried out by interpreting the subject-object interrelations in terms of
mechanics physics, and biology, and thus does not accord
with the f~ndamental approach of "genetic epistemoiolr)'''.
It proves impossible to explain objectiveness of knowledge
and other fundamental characteristics of cognition bv the
t

)1

37

theory of "balancing" the subject and the Objl'd inlr'rprt't_

ed as bodies l{iven by nature_
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'('I'u'd un4Ulostioningly.

inadequate to mf'et ttlf_l <U

tu.1I lIituatinn, and Ih,' IIhe k of t'1i5 discovery haa resul~
in a critic'll attitude toward ('Iur wh ..... le conceptual strue
Wl'TI '

tU((', "20

3. THE VIEW OF COGNITION AS AN

ENSEMBLE OF THE SUBJECT'S PHVSICAl
OPERATIONS

According to Piaget, the subject's activity serves as a

~eans of reproducing the characteri,stics of the real object
In the system of knowledge; m the Vlew of other adherents
of ~he ,naturalistic model o.f c.og!1ition, who focus on the
subject s actl~e character, It IS ~n general impossible to
) regard the eXlStenc~ of a re~ .object of cognition as independent of the subject's actlVlty. CO/n1ition is in this case
no longer ~rea~e~ as. r~flection but merely as an ensemble
of the subject s mdlVldual external actions or operations
Adhere~~ of these c~nceptions formulate a number of
nat~lSttc! metaphyslcalmaterialistic premises as their
~t.aIJmli:. pomt (both the subject and the object being in
~. ed 10 the stru~ture of.natural reality, and the subject's
ac lon.s or op'eratto.ns bemg interpreted as physical or
md'a1ten,B:l), e~ding wIth constructing systems of subjectiveI e IS IC epIstemology.
Here. belongs the epistemological and methodolo ical
~~~~ep~~ntl0f operationalism that was rather influe~tia1
entist~. O~e~a~~~rs~e:!~m ~htoilOSoPhers and natural sci
I
tant characte"
f
eS.l!l account a very impor'
that in this mtlc 0 the cog~llttve process, namely the fact
created obiec&rb~t~eerib' ~tlrd~d~s certain artificla\lY
devices, measurin inst Imse an the cognized 9bject:
fact is not duly :ppre~~~n~, e~. Let us note that this
~he objects or "mediators" u:ed ~laget's .tl:eory. However,
In operationalism as fundamental}n ~~gmtton are regarded
the natural bodies. That thes y. e same as the rest of
m..=:t, not nature, and that the e o~lects are, produced by
socIO-cu\tural ties, is of no yare mc!uded m a system of
cance for this conception
great epistemological signifi
The main ideas of a er'
.
P. W'. Bridgman, a well_~o~t~onahsf!l were formulated by
Bndgman drew attention t AmerIcan physicist
ory of relativity not only ch~nthee fact that the sPecial the
g
:e Wi}!ld .but also necessitated d essentially our views of
. r a logIcal and epistemol ' a new approach to a n
l':lterpre~ation of the mathe~~t~a~Ploblems
involved in ili~
m
~cs and m specifyinli: the meani~ or a1!sms used in phy.
as a great shock to discover tt~: PhYs.lcal concepts. "It
38
clasSIcal concepts, ac

In thinking ahout the logical meaning of the proceduret

applit!d by Einstein in defining the basic concepts of the
special theory of rf'iativity. Bridgman concluded that delpit.e the Renerally held vjl!W that m()st concepts ot classical
physics characterise the propf>rtie. of objects, of things,
the actual meaning of physical concepta lies in an ensemble
of experimental operation. or, to be more precise. in an
ensemble of measurement proceduret. Bridgman reuon"
for instance, that we evidently know what "length" is it
we can determine the length of a concrete object. To do
so, we have to perform certain physical operations. "The
concept of len!l;th is therefore fixed when the operations
by which length is measured are fixed: that is, the concept
of length involves as much as and nothing more than the
set of operations by which length is determined. In gene
ral, we mean by any concept nothing more than a set of
operations: the concept is OInonymous with the carre.
ponding set of operations. "21 If the concept is "mental, as
of mathematical continuity, the operations are mental
operations". Brid~an indicates here that "we must
demand that the set of operations equivalent to any
concept be a unique set"22 (Le., only one set of operations corresponds to each concept).
In this connection, Bridgman continues, it is easy to
show that such concepts of classical physics as "absolute
time" or "absolute simultaneity" are devoid of meaninf;!:,
for there are no physical operations that could be used to
ascribe the absolute time predicate to some event.
If we take into account that the operations to which a
physical concept is equivalent are actual physical opera
tions, the conclusion is inevitable in operationalism that
concepts can only be defined in the range of actual experi
ment, becoming meaninlo!less in r$!ions as yet untouched
by experiment. Therefore, Bridgman believes, we cannot
express any assertions about these domains. And if we do
make these assertions, we must regard them us conventionalised extrapolation, of the looseness of which we
must be fully conscious. and the justification of which is
in the experiment of the future.
Thus, before the emergence of the special theory of reo
lativity, it was believed that any two events A and B possessed this property with re~ard to the time of their realisation, that A takes place either before B or after it or
simultaneously with it. This assertion seemed to be a sim
39

Vl.cIisJl
.. head of
of Phi
Scienou. t
OOriring d
of leienee,
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.,te

ICOI"n of p

tNt were
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pie description of the b~havio~ of obje~ts gi~en in experience. But the expenence Itself which thIs assertion
claimed to describe was very narrow. When the range of
experience was broadened, and research became concerned
v.ith bodies roov~ng at hi~h velocities, the. untenability of
the concept of simultaneIty used by clasSiCal physics was
discovered.
Einstein showed, Bridgman writes, that the operations
which permitted the statement of siroultaneity of two
events involved measurement by an observer so that simUltaneity is not an absolute property of the two events
but one involving the relation of the two events to the
observer, the subject, his frame of reference the velocity
of these events relative to the observer's fr~e of refer
ence.
. Bridgman makes further specifications in his methodologlcal conception using a detailed operational analysis of
the concept of len~h as his proving lUound.
He asks this question: by what operations do we measure the length of ~y concre~e phYsical object? The mea
surement of the obJ~cts ~f ordinary experiment is effected
by ~ procedure which IS crudely described as follows. A
rod IS ~sed as the measure of length; it is imposed on the
o.bject I.n such a way that one of the ends of the rod coinwith one of the ends of the object then the position
a h~h~ second ~nd of the rod is marked dn the object, after
~o~c ih~ rod I~ moved alon~ the line that is the continuad of ~ previOUS position in such a way that the first
en ~d t edrod ~oincides with the previous position of the
0
of t~~ obI!I:. proceg~e is repeated until the second
cations of the roJs~e:~led 't~~~ nu..Thbe'r of sep~ate. appl}case.
en,:;~ a the object In this

Cites
:-ct

wh~~hd~~;;a1!~~~i~U~eth.at.
the
s n

operation described here,

is neceasary to satisr/a
ac~ual fact very complex. It
mea!lure the length of an
~ senes of conditions to really
ect
that the temperature of
. ~hus we must be certain
the le-nRth of given obiects i rod ~sl normal, one at which
Wf' would have to introduc: usu
y. me~ured, otherwise
our measurements to account ctrrehtlVes In the results of
~aturp changes. If we measure t~~ \ e ~ffect of the tempeJ~Cl, we have to account for th . erllcallength of an oblinn forces on the le-ngth of th e- mnu~nce of the gravitamUIt. he cE'rtain that the me-a~U~ieasunng.rod. Finally, we
a.nd IS not arfecte-d by el('('tric f nR rod IS not a magnet
lions arf' usually taken into acco~r~et All of these condimak" m(>asure-mE'nts with !lome can Y the physicist who
ncrete aim in view

';"h t

b
ilii

'0

However, Bridgman continues, in operational analysis

we mwt go even further in determining the conditions of
measurement and specify all the details relevant to the
movement of the rod in measurement: e.g., the precise
path of the rod in space, its velocity and acceleration. In
practice, when objects of ordinary experience are mea
surea, these conditions are neglected. And that is quite
understandable, for in ordinary experiment variations of
these conditions do not affect the end result.
But we must recognise, Bridgman asserts, that experiment is always subject to errors, and that extending the
boundaries of experiment and increasing the precision of
measurement may reveal that the conditions that now
seem to leave the result of measurements unaffected actually seriously affect it. "In principle the operations by
which length is measured should be uniquely specified. If
we have more than one set of operations, we have more
than one concept, and strictly there should be a separate
name to correspond to each different set of operations. "23
If we want to measure the length of a moving object,
.the operations applied will be different. At first glance, it
will appear enough to climb on the object and repeat the
procedure that was used in measuring the length of the object at rest. In actual fact the situation is somewhat more
complicated. A full specification of the operations employ
ed assumes several additional conditions. In what way shall
we overtake the object with the measuring rod in our
hands? Shall we first overtake the moving object and then
try to jump on it, or shall we await the moment when the
object approaches us? If the object moves rather fast, one
obviously cannot jump on it directly from an immovable
support, and we shall have to use some special device, such
as a moving automobile.
Since operations applied by Einstein for defining the
concept of length, are different from the. operati~ns U~?
for measuring length in ordinary expenence, E)OstelO s
"length" does not mean the same as the "length" of ordinary experience. These are different concepts, altho~gh
they do have some features in common: where t.he velOCity
of the moving body relative to the measunng system
reaches zero the operations of measuring the moving object COincide' with those applied in measuring the length of
the object at rest.
..,
Bridgman's epistemologlcal thmktng on. the nature of
surrounding reality is directly connected With the essence
of operational analysis.
.
.
A.n analysis of the logical meamng of thiS concept allows
Bridgman to conclude that the attribute of physical reality
H

Vlad ish
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tute of Ph
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gy of kn
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is ascribed to those concepts which may be defined by different sets of physical operations indt'pendent of each
other.
We bear in mind that the main idea of opt'rationalism is
that each set of operations essentially corn'sponds to one
concept only. If two (or more) sets of operations indepen_
dent of ea~h o~her yield t~e same results, we may. from
t~e o,PeratlOnailst standpomt, conditionally identify the
~Iffenng concepts corresponding to different sets, re~ard
mg .the,? as ?ne concept to which the status of physical
reahty IS ascnbed. Such a concept appears as an invariant
relative to different sets of operations or as an expression
of some correlation be~ween different sets of physical phe~o~ena. At the same tIme we should not forget Bridgman
InsISts, that the identification of the results o'f different
set.s o~ m:~urements is, to a certain degree, conditional
bemll!:,JustIfled by the availa~le measurements only; futur~
expenments may reveal discrepancies in the results of
meglasurements bel.on~n2 to different sets, and in this case a
sm e concept wIll have to be "split" into two or more
th\~ mayor may not have t~e status of physical realities. '
ehthus .see that the baSIS of operationalism is emphasis
,
on
'
formede umqueness 01
. th e expenmental
procedures perthe h b'y Jhe eXPe.nme,:ter, the need for singline out all
Pli YSIC oper~tions m defining concepts Continuing
th IS ne 0 1 reasonmg Brid'"
. 1 '
'
strictly speaking ea 'h
~m<l!' q~lte ~glcally i~fers that,
c
mented by the 2iven sin~r:~at~?n.dlsalumque,. bem~ impleplace. The operations m
m IVI u at a glVen tIme and
no method. to
ust not be generalised as there is
But if one ~~~~ht~e future o! such ge,:,eralisation ..
c1 usion is inevitable that set theloretlCal premIses, the conoperational definitions or~ on Y~on-operational but also
A. C. Benjamin an Amer' oncep are I~ fact impossible.
remarks: "Another opera~~an r~searcher m operationalism
must be a different one I?n, .oweyer similar to the first'
least by spatial or tempo~lc~ I\~lll be distinguished at
of the length of a given Objec~ca Ion .. Two measurements
same, ~an be distinguished N ,eyen If the results are the
be defmed by an operatio~ o~ If a concept is always to
cular, the c~n~ept itself tak:~ each oper~tion is a partimode of defIrution. Not only ~n the Particularity of its
tween the tapeline length of wrl there be a difference be~ngth (even if the measureda v~ld and the triangulation
ere will be a difference in m
~es are the same) but
al tapeline lengths of the field (~an.lng between all indi~idu
sured values ~ the same)."24 B;t"' even though the meaway are deVOid of any cognitive vCJncepts defined in this
42
ue at all, for they es-

s(>ntially ceaRP to be concepts. which must, as is wen

known, capt~re sor:nething that different situations have in
c.omm.on. Th.ls tak!ng one of the basic premises of operationalism to Its logical end comes into a decisive contradiction with the statement of Bridgman himself that phYli
cal operations in terms of which deCinitions of concepts
are given must be repeatable and always realisable. Moreover, Bridgman writes: "Operational definitions in spite of
their precision, are in application without ;ignificance
unless the situations to which they are applied. are sufficiently developed so that at least two methods are known
of getting to the terminus. "2 5
It might be assumed that this contradiction in the foundation of the conception could be eliminated by assuming
that each concept is synonymous to a set of repeatable
operations rather than to one single operation. It is easy to
see, however, that introducing a set of operations does not
eliminate the main logical difficulty. Any two operations
are similar in some points and different in others. Unifying
a series of operations in a single set (or a single class) synonymous to the meaning of some concept implies, in
the first place the singling out of some .K.eneral feature or
property inherent -m all these operafions and nof defina6le
by an operational mode (operational definitions thus
necessarily assume the existence of some characteristics
interpreted non-operationally). Then again, the existence
of a criterion is assumed which indicates the degree to
which the operations must be similar to form a single set .
(depending on the required degree of similarity, different
sets of operations may be specified to which different
operationally defined concepts will correspond). Inasmuch
as operationalism is in principle incapable of indicating
such a criterion, its basic methodological assertion that
different concepts correspond to different sets of physical
operations proves to be untenable. Indeed, why can we in
one case include different operations in a single set, correlating with one and only one concept, while other
occasions, different sets of operations (even if they are expressed in identical or similar results) are said to characterise different concepts? Then, if we sometimes refer,
for practical convenience, different sets of operations to
one concept, why can this reference be regarded merely
as a temporal procedure, pragmatically convenient but
methodologically unjustifiable?
A necessary methodological correlate of Bridgman's position is subjective idealism.
The Logic of Modern Physics contains, along with subjectivist general philosophical assertions, some statements

\,
,

Vlaciisl
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Sciences.
covering c
of science
gy of kn
ICQrel of I
that were
number (
foreign sci

operations and the nature of t~E.'ir ref('r('~c(> to some

scientific concept are already gwen, UInt IS to say, H
there already exist certai~ sy.stems of .kn~w lcdg(' charac.
terising the state of affarrs In the obJE.'ctlve world independent of the subject and his oJX'rations. Any elC'rnC'ntary
measurement operation already presupposes the singling
out of the objective magnitude or parameter which is to
be measured as well as "incorporation" of the resuIts
obtained int~ the system of relations between the mathematical objects (the result of measurement being
expressed in mathematical fonn). As for the norms of
obtaining and evaluating the systems of the very know. "'
ledge correlated with objects, this question is insoluble /
from the positions of operationalism as an epistemological
and methodological conception. In other words, one
cannot arrive at an understanding of the nature of knowledge and the character of the cognitive relation within the
framework of this conception.
We have endeavoured to show that the naturalistic interpretation of the cognitive relation between subject and object as a kind of interaction between two natural systems,
leaves a number of fundamental epistemological problems
unsolved, regardless of the share of activity ~scribed to
each of the poles of interaction. Here belong questions of
the interpretation of the nature and character of the norms
of acquiring and evaluating knowledge, and those of the
place and role in the cognitive process of such a specific
structure as consciousness.
Starting out from metaphysical materialism the adherents o~ th~ naturalist model of cognition are dompelled
to make meVlt~ble co~cessions to subjectivism, siding, in
some case.s, .enbrely WIth subjective idealism and giving up
the matenahst theory of reflection.
Let us o.nce again. note that revealing the untenability
of the epistemolOgical conceptions formulated by the
~upporters o.f ~h~ n!lturalist interpretation of cognition ,
10 f~o ",,:ai slgnifleS 19noring the real facts that are given
a se .10 erpretation in these conceptions (some of them
f
.
were dIscovered by t he uph Id
criticised here).
0 ers 0 the conceptions
Indeed man as the cognizin g b
to the achon of mechanical h s.u~ect ha~ a body Ii.able
gicallaws. This and other fa~~ri~c ,chel'l"!-I~al, and .blOlothe mechanisms of implementin ave a d~~mlte beanng on
point is, however, that man's char:c Co~~tlon. Th~ whole
mg and cognizing in a specificall ~n8tIc as a subject actbe understood from the natural / ~,?an manner cannot
body. It proves impossible to in~Ciflc features of man's
rpret the fUndamental

4.

and most essential trails ot the cognitive relation within

the mode of presentation oC the subject-object problem
discussed in this chapter.
..
..
It is all evidently a question of P~POSOP~lCal and SClentlt.
ic theoretical interpret;ati?J.1 or tfie Cacti ~e8Cn5ed. and aT
evaluation of their 81gOlftcance for eplStemoToglcal research.

Chapter 2
THE INTERPRETATION OF COGNITION
AS DETERMINED BY THE STRUCTURE
OF CONSCIOUSNESS

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1. THE PROBLEM OF SUBSTANTIATING

KNOWLEDGE AND "RADICAL"
RE FLEX ION

Widesp!ead i~ pre-Marxian and particularly in modem

non.MaTXlst phllosophy are conceptions which endeavour
~ solve the funda~ental probl~f!ls o.f epistemology start
109 from the. p~~llse that cogmtlOn IS determined by the
structure of mdlVldual consciousness. The latter is treated
as a .completely autonomous phenomenon, dependent on
nothmg,else and determine? .by nothing else. Clearly these
conceptlO~s ex;p~ess the pos~tiOns of subjective idealism.
th These Ideallstlc conceptlOns exploit the real problems
,~t canno~ be pa~ed over in silence in analysing the cog~~!:s r!dtl~n.
a que~i0r:t, fi;.>t and, foremost, of the
ting to di ran , ~s functiomng 10 cogmtion and permit
kn 1 d s mgulS between knowledge and absence of
ble~ ~fg~~~t~~rt~Ords, the reference here is to the profor the ub' ,n,la ~ng ~n?wledge, which is a pivotal one
this ch:pt!rc~~!t ldealistlc ,conceptions to be analysed in
the need f~r s~ conceptions do not merely proclaim
consciousness in ~~~ ?ut from. ~he traits of individual
system of arguments t ymg cogmtlon. They propound a
jectivist idealistic st::'l~ove t~at only adopting the subproblem of substanti 1" m eplstemology can solve the
p~ilosophical interpr:t~ro kniledge, and that any other
fails ~o cope with this pro;\ 0 knowledge and cognition
only mfluential in bou eOisem . ,These conceptions are not
great influence on sPec~li l?hilosophy: they also exert a
psyc~ology, etc,). All of sl~im the sciences (mathematics,
~etall the arguments of h s c.om'pels us to analyse in
mterpretation of the
t ~ .pnnclpal adherents of this
untenability of their rea~~~~tlVe relation, to show the
re~ probl~ms of epistemoloJ ~d to clearly separate the
an, . ~onsclousness (the repre' e, true facts of cognition
cnt~cl,sed ~e~e encountered :entatlVes of thf' conceptions
theu IdealistIC, false interpreta~~~ber of Such facts) from

tiS

48

Let us, hnt, tackle the problem of substantiation of

knowledge itSf'If.
If knowledge is a specific formation inherently POISes
sing the property of truth, that is, correspondence to the
objcc LivC'ly real stale of things, there must obviously exist
some nonns or standards pennitting to judge whether we
do indeed deal with knowledge, and to separate knowl.
edge from ignorance.
If we have such standards at ow disposa\, we shall be
able to make judgements concerning the degree of truth
of all those specific products of human activity which
claim to be knowledge; in other words, we shall evidently be able to show the falseness of the claims of some of
them and at thE' same time to finally confirm others in
their status of knowledge. The task, consequently, consists
in singling out the normative constituents of any knowl.
edge.
Let us take into account that the very formulation of
the problem of substantiating knowledge implies a critical
attitude to various existing kinds of knowledge, beginning
with the current opinions of "common sense" and ending
with theories of the special sciences and philosophical
constructions. Not one of the various kinds of knowledge
regarded outside of special epistemological analysis can lay
claims to absolute truth merely because it is now believed
to be true that is a necessary premise of the approach to
the problem discussed here. And that means allowing the
possibility that epistemological research will result in
recognising the insufficient substantiation not only of
certain propositions of "common sense" but also of some
propositions and probably whole branches of theoretical
knowledge. Indeed, the discussion of the problem of
substantiating knowledge in the history of philosophy was
necessarily accompanied by rejection of the justifiability
of a number of theoretical constructs that for a long time
were regarded as generally accepted (consider, e.g., Kant's
rejection of the wnole range of the problems of rationalist
ontology in the 17th and 18th centuries). The study of the
foundations of certain scientific disciplines, which became
so vital in the 20th century, also necessarily involves
recognising the justifiability of some modes of specifying
problems and methods of discourse, and rejecting others
(of precisely this nature are the arguments between diffe
rent trends in the foundations of mathematics and the
modem debate concerning the interpretation of quantum
mechanics). The theoretical activity in substantiating a
given scientific discipline, including as it does analysis of
the modes of reasoning and evaluation of knowledge in
49

Vladisl
is head 0
OJte of p ~

Sciences,
coYering
of sciencl
fI'{ of kr
lCOI'es of
1I1at w ere
number t

foreign sci

this area, assumes, as a rule, not only solving special

questions pertaini~g to ,the,given science but also, to some
extent or other, mvesttgattng some general philosophical
problems, It is therefore not accidental that the problems
of the foundations of mathematics are often referred to as
the "philos<?Phy of m,athematics", while problems in the
~eanmgful mterpret~~l0r:' of m~ern physical theories are
10cluded among the phJlosophlcal questions of physics"
At the same time, the ~enera;1 problem of sUbstantiation of
~o~le<!ge, as I?osed 10 philosophy has certain features
di~tmgu.lShmg It from substantiation of the special
SClences.
. In philos.ophy, it is not knowledge of a given type that
15 ~ubstant13ted but any knowledge in general regardless
of lts. conc~e~ content, that is, criteria are sought which
perm~t to dlstInguish between knowledge and ignorance in
any given case.
In this connection we would like to draw attention to
the fact that, in discussing a very real and fully justifiable
p~oblem of substantiation C!f. knowledge, the adherents
ah the approach to the cogrutlVe relation analysed in this
~u~fete~a~~~~/ro~ jjO predrnises :which appear to them
ture f h'
, ac u y'p re etenn10e the subjectivist na
first ~la~e e~he:~:~O~Ogl~all con~eptions. This is, in the
standards ~hich
al? YSlC notIOn of the existence of
ine knowledge ~~~t onc~ andd for all to separate genu
tween knowled e
tror, 0 raw a sharp boundary beout "in pure f~r:.,d absence of knowledge, and to single
edge that could be u~de systems of "absolute" knowlsystem of scientific thE> ~ the founda~ion for the entire
ceptions considered hereon~, The epistemological con~ion:. since the problem ar~f so base~ o~ another asswn plmph~s a critical attitude to subst.antl,atlOn o~ knowledge
lem Itself was interpreted c~~am kmds of It, the prob
ance on the results of the s 31! e. need to reject the reliof pre-scientific "commPClal SCiences or the propositions
.
th
an.aI YSlS
of the cognitiveonrelsense'"
t'
In
e philosophical
obJect, In other words ' a lon between subject and
atedness of scientific kn~~~edgthe .degree of substantit~rough philosophical analysi~ e 18. to hE: determined
tlOn of knowledge cannot ass' a philosophical investigathi spe.cial sciences to be tru~e certain propositions of
Be ves (It assumes them onl
~ substantiated in themthhe propositions of "comnio as Its subject matter just as
t eones) That mean th
n sense" and hil'
.
concerned
'th tho s at the field of phil p OSOphlCal
be
WI
lS problem'
, osophy which is
understood as a specific SP'h l,e., eplStemology must
ere of th eoretlcal
.
,
60
activity

fundamentally different from all kinds and types of special scientific knowledge, that is, as a field where the data
of the special sciences cannot be used. (Thus the approach
to the study of cognition analysed here differs in its atti
tude to the special sciences from the approach considered
in the first chapter: the latter, as we remember, presup
posed wide use of the data of mechanics, physics, biology,
physiology, and other sciences.)
We must agree that the task of cognition consists in
overcoming errors and obtaining true knowledge. Episte
mological reflexion about knowledge indeed plays an important role in the solution of this problem. It is also true
that positing the problem of substantiation of lmowledge implies a critical attitude to certain areas of existing
knowledge. At the same time, the view that "pure" or "absolute" lmowledge can be established is false, and so is the
assertion that in substantiating knowledge we must ig
nore all the facts of the special sciences, In the second part
of the present work we shall characterise an approach to
the substantiation of knowledge which does not accept
these f'l!..lse premises, namely, MarxistLeninist epistemology.
The question of substantiation of knowledge was first
formulated, in classical form, by Descartes. The positing
of this problem and its acuteness were largely due to the
specific traits of the socio-<:ultural and scientific situation
in which Descartes' theoretical activity took place, a situation which was characterised, on the one hand, by the
emergence of the bourgeois mode of production (and thus
by a growing acuteness of individual selfconsciousness)
and, on the other hand, by the emergence of the science of
the New Times which set itself in sharp opposition to the
scholastic tradition, On the whole, however, Descartes'
theoretical arguments transcend the concrete historical
situation, for the mode of analysis which he accepted
proved to be archetypal and was many times reproduced
with various modifications in western bourgeois philosophy,
The starting point of Descartes' reasoning is his dis
trust for the cultural tradition: "I leamed not to believe
too firmly anything of which I was only persuaded by an
example or custom."34 "As soon as my age permitted
me to be free of the supervision of my tutors, I abandoned
the study of letters entirely ... resolving not to seek any
other science but that which I could find in myself or in
the great book of the world ... "3 5
For philosophy "had been cultivated by the most excellent minds that ever lived for many centuries, and yet
there was not a single thing in it which could not be dis61

Vledls
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.,te of PI
Sciences.
coYering
of .cienel
IV of k,
ICOfh of

thl1 wife
numblr
fOf'ign

Ie

puted and consequently which would not be doubtful ... ";36 that was Descartes' fonnulation of the proposition which was later repeated by numerous philosophers
who tackled the problem of knowledge. And further:
"As for the other sciences, since they borrowed their principles from philosophy, I judged that it was impossible to
construct anything that would be solid on such infirm
foundations. "37
Thus the question here is one of a radical attempt to substantiate the entire system of theoretical knowledge.
Where could one look for the solution of this problem?
Descartes starts out from the premise that only that
sho,:!ld be taken. as true ,,:hich is cognized as such quite
obVIOusly, that IS to say, It appears to the mind so clearly and distinctly that there is no reason to call it in
question.
But can we trust our sense perceptions? They often deceive us. Thus towers which seem round from a distance
prove to be rectangular at close quarters, while giant
statues at the top of these towers seem small if looked at
from below. Errors may result not only from the evidence
of ou~, ex~m.al senses but .also from that of the internal
ones. .:.F?or IS the~e anythmlit more intimate and interior
than pam. And stIll, I have heard on severa) occasions
from persons who had their arms or legs cut off that it
hmetlmes seemed to them that they felt pain in the parts
that ~ad ~en cut off, which gave me reason to believe
a hc\ouh not be certain that any of my limbs is ailing
lh o~g
s ould (eel pain in it. "38
1 rue, one can believe that there are things with regard
to which our senses can hardl d
F
.
can hon1ly be doubted that a ecelv~ us. or lIlst.ance, ~t
tahl('. informally dresse I hid m slttmg here behmd thlS
pte. "And how could (, 0 IIlg thIS paper m my hands,
bolly art' mine? Perha~s neg~te ~~lat these hands and this
&4.'\ to these inscnsates "?3~\ en when I compare myhowever, t~at all this ~merel t may very w.~Jl turr~ out,
conSider thiS idea, I see so cleaX ~~ drham. Stoppmg to
SIV, (('atures or sufficiently Y at t ere are no concluwhich it would he possible to ~':lquestl.onable marks by
hPin; awakE' and slN'pinR that Ilstmgulsh neatly between
my astonishment IS su('h'that it am qUite astounded: and
that I am I\sleep."40
can nearly persuade me
At. thf' aam(' time, Our mind (
tinct propositions ('onf'f'ming th e afe& such clear and disthinp; atudu'rl in arithmetic and ;.ementary and universal

Po ometn. (lh
.
li ona rM'rtam
to thE': extE'nsion or
.J
eM' proposlconrgurathm, magnitude numhf'.r c~rporeal things, their

, Ime, etc.), that they

..

cannot be doubted. Arithmetic, geometry, and similar

sciences are not concerned about the actual existenc.e in
nature of the objects that they study. At the same ?me,
these sciences contain something indubitable and rehable.
"For whether I sleep or stay awake, two and three joined
together always form the number five, and the square will
never have more than four sides ...41
But can we not allow Descartes continues, that God or
better say some evil spirit, just as cunning as he is powerful used all his art to deceive me? In this case, however,
the sky, air, earth, colours, sounds, all external objects
will be mere illusions and dreams.
"And then, as I judge sometimes that the others err,
even in things which they believe to know with the greatest certainty it may be that he wanted that I should be
mistaken each time that I add two and three, or count the
number of the sides of a square, or judge about things that
are even easier, if one can imagine something easier than
that. "42
Thus, Descartes concludes, one may doubt even mathematical proofs.
But is there anything certain, in general? Descartes believes that the original and basic certainty lies in the idea
of myself as something existing. "There is no doubt, however, that I exist, if he deceives me; and let him decei~e
me as he will he will never make it so that I shall not eXISt
as lonp; as I t'hink myself to be something ... This proposition: I am, I exist, is necessarily true each time I pronounce it or conceive it in my mind."43
One can doubt anything, but I cannot doubt that I,
the doubter, exist, insists Descartes.
"So we have 80 much repugnance to conceiving that
that ~hich thinks docs not exist at the same time as it
thinks that notwithstanding all the most extravagant
suppo~itions: we shall not prevent us ~ror.n believing that
this conclusion: I thin}l therefore I eXISt, IS true, and consequently is th(' first 'and the most ce.rtain. c'!ncJlfsion
presenting itself to him who conducts hiS thmking m an
orderly manner."44.
. .
Thus the idea of my eXIStence, self-conSCIOusness, 18
the most reliable and indubitable truth, asserts Descartes.
My essence is thinking, he believes, Le., "everythin~ th~t
takes place in us in such a way that we perceive It
immediately by ourselves".46 (Thinking ~hus .incl~des not
only understanding hut also deSire and ImagmatJon, that
is, all those psychical processes t~at are accompanied by
self-consciousness.) Descartes believes that I thereforE'
cannot deduce my existenc<' from the facts which art'
53

Vlad it
is head (
tute of P

Sciences.
covering
of scienc
gy of k
ICOfes of

1I1u werl
number
foreign S(

expressed in such representations as "I see", "I walk"

etc for the content they render is not absolutely un~
pr~blematic: "I may myself believe that I see or walk,
although I have not opened my eyes or budged from my
place' for this sometimes happens when I sleep, and might
even 'happen to me even if I had no body."46 It is quite
different when I have in mind only the "consciousness
that is in me which makes me believe that I see or walk ... "
In the latter ~ase, "the conclusion is so absolutely true that
I cannot doubt it".47
Man believes, Descartes continues, that he perceives
actually existing objects through his sense organs, but their
reality can well be doubted. At the same time, there can
be no doubt that it seems to me that I perceive them. "In
any case, it is certain at least that it seems to me that I
see, that I hear, and that I feel warmth."48 "For if I con
clude that wax is ot exists, from seeing it, it is certainly
much more evident that I am, or exist myself, from the
fact that I see it. It is quite possible that what I see is not
in fact wax; it may also happen that I have no eyes even to
see anything; but it cannot so happen that when I see or
when I think that I see (which I do not distinguish), I that
think am not something."49
It is important to stress that from Descartes' point of
view my existence and my thinking are not just two
properties equally belonging to reasonable su bstance
(res cogitans). That substance itself is a certain unity of
the activity of thinking and its product the reasoning
"I", so that when activity ceases "I" itself ceases to exist
too. "I am~ I exist.: that is certain; but how long? As
long ~ I think; for It may so happen that if I should cease
to thmk I woul~ at the same time cease to be or exist. ,,50
. Thus, accordmg to Descartes self-consciousness the
Idea, of one's ?~n existence, is characterised not oniy by
clanty and dIstmctness, i.e., immediate obviousness but
also by the gr~atest certain ty.
'
.But what. IS to be done about recognising the actual
eXIstence of the w~)fl~ external relative to consciousness?
Are ther~ any .con~c~ng instruments for proving it?
to 1~v~~~ b~dt
~i;>IS arguments Descartes is compelled
ments for the' 50\' t systfem 'possesses no other instru
u Ion 0 thIS quest'o D
te
deavours to persuade the reader
1 n.
. escar ~ en
ness is a clear and dist' t'd that present 10 conSCIOUs..
that is, God, whose existe~c~ f~li~ Off an alhl:perfect being,
d . ws rom lS very essence.
This being ..:...nnot be
And that means that e:ery~~~lVer, De.scartes ~ontinues.
ly and distinctly, must be t mg t~at ~s c.oncelved clear
rue, t at lS, It must pertain

54

to a really existing object.

Now, Descartes concludes: "I no longer think verily that
I must admit with temerity all things which the senses
seem to teach US, but I do not think either that I must gen
erally doubt them all.,,51 "At least it is to be avowed
that all the things which I conceive in them clearly and dis
tinctly, that is to say. all the things, generally speaking,
that are comprised in the subject-matter of speculative
geometry, are really in them.,,5 2
Let us single out certain fundamental points in Des
cartes' reasoning that are important for our subsequent
analysis.
First of all, Descartes believes that the knowledge by
the subject of the states of his own consciousness in their
relation to "I" is something different from the knowledge
of external objects. From his standpoint that means
that the subject has direct access to the subjective sphere,
whereas the knowledge of ex;ternal bodies is only something
mediated. For this reason, although cognitive activity in
ordinary experience is directed, first of all, at external rna
terial objects, and although the role of the subjective
world and its characteristics usually remain in the back
ground, as it were, Descartes believes that logically it is
the cognition of subjective states in connection with the
"I" that produces them that is the simplest matter. (Let us
note that it is this point of Descartes' reasoning that
served as the starting point for empiricist introspectionist
psychology. )
Let us further take into account that Descartes links
substantiation of knowledge with the degree to which
it is assimilated in reflexion. He insists that precisely that
knowledge is the genetic and logical starting point of any
other which has been most thoroughly reflected upon, that
is, contains not only an indication of its object but also a
reference to the conditions of its own obviousness and
certainty. It is this knowledge, in Descartes' view, that is
contained in the proposition "I think, therefore I exist"
which must, in his opinion, be made the foundation of the
entire system of knowledge.
An important element of Descartes' conception is the
thesis that the subject, the thinking "I", does not exist side
by side with his activity but is its product and at the same
time permanent condition, that is, it exists only insofar
as the activity of thinking is realised (and is in a certain
sense even implied by that activity).
Finally, let us point out Descartes' fundamental distinc
tion between judgement about objective reality and pos
iting the reality itself. Precisely these fundamental ele

Vlldi
is held ,
1Ute of F

Sciel'lCfl
covering
of scienc
gy of ~
ICOrel 01

'ChIt wer
number

foreign

So

ments of the Cartesian con~eptions wer' assimilated by

later idealistic philosophy to Its att('mpt to sol\'(' the prob
lem of substantiation of knowledge.
Let us critically analyse some of these attempts and also
Descartes' reasoning.
In Descartes' view, only those propositions fully satisfy
the criteria of clarity and distinctness whose content is
correlated with the act of subjective reflex ion. For instance
mathematical propositions are only clear and distinct
to the extent to which we do not ascribe an objectively
real meaning to them (that is, we consider the properties
of a triangle without going into whether triangles exist i:1.
reality). In principle, Descartes believes, sense perception
can also be clear and distinct but only if we correlate it
solely with the states of our consciousness (i.e., include it
in the act of self-consciousness) ignoring the questjon of
the objectiveness of its meaning. It is easy in ordinary life
to neglect the objective meaning of mathematical propositions; mathematics is therefore, in Descartes' view, an
absolutely reliable science a'1d a model of science in general. It is extremely difficult to apply this operation to sense
perceptions, therefore sciences based on the sense organs' data are far from the ideals of strict science. To be
more precise, .they can approach these ideals only to the
exte~t to WhICh they can be mathematised. Sense percepbon~, ~esc~es believes, are often clear but they are
rarely.dlStinct ( I call clear that which presents and manifest:s It:self to ~ attentiye mind; ... (1 call} distinct that
~hlch IS so precI~ ~nd. dIfferent from everything else that
It d~es not c~ntain m Itself anything that does not appear
mamfest to hun who properly. considers it ... For example,
when someon~ f~els str~ng pam, the consciousness that he
h~s .of that pam .1S cl,ear In his view, and yet it is not always
distmct, f?r ordmarily he confuses it with the false judgeme~ts WhICh he make,S about the nature of that which he
beileves to take place 10 t~e wounded part.. ... ).53
Th~se ~rgumen~ confIrm the rationalist nature of Descartes epIstemolOgical conception
But ~an we agree ,that the act ~f cognition of the states
o f one sown conSClOusness that is th
. .
reflex ion is a means of bi"
' e act of subJectlve
i~dubitable assertions, with~~~ld~ the, most obvious an~
tions of empiricism in ePistemology~artmg from the POSIThis possibility, far from bein' 1
'
tually proved to be one of the g .exc::: uded lOgICally, acvelopment of metaphysical em 'p~~clp~l ways of the dephilosophy-a path on which er:::I~~~ IO West Europ~an
tive idealist phenomenalism,
p lClsm becomes subJec56

Attempts at c~r~inal solution of the philosophical prob!em of su~stantJatlon of knowledge through subjectivist
toterpretat!on of the sense data took a most sophisticated
and techmcally elaborate form in the doctrine of the
~ 'sense ~ata" whir.h w~ the s~bject,.~atter of lively debate
tn Engbsh and American philosophical literature in the
first half of the present century,
The adherents of this doctime (which in different variants developed within the philosophical systems of neorealis'!l, critic~ realism, an~ logical positivism) tried to
combme the VIew that ObVIOUS and directly given knowle~ge expresses,. in one w!lY or another, the subject's refleXlon abou,t hImself, WIth the assumption that experience contams knowledge about really existing objects and
not merely to combine these propositions but to deduce
the latter from the fonner without invoking God, unlike
Descartes, With this aim in view, certain specific objects,
"sense data", the knowledge of which is intuitive and in
dubitable, were postulated to be the results of refiexion
about the content of perception.
Here is a typical mode of introducing "sense data" as
objects of epistemolOgical study: "When I see a tomato
there is much that I can doubt. I can doubt whether it
is. a tomato that I am seeing, and not a cleverly painted
pIece of wax. I can doubt whether there is any material thing
there at all. Perhaps what I took for a tomato was really
a reflection; perhaps I am even the victim of some hallu
cination. One thing however I cannot doubt: that there
exists a 'red patch of a round and somewhat bulgy shape
standing out from a background of other colour-patches,
and having a certain visual depth, and that this whole field
of colour is directly present to my consciousness. "54
It is these colour-patches, sound tones, etc. that are regarded as "sense data". Importantly, they are not identified with sense perceptions, The "sense data" are ascribed t he status of objects of a special kind while sense
perCeptions are the result of direct, intuitive knowledge
of these objects. The elementary process underlying any
cognition is regarded as special "sensin~", direct p,erception of the "sense data" to the act of directly grasptng
their content. At the same time, the "sense data" are not
material things either, for possession of c:::ertain "sense
data" is no guarantee. yet of th~ actual eXlsten~ of the
material obje~t to whlc~ they wIi} pro~~ to pertai~; ~ach
cognizing subject has hIS own pnvate sense data different from the "sense data" of another person.
H. H, Price one of the well-known theoreticians of this
conception, thus describes the main characteristics of "sense
57

Vledil
is heed C
tuN of P

Sciences.
covering
of tcienc
gy of k
ICQres of

that wen
number
foreign sc

data": (1) They are individuals, not universals. (2) The

are not substances, for they are created ex nihilo and Y
turn in nihil; they depend for their existence origin ~~
properties on the state of the person sensing. (3) They rna
be, regarded as events, but they are not phases of materi~
thmgs. (4) They are not phases of the conscious sub'e t
for they are in some ~espec~ consti~u~nts. of the sur{a~e~
of extra-cerebral physlcal objects eXIStmg In this sense "at
a long distance from the skull". (5) Hence, unlike other
~vents, they seem to be phases of no substance and inhere
10 no~e; they.an:~ thus neIther mental nor physica1. 55
:r'hlS descnptlOn shows the paradoxical nature of the
obl~cts p~stul3:ted ..

,!he attempt at reconciling the thesis

of Immediate, mtultIve, unquestionable nature of grasping

the "~nse data'.' (a thesis which compels the theoreticians

of thIS c0':l~eptlO.n to emphasise the private character of
the~ spec~flc obJec~, their ?ependence on the cognizing
sl1:bJect) Wl.th the VIew that 10 actual experience we deal
Wl~~ ~hYSICal, ~aterial objects rather than with the
su ject ~ states, mduced the theoreticians to ascribe incompatible featur~s to the "sense data".
kn~~l~d, wh~t 15. a ~l material object and how does
dge <;,f It anse m the opinion of the supporters of
th IS conception?
~:~::l ob1e~,t is noth~~ but a definite en~mble,
This family c%n~sts ~~:~ dr a , rer.1y these t~?or~ti~ians.
a given moment (which 0 acthal sense data eXIstmg at
created ex nihilo d' ~ we. av~ J:>een told already, are
number of possibl~" re urn In mhll) and of an infinite
present in the sense ft:~se tdai:t' which are not actually
become real under definit a t ~. ~resent moment but can
among the adherents of e c~m Ittons. :rhere was a debate
the status of real existe thlS conceptton as to whether
"sense data".
nce shauld be ascribed to potential
Potential "sense dat "
.
dneS"bY definite depen~e~~: hnked wi~h actually existing
ata '. both actual and
t s ~anged In series. All "sense
m~~~al object, are di~de~nt~al, pertaining to the given
v.: IC c~aracterise the "real" m.~o two subclasses: those
t'~? object vs. those which or s~andard" features of the
I
appe.arance". A rOund 0 c.onsttt';lte its distorted fonn,
~tPe~ce~ved ~ an. elliptical ~~~t :h~ from a certain angle
grounds t~~.. hghting will l~ok Ib! akred-coloured obb'
. s~nse data" pert
ac, etc. On these
o ~~~:~gd.it~~~d i!lto "nuclea;.~a~~..the given material
of all, that recogn~~~g ~~~~~~~:.oning~~n~s~:~~~"iirst
nce 01 th"
58
e sense 'data"
O

cl!,

on the subject and his states is apparently incompatible

with ascribing these "data" to the material objects themselves which exist objectively and really ("at a long distance from the skull"); we e~en observe here an attempt at
reducing the latter to an ensemble of "sense data". Indeed, it is well known that the clarity and detail with
which my consciousness perceives the various sense qualities of an object depend on the concentration of my attention, on my absorption in the procedure of consid
ering the aspects of the given object. Moreover, a close
scrutiny of the object may reveal some properties which
have previously been unnoticed. But that means that the
act of generation of "sense data", which are regarded as
existing "at a long distance from the skull", is determined by the subject's awareness!
It also proves untenable that "sense data" as objects
sui generis are discovered by refIexion about experiences,
about sense perception. Sense perception is always directed, in one way or another, at actually existing material
objects. These objects include, among others, mirror
images, artificial presentation of some object, etc. It is
a different matter that the subject may err in the process
of perception, taking one object for another, e.g., a mirror
image of the given object or its cleverly made lookalike
for the object itself. The subject may erroneously assess
the conditions of perception of an object, so that
numerous illusions arise, which are analysed in detail in
the modern psychology of perception. (Hallucinations are
different from perception, including illusory perceptions,
not only in that there is no real object corresponding to it
but also in its own subjective mode.) Errors of perception
are thus quite possible and occur not infrequently. It is important to stress, however, that, first, perception is always
aimed at real material objects rather than at "sense data",
and second, that ordinary practice always has quite definite methods permitting to separate erroneous perceptions
and illusions from those to which real perceptions corre
spond. Of course, in practical experience tasks have to be
solved which involve qualities and sensual aspects of
objects (colours, spatial forms, sounds, etc.) regarded as
special objects by the theoreticians of modern empiricism.
But the point is that a knowledge of these aspects is deriva
tive from the knowledge of real objects as a whole. In
other words, in real experience the dependence is the reverse of that assumed in the conception analysed here.
"Sense data" as objects sui generis, neither material nor
psychical, and the corresonding elementary cognitive pro
cess of "sensing" are by no means introduced into the epis69

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temological conception as a result of analys,ing the struc

ture of genuine sense experience (as clrumed by the
authors of the doctrine) but,p,?stulated as a mode of sol~.
in g the problem of substantIatmg kn?wledge o~ the ~SIS
of accepting the thesis about the eXl~~nce of ImmedIate
and unquestionable knowledge contammg a reference to
,
the cognizing subject,
"
The very task of identifying and rel,dentlfY;fg those a~
pects of objects which were hypostatised ~s sense data
('
the task of defining whether we deal wIth one and the
s~~~ single colour shade, the ~iv~n ~div:i~ual note, etc"
rather than simply with two sImilar IndIVIdual represen
tatives of one and the same colour or sound as a, sense
universal), can only be solyed if th~ sen~ propertIes reo
ferred to are correlated wIth matenal objects Instead, of
being regarded as independent ~ssen~e~, o,nlY by SOIVl!1g
the task of identification and reidentIficatlon of m~ten,al
objects (and that tas~ has, a definite, m~e of solutIOn 10
experience) can we Identify and reIdentify the separate
sense aspects and qualities of the objects, Thus we can
assert that we contemplate precisely the given colour
spectrum rather than a similar copy of the s~me ~nsu~
"kind" only if we correlate it with that matenal object 10
which it inheres, e.g" the given picture, distinguishing this
object from all the others (we distinguish the original from
its copy or reproduction or clever imitation), We can as
sert with certainty that we hear the same performance of a
symphony (this question may arise if we are compelled to
stop listeriing for a while) only if we can reidentify the
material source of sound and the real objective situation,
that is, if we discover that we are hearing the same musi
cians, see the same conductor, sit in the same concert hall,
etc, Thus, if "sense data" existed as independent objects,
they could be neither identified nor reidentified, In this
case, however, they could not form the foundation of
experience,
Let us now analyse the question of whether propos;
ti~n,s about material objects can be deduced from the prop
osltlOns about actual and potential "sense data" This
??C:trine in its linguistic version, developed by logic~ pos.
ItlVl~ts, asserts that an utterance about a material object is
eqUIvalent to a set of utterances about "sense data"
(actual and potential),
, Let us ,take int? accou!lt, ,however, that this set is infi.
n,lte, for It m.ust 1Ocl':lde 1Odlcations of all possible condi.
t~ons. (the pomt of VIew! the pOSition, the conditions of
hghtmg, etc.) un~e~ Whl~h the given object will be observed, Each conditIon will characterise "sense data" that
60

are somewJtat different from all the others, But elements

of an infinite set cannot be enumerated in finite time,
while the procedure of identification and reidentification
of material objects is, in actual experience,carried out rath
er quickly and, as a rule, without mistakes.
Let us further cOl'}sider that utterances about material
objects are characterised by a specific indeterminateness
and openness with regard to the possible sets of "sense
data" which are assumed to be relevant to them, Thus, the
statement "There is a car in the garage" does not specify
anything about the car's colour, size, shape, style, make
and so on. Hence if we start to draw up a "sensedatum"
analysis of the content of this utterance we shall quickly
come to the conclusion that there are a great many va
riants of this analysis, and whatever varia~t we should
choose, we have no guarantee that the ChOIC?, ~as made
correctly (e.g., we may include "red sense data 10 our set,
and the car may prove to be blue, and so on).56
The most essential objection to the analysis of the mean
ing of utterances in "sensedatum" terms is that this ana~
ysis cannot in fact be implemented in pure form even If
we accept the task as meaningful. Explicating the content
of an utterance about a material object in "sensedatum"
terms necessarily includes a reference to both an observ
er and the conditions of observation, Both assume the
concept of material objects (the subject is not, of. course,
a material object only, but it is this quality that IS ~ssen.
tial in this case that is the fact that he can change hIS po
sition relative to other' objects, move among them, etc,).
Thus from the standpoint of the conception here analysed
the ~tterance "There is a car in the garage" means: "If
the observer enters the garage and performs cert~in actio~s
(e.g" turns his head in a given direction, moves hl~ hands 10
a given manner, etc,), he will have the follow,mg set ~f
'sense data'." It is important to note that thIS analYSIS
implies a normal functio nin g of the observer's sense
.
organs. 57
Naturally the concepts of the observer, hIS sense or
gans, action: the place of ob~e~ation, d~ectio~ of obse~.
ation, etc" characterise d~flmte. materIal ob,Je,cts, theu
relations, states, processes In w~Ich they part~clpate, etc,
Thus an attempt to give an analYSIS of the meamng of ut~e~.
ance only in tenns of "sense data" is ~l!successful, f~r It IS
impossible to avoid using terms pertammg to matenal ob
jects in the analytic sentence. All a~tempts by th,e
adherents of the "sense-datum" co~ccptton to pvade thIS
fundamental difficulty have been fnutless. .
.
Let us point out another paradox to WhICh thIS doctnne
61

leads. Supposing I know that you ~ave a magnet hidde n

in your pocket. If I stand at your side, compass in hand
t~e needle of the compa~s that should poi~t north will de:
vlate affected by the hidden magnet. This fact is easily
explainable in terms of material objects and their causal
connections. However, if I adhere to the "sense-datum"
conception, I must make the strange conclusion that
actual events (the actual "data" pertaining to the behav.
iour of the compass) are conditioned by merely potential
ones !the "sense data" pertaining to the hidden com

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It thus proved impossible to substantiate the real sens~a.l experie,nc.es to which, in the empiricists' view, all cog-

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rutIon IS ultimately reducible, by the doctrine of the "sensedata", essences of a special kind having a private nature
an~ dependent on the subject. The concept of material
object mdependent of the individual observer is a necessary characte~stic of experience directed at the external
world, the kmd of characteristic that can in no way be reo
duced to some ensemble of "sense data".
2. TRANSCENDENTAL SUBJECT
EMPIRICAL SUBJECT. THE CONCEPTION
OF SelF-CERTAINTY OF TRANSCENDENTAL
CONSCIOUSNESS AS GUARANTEE OF THE
OBJECTIVENESS OF KNOWLEDGE

Obp~~sfr~~~~i.Si?g the in~ependence of the material

the attempt l~t~i?U~ CO~SCIou~n~ss signify a rejection of

assertion of the self0 :::. stantIatmg knowledge through
jective structures co~e atJY ?f k~'lOwledge or some sub
philosophy throu ho ne~ e .wIth It? The experiences of
ligatory. There Je ~t. Its hIstO:Y show that it is not obgeois philosophy wh p~terolOgical conceptions in bour
characteristic of subj;ct is
~ not .t? . make the mistakes
datum" doctrine, and at
emp1rlCl~m, of the "senseknowledge through fund the same ttme to substantiate
~ic anc;l autonomous natu~~e~tal b~co~nition of the speci10 tins case that an
co o. ~u JectIveness. It is stressed
cons~itutive.links (stiptlati~n~~~e experie':!ces ha~e such
p,hYSICal objects with a derg't presen~e In expenence of
bo~ of the various asp~~ ~fcorrelatton and subordinachams, of spatio-temporal
these objects, of causal
events, etc.) which cannot b arra~gement of objects and
some chance empirical fil~ re uced to "sense data" to
physical impact of an exte:~~ o~. experience or ~ere
o Ject on the cognizant
62

su~jec~ 's

.sense organs. The structure of experience is

ObjectIve 10 nature, assert the adherents of this approach
and it does not depend on the individual observer indi:
vidual subject, his states and "sense data".
'
At ~he sal!le time a. fundamentally important step is
taken m the mterpretatlOn of the subject himself: the subject is split, as it were, into two distinct constitutive strata
t~e individu~ <l;nd transcendental subjects. AJ:, regards th~
fust, the ObjectIve structure of experience is believed to be
independent of it. At the same time, this structure the
nor~s and criteria ~pp1ied in the cognitive process, are ~oot
ed m the pr<:>pertlE!s of the transcendental subject. This
approach, WhICh came to be tenned transcendentalism is
thus a kind of reformulation of Descartes' programme' of
analysing cognition. Various types of transcendentalism
differ from each other in their treatment of the possibility itself of discovering the transcendental structure of
experience and, consequently, the possibility of solving
the problem of substantiation of knowledge.
. One of the most. influ~ntial conceptions of this type
m modern bourgeolS philosophy is Edmund Husserl's
transcendental phenomenology . It should be noted that of
all the transcendentalist doctrines, phenomenology is the
closest to Descartes in the formulation of tasks and in the
search for the methods of epistemological research. Husserl
endeavours to analyse transcendental consciousness by apply~g a specific procedure which he calls a phenomenolOgICal description of what is given to consciousness with
the greatest obviousness and seif-certainty.
Husserl believes that any cognition of reality is founded
on direct, intuitive knowledge identified in phenomenology with perception. The latter, however, is not understood
at all in the spirit of philosophical empiricism. Sense perception and direct perception are not synonymous in Husserl's philosophy. First, Husserl singles out various types of
direct perception and the corresponding experiences of
obviousness, pertaining not only to physical objects but
also to states of consciousness, not only to individual objects but also to their essences, "eidoses", or universals
(the so-called immediate insight into essence). Second,
Husserl asserts that perception of physical objects, or
"external perception", is by no means reducible to a given
ensemble of sensual components, the "sense data", but always includes certain non-sensual elements or layers characterising the schema of the given kind of objectiveness.
Substantiation of knowledge in transcendental
phenomenology is reduced to singling out the acts of
cognition whose objects are experienced quite obviously,
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that is, are actually and immedia~ely given i? conscious_

ness. The other aspect of the solut~on ,offered IS separation
of the actually given from that wh~ch IS r: ot actuall~ ~iven.
The point is, Husserl argues, that l~ ordH~ary ?ogmh?n as
it factually occurs, the actu~llY gIven, I.e., ,ImmedIately
grasped, is mixed with what IS not actuall~J~wen., what is
added in thinking, assumed <:>r supposed ~ lrr~agmed", in
Busserl's terminology), Certamly that WhICh IS not given
actually but merely a~sumed. is linked in a defi~ite. way
with what is given qUIte obVlously. However, thIS lmk IS
not of the sort to warrant certain expectation that future
experience will ensure the "implementation" of experiential components that are purely "im~ginary" at the. given
stage (i.e., it will provide correspondIng data expenenced
with certainty).59
For instance if I perceive a house, I obviously perceive
at the given m~ment only the givenness to me of .the side
of the house that directly faces me. At the same hme, the
very act of my perception includes the assumption of the
existence of the house's other sides and the possibility
for me to see these sides provided I move in a certain manner round the house. (That is exactly what the representatives of the empirical conception analysed above calle~
the "possible sense data".) Without assuming the POSSIbility of obtaining corresponding obvious entities, the act
of perception itself would be impossible. It may so
happen, however, that in moving round the house I shall
discover that its back wall is destroyed by some catastrophe, that consequently it is no longer a house in the proper
sense of the word, and that the dwellers have left it. In this
case my original perception of the given object as a normal
house will prove to be erroneous and expectations of corresponding obvious entities co~nected with the given
object, unrealised.
Thu~, t.h~ assum~tion in the act of perception itself ?f
so~e 10dlvldual object being a thing of a given kind, m
this case,"~ ho';1se" (its perception "against the horizon"
of a def10lte kind .of. objectiveness, as Husserl puts it),
prov~d ~ be un~tt?f~ed by the corresponding individual
c~rta1Ottes. The. mdlvldual object, "this house", was not
given to ,conSCIousness with complete certainty. It is,
however, Important to emphasise Husserl continues that
t~e very 8:c~ of assuII.1ption, the act of "opinion" abo~t the
gIven. mdlvldual obJec~, is given to consciousness with
as a
certamty. The perceptto~ of the individual ob'ect
J
~~~~etJ~~:~ti~Onb~fU;~nea.ll.sed,
but t~e very act of such and
SCIOUsness. ' 10 th',s case on'. n tat,'on
at perception of the'
glven object as a house is fully

64

obvious to the consciousness.

From Husserl's standpOint, a "material thing always remains in,c<?~pletely, and ?ne-sidedly open, This involves
the pOSSIbility of dlsappomtment, that is the possibility
that in new 'perspectives' the thing will ~ot prove to be
identical to itself. A material thing always reveals itself
relatively, so. that. doubt about it.s actual being is not excluded, and Its bemg thereby manIfests itself as accidental.
The being of a material thing is never considered other
than ~ong with the consideration of the possibility of its
non-bemg. We shall never be able to assert with full certai!1tiy, that is, apodicticaUy. that this table actually
eXists because I actually and directly see this colour and
this figure. "so
The fact, however, is given to consciousness with full
apodictical obviousness that it performs at a given moment
the act~ of such and such orientation, assuming, "opining"
somethmg. One can doubt the being of the external
world but one cannot doubt the being of consciousness
itself, the being of self, Husserl repeats Descartes' train of
thought.
As we orientate our consciousness at direct perception
at experie!1cing its acts with apodictical certainty, ignoring
the questIOn whether actual objects correspond to these
acts (Le., performing in Husserl's terms the epoche procedure, that is, refraining from asserting the actual existence
of the ~orresponding objects), we are dealing, from the
standpomt of transcendental phenomenology, with a
special kind of object-Hpure consciousness , and with a
special act of direct comprehension, intuitive grasping of
this object-transcendental reflexion.
Husserl underlines the fact that ordinary experience,
with which everyday practice has to do, and the special
SCiences, proceed from the actual existence of the world of
material objects. That is the so-called natural attitude of
consciousness. Transcendental reflexion, whose task is finding out apodictical certainties (and that is the only way
to solving the problem of substantiation of knowledge,
Husserl believes), is forced to abandon the "natural" attitude of ordinary consciousness, that is, it has to perform
the epoche procedure.
But "transcendental reduction" and epoche are not
enough for substantiating knowledge, Husserl believes, To
achieve that goal, "eidetic reduction" is also needed.
Knowledge of certain objective givenness always assumes direct grasping not only of individual givenness but
also of the substantive, necessary connections, of object
structures. Individual certainty itself is given only in the
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n tl of essential ("eidetic") depenframework of ~Ol!z~ of knowledge is therefore, first of

dences. S,;!bstantl3.t1 these dependences which determine
all, esta?ll;S~ment 0
crete experience pertaining to the
the posslbih~Y of all:Y C?~dual real objects. In other words,
comprehenSIon;:f md~on "How is knowledge possible?"
the answe~ to t f ea3U~el establishment of the essences, the
assumes, frrst all th'
ar,ous types of "thingness" with
"eidoses" of
e v
whic~ expetie~ce has tOe~d~~ta1 phenomenology are not
"Eldoses In transc hOll h they appear very close at
the same as concepts, ~t t og characterise the essence of
!irb~t gtlan'~~'if~:e~'?~~:Pn~t ~ognitive. logical constfruct~ons
o lee s.
.
d essential structures 0 vanOllS
but rather ~eamngs an
h are oiven in Husserl's view,
h
b'
.
types of thmgness w IC
.
. t t 1 'within a specific attitude of conscIOUSdirectly, m UI lve y,
h th
ay be expressness. They exist prelingually, althoug . ey mapahle of fully
I t o However language IS mc
d
In R!lguage,
of
eexpressmg
aU thelI sh adOmgs, for first , it is the instrument
d
d
reasoning rather than of direct contemplatIOn, an sedon f
it is inseparable from the ''natural'', ordinary attl~ e.
consciousness. The task of phenomenological de~r~ptlon
is exceptionally difficult, both be~~use of th~ dlfflC~:Y
of perfonning the act itself of intuItIvely graspmgal~~ tt~
doses", an act assuming a rejection of the. "natu! .. a 1tude of consciousness, and because of the Imposslbihty of
describing precisely in language the results of transcendental reflexion; it therefore proves necessary to resot;t to
metaphors, hints, allegories, and ot~er m~des of oblIque
rendering of meaning, including the InVentIOn of new verbal constructions.
The types and kinds of "eidoses" are assumed to be varied and irreducible to one another in transcendental I?henomenology. They include the "eidoses" of separate kinds
of physical objects (a "table", a "chair", a "house", etc.);
such "eidoses" as "physical object", "number", "figure",
"perception", "reasoning", etc.; such "eidoses" which phenomenalist empiricists would refer to as "sense universals":
"redness", "blueness", "colouredness", "loudness", etc.
Thus for Husserl, genuine knowledge essentially coincides with experience, with direct perception of the corresponding objective givenness (it is another matter that
perception itself, as we have said, is interpreted very broadly, with various types of perception singled out, etc.).
In Husserl's view, thinking taken by itself does not
give true knowledge but only knowledge in a tentative
sense of the term, "figurative" or "symbolic" knowledge,
one that is derived from and dependent on genuine,

experiential knowledge. Although thinking is necessarily

woven into th e flow of experience and scientific activi.
ty is impossible without it, overestimating the significance
of thinking at the expense of underestimating the fundamental role of the intuitions lying at its basis leads
cognition into a cul..cJe-sac, insists Husserl.
Let us pay special attention to this point in transcendental phenomenology, for the view of knowledge as
being very close, if not identical, with a certain mode of
immediately grasping the object essentially characterises
all the varieties of substantiation of knowledge undertaken in the bourgeois philosophy of the New Times. The
trend of thinking leading to this understanding of the
problem of substantiation is very simple. Indeed, if purely
cognitive knowledge is derivative in nature, its premises
are obviously different, for they would otherwise be themselves conditioned and substantiated. They cannot there.
fore fail to be, to some extent or other, given immedi.
ately and intuitively.
What are the modes of discovering the "eidoses" that
is, the possibilities of experiential knowledge? They include transcendental eidetic reflexion, the experience of
consciousness of a special type, inner perception realised
without the mediation of the sense organs and directed at
"pure consciousness" itself. Husserl believes that "eidoses"
are usually not given in consciousness in pure form, being
merged, as it were, with certain individual certainties.
Transcendental consciousness takes up the ueidetic" attitude, which permits it to separate an "eidos" from its
concrete, individual exemplification and grasp it directly
as such ("intuitive insight into the essence"). It is in principle enough to have one copy, one individual embodiment
of some "eidos" to grasp the "eidos" itself; e.g., transcendental eidetic reflex ion about the act of perception of
the given house is enough to discover the "eidos" of
houses in general. In practice, however, this procedure is
difficult to realise, if not at all impossible, Husserl has to
concede. He therefore suggests a special technique for
"eidetic description" which he worked out. Proceed.
ing from an actual instance of assuming the given object to be associated with the given meaning (e.g., the
meaning of "house"), we start freely fantasising, varying
the exemplifications of the given meaning, the given
"eidos". We discover something invariant in these exempli_
fications, something that cannot be eliminated as long as
we continue to "imagine" objects associated with the given meaning. That invariant will be the "eidos" of the
objective givenness. "Eidetic analysis", in Husserl's view,

66
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t the structures of experience, and in

a priori connections indepen_

permits to smgle au
the first place, the rece:uJation of experience. This, in
dent of any ncre e ~c construct apriori "regional ontol.
its tum, enab es ~ne 0 various types of objective givenogies" corresP~rn~mg
g t~~ "horizons" of cognitive activity
ness ~d SpeClhym f pre-scientific knowledge and in the

cr

both

In

the sP, er~ ~

diverse scient~~ d~lP~;:~t for Husserl is the circumFundamen. Y "?P transcendental reflexion that CODs~nce esta~hshed m . ed or intentionally directed~ as
SClousness ~s .fw:~~!~hing at some object. This object
Husserl pu I, a il be a mat'erial individual thing, it may
need not nfd::F!.e~ence'" "eidos", a universal, or acts of
itself. The objec\ t r;;.a y
't may not be real but mere Y Ima 1
'd"
~onsciousness, If transcendental, regex~on,~~~~;~e~y~s~~t
that are not related to a certam r:n a en
,
f. if f
t'
the nature of consciousness ltsel, , or
~~~c:n~~e object is the "eidos" of "perception in general" the act of perception in this case may ~?t ac~:!J,
exist' as a subject of reflex ion but b,e merel~ ImaglD
in the free variation in fantasy of various cOl?les ?f perce~
tion associated with the meanin,g of pe,rceptlon l,n gener, '
In this case the act of percep~lOn, bemg an object dof
tentional analysis, is irreal, while the act of transcen . en
reflex ion directed at this object, pertains to the r,e~l!ty of
consciousness, continues HusserL Thus, the posslbillty of
real or irreal existence obtains not only fo~ such ,obJects
as material bodies but also for such pot~ntlal objects of
transcendental reflex ion as acts of consciousness. As for
the "eidoses" that are either included among the material bodies or else are fonnal (logical and mathematical)
"eidoses" 'or tl\e "eidoses" of consciousness itself, ~hey
have a special ideal existence in transcendental consclOUSness [or as distinct from the real events which "happen",
"eid'oses:' cannot "happen": their existence is inseparable [rom the existence of transcendental consciousness
itself. It is important, according to Husserl, that consciousness is in any case objective, it is objectively oriented,
Each act of consciousness assumes the existence of two
poles, the intentional object of some kind and the subject
himself implementing the act of consciousness of "I" the
ego, The object lies outside consciousness fo~ it is t;anscendental relative to the intentional act ~nd at the same
time it is in another respect immanent to consciousness for
it is assumed or "imagined" by consciousness while'the
question of the existence of reality corresponding to the

~~~~i~:Sness

eg:<~~~;,er~l~h:n~c:~~f

68

given intention3.! object always remains open, Husserl

believes.
Thus the specificity of organisation of consciousness,
from the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, is
expressed. in i~s subjec,t-object ~ructure,. The subJect-object relatIOn IS only mherent m conSClousness and expresses the links between its different poles" It wOlfld l?e
absurd and meaningless to try to model thIS relation m
tenns of some physical bodies or systems, Husserl believes,
for the components of this relation (the intentional act,
the intentional object, the subject implementing these
acts) char~eri se only "pure consciousness" and would be
inconceivable without it,
The so-called natural attitude proceeds from the existence of both the "I" and the world of real objects external with regard to me, The "I" in this case refers to a
concrete corporeal individual endowed with the psyche,
with consciousness. However, since the act of transcendental reduction assumes temporary removal from consideration of the real existence of the world of material objects,
Husserl reminds us, the question of the existence of my
body also remains open. Transcendental reflexion has to
do only with "pure consciousness". The latter is formed of
intentional acts with corresponding intentional objects, If I
perform, however, not only transcendental ,but ~so
"eidetic" reduction, setting myself the goal Of.dlscovermg
the "eidoses" of certain material and formal objects as well
as the "eidoses" of consciousness itself, Husserl insists, I
reveal and directly grasp the essence of "pure consciousness" itself namely the Transcendental Ego as underlying
all these "~idoses" and intentional acts, as constituting
the meanings of all the objective give!lnesse~: !he object
correlative to the Transcendental Ego IS the eidos of the
world" as the horizon of all possible types and kinds of
objects. It is the Transcendental Ego that implements the
acts of transcendental reflexion, Husserl believes. Therefore when the latter is directed at the Transcendental Ego
itself it coincides as it were, with itself, having itself for
an object of its o'wn reflex ion. In this case, "absolute reflexion" is realised "absolute knowledge " is attained
which underlies all knowledge and is the supreme instance
of substantiating cognition in general. The whole of transcendental phenomenology can therefore be regarded ~s
"egology" a doctrine of the Transcendental Ego. It IS
the knowledge of subjective being that underlies any
knowledge, Husserl ~lieves, stressing the need for "looking towards" the subJect. 61
Thus from Husserl's viewpoint, reflex ion and self-cogni69

VII(

is head
1LIte of

Science
coveril'l<
of ICier

gyo!
lCOfes (

1hIt W!
number
foreign

tion underlie knowledge 3.!ld ex;pe~ien ce .. That knowled . the most adequate which c Oincides wIth absolute refle~~~ absolute self...co~ition , that is. the kind of k~owl.
ed e w'hich knows that It )mo ws, b~mg fully cogruzant
ofgboth its own object and Its own bemg and ~hose pr~ce.
dures by which it is attained. Let us pay SpeCial attentIon
to this important point of transct:nden~al phenomenology.
Let us further single out certam traits of the Tran scen.
dental Ego as Hussed understands it. It I?u~ not ~e viewed
kind of supraindividual essence umfymg various con~~e~e consciousnesses and , still less, different corpore~ in.
dividuals (the way Hegel presents the Absolute Subject).
Of course, at the level of transcendental. reflexlon
directed at the Transcendental Ego, Husser! behe.ves., ~here
is no question of diffe.renc~ between concre~e mdlvlc;tual
consciousnesses (and 10 thIS sense no q~estl(:m of d~ff~
renee between "me" and "thou"), for 10. this case. It IS
a matter of finding the "eidos" of .consciousness Itself.
But the main thing, from the standpomt of tran~endental
phenomenology, is that the Transcendental E~o IS i:tasped
as a result of a definite type of my reflexlOn drrected
at my own consciousness. The Transcendental Ego proves
to be the deep formative basis of my consciousness and,
consequently, the basis of myself. The ordinary language,
which is in the power of the "natural" attitude, H usserl
believes, is capable in this case, too, to lead into error,
for I can speak of "myself" as of a concrete corporeal
individual, with a characteristic figure, gait, facial
expression, as of the unique individual life of consciousness with its unique "biography", a specific attitude to it s
past and future, and finally as the supreme instance of all
cognitive activity and of all intentions, th at instance which
~xists. before any individual p~ychological biography (and
m thIS sense before any indiVidu al "I") and at the same
time underlies it. It is this supreme instance that is t he
Transcendental Ego which, as is clear from the above is
also I myself residing in me, not somewhere else. There is
no a~cess to the Tra~scendental Ego other than through a
special type of analysIs of my own consciousness.
~t us now go back t? the assertion of the subjectobject structure of conS;Clous~ess-a thesis characteristic
of pheno.men?logy. The mt~nttonal object in Hussed's inu:r~retatlon IS not s0t:nethmg ephemeral and urel indiVidual (as 'st
we have
mdicated
already ,
that
.Ps t heway
y
.
.
.
.
I
p h enomen al I empmcists mterpret such "spe . 1 b' t"
of consciousness as "sense data") fo r it is ~la 0 Je~ s
"on the horizon" of some "eido~" or other W<l:~h gl~~n
framework of certain essential, necessary obje~t~~ru~ure~

..

70

(and in t he case of tran scendental eidetic reflex ion the

object may also be a pure "eidos"). In this connection
fl usserl criticises empirical introspection ism which prevailed
in West European psychology for two centuries. Following
a definite interpretation of Descartes' philosophy and
combining this interpretation with empiricIst propositions,
adherents of introspectionism believed the task of psychology to be, above all, the discovery of empirical dependences
between the data of consciousness which are interpreted, first, as purely individual "events" in the consciousness field, and second, as purely subjective data, whose relation to the objects must be completely eliminated for
the sake of purity of inquiry. Husserl shows (and he is quite
right on this score) that analysis of the subjective, of
consciousness, is impossible outside its relation to the
object (its intentional orientation at the object, as Husserl
puts it). Husserl also insists that the data of consciousness
are not purely individual events but facts included in certain stable and necessary structures. Meanwhile, if one
regards the task of psych ology to be the description of
individual facts in the fie ld of consciousness and establishment of t heir empirical dependences, it will have to be recognised that t he act of self-consciousness, of empirical introspection, interferes in t he flow of psychical life, distorting the purity of the object studied (for self-consciousness is also included in the life of consciousness) and thereby preventing t he realisation of that very goal that is set
before it. This criticism was trad it ionally levelled at introspectionist empiricist psychology. Husserl believes, however, that psychology must not set itself goals characteristic
of introspectionism. The task of psychology indubitably consists in studying su bjective reality, consciousness,
and in this connection psychology is close to transcendental p henomenology, although in the former the study
of consciousness must be carried out from a somewhat
different angle than in t he latter (the question of the relation of phenomenological psychology and transcendental
phenomenology is a special theme which we shall not
touch upon here). The study of subjective reality is
certainly inconceivable outside of acts of self-consciousness, Husserl believes. But the procedure of self-consciousness, h e continues, must be carried out as phenomenological reflex ion aimed first of all at discovering the "eidoses" of consciousness rather than as empirical introspection. Traditional introspectionist psychology has not attained any considerable results, he thinks, precisely because it follo wed from t he very first a wrong path determined by a false understanding of the subject-matter and
71

VIa<

Is head
tute of
Science
coveril')
of scier

gyof

ocores c
that we
number
foreign

thods of research. It was not due to. but in spile of its

me al pproach that it did obtam certrun results.
genJ~ss:rl believes that. the discovery of the subject-ob.
structure of consclOusness also ~1e~ps t? ove~come
arte I dualism with its charactenstlc onent:abon at
es~~lishing "purely subjective" structures outside their
objective correlation.
I
As can be seen from the above, Husser~ s phenome":ology touches on a number of real probleI!1s In the analysIS of
cognition and consciousness. Let us pomt to some of them
only insofar as they are important for the present study.
As we have pointed out alrea,dy 1 he stre~ses . qUIte cor~ect.
ly the impossibility of studymg th,e sub~ect~ve, consclO,us..
ness without taking into account ltS obJecttve correlatIOn
(its '''intentional orientation"). Husserl c0l!ec~ly sh0.w.s
some fundamental weaknesses of introspectionIst empm
cist psychology, of the epistemologic~ cOI?-ception of subjectivist empiricism. He also states qUIte nghtly th~t can
sciousness is an object of a special kind, and th~~ Its cog
nition must differ in some respects from cogmtlOn of a
material object external with regard to consciousness (for I
have "an internal access", as it were, to my consciousness).
It is also true that a definite connection exists between the
cognition of an external object and the fact of correlating
knowledge to the cognizing subject, that is, the fact of
self-accounting, self-consciousness self-reflexion. It should
also be pointed out that within the framework of transcendental phenomenology and phenomenological psychology both Husserl and- his disciples described a great
numb.er of facts pertaining to the work of consciousne~.
Cert~n1}' these facts require critical evaluation, for theu
descnptlon by phenomenologists exists within the framework of a false conception (we shall dwell on this point
I?omewhat later), but. at the same time they may be taken
~to account and remterpreted in those disciplines which
m one way or another deal with the analysis of consciousne~: psychol~, psychiatry, esthetics epistemology, etc.
. al owever, ~lth refer~nce to Husserl's'general epistemologIC
conceptIOn, to hlS solution of th
bl
f
b
stantiation of knowled
e pro em 0 su dental phenomenology ~~stt~: untenabi.lity o~ ~ranscen
us discuss this point in greater d:::~ed qUIte defmltely. Let
We must recall that Husserl
.
mental division into what is anl~hee~ from the fu~da.
to consciousness. Only the f
at IS not actually gwen
companied by the experience ormer, he b~lieves, is ac?ro~l~ed in transcendental ~~eself-certa.lnty, which is
mdlcatlOn of genuine, actual exist nomenology to be an
ence of the correspond.

1ft

ing obj('clivr given ness. We all know, however, that

experiencing some fact or event as evident is by no means
a guarantee of its actual existencE". All illusions of perception show, for instance, that we can perceive something
that actually does not exist as evident and indubitable.
Husser! fully realises this fact. He therefore indicates
that phenomenological self-certainty is not identical to
subjective psychological confidence. The former is, as he
says, attained through a special attitude of consciousness,
through special procedures of transcendental reflexion.
The latter, in Husserl's view, can also exist when consciousness assumes intentional objects to which no reali
ty corresponds; it is here that perception illusions arise.
Let us ask this question: does transcendental phenomenology offer a method for distinctly separating subjective
confidence from the experience of certainty? Husserl sees
such a method in transcendental reflexion (assuming
epoche, "transcendental" and, in some cases, "eidetic"
reduction, etc.). But h ow are we to find out that we have
performed all the operations required by transcendental
reflexion? This can only be ensured by attaining the result
of this reflexion, Husserl answers, that is, by the emergence of a specific experience of self-certainty. We thus
find ourselves in a vicious circle.
Husser! himself has to admit that in the process of phenomenological description it is in practice very difficult to
separate "pure" transcendental experience of evidence
from subjective psychological phenomena that look like
it. The development of his conception was therefore continually accompanied not only by specification of descriptions already carried out but also, in some cases, by essen
tial modifications. As for Husserl's followers, they often
"saw" quite different things as "self-evident". Let us also
add to this the assertion, characteristic of phenomenology that ordinary language cannot render precisely the da
ta 'experienced, so that even where the doctrine's require
ments are satisfied, there is no guarantee of adequate
expression of the results of analysis. All of this m~es ~t
practically impossible to indicate any clearcut cntena
which will permit to state that the nec~ssary pu~ity of
phenomenological research has been at!a:m~. But If that
is the case, there is much room for arbitranness and subjectivism. Husserl therefore has to concede t~at a pw:e
description of the data of transcendental conSCIOusness IS
not so much an actual result of existing phenomeno!ogi.
cal studies but rather a kind of ideal goal towards which
they must strive. That goal, Husser! believes, is conditioned
by the very formulation of the problem of substantia

72

73

VI"
is head
alta of

Science
coverio
of seier
gy of

scores (

that we
number
foreign

ticn assuming the ex~sten~e ?f sU,ch kn~wledg~ in :-V.hich

the I corresponding object 15 gIven Immediately, mtultIvely
and self-evidently.
.
.
.
Thus the assertion of expen.encmg selfcertamty as true
. dication of objective realIty 15 bas~d not so much on, faeanalysis of cognition and conSCIOusness as on defmite
assumptions about the nature of the problem of su ~
stantiation of knowledge and t~e possible ways
its, solution, those very same assuo:pbons of non-MarXIst ~Pl~te
moiogical conceptions of WhICh we spoke at the begmnmg
of this chapter. But why should we take the assumptio ns
themselves to be justified?
The method, suggested by H:usserl, of fre~ variation, in
imagination of different expreSSIOns for the glVen meamng
for determining their invariant, or Heidos", is. an atte~pt
at overcoming subjectivism in phenomenologIcal descnp~
tion. This method was intended to ensure some kind of
generally valid technique for analysis of consciousness. It
is easy to see, however, that this method is fundamenta1~
ly the same as ordinary empirical generalisation through
comparing individual objects. Why must the results of such
generalisation be viewed as apriori entities of consciousness rather than as what they actually are-~xpressions of
finite empirical experience?
Generally speaking, the procedure itself to which
Hussed refers a:; t~~nscendental reflex ion appears dou ~t-
ful on several slgruficant counts. First of all that apph es
to. epoche, that is,. refraining from judgement about the
~lste:nce of the objects of the material world. Of course,
SItuatIons so~etimes arise in our experience when we
cannot. say wl.th certainty whether we actually deal w it h
the obJe~t WhICh appears to us as really existing or wheth~
e! that ~s no m~re than appearance, an error of percep~
t~~ ~elS e~sentIalf however, that, first, situations o f this
means ot~;~~ .requent ; second, t hat t here are always
of establishing wahlOetlOhg thte nuature of perception, that is,
' . an d thOITd ,
that the experiential er
d' 1t' IS t' lusory or genume,
ity is based on a we~~i~~n13~d betwe:en. illusion and real~
existence of at least the
~onv.IctlOn of the actual
objects given us in percepti~~e~h el~hg majority of the
of consciousness taking the'
~s e "natural" attitude
wo!ld ~or granted is not at all ~x.~t~nce
of the material
Iv
behef In the universality of th: .e , o~ the contrary, t he
about the reality of the object of situatlO.n o! uncertainty
Th~ assertion of phenomenology ~rception ~s unfounded.
objects of the material world (of all ~~ the eXl~tence of the
general, rather than of Particular b~ rnatenal objects in
o Jects o( this world)

rual

.of

74

is never given w.i th complete certainty, is the result of a

false preconception and not of analysis of actual experi~
ence. This attitude is closely linked with the desire for
es tabli~hin~ the condit~ons of "absolute knowledge". The
latter IS said to be attamed when knowledge of the object
coincides with reflexion about knowledge itself which
in Husserl's view, occurs in transcendental reflexio~.
'
But can "absolute knowleCige" alone be viewed as
genuine? What grounds have we for disclaiming the status
of real knowledge (and that is what Husser! insists on) for
the results of cognitive activity both in the sphere of ev~
eryday experience and in the domain of various scientific
disciplines studying empirical facts? Would it not be more
correct to correlate, on the contrary, our ideal model of
knowledge with actual samples of knowledge obtained in
the actual cognitive process? Let us state in this connec~
tion that those examples of apriori "absolute lrnowl~
edg~" which Husser! ci~es (the truths of logic and mathe~
matl~s, the so-?al!ed regIonal ontologies, that is, phenomen~
ologIcal descnptIOns of "eidoses" that are said to un~
derlie the scientific disciplines) have failed the test of the
dev~l~pment of science in the 20th century, as far as their
apnon and absolute quality is concerned. That is the point
where the fundamental defect is revealed not only of
Husser! 's phenomenology but also of all kinds of transcendentalism as a. mode for substantiating knowledge.
We ~hal l have occaSIOn to return to this question .
Finally, let us consider the assertion of the Transcen~
~e!ltal Ego's existence, the supreme substantiating propo~
sItton of phenomenology. This assertion is obtained, as
we have seen, as a result of transcendental reflexion. But
the procedure. of transcendental reflexion, involving epac~e and ~~~ smgling out of a special object, "pure consCIOusness , IS very doubtful, as we have said. Therefore the
attempts to separate the ego as a unity of consciousness
and mate.rial corporeality from the ego as "pure" individ~
ual conSCIOusness, and the latter, fro m the Transcendental
Ego, appear to be unconvincing. As for the statement that
~l referential meanings, just as all individual subjects
(I.e., I myself and other sentient beings) are constituted by
myself as the Transcendental Ego, it cannot but lead to the
most odi~)Us form ~f ~ubjective idealism, so completely
c?mp~omIs~d-to SOhpsl.sm, hard as Husser! might try to
d ISSOCiate himself from It. Although Husserl insists on the
i~possibility of ~nalysing ~he .subjective, of analysing con~
sClOusness, outside Its objectIVe correlation that is not
enough to overcome Cartesian subjectivism for the inten~
tional object is viewed as existing in the' framework of
75

ousness and as constituted by the Int-

transcel?-dental co.n~~ce of real objective givenness c~rres

ter, WhIle th~:~~t!ntional object is assumed to be meleponding to t d tal phenomenology.

VI.

is heac:
1Ute of

Scienci

coverin
of sciel

fNo!
ICOres

th.t

WI

vant to transc~n ~n.

premises of transcendentalism in

But can t ~ aSi~dge be retained while such obvious

g
substantlatln f ~~~omenology are discarded as its appeal
weatkhness~sJ":;ti';' experiences of self-certainty unsuPllorted
to e su
rocedures that would be more convmcmg
by
~t~er rher words, are there such variants of solving
logIC Ybl no f the possibility of knowledge whICh en-

a::K

~~~v~~~ t~~a~e

a more logical path remaining at the ~am;

time in the fundamental framework of transcenden~hsm .
Let us consider the epistemological conc~ptl~~ of
Fichte as an attempt to provide this kind of solutlOn. .
Fichte starts from propositions WhICh appear to be SlID
ilar to those of phenomenology. He sets hlIDself the tas
of transforming transcendental philosophy, the doctnn~}f
the possibility of cognition in ge,neral ~d of ~~len ~ ~
cognition in particular, into an HeV1~ent sClet,lce",
~Oln
ing out that the theoretical doc~n~. of SClence (Wlss~n
schaflslehre) "presupposes the posslblhty of freedom of lOner contemplation":'6 4 The foundation of knowh~?ge,
Fichte insists must be found as something absolutelY fust,
something th~t cannot be either proved or defined.
d
Starting from the facts of empirical consciousn~ss, an
then mentally discarding everything that is accldental,
and leaving only that which can no longer be separa~ed
from consciousness (that is, performing a procedure whlch
somehow reminds one of Husserl's transcendental refle~
xion), Fichte' arrives at Descartes' proposition "I a~'~ as
the supreme fact underlying all others, This propOSItIon
"must probably, be ass~med without any proof, although
the whole doctnne of SCIence is busy proving it", 65
Fichte's train of thought then reveals fundamentally
new elements, He asserts that the self-consciousness of the
~anscel!dental Ego, expressed in the proposition "I am",
15 no~ slm,ply the product of direct inner perception of a
certam eVlden~e, (as Husserl ~~uld have said) but the result O! the actiVIty of determmmg the indeterminate, Self~
conSC,lOusness must, be u~derstood not Simply as intuitive
graspmg of the oble<:t gIVen, as it were, to the intentio~
~al a~t from the outsIde, but as mental POSiting of the ob~
lect ItseU and, at th~ ,same time as reflexion about the
product of thIS posltmg, the reflexion (wh' h
rs
as only one of the moments of a com Ie
lC appea f
self-consciousness) is by no
p x procedure a
,
,
means reduced to mere
contemplatIon of glvenness, constituting th
t
e s renuous

76

aclivity o f analytically brf'a kin~ do wn the posited given~

ness, Thu8 the Transce ndental Ego is no t simply a given
o bjec t as It appears to Husserl , but a kind of unity of activity ~nd its product, o r Hact-action". The Pure Ego does
no t exi st o utside o f th e ac tivity of self-consciousness directed at it (let U 8 recall a similar point in Descartes' reasoning): "The ego POSItS itself, and it is only thanks to this
self~p ositing ; and vice versa: the ego is, and it posits its
being, only due to its o wn being.- It is simultaneously the
agent and the product of action ; the source of activity and
that which emerges as the result of activity; act and action are one and the same; and that is why 'I am' is the
expression of an act-action .. , .. 6 6
Fichte insists that the ego outside the activity of selfpositing and self-reflex ion is nothing, it simply does not
exist, But it is precisely the active nature of the A bsolute Ego, which compels it to strive towards an ever greater
degree of self-detenninateness (resulting from action upon
itself) , that further leads to the necessity of opposing to it
the non-ego, which, on the one hand, delimits the ego, and
on the other, exists in the framework of the Absolute Ego,
being posited by the latter. The ego becomes an object in
its own right for itself only with the opposition of ego
and non-ego, states Fichte, that is, with the appearance of
an object external with regard to the ego, It is only
through the non-ego that the ego becomes something, i.e"
that of which something may be said. That ego which
exists in the framework of the opposition to non~go is
no longer an Absolute Subject but an empirical one, for
it is restricted by an object external to it, While the pure
activity (act-action) of the Absolute Ego does not assume
any object, "turning back on itself", the definition of the
ego as an empirical subject ("descending" from the Absolute Subject to the empirical one) reveals th~ mutual
mediation of ego an~ non-ego a~ the law of ~on~clOusness:
"no subject, no object; no object, no subject ,67 Th,us,
while the original proposition ((~ am" appear,s ~s somethmg
immediately given a~d cert3.1n" the activ,ltY, of selfconsciousness necessanly leads to Its self-mediatIOn, to the
generation C?f a, w~ole ~ri:es of I?ositings and contrapositings WhiCh, 10 Fic~t~ s VIew! l,ogIcally follow 0!le from
another, To this medlatmg actiVIty of self-conSCIOusness
corresponds the r~f]ectiye activity o,f, th~ theoretical
doctrine of science, In WhICh the propOSitIOn IS formulated
that the activity of the ego can only be mediated, and
Hthere can be no unmediated" activity at all. 68 The
abstract moments of these positings and contrapositings of the Pure Ego following from each other are logical
77

VI"
is head
tute of

Science
coverin

of sciel
gy of
ICQres (

that

Wt

number
foreign

categodes (reality I negation, cau,sality, interaction, etc.)

. g the necessary connectIOns and dependences of
expre~m e and making knowledge possible. The reflexion
expenenc
. . . I
t th
of the theoretical doctnne of SClence smg es au
e cateorial dependences of knowledge.
..
g Attention should be paid to the followmg traIts of the
epistemological conception ~al~sed here, WhICh WIll be
of importance in our further lllq~lIY.
..
According to Fichte, .self-C0!1sclousne~ and self-cognl~lOn
re not just passive unmediate graspIng of some gIven
a bject but always an excursion beyond the boundaries of
~he immediate, an attempt to define, to interpret the latter
(any elementary con~iousne~ already contams m It an
element of thinking, Flchte beheves).
The ego, the pure consciousness, is not ,a read:Y-rr;t~de
object from the outset, it becomes such, bel~~ Ob]eC~lrled
as it becomes the object of its own self-cogmzmg actIVity.
Hence the ego as my own object is in a certain sense a
.
result of creation, of constructing (positing).
To the extent to which the ego becomes the object of
its own activity and reflexion, contra positing itself to the
non-ego, it becomes different from what it originally was,
dialectically changing and developing itself. In other
words, the object of self-cognition is the product of its
own activity, not in the sense, however, that it is a certain
fabrication of consciousness, an arbitrary fiction, but
in the sense that the ego as an object appears as the result
of the necessary unfolding and dialectical mediation of
what originally emerged as the purely immediate indentity 1=1. Selfcognition and reflexion assume the exteriorisation and o.bje~tifica~ion of what was at first purely internal and ,subJective, directly merging with itself as a 'Ifact
of consciOusness": "I am"
Generally speaking, the' definition and unfolding of the
essence of ,what appears to be directly given and evident,
r~veals a c?mp,lex ~ystem of the activity of consciousness
hIdden behmd It, FIChte affirms.
. ~ these arguments, Fichte grasps in a speculative idea~:l~h~f~~~~:n ~~men~t?f c~gniti~e activity to which
It is easy to show, h~!~v~rIVe dlScussl~n of the probl~m.
does not solve the probl ,thft the Flchtean conception
edge either.
ern a substantiation of knowlFichte cC!lectly states that the
..
c?gnition is determining the indete ne~ssary condItIOn ?f
tion of what originally appeared rmmate, me~tal m~dla
he also notes correctly that these as ~li!ely ImmedIate;
not only to the cognition of obje ~ndltlons are relevant
c external to the sub-

ject hut also to the cognition of the subject himself. He

cannot prove, however, with any degree of convincingness,
that the required determination of the indeterminate, equivalent to the construction of experience, must be realised
precisely in those categorial forms of which his Wissenschaftslehre treats. In other words, he cannot deduce
apriori the essential dependence of any knowledge on
the acts of positing and contrapositing of the Pure Ego, as
he claims. In fact, Fichte's Wissenschaftslehre assumes a
number of categorial links characterising the available empirical experience, as well as the traditionally accepted
laws of formal logic (the laws of identity, contradiction,
etc .). Thus the assertion that the self-positing of the Pure
Ego (HI am") underlies all knowledge and its substantive apriori dependences; an assertion central to his con
ception, remains an assurance without proof or support.
Furthermore, we do not touch here on the fact that
acceptance of Fichte's Absolute Ego as the centre constituting knowledge and objective reality leads to the cul-desacs of idealistic subjectivism, just as Husserl's Transcen
dental Ego.
3. THE FACT O F KNOW L EDGE AND TH E
TRANSC END ENTAL INTE RPR ETA T ION O F
THE COND IT IONS O F ITS POSSI B ILI T Y

However, can one remain in the framework of transcendentalism without claiming to deduce the substantive dependences of knowledge from the fact of self-consciousness <41 am I"? In this case the philosopher is forced to set
himself the task of establishing the conditions of the possibility of knowledge by logical analysis, by breaking
down and making a preparation of knowledge that actually
exists and is recorded both in the truths of everyday consciousness and in the propositions of the special sciences.
Clearly, in t his approach to knowledge, the relation between knowledge and self-consciousness has to be understood in a way different from that of Husser! and Fichte.
This possibility was realised in Immanuel Kant's "critical" transcendental epistemology. 69
Kant does not at all discuss the question "Is knowledge
possible?", and in this his philosophy differs significantly
from, let us say, that of Descartes. One of the fundamental
premises of Kantian epistemology is that knowledge is not
only possible but also real, it actually exists. In other
words Kant faces the fact of knowledge, as neo-Kantians
later put it. He believes this knowledge to be expressed

78

79

VI.
is head
!Ute of

Scienct
coyer;n
of sciel
g; of

scorel (
that Wf

number
foreign

at any rate in ~he special sci~ ntific disciplines relatin to

pure mathematics and pure (I. e., theoretical) natural g .
ence. The main preoccupation of his epistemologySC~
findi,ng out hof.!J mathematics and p'ure natural S'Cience ar~
possLble , that IS, how knowl~dge IS possible in general
Kant proceeds from the eXIst ence of indubitable
d
recognised product o! cognitive activity, of scient~ic
~?wledge,. endeavou~mg to reconstruct the logical conditions of It~ productIOn through analytically breaking it
down; that IS ~o say, he proceeds from the study of th
result to revealmg ,the possibi1~ties of its generation.
e
From the KantIan standpomt, this approach is justified
by the fact that, while the existence of pure mathematic
and pure .natural science is beyond doubt , the assertio~
of the realIty. of II.1e~physics as true knowledge is extremely p~o?~ematIc. FlOding out the universal conditions of the
possIbIhty o~ knowledge could not only provide an answer
~ ~~ questlOn of whether or not metaphysics is possible'
~~rk.i th.e at~wer prove to be affirmative, the methods of
ngj'1O
1so area most fruitfully might be discovered
Kan t be teves.
'
riv~o~n~h!owards 0e realisation of this task, Kant arobjectively e~~ti~luslO.n th.at experience as knc;>wledge ?f
ical individual an! i~mgs mdepen~ent of the glVen emprrat the same time
~ states of hIS consciousness implies
references <lIe ofC~tlr~~ reference~ to the subject. These
out of the objectiven~ 0 f nature: FIrst, it is the singling
iog of the processes ~~ 0 e?CP~nence and the distinguishtions, from the accidelX:~ ~ It from subjective associathat signify constant (an
ow of representations, etc.
the world of objects a cJu~ and potential) correlation of
Secon.d, the unity of e~ . e pr?cesse.s of consciousness.
consclOusness. The latt pe~lence Itself ~plies the unity of
tant, Kan~ believes. ~heCl~c~mstance l~ especially i~por
woul~ be lmpossible in h' ~ty ~f objectIve expenence
expenence could not'be IS ~lew, If the flow of objective
~n ~ct of self_conscious~~nt~ua11Y accompanied by a eer~dentlty ,?f the ego to wh~~~n the f~rm of recognising the
15, T~cordbl?g ~ Kant, expresse~~petnhence belongs (this act
. e 0 ~ec~lveness of expe' In . e .assertion "I think").
eXlStence 10 l~ of various de nence IS mseparable from the
o~es'f Th~ o~)ect is an emb~~ndences, including necessary
r ~ ,?r 1m king up various se:e~t, as it were of a certain
0tubJectlrve experience presents se If!1presstons. 'The flow of
a necessary
.
a re
certain
conf i.n te ractlon
ofan
all mtern
its a11 y coherent picquent state ne~~~~il~b?~ this now~o~~~~ents ; there is
o ows from th
lS, the subse80
e previous one. If

there were "gaps" in ex perie nce, that is, if subse quent

events did not follow fro m the previous ones according to
obligatory rules, we would have no grounds to believe
experien ce t o be objective, Kant affirms; instead we would
be fo rced to describe it as a subjective connection between
associations, that is, as pertaining to individual consciousness rather than the world of material objects. At the same
time any experience is my experience, that is, it belongs to
me as the person experiencing it; there is no experience
t hat wo uld be nobody's. Let us now assume , Kant argues,
that the ego as the subject of experience retains no identity, that is, that it can entirely disappear as one ego and
be reborn as another baving nothing in common and no
links with the former.
In this case, experience itself must change, for its relevance to the ego is a necessary characteristic of experience,
as we have just recognised, and if the ego becomes different, so does experience. But if there is no connection
between the first and the second egos, there is no connection between the first and second experience either. That
means that there are "gaps" in the flow of experience. In
this case, experience itself is therefore subjective and not
objec.t~ve. It follows, Kant concludes, that a necessary
condl~lOn of the objectiveness of experience is the selfconSClOusness of the ego as identical to itself in the assertion " I think", which potentially accompanies the flow of
experience (in Kant 's view, the act of self-consciousness
" I think" does not have to accompany experience in actuality ; the objectiveness of the latter merely implies constant possibility of this self_consciousness).71
Individual empirical self-consciousness, enabling us to
distinguish between the subjective connection of associations and the objective dependences between the things
external with regard to this self-consciousness, Kant calls
subjective unity of consciousness. As for the unity of consciousness which makes possible, in his view, the objectiveness of experience itself, it is termed in Kantian philosophy objective unity of self-consciousness or transcendental unity of apperception, and is distinguished from the
former in principle. 7 2
The subjective unity of self-consciousness has to do with
the flow of individual representations, characterising the
"internal sense". The manifold given in the internal sense
is also ordered in a certain manner (the rules of this ordering are determined by the apriori form of time)
although this ordering is not objective, that is, it is diffe:
rent from types of order in the world of external objects existing in the forms of space and time and given
81

t? the
VI ..
is head
tLlte of

Sciena
coverin

of sciel
!IV of

ICOres (
that W f

number
foreign

~ubject

through ~he "external sense", Th

.
tive uruty of self-consclousness is extremely 5 e .~~bJec
distinct from the unity pertaining to objective (' peel Ie, A,
experience, the former does not characterise a external")
substance remaining identical to itself under ~hecons~ant
ch~ges of its states. Kant therefore believes that .;~I'l?US
possIble to reveal, through the internal sense th 1 IS nn
~ dep~ndences and rules of succession of ~nseej neees_
SlOns WhICh would permit the construction of

b,?pres-

c?gnition in its. own right. The objects of ex~r~alect of

given not only In the forms of time but also' th sense
space (the latter thus appearing in Kant's epist~n 1ase of
the ne~essary condition of objectiveness) assu!e o~ ~
categonal schemes as their SUbstantive bas'
h aprlOn
which to develop theoretical ("pure") natu1S'1 sc . emes on
!~cih:e~~~e~\~! inner sense, they are no~ r~bj~c~~;fn' t~!
stadble, in~efinite, at~~p~~~!~~s
~~~~~0~~~eyS5
arealun, a r e so
or ered m a certain
.
manner-m temporal forms. This
ordering howeve
retical (':pure") s~Ie~:n~~o~rt~~: t~e possibility .of ~ ~heo
consciousness. Psychology . K P t~mo.men~ of mdivIdual
ble as an empirical d
.' l!l ~ s VIew, IS only possili,nks in the subjective ~~nptfe SCIence ~ating acc.iden~al
Clple, incapable of usin w 0 representatIOns and, In prmKant's view tru
. g the methods of mathematics (in
mathematics').
e SCIence must speak the language of
More than that inner e
.
.
some. essential features f xpe~ence IS no~ only devoid of
permIt. the latter to be ~h ex !llal expene~ce, those that
IS ~so Impossible without e ~aslS of theoretIcal science-it
~atIon of time, which is :~o mal contemplation. Determi~enc~. exists only throu h . rm of orde!ing internal expe~me In certain spat,"al g unplementatlOn of the flow of
.
processes th t .
In~ gI.ve~ material objects ,,' I a. IS, m processes involv~ etermmation of time o~ b' t IS Possible to perceive
rna! relations (motion) t 0Yth Y means of a change in ex~xample, we become aWare 0 f e permanent in space; (for
mg the. c~anges of its relatio the sun's motion, by observ~~t thIS IS not all. We find ili~~ the objects of this earth).
tio~t ~~~ts~b ~rresP,?nd and hewseubos.sess nothing permathat this I h s ce as mtUition exceprrltted to the concepcharacter ofaspen at any predicate of ,'ntmto.t ter ... It follows,
nnanence
UI IOn ' wh'IC,
h m
. 1'ts
determination of f
. Could serve as
way as impenetrabili~ l~ the internal sen~rr~late to the
empirical intuition "7 ~ 15 the correlate of in the same
matter as an
A highly impo'rtant
consequence fOllows
82
from this

0:

namely "internal experience is itself ~ossible only mediately ar:d through external experie nce". 4
Kant regards this conseq uence as a direct refutation of
"the problematical idealism of Des Cartes, who admits the
undoubted certainty of only one empirical assertion (assertio) to wit, I am".75 Idealism "assumed [writes Kant]
that the only immediate experience is interna1, and that
from this we can only infer the existence of external things.
But, as always happens, when we reason from given effects
to determined causes, idealism has reasoned with too much
haste and uncertainty, for it is quite possible that the cause
of our representations may lie in ourselves, and that we
ascribe it falsely to external things. But our proof shows
that external experience is properly immediate, that only
by virtue of it- not, indeed, the consciousness of our own
existence, but certainly the determination of our existence in time, that is, internal experience is possible.,,76
From Kant's viewpoint, that means that where it is a
question of concrete individual consciousness, of the subjective, we cannot regard it in the spirit of Husserl as "pure
consciousness" but must necessarily correlate it with
those processes which are implemented by material objects
or bodies. True, Husserl a1so speaks of the need for correlating any subjective act with the object at which this act
is directed. But Husserl speaks only of the intentional
object, that is, the object which exists in the framework
of transcendental consciousness and does not have to be
real. In principle, therefore, Husserl does not go beyond
the boundaries of the Cartesian position at this point.
Kant's approach to the problem is fundamentally different:
the consciousness of self, the "internal sense", must be
mediated by the consciousness of external objects, of real
material things. Kant certainly realises that not always
does representation of external things signify their actual
existence, as the facts of illusions, hallucinations etc. show,
that is, precisely those facts which form the starting point
of the assertions of Husserl and Descartes on the "certainty" of t he givenness of consciousness to itself and the
"uncertainty" of t he givenness of external objects to consciousness. But Kant writes that the illusions, hallucinations etc. "are themselves created by the reproduction of
previ~us external perceptions, which ... are possible only
through the reality of external objects ... Whether this or
that supposed experience be purely imaginary, must be
discovered from ~ts parti~u l 3! determinations,. and by
comparing t hese WIth the cntena of all real expenence."7 7
Now what has Kant succeeded in showing? First, that
empiric~ selfconsciousness (the "inner sense") necessarily
83

aJ;isum~s I?e!ception of, external objects independent of th

VI.
is heac
1IJte of

SciencE
coverin
of sciel
gy of
ICOres I

that

WI

numbel
fore ign

given IndiVIdual c~ms~lOusness. Second, that the unit

e
coherence of objective experience also signify
an?
ty and coherence of the cognizing sub]ect (thlS f utn.'o
"b
tIVe u,ruty
. 0 f sel f consciousness II inacKanIS
.
rme
.
e
0
Jec
th
d
te
ban eplstemol0!P'). Thud, that the cognitive relation t~
the ~xternal object IS also necessarily accompanied b
relatwn to the cognizing subject that is by dff Y a
forms of self-consciousness.
I
I
1 erent
H?wev~r, Kant makes a further step in propoundin a
thesIs whIch does not follow from the above assert
;
15 presente~. as their logical consequence. He fo;~~~a ut
the proposItion that obje~tive unity of se1f-consciousnets~s
or the tra?sc~ndent~ umty of apperception, is the basi;
~~. tt~, ?bJ~Ctlve umty of experience. The proposition "I
~~wle~~e ~~lar~~ t~ bet ththe supreme foundation of any
cart'
an. ~r~~y actually reverts to DesideJf~m~d that after cntlclsmg him for "problematic

thi

dif~e~.t O~o~h~~~fr~'~~~~tKat's position is essentially

the position of Husserl d .0 Descartes, but also from
Fichte. For Kant the proposition "1 think" U st
expression of a Us e': e.proposition '.'1 exist"), being an
self-consciousness p d~~s kin~ o~ conSCiousness, or rather
edge. A necessarY con ..no, owever, express knowlKant, is the givenness o~\~n of knowle:dge, according to
ri:ence ; that is to sa kne correspondmg object in expeClde. True, experienci itse o~ledge and experience coinsomething purely im
.If IS not understood by Kant as
opposed both to e~~d.la~e at all: his position here is
vertheless, synthesisin ~clSm. and phenomenology. Ne~ondition of experien~e ~h:dlate. sense components is a
IS no experience and co
re thIS does not occur there
E.'0r this reason,
t~~equently,
no knowledge. '
g(onJs of intellect by themsein eJamPle, the apriori cates:.~ no "substantive insi h~'~s.lOtonot c?ntain knowledge
therr content in the
. se ~f Husserl is POSSibl;) Th
h

fu

to

~~i
~K~~~~n~~!led~e
~h~r~r~l~l~
~;~~~gs~~!"
tC~~
. us ant separates thinki WI not be cognition

:ousness from knowled e ng from cognition and conknPrelsseds an act of self_~onscT~e proposition "I think"
ow e ge, for the b
lousness B t h
.
ing ego is not . 0 )ect correspond . u t at IS not
transce~dental a gIven in. any experie mg to it, the thinkitself. It can onfP~ceptlOn cannot ~ce. The subject of
ly hinted at:" thise th?ug~t of or so~~e the object of
...
uruty IS nothin
ow symbolical84
g more than the unity

in thought, by which no object is given; to which therefore the Gategory of substance which always presupposes a given intuition-canno t be applied. Consequently,
the subject cannot be cognized. The subject of the categories cannot, therefore, for the very reason that it cogitates
these, frame any conception of itself as an object of the
categories ... 7 9
It is important to' note that the Transcendental Ego
which, in Kant's view, underlies the whole experience,
cannot be directly grasped in the framework of his system.
Kant merely suggests that we logically deduce it as a kind
of otherwoll:dly entity of a "thing-in-itself".
Even if empirical reflexion (the subjective unity of selfconsciousness) is not, from Kant's standpoint, knowledge
in its own right, since its objects, given in the internal
sense, are devoid of a number of traits of real objects with
which external experience deals, transcendental reflex ion
(the transcendental unity of self-consciousness) is not
regarded as knowledge at all. (Let us recall that for Husserl
it is precisely transcendental reflexion that is an expression
of "absolute knowledge".) According to Kant, the Transcendental Ego is absolutely outside experience. As for
empirical self-consciousness, that is merely the Transcendental Ego appearing to the empirical subject as a
"thing-in-i tself". 80
This means in fact that Kant fails to substantiate knowledge through transcendental self-consciousness. He is
himself compelled to admit that there are no instruments
for passing on from the latter to the former within the
framework of finite, actually existing experience. Husserl's
method for implementing this transition through "direct
insight" into some "certainties" is unacceptable to Kant:
the Konigsberg philosopher believes that "certainty" in no
way ~arantees the actual existence of the corresponding
81
object.
"Deduction" of apriori forms of any knowledge from
the activity of the Transcendental Ego (Fichte's method)
is also impossible for him, for in Kant's view the ego as
the basis of lmowledge cannot be the object of experience and of knowledge, being a fundamentally extra-experiential "thing-in-itself". There can be even less possibility of substantiating knowledge through empirical (subjective) self_consciousness. The latter, as we know, implies
the existence of the world of material objects, and a knowledge of the~ is itself substant.iated thereby,. far from
being the bastS of knowledge. BeSIdes, the emplncal ego, as
Kant emphasises, cannot be a guarantee of the universality and necessity of the characteristics of any knowl85

VI~

is heac
.. te of
Sciena
coverin
of sciel
gy of

IeOres I
that WI
"umbel
foreign

edge precisely due to the empirical and accidental

nature
of the processes inherent in it.
That is why Kant's only way out is to assure h'
that the transition from the transcendental unity 0l~ reader
ception (regarded as the supreme basis of an kn apper.
to constituting experience. (that is, on the erne h':~dge)
world of objects appeanng to finite consclo
' the
II
all
al"
d
usness as
~mpmc y re
,an. on ~he other, the cones ond'
kinds of knowledge) IS realIsed in certain othe p ld~g
~pheres, "behmd the back" of empirical consciou:~r y
It were. This transition, called transcendental sy t~S, ~
expresses the self-activity of the Transcendental E n eSls,
The transcendental unity of apperception ~~refore
appears ~n two fonns! a~cording to Kant. Its profound
essence 18 expressed In Its self-activity that is in th
work of transcendental synthesis. It is the synth~tic Uni~
Y
transcendental. apperception that is the supreme
oun . atlOn of cogrution. Ali for the consciousness of the
Identity. of the cogitating subject, given to each em ir.
ICal mdiVIdual as the self-realisation "1 think"t
p
only as a fJ t
f
,I appears
Transcende~alecElOn 0 the sp(:mtaneous activity of the
ti t
. n
go, charactensmg not so much that ac
KVI as Its result-the identity of the ego with itself (1=1)
u anty s~gtrgests that the latter should be called the analy ticai
n o. anscendental apperception.
ut, msofar as the finite e .. al . d d
.
rect access to the Tr
mpmc 111 IVI ual has no di
chink throll h
.
3.!lscendental Ego but merely to a
~he Self_real~sa~~Ch"rlt:h?f ~~,s activity can be grasped in
Itself is given extre
m , ~e Transcendental Ego
Ka~tian philosophy ~IY t~ontradlctOry . c~aracte~istics in
a kind of deep force. n e one hand, It IS conSIdered as
something in commo~ mt~lf, and here Kant's views have
~h~ Transcendental SUbj:t . Halusserl's and Fichte's. But
m-Itself, a kind of oth c IS so declared to be a thing
~~meth.ing that is not e~~lor~dIY entity. Here it appears as
c.onsclOu~ness in general"Y m me l?ut ~lso outside me as
~mb~ all mdividual consc'. as an ObjectIve structure underII )ect should in thi
lousnesses. The Transcendental
rathe; than. "I" (and Ks.m~pect be referred to as "We"
~o':~ ~r~ublectivt: idealism ee~odoes so~. In other words,
~ of objective idealis
t at thIS point without
Th
US, In substanf t.
m.
all, to proceed f
l8. mg knOWledge K
ant tried, first of
final product 0 rom ":TIalYsis of the
structing the 10~ic~grlltiV~ .activity_:aracteristics of the
certain propositions CO~~!tlons of its g~wled~e-to reconthe results of mathe 0 t. common sen~~,r~lOn. Not only
rna les, of con temp
ut, above all,
86
orary mathemati-

i 0i
o

cal natural science (classical mechanics), and the results of

formal.logical studies, were chosen as the samples of knowl
edge that served as the reference points. Theoretically
separating and analytically investigating these various
kinds and types of imowledge, Kant singles out certain
structures and invariants in knowledge that was actually
available to him, and which characterised a definite period
in the development of consciousness. In this way he obtains some results that are not merely of historical interest.
But substantiation of the universality and necessity of
these results was only possible, from Kant's standpoint,
through correlating them with the activity of the Transcen
dental Subject, with the transcendental unity of self-consciousness. It is this task that Kant fails to solve, for his
system has no logical instruments for expressing the spontaneous activity of the Transcendental Ego. Therefore
Kant's epistemological conception, being indubitably subjective.idealistic, cannot nonetheless be regarded as "egology", unlike the transcendentalist systems of Fichte and
Husserl. Kant established a number of important moments
in the study of cognition and consciousness. But the prob
lem of substantiation of knowledge is not solved in his
conception either; nor can it be solved here, for his conception remains idealistic.
Thus we see that the attempts to substantiate knowl
edge and fathom the nature of cognition relying on the
postulate about the existence of a special kind of knowl
edge, indubitable, certain and directly pertaining to "pure
consciousness" prove unavailing. The so-called radical
reflexion about "pure" consciousness ("turning to look at
the subject", as HusserI puts it) cannot substantiate the objectiveness of experience and, moreover, cannot even guarantee in its framework the actual reality of other cognizing individuals ("other egos"). Neither is the question
of the nature of the ego and of the modes of comprehending it solved. The transcendentalist version of the subjective-reflective procedure for substantiating knowledge,
postulating the a priori nature of definite structures and
norms of everyday and special scientific knowledge, con
tradicts the development of modern scientific knowledge.
4. THE CONCEPTION OF THE "LIFE
WORLO" AND THE UNIQUENESS OF THE
PLACE OF THE EMPIRICAL SUBJECT
IN THE STRUCTURE OF EXPERIENCE

There are other influential variants of the idealistic solu

tion of the problem of substantiating knowledge in mod
87

VIM

is head
lUte of
Scje~

coyerin
of sciel
gy of
ICOrel (

that

w(

number
foreign

em bourgeois philosophy. The empirical

b'
~ special kind of unity of consciousness ~~ ~~ct. that, is,
IS regarded as the substantiating instance r th rporeahty
Transcendental Subject interpreted in it's ~
than th~
the world of real material objects from the 0 at:i~n from
porea1 individual and the commu'nity of thempIncal cor
On this path, an attempt is made to est~bli~h ~~ch egos.
sary dependences of knowledge and experien
e neeesThese approaches to understanding cogn~~'
parture from transcendentalism They d
l~n- are a de.
constit':lte a rejection of the interpretatio~ oioe' h?~ever,
determmed by the structure of indiv'd al
og~lItlOn as
Cons~iousness is merely understood 1n~t CO~~ClO~sne~;
~onsclO':Isness of a "pure" individual ego bu'f . e pur~
links wIth corporeality and its inclus'o . ill Its orgaruc
of interactions with other subjects Th~ ~~ t~.e network
~l-too manifest subjectivism of the' philosro~~c. I~n of the
IC c~n~p
tions based on "pure" consciousness d
bdreteaki~g away from idealism. This lastO~~~~!~t~~grup fy
e rmmes t h e untenabilit
f th
...."" resUbstantiati!n

tr.

~~~l~~~~~3!r~f

~f kn~!~e~~e~~~h ~e ss~~~

act~~~tt~t~lr~~ti~~teOfV:~:ksUbjfecHt outlined

here .is chareveryday

'. .
s 0
usser!. Opposmg the
(Lebens-we)~r~~Iet~~f~cb .an~ ~xtra-scientific "life world"
science Husserl end
Jechfled world of mathematicised
theoretical attitude ~vt"ls ~o dPr~ve ~hat the scientificdimensions from h '
1 e. IS "e.nvahve in its essential
t
the world whiCh e unmed~at~, life-oriented" attitude to
At the same tt~~h aracten.stlc of the Lebens-Welt.
a tendency (and it ! t~e ~hi1bsop~er believes. science has
ic-theoretical "form I~talien~~lY ~herent in the scientifself from the "life" cogmtlOn Itself) to separate itit were, and to unde t:k urces , to forget about them as
the "life world"
e ?onstructions that are rootect in
f~ gi'!ennesses. ;hls not 10 the ,pre-theoretical meaningthat IS. ~h,e path of formal istIc objectivism, inevitabithi
y
~ paradoxes to a Cris' .ea~s cogmtlOn into cul-de-sacs
r usserl's vie"';, is charac~~~/ts foundations, and this, i~
ary European SCience (th IC of the whole of contempo1930s). The only way t ese statements date from the
~nd ~~e crisis of its f~w~ds. SUbstantiation of science
~ cnsl~ o! the whole of ~n atlons is at the same time
fue s~tI!~l~n of Co~ition %Op:~~ cul~ure), and towards
binds the lat~est of ~lence and grec raJ,. lS through finding
ditional, restri~~dSClentific_theoreticv~nng t.h~ thread that
, and dependent t cogmtlOn. The can88
na ure of the scientific

spirit of "pure objectiveness" will thus be demonstrated

depriving objectivism and scientism closely associated with
it of the status of a universal worldview orientation. The
imme.diate " life world" underlying all human modes of
relation to reality, including scientifictheoretical cognition, is, in Husserl's view. marked by a specific unity of the
objective and the subjective, the source of unity lying in
the subject, the unity itself being "centred" on the individual empirical ego.
Indeed, continues Husserl's argument, what is given to
the empirical subject in the first place is the subject itself as the individual ego with the consciousness and
unique body inherent in it.
All the necessary relations of experience are determined
precisely through the properties of the individual subject.
It is well known, for instance, that objective experience
implies the existence of a generally significant network of
spatial relations which determines the mutual arrangement
of material objects (let us recall that for Kant the forms of
spatial dependences, as distinct from temporal ones, are
mostly modes of expression of the objective nature of
experience). But in what way is the spatial structure of
experience formed?-asks Husserl.
The principal spatial meanings are "here" and "there".
"Here' is .the .place where I with my body am ' or , to be
more preCIse, it is my body. What is there'? 'There' defines itself through here. If there is no 'here' there is no
'there'. 'There' is 'not-here' that can become h~re. 'There'
is understood as a potential 'here', it is understood in terms
of 'here'. 'There' defines itself relative to 'here', that is to
my body. 'There' defines itself depending on the extent
and the manner in which it is transformed into here'.
'There' is 'remote' if it is hard to transform it into 'here'; it
is
'close' when it is easily transformed into here ... What is'
.
ill concrete
terms, the transformation of 'nothere' into
'here:, that is, the attainment of there'? 'There' is the
place where not-my body is, or rather, it is not-my body.
Therefore the transformation of 'there' into 'here', that is,
the attainment of there, signifies the transformation of
not-my body into mine, into a continuation of my body ...
The transformation of not-my body into a continuation of
my body therefore means its transformation into my instrument. But the condition of transforming some body into my instrument is its transformation into a continuation of my body, that is, its attainment in the sense of
my body's simple contact with it. 'Contact' is here meant
in the broadest sense of the word. Seeing with an eye constitutes a special kind of this contact."8 2
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If we ignore this relatio~ o.f "~ere" and "there" to the

individual subject, any dIstmctlOn between them will
lose its meaning states Husserl.
The relation~ between "in front" and "behind", "on
the right" and "on the left",. "higher" an~ "lower", are
defined in a similar way. that IS, on the baSIS of the possi.
bility of transformation of "there" into "here", he believes.
.
"In front" is that which IS before my face, "behind"
that which is at my back and to which I must turn in order to attain it; "higher" is that which is above my head,
"lower" that which is under my feet, etc. If we ignore the
relation 'of these differences to different parts of my body
and the possibilities of attaining them, the differences
themselves will disappear. If there were no differences
between the parts of my body, there woud be no differences between ''in front" and "behind", u on the right"
and "on the left", etc.
Further Husserl analyses the stages in the "objectification" of spatial relations, that is, the stages of abstracting
them from those initial dependences of origin which connect them with the individual subject and the subject's body.
One of these stages consists in transferring, as it were,
the point of reference, that is, "here", from my body to
some other (which originally emerged as existing "there"),
and in defining the spatial relations of other things,
starting from the latter (which
does not coincide with
my own) e.g., we say that the river is not far from the
ho.use, that one ?bject is to the right of another, etc. In
thiS case we defme the spatial relations between things
~e~ardless of our body, as it were, ignoring it. However, it
15 unportant to be~r in mind, Husserl points out, that it
only became possIble because we tentatively identified
our~lves, o.ur body, with that body which we chose as the
startm~ p.omt. of ,def~ing spatial relations, putting ourselv~s m unagmatlOn m place of that body, since for the
bod,les ta~en ,as such, that is, outside their relation to the
s~b)e,~t Wlt,~ Its body, there are no relations like "on the
nght or on the ,left", "close" or "far", etc. But that
means, Hu~erl beheves, that CCobjective" spatial relations
between thmgs are ultimately determined through my
body, through m~ as the subject,
stertaP~ m t~e "objectification" of space involve
th eFurtherf
.
use 0 ce In umversal stand d f
that is of some special b'
ar s or measurmg length,
, "
speCifically
for expressin0 )ects
th which
' are ~anu f ac t ured
objects. In this case, we ~an kn~;tlal relations betw~n
tion even distances that
' through Commumca,
we cannot observe directly. Using
90

universal standards can consolidate the illusion of independence of the spatial relations of objects from the subject
and its body, However, Husserl continues, the standard of
measurement is not only chosen as such by the subject but
is constituted in its spatial properties only through its relation to the subject's body, that is, through the "here/there" relation.
The "objectiveness" of space, he explains, "does not
lie in the independence of spatial meanings from the subject but in their equal repetitiveness. I can, in principle,
repeat the position which I onc,e assum~d relative to a
definite thing and then the spatIal meanmg of the latter
will be repeated. I can, in principle, repeat the position
occupied by another subject relative to some thing, and
then again the spatial meaning of the latter will be repeated. Objectiveness lies precisely in this repetition of meanings; it should be remembered,,~owever, that ~epetition of
meanings depends on the repetItIOn of the pOSItIons of the
subject. "8 3
As we see, from Husserl's viewpoint, "objectiveness" of
space assumes the existence of other empirical subjects and
my definite relation to these subjects. In general, the objectiveness of experience, Husserl indicates, implies its
intersubjectivity, that is, its universal significance for
all the other subjects.
But what does "another subject" mean?
Another subject, Husserl believes, is constituted in the
same way as the spatial dependences of experience are constituted by their relation to me, Among the bodies SUI
rounding me there are those that are similar to mine in
the mode of their functioning. If I were at the place w~ere
such a body is it might serve me and my conSCIOUS
intentions. (Thus the subject is for Husserl not just a body
of a special kind but a unity of conscious!1ess and corporeality.) In th is way, on the analogy WIt~ mysel,f, ,the
meaning of "another subject" is formed wh~ch, as dlstmc,t
from myself, is not given me directly but IS only constItuted by myself,
The body of another subject, on the one han~, belongs
to my world, for it is constituted by myself, while 0": the
other hand it belongs to the world of that other subject.
Therefore my world must coincide with his world. This
world, common to ourselves and ~l the ,?th~r sl:lbj~cts and
having a meaning common to all, IS the objectIve world.
In other words, the obj~tiven~ss of th~ \~o,rld consists, ~c
cording to Husserl, in Its uOlversal slgn~lcance, that IS,
in the universal meaning it has f<;>r any subject, rather than
in its independence from the subject.
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According to Husserl, scientific-theoretical cognit ion

concerned with finding and analysing invariants of variou~
measurements and later of invariants of these invariants
abstracts fro~ the determination of the measurements by
the nature of the standards chosen which, in their turn, are
constituted by their relation to the individual subject wit h
its body. Identifying the invariants established by science with the objective world, this mathematicised sc ience
interprets objectiveness as complete independence from
any subject whatever. The fundamental fact is forgotte n,
Husserl believes, that the meaning of the objectiveness
of the world is constituted by the subject and is de termined relative to it and to its body. (The universal significance of the world, its intersubjectivity itself, ultimately
depends on myself as the individual subject, Husser! states,
for the other subject is also constituted by myself, in my
experience.) Carried away by the ideal of false ly conceived
objectivity, mathematicised science succumbs to the sin of
scientism, inevitably ending in a crisis of its own foundations. The only way out of this crisis is establishment
of the meaning of the individual subject as the centre of
the universe-thus ends Husser! his discussion of this theme.
Let us try to analyse these arguments and see if they
are well grounded. Husser! starts from the fact (which he
regards as primary given ness) that the individual subject
is given to itself with its consciousness and body. The primary spatial meaning of "here" is determined in his view,
by its connection with this subject. As for the meaning
of "the!e", whit:h belongs to something that lies outside
the subject a~d its body, ~t is, in Husserl's opinion, constituted or defmed dependmg on the meaning of " here"
namely as something that can become " here" that ca~
~ attained ~y the subject corning into direct co~tact with
~ts body. It IS easy to show, however, that this analysis is
m~d~quate even by the criteria of phenomenological descnptlOn . Th~ point i~ that "here" already subsumes "there",
these" mea~~ngs bemg mutually dependent. It is true
;pat ,~her~ can be transformed into "here", can become
here. It IS also ~rue that "here" is "not-there". In other
~ords,,, the. m.eanmg of "here" implies the meaning of
there .. It IS Just as true that "here" is "there" from the
standpomt of anothe! subject or, generally speaking, from
another ~eference pomt .. If there is no dependence of this
seco~d k~nd for the subject, there is no meaning of "here"
for It either .. The "here/there" relation implies equal
role of both of Its poles.
. Of course, the elementary "here/there" spatial relation
mcludes a reference to the individual subject, for the
92

"here" meaning has sense only for that subject. At the same
time the meaning of "here" includes from the beginning' the' fact that it is "there" from another viewpoint
from another position, while "there" is that which exist~
outside the subject and its body. Therefore the reference
to the individual subject in the "here/there" relation
does not mean constituting that relation as depending on
the subject and its body but a realisation (with varying
degrees of clarity) of the incorporation of the empirical
subject in a certain network of objective spatial relations
appearing for it at the given point as the meaning of
"here".
Husserl shows the dependence of the relations
"above/below", "in fro nt/behind", "on the left/on the
right", etc. on my body and differences between its parts.
It can be conceded that these meanings have a certain
anthropomorphic colouring, implying as they do are
ference to the subject and the various parts of the subject's
body. However, the su bject 's body itself exists as a special
type of object for it only if it appears as included in an
objective network of relations, including spatial relations,
with other bodies, both material things and the bodies of
other subjects. For me to realise t he various parts of my
body (including those which I do not see under ordinary
conditions: face, head, back, etc.) as forming a certain
unity, belonging to one and the same object, I must
possess the faculty of perceiving my body from the outside, as it were, from the standpoint of another subject, that
is to say, as spatially localised and existing in certain
relations with other bodies. In other words, constituting
the "in front/behind" and other meanings already assumes
the existence for the subject of a definite network of
elementary objective spatial relations and is merely sup~r
imposed on this network, so to speak, far from determming the latter, as Husserl insists.
In other words the subject may conceive of itself as
being in the place 'of so~e other object.a~d ta~e this other
object. as a reference pomt for determmmg dIstance, e.g.,
for determining the "close/far" relations, only if it is simultaneously capable of conceiving of its body as replace
able by any other body as the determinant of spatial dependences.
.
. .
Husserl points to the connectIOn between the obJectivity of space and the possibility of repeating the position
taken up by t he subject relative to a certain thing. But the
conception of the possibility of repe~ting the subject's
spatial position already assumes the eXIstence for the subject of an objective network of spatial relations that lends
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sense to the taking up of a certain position, just as it

implies the objective meaning of the subject's body and
spatial localisation.
It is of course true that the introduction of universal
standards or scales for measuring spatial relations and later, the establishment of invariants of these relatio~s at
the stage of scientific-theoretical cognition, mark the discovery of increasingly more general dependences of the
objective world, accompanied by abstraction from those
connections which include in these dependences a certain empirical subject or group of such subjects (a sociocultural community), A transition is necessary, however
to the study of more general types of dependences and
stages of "objectification" of the original, purely "subj~ctive", meanings, as Husserl would have it. Any expe!1ence, howeye~ d~ect and "life-like" it might be, always
mcludes a dlstmctlOn between my subjective stream of
consciousness and the objective system of dependences bet,:,,~en material objects, if it lays a claim to cognitive signiflcance. Therefore, however great the differences between scientific-theoretical cognition and those forms of
pre-theoretical relation to the world which Husserl calls
th~ "life world" (and these differences undoubtedly do
eXIst and ar~ of fundamental significance in certain
a~pects). all kmds of the cognitive relation are inevitably
auned. at the world of objects existing independently from
consc~ou~n~ss. that is, they are inevitably guilty of the "sin
of ~b)e.ctIvlSm", as H~sserl puts it, which in the philosopher s VIew predetermmed the crisis of the foundation of
modem European science.
The attempt to place the subject in the "centre" of the
cosmos and t? ?educe the objectiveness of the world from
the charactenstl~s of the individual subject was not a success, for t?e ~ubJect proves to be included in a certain system of Ob]ectl,;,e dependences from the very outset.
. Let us consIder yet another element of Husserl's analysIS. We may ~ecall, that ,the, o~jectiveness of the world is,
for Hu~ser~ . Identical wIth Its mtersubjectivity that is uni.
ver~ sl~ntflcance ~f its meanings for any subject Th~ latter ImplIes the, eXIstence ?f a~other subject, ap~ from
myself. But ~hl~ oth~r subject IS originally constituted by
n:yself, th~t IS, l~ eXlS~s a~ a definite product of my cogni;~~~,:p;~~~~e~~~~gyx~~S }n my lerxperience and is under0 myse . That means that when
H u~ser.I ta kes up the standpoint
of the other and st
cogltatmg about the body of this other subject al
~h
myself and .my body. also existing in the ex'pe~~:c;:l of
that other, It should be remembered th at ,In
. th e fr arn e-

not

94

work of his philosophy, the other subject cannot in principle be equipollent with myself, being ultimately constituted by myself, whereas I with my body am given to
myself directly and am the true starting point of constituting all the dependences of experience. An,d that r,n e3!ls
that the thesis of Husserl's philosophy of the mtersubjectlVity and universal significance of the world actually proves
to be fictitious, and that in the final analysis Husserl
cannot escape from the circle of solipsism which he himself drew.
5. THE INTERPRETATION OF COGNITION
AS CONDITIONED BY THE INDIVIDUAL
CONSCIOUSNESS AND, AT THE SAME
'TIME, MYSTIFYING THE
ESSENCE OF THE LATTER, THE EGO,
"THE OTHERS", AND THE WORLD
OF OBJECTS

Any attempt to understand the specific features of

knowledge is bound to take into account the fundamental
facts-that the empirical subject is necessarily included or
incorporated in the world of material objects existing independently of it and of its consciousness, and that the
other subjects are not less real than myself, and cannot
be regarded as products of my experience only.
There is a conception in modern Western philosophy
which endeavours to take these fundamental facts into
account within the scope of an originally interpreted phenomenology and at the same time to link up the fundamental traits of knowledge and of the cognitive relation
with the specific characteristics of the individual empirical subject. This attempt is undertaken by Jean-Paul
Surtre a prominent modern French phenomenologist
and e~istentialist in his main philosophical work Being

and Nothingness. 84
Let us point out from the beginning that epistemological problems the question of substantiation of knowledge, are not 'the f~cal points of Sart!e's analysis, al~hough
he offers his solutton of these questIOns. The relatton between subject and object is considered in his works within
the framework of a definite conception of consciousness
and man. But Sartre's interpretation of the relation between consciousness and knowledge is of interest for our
discussion.
The starting point of his cogitations is recognition of
the existence of two realities: of the objective material
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being which he refers to as Being In-Itself, and conscious_

ness, or Being For-Itself. The former exists by itself and
does not need the latter. The latter is, however, impossib.
Ie without the former, for it has no content at all, is absolutely empty I transparent, open both to the external
world and to itself, is, in a word, a Unothingness", a "hole"
in Being In-Itself, a hole which has no density at all and
continually needs to be filled. However, precisely because
consciousness is a kind of "gap" in material being it is
excluded, as it were, from the action of all the substantive connections and dependences, and is absolutely free.
Consciousness is thus not just emptiness filled with content given from the outside but a being of a special kind
a centre of free activity.
'
The content provided by Being In-Itself does not deter~ine the activity of consciousness but merely serves as a
kind o~ prete~t forA. a ~ridgehead fo~ its unfolding. However, smce thIS a~tIvity 1~ not determmed by content given from the outside and IS at the same time devoid of its
own inner content, it is essentially a negation of any sort
of de'pendenc~ . It is in negation that the freedom of
conSClQusness 15 e?C-pressed, according to Sartre.
At the same tIme Sartre states that consciousness does
not exist o~tsi~e the mat~rial world, outside Being InItself. In his vIew, conSCIousness cannot be similar to
~.nt.'s or Husserl.'s TranS?endental Subject, first, because
It IS mcluded, ~s It were,. In t~e world of material objects,
though !lot bemg an object Itself (Sartre criticises in this
connectIon l;iusserl's doctrine of transcendental reduction
of. ep~he), .ru:d second, because it factually, empirically
eXIsts In defIru~e concrete situations and is connected with
the body of a .glven empirical subject.
Moreoyer! 10 a certain sense consciousness, Being For~ts~lf,. c<:>mcI?es with the body of the empirical subject and
IS mdlstm~ush~ble from it. The reference here is to that
aspect .WhIC~ . m Sartre's view, specifically characterises
~h~ baslc on~nal. perception by the individual of his own
o y an d which IS fundamentally different from the wa
I and m ~ody are pe.rceived by another subject. In the pruIllr' ongmal expenence, Sartre argues I do
t
delve ~YSelf as an object. The eye does' not seen~tsel~eri
ogje~~ a~~nmYot~~re'oI .cannot c~mceive of myself as ~
exists outsid: myself a~~c~Selo~~!e~~ t~e so~et.hllng that
to Being In-Itself. However I
e. rna ena. world,
perceptions from the move~en~~~t ;.ecelve certam sense
rate, that is what psychology says Th~ ~swsenrt~Ody. fAt ~ny
tific psychology Sart
.
IOns 0 sClen
,
re says, proceed from the existence
96

of my body as a material object among other objects, connecting my definite experiences with processes in my bo~y
understood in this way. But the essence of the matter IS,
according to Sartre, that the individual's body. is not given
him in the basic primary experience as an object, and he
therefore cannot in principle connect any processes in
his consciousness with his body understood as an object
(he cannot in principle localise any sense perceptions,
e.g., the sensation of pain; he cannot associate his experiences with his own physical state, etc.). At the outset,
the individual is given only the world of external material
objects and himself as different from these objects, as consciousness, as Being For-Itself. To the extent in which experiences have a certain "density", they pertain to external
objects. For instance, if I sense resistance in acting upon an
external object, the resistance itself is not perceived as
connected with the action of my hand characterising my
subjective experience, one that is "in me", but as pertaining to the objective properties of the external objects
and expressing their traits, in this case the measure of their
resistance. Pain is not something localised in me either,
but that which expresses the properties of some objects
under definite circumstances. As for my body, in its
primary and basic sense it, first, determines the factuality
of my consciousness, that is, the concrete objective situation in which I find myself (in particular, it detennines
"where" exactly I am), and second, it functions as the
possibility and the mode of the activity of my consciousness, of Being For-Itself, essentially coinciding with the
latter. 85
Thus Sartre has an original conception of consciousness
which does not coincide with the widely accepted one.
Consciousness or Being For-Itself, writes Sartre, is not the
same as the psyche or the subjective world characterised
by certain processes, connections, dependences, complicated mechanisms special types of relations between conscious and uncon'scious phenomena etc., a world that is the
subject-matter of special studies in scientific psychology.
Consciousness, Being For-Itself, is in principle apsychological. The emergence of a special subje~tiv~ .wo!ld is,
according to Sartre, a consequ.ence of obJectlf~catIOn of
consciousness and expresses a dlstorted conceptIOn of the
basic and primary characte~istics of Being For-Itself ~nd at
the same time the ontological fact of the degradatIOn of
consciousness itself.
As we see far from relying on the assertions of scientific psychology, Sa~re endeav.ours to prove th~ dubi~ty
of some of its baSIC abstractIOns and assumptIOns. LIke
4 -763

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Husserl he insists that phenomenological description does

not imply any scientific results, and that it is science that
has to reckon with the results of phenomenological anal
ysis rather than vice versa. (Among other things, Sartre's
understanding of the world of ~ate~~l Being. InItself does
not coincide with the natural,sclentlflC doctnne of matter,
as we have had occasion to see above.)
Let us now consider the following important point of
Sartre's reasoning. That relation between Being In Itself
and Being For-Itself of which we spoke above is, for him,
not only the basic and primary point but also an expression of the true essence of their relations, the essence
which is under usual circumstances fenced off, put away,
hidden distorted by various circumstances. For this
reason,' for instance, when the subject is capable of localising the feeling of pain in some part of his body, when he
scrutinises the world of his experiences and correlates
them with the past and present events of his life, when
he follows the development of his own thought and controls this process, in all these cases, says Sartre, the genuine characteristics of consciousness, of Being For-Itself,
are distorted.
Consciousness as "nothingness" does not coincide with
the psychical life of the empirical ego but underlies the latter, being hidden in its depth. (It is important to note that
from Sartre's standpoint the situation where consciousness
proves to be something lying deeply in the foundation of
the individual ego, of his psychical life, reveals the ontological fact of distorted expression of the true nature of consciousness. It is a question of the situation as it is rather
than ~f our distorted understanding, for consci~usness
has neIther depth nor essence of any kind.) On the one
hand, consciousness determines the entire course of the
psychical life of the ego, the whole of the individual
subjective biography, while on the other hand it is not
only different from that biography but is also' distorted
~y it. At the same time consciousness, according to Sartre,
15 not the Transcendental Ego in the sense of Husserl either: first, because it is factual and not transcend~ntal
coincid.ing as it does with the subject's body understood ~
a certam manner; second, any ego, including the Transcende.ntal Ego, has a ce;tain inner definiteness, density, certain con~~t. Consclousness is entirely devoid of such
content, 1t IS absolutely empty. Therefore it is not the ego
concludes Sartre.
'
Ordi.nary. subjective l.iCe neces-'YIrily assumes reflexion.
Re.flexlon 18 only possIble on condition that its object
exISts and catches the subject's inner eye. True conscious98

ness, Being For-Itself, Sartre believes, is absolutely transparent, it is a complete vacuum which the inner eye pierces
without stopping anywhere or being reflected by anything.
Therefore self-consciousness, the relation of the subject to
itself which is characteristic of consciousness (and this
relation is continual ly realised, Sartre believes, for consciousness clearly distinguishes itself from the outset from
the world of things-in-themselves) is not reflexion. Consciousness is in principle pre-reflexive, in Sartre's view.
Reflexion emerges together with its object, the ego, and
in a certain sense produces the object itself. Sartre points
out the important fact which also played a fundamental
role in t he philosophical system of Fichte and which we
shall later analyse on the positive plane. The fact is .that individual refiexion aimed at consciousness does not simply
find before itself a ready-made object in the shape of the
ego and its states but, being an activity of a certain kind,
acts on its object, changes it, reconstructs and in a certain sense creates it.
For Fichte, this positing of oneself as the Absolute Subject in the form of one's own object was the kind of determination of the indeterminate which was not only
involved in the shaping of the ego and the contrapositing
of ego to non-ego but which also revealed the inner essence
of the Absolute Subject. For Sartre, the positing of the ego
as the object of reflex ion and the coming of the latter on
the scene does not in any way reveal the nature of consciousness. Moreover, Sartre believes that at the stage of reflexion the purity of consciousness is distorted and consciousness itself degraded. At the same time, according to Sartre
(and here there is another difference between him and
Fichte), there is no Transcendental or Absolute Ego, the
ego can only be empirical, expressing as it does the unique
traits of the given individual person distinguishing him
from all the other egos. Let us note that consciousness,
Being For-Itself, is, according to Sartre, also individual in
a sense, so that different empirical subjects have different
consciousnesses. However, if the ego expresses a certain
density, a unity of an individual biography, and the subject's personal traits, consciousness or Being For-Itself is
in itself empty and impersonal. Therefore different
consciousnesses differ from each other merely as different
centres of free activity, as structureless points of activity
included in different factual situations. Of course, in our
experience we distinguish between consciousnesses on the
basis of their connections with different individual egos.
But this differentiation does not characterise the metaphysical distinctions between consciousnesses, 50 to speak.
99

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Thus, according to Sartre, the, ego. as an expression of

the unity of the subject's psychical hf~ does ~ot express
the essence of consciousness and even distorts It, to a cer
tain extent. The ego may be said to ,be "invente,d",.'?Y the
subject-with the essential reservation that this mV,ention" is realised in constant co.n~acts and com!f1umcation with other subjects. T~e posltm,g of the ego 15 an attempt to introduce determmateness lOto the fundamentally indeterminate life of consciousness, ~o l~n~ consciousness density and substantionality. makmg It Its own object.
.
. '
At the same time, accordmg to Sart~e . Co.nSClOusne.ss IS
continually inclined towards substa.ntlVlSatlOn, pre~tSely
because it is void and needs t~ be filled. ~owever, It endeavours to fill itself, to acqulIe content, m such. a. way,
as not to lose its primary faculty, that of the activIty of
free negation, the activity of desubstanti~isatio~. In ot~er
words consciousness endeavours to turn Itself 1Oto a k10d
of sy~thesis between Being In-Itself and Being F?r-Itself,
which is impossible because of the mutu:aI.ly e.xcluslve characteristics of the two. Therefore the reIflcatlon of self by
consciousness, acquiring features of a certain ego, is ~~
companied by continual attempts to sublate t~at reIflcation. This sublation, however, is not expressed 10 rev~rt
ing to the purity and Hcontentlessness" of t~e. Bemg
For-Itself but in constant positing of ever new deflOitenesses of consciousness as a succession of the characteristics
of the ego inherent in it. Man's personality is something
subject to changes. The ego is not equal to itself, a~es
Sartre against the formula of Descartes, Kant, and FIChte. 86 Inasmuch as consciousness cannot acquire any final
objective image in the shape of a certain ego, one cannot
say what it is. Consciousness is that which it is not, and it
is not that which it is, asserts Sartre.
Sartre therefore separates in principle the cognitive relation which implies the existence of the object, from the
act of self-consciousness pertaining to being that is in
principle unobjectifiable, Being For-Itself. We remember
that Kant also separates cognition, the relation of the subject to the object, from self-consciousness, the relation of
the Transcendental Subject to itself, insisting that the latter is not given in experience and therefore cannot be an
object of knowledge. However, for Kant the Transcendental Subject exists as an otherworldly, transcendental
entity, as a thing-in-itself, which, although it is not an object of knowledge, can still be conceived of. For Sartre
consciousness, Being For-Itself, does not know itself'
cannot be the object of its own cognition precisely for th~
100

reason t hat it has no essence and is devoid of any depth.

For the pre~ent, we shall put off the analysis of Sartre's
understanding of the external world, concentrating now
on Sartre's interpretation of the process of self-cognition,
of reflex ion . Reflexion is, in Sartre's view, to some extent fictitious, for it is incapable of grasping the true
nature of consciousness. This fictitiousness does not mean,
however, that it has no 'object of its own or that it does
not express its specific features. Such an object is always
present: that is the individual ego, and reflex ion is adequate to that ?t'ject (Sartre criticises in this connection the
doctrine of the unconscious in its Freudian version).87
The point, however, is that the object (the ego and its
states) emerges together with reflexion, is its result, and
does not express the true nature of consciousness. (Sartre
critically' assesses both introspective psychology and Husserlian phenomenological psychology.)
How does reflexion emerge? It appears as a result of a
relation to another subject. The given individual consciousness by itself, outside a relation to other consciousnesses,
is incapable of generating reflexion, insists Sartre in opposition to the philosophical tradition represented by Descartes, Kant, Fichte, and Husserl, and one has to admit
that he is much closer to the truth at this point than the
tradition.
The other subject, Sartre believes, is just as real as
myself, and cannot be regarded as simply the result of my
constitutive activity contrary to what Husserl thought. At
the same time, according to Sartre, my conviction in the
existence of another consciousness is by no means based
on cognition (no cognitive procedures will ever convincingly prove the existence of somebody else's consciousness,
Sartre affirms), but is a kind of primary ontological givenness of t he same type as t he given ness of the external
objective world to our consciousness. However, what is
directly given to me is the existence of somebody el~'s
consciousness itself but not the possibility of penetrating
that consciousness. Different conscio usnesses are in principle separated and cannot merge with one another. Besides, the other consciousness is given in my experience as
connected with the body of another subject. This body
appears as a material object localised in space and adjacent to and interacting with other material objects.
Though cognition of external actions, the reactions of this
other subject's body conditioned by external stimuli, as
well as of the nervous processes taking place in this body,
does have some meaning, it does not at all characterise.
Sartre believes, the free consciousness of the other subject
101

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which actually underlies all its actions. (Sartre adds a

critique of psychological behaviourism to the critique of
introspective psychology.)
Thus the body of another subject appears in myexper_
ience as an object of a special kind, as it does not appear
to the other subject itself, just as my body is not originally an object for me, being merged with my own cO,nSCiOUSness. It is precisely the fact tilat another conSClousness
appears in my experience as inseparably linked. with an
object of a special kind, the body of another subject, that
compels me to, tre~t the .othe!' ~ubject ,generally as an
object of a specIal kind, uruque In Its physlcal and psychological characteristics, and to ''insert'' the conscious processes "in" that body. that is, to constitute a special
"world of the subjective life of consciousness", a world of
psychical processes existing in definite relations with the
material corporeal processes. At the same time the relation to the other person compels me to recognise myself
as "another" for that other subject (that recognition is at
tained in the process of communication with the latter)
and to ascribe myself all the characteristics which the
latter has in my experience. And that means that consciousness begins to treat itself in the same way as another
treats it, that is, as a subject possessing a body in the shape
of a material object localised in space and endowed with
psychical experiences placed "within" that body. The subject comes to distinguish these experiences and their
course [rom the course of the objective processes of the
external world, positing the unity of its psychical life as a
special object, the ego. The objectification, the reiCi
cation of self as a person, as the ego, thus implies the
other person's view, a view of self from the outside from
the standpoint of the possible "another". It is in this con
nection that reOexion emerges, being, according to Sartre
the product of communication with other subjects.
'
The process of objectification of consciousness of trans.
forming it into the ego as the object of another conscious.
neu, and later of the subject ~tselr, goes through several
stages. At one of them consciousness merely feels itself
the object of another subject but does not fully know it.
s~tr m this cap~city. This ~appens when the given Being
}o or.It.8ctr feels Itself the object of scrutiny on the part of
anothf'r. (the proble~ of "scrutiny" has an important
onto\oli'j('al meam~g .m Sartre's philosophy). Only as a
rf'luit of commumca~lon With another can consciousness
throuM:h la~gu~e, .0bJectify itself to the end and generat~
rf'nf'~lon . rhe tndlVldu.al subject, therefore, which &ees it.. If 10 the ml1Tor and IS at the same time deprived of the
102

possibility of communication, cannot in principle recog

nise itself in the mirror image (this image merely appears
to it as a strange play of external objects), for it does not
exist for itself as an object outside of communication
with others.
For Sartre, objectification of consciousness through a
relation to another is an indication of the ontological degradation of Being For-Itself.
My ego does not express my true nature, Sartre believes.
Although consciousness internally gravitates towards ob
jectification, although it performs this objectification itself and is responsible for it, it appears as something imposed by the external relation to other consciousnesses,
by the process of communication. The relation to another
does not follow logi.cally from the nature of Being For-Itself. That other consciousnesses apart from my own exist
is a real and fundamental fact, but it is metaphysically
accidental . A situation is conceivable in which my consciousness would exist in solitude, Sartre believes. 88 I
do not know myself, for roy reflex ion pertains only to the
external integument of my consciousness. an integument
existing as the ego. At the same time I have, in principle,
an access to my consciousness and a capacity for directly
grasping it in the form of a nonobjectifying pre-reflective
act of self-consciousness. As for the other, according to
Sartre, I do not know his true depth, for I deal only with
his external visage, but moreover, unlike in my own case,
I have no possibility at all to penetrate his consciousness
from the inside, for, to perform that feat. I must be in
his place, whereas different consciousnesses are individual.
they are metaphysically distinct. The other is given in my
experience as an expression of a certain individual con
sciousness which is just as real as my own. At the same
time I can grasp or comprehend the other only as a body,
as a material object endowed with the psyche, Sartre
insists; the conditions of the problem predetermine in this
case the impossibility of solving it. Meanwhile, the tendency of Being ForItself towards substantivisation, towards
meaningful filling is also necessarily connected with the de
sire for merging or fusing with another consciousness. The
impossibility of the latter predetermines the tragedy of
individual existence.
Now, what about the cognition of the external world, of
Being in -Itself; how does Sartre solve the problem of substantiation of knowledge?
The world of objective material things pertaining to
Being inltself is given to consciousness directly. he believes. In terms of content, the cognitive or subject-object
103

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entirely ~eterm.ined by the exter?al o bject, for

conSCIOusness by ltself 15 empty. Only 'nothingness"
separates it from the world of external objectiveness. How.
ever, this distinction between cognition and the external
world is at the same time fundamental for it means that
consciousness, being a "nothingness", can never simply
merge with the world of objects or merely absorb their
content. The cognitive relation of consciousness to material being necessarily includes the element of negation that
is inherent in consciousness. This negative activity of consciousness coincides, according to Sartre, with the primary
basic characteristics of time. The objective spatial relation~
of material objects inherent in Being In-Itself necessarily
appear in the cognitive process in the forms of time so
that time itself, which originally coincided with B~ing
For-Itself, is "spacified" acquiring the characteristics of
objectiveness. The interaction of the spatial and temporal features of experience produces various forms of the
necessary structural organisation of knowledge (types of
causal dependence, constancy of the objects of knowledge relative to the flow of time, etc.). It is these fundamental features of the cognitive relation that underlie any
~o",:ledge, including scientific knowledge. To find out the
mv~ant characteristics of experience, science constructs a
~ertain system of abstract or ideal objects. But these obJects are, accord~g to Sartre, essentially fictitious, being in
themsel~es dev~ld of content and performing a purely
pragmabc function. The meaning of scientific-theoretical
knowled~e is determine~ by the primary cognitive relation
of consciousness to Bemg In-Itself, although science itsel( forgets about it, claiming to discover the hidden
essen.c~ of thin~s that is not immediately given in primary
cogrutlve expenence.89
Ali we see, Sartre endeavours, in the final analYSiS, to
ded~c~ the funda~~ntal P:op~r:ties of knowledge from the
specI.hc charactenstlcs of mdlvldual consciousness and its
relation to the world of objects.
ti In lartre's view, however, scientific-theoretical cognidon. oes not kn~w the true properties of Being In-Itself
eb~hng merely With abstract invariant relations betweer:
o JCts.
ti ThefPrimo~ial, pre-scientific and pre-theoretical rela0!l? conSClousn~ss to Being In-Itself grasps the charactensbcs ~f the objects themselves, but no cognitive act
!1lay be ~l~ected at c~msciousness and its relations includ_
m~ CO~l.'llttve ones, smce consciousness is in prindipl
objectlflabJe. That means accordin to S
e Unproblem of substantiation' of knowle~ge can~r~'bethtaht the
e ob10.

ject of theoretical inquiry, that is to say, epistemology in

the traditional sense of the term is impossible. The primary
specific properties of Imowledge are not found through
cognitive research of a special kind of objects but comprehended
through phenomenological non-objectifying
insights into consciousness and its relations with Being InItself.
Speaking more precisely, however, the establishment of
the dependence of the fundamental characteristics of cognition and lmowledge on the features of consciousness
does not, according to Sartre, solve the problem of substantiation even if this solution is to be sought for on the
path of phenomenological insight and not of cognitive
research. Indeed, in his view consciousness is devoid
of essence or depth. It therefore has no foundation and
cannot serve as a foundation for anything whatever. In
general, the problem of substantiation of anything (knowledge, values, norms of activity, etc.), Sartre insists, only
emerges at the level of "human reality", expressing the
vain tendency of Being For-Itself to "take root" in something, to acquire density, substantiality, self-confidence.
Thik problem is insoluble, Sartre believes, because of the
fundamental properties of Being For-Itself. For this
reason, the fundamental structural characteristics of knowledge do not express SUbstantiation of knowledge by something but rather "absence of its substantiation ", that is,
the important fact that, being conditioned in its content
by the world of external objects, knowledge is at the same
time a relation of consciousness, that is, it is "suspended from nothingness", as it were, hanging in a vacuum.
The necessary connections of cognitive experience always
express, in one way or another, the temporal flow of
events, while time directly characterises consciousness and
its intrinsic negativeness.
The fact that Sartre rejects the problem of substantiation of knowledge and, in general, epistemological inquiry
in its trad itional fonn, does not mean that he regards theoretical analysis of cognition as impossible. On the contrary, hi.s conception does not exclude such an analysis (directed, e.g., at establishing the logical structure of knowledge, the mechanisms of its origin, various methods of
theoretical investigation, the modes of verification of
knowledge, etc.). Sartre merely insists on the impossibility of theoretical, cognitive investigation of the very essence of the cognitive relation, of the fundamental meaningful characteristics of knowledge, of the problem of substantiation of knowledge, that is, of those problems which
have always been the concern of epistemology as a
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philosophical discipline. Those problems of cognition and

knowledge which are not philosophical in nature can be
according to Sartre, the subject-matter of specialised seien:
tifie investigation.
Let us now consider more closely Sartre's conception of
the interrelations between subject and object.
Sartre proceeds from the immediate givenness of Con.
sciousness to itself in the act of non-objectifying self-consciousness. Even before it reifies itself as the ego, before it
is included in relations with other consciousnesses, before

the act of elementary reflexion emerges, consciousness already distinguishes itself from the world of external
objects, elementary cognitive experience being expressed
in the intentional orientation at the latter. As this starting
point of Sartre's analysis lacks substantiation, his conception as a whole proves to be basically defective.
We have no grounds for distinguishing self-consciousness pertaining to "pure", non-objectified consciousness,
from ordinary reflexion aimed at the individual ego as an
object. In any case, the experience of the consciousness
of an adult gives no grounds for this differentiation.
(The facts of the development of the child's psyche will
be discussed somewhat later.) Moreover, the very emerg
ence of consciousness as a unified centre of psychic life,
as a certain individuality distinguishing it from other consciousnesses, implies that its states are related to the activity of a certain object that is my body (though not identified with this activity). The very differentiation between
consciousnesses, the possibility of their individuation,
assumes their correlation with the bodies of different subjects included in objective relations with other things.
Sartre agrees that distinguishing myself as the ego from
the others implies a relation to myself as an object of a
special kind connected with other material objects and
other egos appearing before me as other objects. In his
view, however, the true individuality of my consciousness
is not expressed in the ego but in the very fact of the existence of a pure stru~tureless pOint-Being For-Itself.
But pure con:OClOusness as something absolutely empty
and ~ontent1ess mdeed proves to be "nothingness", though
not m the sense of Sartre, who not only ascribes abso.
lute eI?ptiness to ,con~iousnes~ but interprets it at the
same tIme as a speCIal kind of bemg, as a metaphysical real.
ity, as a centre of activity: it proves to be "nothingness" in
the se,nse of absolu~e fiction, Structureless and con tentless
?onS~OU,8ness de'Y0I~ ?f a~y properties or qualities cannot
10 pnn~lple ,be md~~lduallsed. Consciousnesses interpret.
ed as nothmgness must merge, they must be "gl ued
106

together", But in this case Sartre's fundamental philosophical premise falls-the assumption of uniqueness of
separate consciousnesses, of the impossibility of one con
sciousness penetrating another,
Let us consider in this connection the development of
child psychology, which provides additional arguments for
a critical evaluation of Sartre's conception,
As we have seen, consciousness distjnguishing itself from
the external world is, according to Sartre, the starting
point of experience which does not as:oume a ~elation of
consciousness to other persons and theIr conSC10usnesses,
But there are grounds to believe (and psychological data
confirm this opinion) that the individual who does not
treat himself as an object of a special kind included, on
the one hand, in the world of material objects and, on the
other in the world of interpersonal relations, does not possess ~onsciousness and self-consciousness, that is, simply
does not distinguish himself from the rest of reality, But
that means also that cognitive experience itself is not in
this case ful ly endowed with the features of unity and con
tinuity which Kant believed, with every justification, to
be indications of its objectiveness,
Indeed objectiveness of experience implies that the
subject i; at least capable of distinguishing those of its
features which are produced by the action of the external
objects themselves from those which are caused by the
subject, that is, those which are conditioned, o~ the, one
hand , by changes of its position relative to certam o.bJects
(its movement, changes in viewpoint, the perspective ,?f
perception, etc,), and on the other hll?d, by cha~es m
the states of consciousness, But the eXlstence of thIS faculty in the subject means that he can conceive of ,himself as a special object possessing consciousness, that IS, he
can perform an act of elementary self-cogni~ion, It also
means that to the extent in which self-conSCIOusness and
self-cognition are absent in the subject (and there are no
grounds for distinguishing between them, as we ha~e
endeavoured to show), cognitive experience cann~t retam
its unity and continuity, that is, it cannot be VIewed as
fully objective,
,
Jean Piaget whose works on the psychology of mtellectual develop~ent and genetiC epistemology were discussed
in the first chapter, singles out different stages in th,e
development of the child's cognitive, structure on th,e b.asls
of the results of experimental studIes, At the begmmng,
at the stage of the so-called sensori-motor intellect, the
child is absolutely unconscious of itself as an object and,
consequently, as a subject, For this reason the objects sur107

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rounding him do not retain in his experi~nce t heir constant

relation to one another and their own ~onstant
characteristics independent ~f the flow of expenence itself (such as size, volume, weIght, etc.).
,
.
The object disappearing from the perceptl?n field (e.g.,
when the child looks away or w~en one obJec~ ob.st~cts
the view of another) do~s not eXist fo~ ~he child,. It 'disappears absolutely", as It were. Cogmt~ve expen ence is
thus discontinuous. Grown-ups are perceIved by the child
as merely particularly active objects, sources of pleasure
and punishment. 90
..
This stage in the development of cogmtlve ~trl1:ct':lres
recorded in Piaget's studies has, as we see, certam SImilar
ities with the initial experience of which Sartre writes.
The latter also stresses that initially consciousness does not
realise itself as an object, neither is it awru:e of its body
as an object and cannot therefore constitute a special subjective world of consciousness distinct from the objective
connections between objects given in experience: it cannot,
for instance,localise the sensations coming from the various
parts of its own body but merges as it were with the latter.
However, there is a fundamental difference between the
views of Piaget and Sartre in the interpretation of that
experience. ru opposed to Sartre, Piaget insists that at the
first stages of intellectual development the subject is in
capable of perceiving himself reflexively, so that his can
sciousness does not exist either objectively or subjectively.
That means that not only the difference between the
subject's consciousness and his body is non-existent for the
subject (that fact is also recognised by Sartre), but neither
is its difference from the world of external objects (which
Sartre does not recognise). At the first stages of intellectual development, the. subject merges, as it were, with the
w~rld of external objects in his own experience. It is for
thiS reaso~ that the obj.ects of experience do not appear
her~ as thmgs yet, that 15, as something different from the
s,:!bJect (whe~as for Sartre Being In-Itself is immediately
gtven to con~lOusness as the world of objects).
Another .u~l?0rtant circumstance should be noted. For
Sartre, the mlttal cognitive experience underlies the entire
subsequent de,,:elopment of cognition determining the content and m~anmg.or all the types, kinds, and structures of
fowledge mcludmg sCientifictheoretical knowledge. But
~aget shows, that the .dev~lopment of cognition in indi;;t~~e P:1t~W~~ :rOlutlohn l.mplies ~omplete restructuring
f
u mec amsms whIch took shape at the
lTst stages; thus it absolutely cannot be
d t d fr
the latter alone.
un ers 00
om
108

At the same time it would be quite wrong to interpret the characteristics of the initial stages of intellectual
development established by Piaget as a kind of "experimental confirmation" of the proposition of philosophical
subjectivism that what is given to the subject initially is the
subject himself and the states of his consciousness, and
not the world of objective things. The subject is from t he
very beginning of the development of the psyche objectively included in definite relations with external objects and
other men. Although subjectively these things do not
initially appear before him as objects, and other persons
as subjects, only a knowledge of the development mechanisms of these objective relations, in which man is included
immediately after birth, enables one to explain the development of consciousness. As for the form in which the
subject perceives the objective relations indicated here, its
knowledge cannot by itself explain the nature of the succes
sive changes of the cognitive structures. On the contrary,
the subjective form itself can and must be explained from
the system of objective relations. Finally let us point out
that at the initial stages of intellectual development the
subject is not given either the world of objects or the
subject himself, the states of his consciousness. Therefore
that picture of the initial cognitive relation which philo
sophical subjectivism outlines is completely at variance
with the actual data of cognitive experience.
Piaget shows that the development of cognitive structures from non-reversible to reversible intellectual operations
(see Chapter 1) includes a change in the child's psychological relations with adults. At the initial stage these structures are "centred", that is, they offer no possibility for
distinguishing between the immediately given standpoint
and the objective relations of things. "Centring" necessarily implies also that imitation of the adult, who appears as
an absolute authority, is the main mechanism of the child 's
involvement in socio-cultural experience. The stages of
cognitive development characterise the phases of consecutive "decentring" of the intellectual structures, that
is, achieving the view of oneself from the outside, as it
were. But simultaneously that means a change towards
complete reversibility of relations with adults. In other
words, the child begins to treat the adult as in principle his
equal, as another subject. The adult's authoritarian pressure gives way to intellectual exchange and cognitive cooperation. It therefore becomes possible for the child to treat
himself fully as an ego, that is,
'.
other.
of intellecThus what Piaget calls
tual operations necessarily
reflexive
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relation to himself.
The fundamental features of the emer~ence of individ_
ual reflexion were formula~d. on .the phIloso~hical plane
by Marx: "In a sort of wa.y, It IS wIth man as ~Ith commo_
dities. Since he comes mto the .world nel~er with a
looking glass in ~is h~d.' nor as a F~chtean philosopher, to
whom 'I am l' IS suffICIent, man fIrst sees .and recognises
himself in other men. Peter only establIshes his own
identity as a m~ by first comparing h~mself with Paul as
being of like kind. And thereby Paul, Just as he stands in
his Pauline ~rsonality, becomes to Peter the type of the
genus homo. "91
Thus the subject's relation to himself as the ego is neces
sarily mediated by his relation to another. Reflexion
is not born as a result of the inner needs of "pure", isolated consciousness, as Descartes, Fichte, and Husserl
believed, but in interpersonal relations, as a complex
product pf the development of a system of communications. At the same time it would be wrong to interpret
the words of Marx quoted above in the sense that the
individual first recognises the other as a subject, another
ego, and only after that begins to treat himself as a subject,
on the analogy of that other. In actual fact there is mediation of dual kind: the individual not only perceives himself
o.n the analogy with the other-he perceives, at the same
tune, the other on the analogy with himself. In other
words, t~e ego and another ego emerge simultaneously and
necessarily presuppose one another. This fact is, by the
way, clearly recorded in Piaget's studies.
Let us emphasise that we use in this context only
experimen.tal facts obtained by Piaget, and certain concrete
Psych~logIcal generalisations. As for the general epistemologl~ and ~sychological conception of that author,
~cordmg to WhICh the development of intellectual operabonal. structures is detennined by inner "spontaneous"
~atu~~ of the subject's schemes of acti~ty its substanlYe cn lque was given in the first chapter.
'
f ~~ us also.~ote that the theory of gradual "de-centring"
~orkse r:;,~~ltIV: t!tructures developed in Piaget's latest
con.fused with his early propositions
concemin s theO
al "egoCe~trism~.v~rc~hmg of the child's initial intellectuthat the thesis ab m
course .of development. We know
by the Soviet s ~ht I e~ocentnsm" was sharply criticised
reproached Pi~it f~r ~~st ~. S. Vygotsky.92 He correctly
?f the investigation: the ~Ji~~ ~ongly the starting point
~nvolv~d in the system of sociai re~ ~nly gradu~y beco~es
mg hIS cognitive instruments .atIthns , essentIally mOdIfym e process. Vygotsky

..e

110

51

in sisted that no such independence of the individual in his

original state from society and his subsequent socialisation
existed at alL
Piaget now recognises the correctness of much of Vygo~
sky's criticism. 93 All three stages in intellectual development, Piaget insists, are stages in the process of socialisation:" .. Human intelligence is affected by the action of
social life on aU levels of development, from the first day
of life to the last".94 The whole point, however, is, Piaget
believes, that the influence of society varies at different
stages of intellectual development. The stages in the process
of "de-centring" characterise only the phases in the gradual
sublation of the primacy of the direct viewpoint incapable
of changing the given cognitive perspective. The early
stages in intellectual development are better referred to as
"centrism" rather than "egocentrism", Piaget points out.
This change in Piaget's posItion on a number of questions,
although it makes his conception more sophisticated,
permitting a more precise description of some facts,
particularly those which interest us most of all in this
section, does not of course signify any radical reorientation
of his philosophical and psychological theory as a whole.
Mutual assimilation apparently begins with identification of the subjects' actions. In insisting that the attitude to
self as an object is alien to the very nature of consciousness, Sartre, as we remember, pointed out that in the initial cognitive experience man does not perceive even his
own body as an object: the eye does not see itself, man
cannot look at his own face, etc. But Sartre fails to see
that there are parts of the body which are simultaneously
perceived both "from within" as something belonging to
the given being, and "from without" as objects incorporated in the world of material objects. These are the organs
with which I perform actions with things and which enable me to move in the object world-my hands and my
legs. Outwardly, they look just as the corresponding parts
of another man's body. In the course of joint activity of
one person with others (in the first place, of an adult and
child), the actions of different individuals are apparently
identified and then individuals as wholes are mutually
likened, that is, the ego and another ego take shape simultaneously.
What we have said here about the mutual mediation of
my attitude to myself and to the other does not entail my
self-consciousness and my cognition of another person
being in principle identical. Indeed, individual reflex ion
implies the view of oneself from the standpoint of another,
as it were. At the same time I always know something
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about myself which is not directly accessible to the othe .

I have perceptions, experie~ces , memories that are only ~~
yen to the act of my reflexlOn and can be concealed from
everybody else (I can, for instance, even conceal pain)
Thus I have direct ''inner access " to the states of my con:
sciousness. This important real fact was recorded and phi.
losophically interpreted by the adherents of subjectivist
and transcendentalist philosophical conceptions. Indeed I
can only judge of the subjective states of another in an in.
direct way-either by observing his actions or receiving
his own information about himself. In either case the
possibility of error or deceit is not ruled out. It is impor.
tant to note, however, that the very nature of self-conscious_
ness, of individual reflexion, is such that its emergence
necessarily implies a fundamental likeness between what I
perceive in myself "from within" and that which is or may
be perceived by another subject within himself. Of course
that other may conceal from me certain states of his con~
ciousness, just as I can do with my consciousness_ That
does not, however, exclude the fundamental identity of
the mechanisms of our psychical life, while the actual
process of communication assumes as a premise of its
success the attainment of mutual understanding in most
cases. My su~jective states are directly given me in the act
o,f self-conSCIOusness, in a way in which they cannot be
glven to another, but I realise them in forms which are not
my personal property but are inter-individual in nature. In
other words, the act o~ subjective reflex ion presupposes,
on the one hand, an obJoot which is directly accessible to
~e only (my subjective states), and on the other such
mstruments of cognitive fixation of this object ~hich
sub~ume "any other" person (Le., that which would be
realised by t.hat other if he had a direct access to the states
of my consclOusness).
Th';ls Sartre's proposition that there is no access to the
~o~sc~usness, of another subject is at variance with the acf~ct th~a t~! ~nter~~rsonal communication , expressing, in
S'
Sl~ of pluralistic individualism": according to
cla:sed' ~n ~~s~tiU:do.f consciou~ess~s e,xists, each of th~m
the others.
mcapable ill prmclple of penetratmg
Thus cognitive experience wh' h h
' .
of objectiveness that'
. IC
as the characten stIcS
conscious relation to ~h:~~r~nce as~uming the su~jec~'s
eludes the subject's reflect'
if .objects, .necessarily tntinguishing his own bod If: re atlOn to hImself and diswell as differentiation beiwee~~ all th~ other objects, as
sciousness and the objective chanhan~es In the state of conges m the world of things,
112

The subjective experience expressed in the act of self-consciousness and self-cognition is different from the objective experience pertaining to the world of external objects.
But t hese are not simply two series of experience existing
independently from each other and following parallel
paths, as it were. A3 we hav~ tried to show, both o~ th~se
series presuppose and medIate one another. Subjective
experience only becomes possible as a result of a relation
to oneself as an object induded in the network of objective relations with things and other persons, In their turn,
the external things emerge before the subject as a world of
objects independent of him and of his consciousness only when the first elementary act of self-consciousness
appears.
The subject realises not only his inclusion in an objective network of relations but also the uniqueness of his
own position in the world. The latter manifests itsel!. first,
in his body occupying a place in the system of spatIo-temporal connections which is not taken up by any other
subject, and second, in the fact that only he has "inner
access" to his own subjective states, The objective fact of
the uniqueness of this position, just as the subjective
realisation of this fact, is assumed by the very structure of
experiential knowledge (any attempt to apply theor~tical
knowledge to the description of the data of expenenc:e
also assumes this fact). As we have seen, however, thls
circumstance has nothing to do with "centring" the world
around the individual subject, a thesis which Husserl
endeavoured to substantiate in his later works.
Let us note in this cOlUlection that some epistemological
conceptions of the empiricist variety current in modem
bourgeois philosophy, criticising the Cartesian thesis ("I
exist" as the supreme substantiation of any knowledge),
often deny any serio us cognitive significance t~ t~e act of
individual self-consciousness. Thus A: J. Ayer mSIsts t~at
the proposition "I exist" does not m ~act say anthm~
about me , being devoid of any content! It d?es not Identi
fy me with any object (Ayer stresses III thlS respect that
this assertion is different from the statement that there
exists a person of such and such a sort), The utterance "I
exist", the English empiricist believes, may be likened to
simply pointing to an individual object withou~ words.
This pointing, as we know, does not carry any mformation. Besides, he believes that there can be knowledge that
is not accompanied by self-consciousness. 95
But self-consciousness, as we have endeavoured to show,
is impossible without reference to oneself as a definite
object possessing specific unique characteristics and in113

VI.
is hel

.... e
Scienc:
coveri
of scil
gy of

_os

"'t
numtM
\'I

fortig,

eluded in a netwo.rk of obj~ctive relations. The act of individual self-consclOusness Itself can only emerge due to
the existence of certain meaningful dependences of expe.
rience (subjectively one may not, of course, be immedi_
ately aware of all these dependences, but implicitly they
are always present). The relation to oneself as the ego thus
includes a whole system of connections of knowledge. Descartes, Fichte and Husserl.wcre therefore righ~ in ~sserting
that the act of self-consciousness and reflexlOn Implicitly assumes the fundamental characteristics of knowledge.
Their error lay elsewhere: in the attempt to interpret the
specificity of knowledge and of the cognitive process by
analysing the act of reflexion, a "pure" self-conscious ego.
The real dependence is directly the reverse: the emergence of the ego and of its self-consciousness and reflexion
must be understood as a result ! of the format ion of cognitive experience, as a consequence of the development of
definite objective relations of the given subject to the
world of material objects and other persons.
The fundamental error of transcendentalism and subjectivism lies in their assumption that lmowledge of one's
own existence is more indubitable than knowledge of the
existence of the external world. In reality, the most elementary act of self-consciousness always implies recogniti?n of the world of external objects independent of conSCIousness and cormected by stable relations.
Thus . th~ attempts to substantiate lmowledge undertaken WIthm the framework of philosophical subjectivism
an~ t~ ~terpret cognition as determined by the structur~
of mdividual consciousness, could not in principle be suc
cessful.
. That do.es not. me~ that the adherents of the conceptions consIdered m thlS chapter have not established any
re~ facts abou~ the cognitive relations of subject and
?b)ect. In our cntical analysis we have pointed to the most
~po~t of these facts. Summing up what has been said
m thl~ chapter,. we can say t~at philosophical su bjectivists
explOlt fo r the!! p.urposes, first, the specificity of the natu:e and func~lOrung of the subject's consciousness (the
eXlste!lce of dn ect "inner access" to the states of one's
conscIOusness,. se!f-consciousness as the necessary feature of the ?bJectlveness. o~ experience, etc.) and, second,
the no~m~tlye c~aract:enstlcs existing in any knowledge.
Idealistic luggling.~lth.thes~ facts of cognition and with
the real prob~ems ansm~ In epIstemological research makes
~ adeq~ate m~rpretat~on .o.f th~ cognitive relation impos~Ible .. Philosophical subjectiVISts mevitably find themselves
In blInd alleys because of the very mode of specifying the
114

initial cognitive relation between subje~t and object.

Understanding the fundamental pr~pertIe~ of k~owl
dge and cognition assumes an essentIally different mtere retation of the subject-object connection?
..
p We have not analysed here the conceptions of cogmtlon
developed in the framework of objective-idealistic systems .
As is well known, the most th?r?ugh inyest~gat~on ?f t~e
problem of cognition in the spmt of objectIve Idealism ,IS
to be found in the philosophy of Hegel, who succeede.d. m
establishing a number of important aspects of th~ cogr:lltlve
relation and in revealing many elen;tents o~ the dlalectlcs of
the cognizing subject and the cogruzed object, At the same
time Hegel, being an idealist, thor~ughly mystified the, es- )(
sence of the matter. Hegelian philosophy .do~s, not VIew
cognition as determined by the features of mdIvidual consciousness but as an expression of the specific ~ode C?f
existence of the Absolute Spirit embodied, in partIcular, m
the objective fonns of human culture. Because of the nature of the real problems exploited by the Heg~lian conception of cognition, we shall criti?ise the latter. In the: second part of the monograph, in dlIect connectIOn WIth a
positive analysis of the problem.
In our critical analysis of Sartre's concepti?n of c~n
sciousness and knowledge we came to recogruse the ,Important role played in the cognition C?f an external object
by the relation of the individual subject to ot~er ~rsons
and to culture created by them ~d eII.lbodied m objects. A solution to the probl~ms WIth WhICh we are c~n
cemed should be sou~ht for m ,the fr~ework of an Interpretation of the subject and objects wh ich ca.tl: take thes;c
fundamental facts into account. Such a solutIOn ,of thIS
problem is possible in the framework <?f the M8!X IS t.Lenmist approach to cognitiC?n, as the soc~ally mediated and
historically developing actiVIty of reflexlOn,

Part Two
THE MARXIST APPROACH: COGNITION
AS SOCIALLY-MEDIATED HISTORICALLY
DEVELOPING ACTIVITY
OF REFLECTION

VI,

Is hea
.... e
Sciellt

and (jommunication are

in their dialectical unity.
"Idea, image, and consequently, consciousness and thought
in general," writes S. L. Rubinstein, "cannot be accepted
as an independent term of tile {!pistemological relation.
Behind the relation of an idea or image to a thing, of
consciousness or cognition to being, there is another
relation, the relation of man, in whose cognitive activity
the image or idea arise, to being which he cognizes ... 1 The
epistemology of dialectical materialism contains a key to
the real facts of cognition and consciousness which meta
physical-materialistic and idealistic conceptions have been
unable to explain scientifically. Moreover, Marxist-Leninist
philosophy opens up fundamentally new horizons of
epistemological inquiry, posing problems that have not
been discussed in previous epistemological conceptions.
It radically changes the nature of epistemology, its meth
ods and relation to the special sciences.

cover;
of .:iI
gyof
teo,..
1hIt~

IKImb<
fore tor

Marxist analysis of the problem of the cognitive relation

starts with a recognition of the_basic fact that cognition is
reflec~ion of the obje?tive real~t:f' existing independently of
c,:msclO~sness, that t~e C~gntZUlg and cognizant subject

hlmself IS a na~~ra1 .bemg mel.uded in the objective reality,

and that cogmtIon 15 a functIOn of the brain as a specific
hig~y organised material system, and presupposes the
action of the ex~~al objects on man's sense organs .
. These proposlti,ons ar~ ~hared .by all materialist conceptions, and ~a~ist-.Lemmst philosophy as the highest
form of matenahsm mcludes them in its theory.
But we have seen (in Chapter 1 of Part One) that
acceptance of these
. .
is not by itself sufficient
for a comprehens.ive and
the

IS a .
. a special type, and explanation
e .t
Pio~e:les requrres substantive additions to the
pIS e~~ oglc conc~p.tion propounded by pre. Marxian
matenahsm, .the addltl~:mS being of a kind to radically
d the
transform thIS conception without taking t b
framework of materialism b t l eyon .
it more flexible and
u , ~:m the contrary, makmg
is, dialectical.
at the same hme more consistent, that
The task that we shall here tt
demonstrate the fruitfulne
~mpt to solve will be to
cognition the cognitive rei\? t e mode of interpreting
the object, which is sugge~e~Ob ~tw~n the subject and
ophy. Our goal is to outline ( Y arxIst-~~ninist philostical materialism, the Princi' J0":l th~ pos!hons of dialec
on the one hand of th
p dIrections m the solution
history of Philo;OPhicalili~~~~lems hat emerged in th~
questions actively discussed in c ' an . on the other, of
o~ment of modem SCience, the ~~~~c~on with the develscientology, and logical and method~l ~taal of p~ychology,
oglc studIes.

116

)(

Chapter 1

REFLECTION.OBJECTRELATEO
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
ANO COMMUNICATION

VI.
is he,

.... e
Scief\(
coveri

of sci.
lIVof
ICOt es

1. SENSORY INFORMATION AND

OBJECT RELATED KNOWLEDGE

....t~

101mb!
foretg t

To begin with let us state that the results C'traces") of

the action of an object on human sense organs, though
constituting a reflection of an external object, in no way
represent knowledge: they are not directly included in the
cognitive relation and, being merely its necessary premise,
cannot be characterised as cognitive images (they are
physical images). HIt is a mistake to consider psychical
formations as completely identical to the nervous physiological mechanisms. The subjective image is undoubtedly
specific and irreducible to the nervous model." 2
~deed, t~ese "traces" carry obviously redundant information, Whl~h cannot, because of its redundancy. be a
refer~nce pom~ for the subject in an objective situation.
For mstance, if we should allow that the visual system
d.oes not in some way transform or organise retinal images
(l. e., the "traces" of the action of light rays on the retina)
but !Derely tr~sfers them from one place to another recordmg them m son;e. storage mechanism, this system will
conduct ab?ut a millIon counts of brightness in 0.1 sec.
In a fe~ mmutes the number of such counts would reach
a m~gmtude of the order of several thousand million, exceedmg the number of neurons in the cortex.3
Theref~re a sen:-ory system which has no methods for
thansfonnm g the m.formation received, for transforming
t .e result .of the a~tlO~ of an external object on it, remains
b~md, havmg no cntena. for discerning useful signals against
t e background of nots.e.4 The cognitive image carrying
kn0Y"ledge about an O?lect contains precisely that informatton, and only
that mformation , whoIC hIS Vlta II y necest 0 th e su blect as a concrete individual d
sary
an a representative of society.
But the relation between objectiv k
..
for cognition and in particul
e nowledge speCIfIc
one hand and se~sOry infonnari" sense perception, on the
,
a lon, on the other, is not
118

Jr/

reduced merely to discarding a certain part of the latter

with the aid of a system of filters. Objective knowledge
is by no means poorer on the content plane than sensory
impressions, and in some respects is essentially richer, for
we perceive objects in terms of properties the knowledge
of which is not directly contained in the sense data.
As Marx pointed out, a most important feature of perception is that it does not carry information about excita
tion in the nervous apparatus as a result of the action of
the object on the sense organs but about the really existing
object itself, the object that is outside the perceiving
subject. For example, "the light from an object is perceived
by us not as the subjective excitation of our optic nerve,
but as the objective form of something outside the eye
itself ... 5
"To perceive a chair," says Pierre Janet, "means to see
an object in which one may sit, and to perceive a house,
as von Weizsacker put it even more forcefully, does not
mean to see an image that the eye caught but, on the contrary, to recognise an object that can be entered! ,,6
V. S. Tyukhtin indicates that on the one hand, the image
is connected with the material substratum, and on the other, what is given in the image is the content of the object
and not of the nervous substratum. "The paradox of the
unity of these two aspects is insoluble merely on the basis
of the principles of physical causality, but i~ ~an. be explained if the features of abjectness and ~ticipation. are
viewed as a special functional property of highlY orgarused
living systems.... That means that the c~ntent of the
signal is separated from its form (the m~tenal sub.strat~)
functionally rather than in an anatomIcal, phYSIOlOgIcal,
physical or chemical way ...7 .
.
The mutual relations of the subject and the object perceived by him change almost continuall.y, both as a result
of changes in the position of the object and of man's
movements. Naturally, this canno~ fail ~o lead to ~,onstan,~
changes in the character and confIguratIon of the t~aces
of the object's action <;>n the sensa:>, system. If t~e lma~~
of the object were entIrely dete~med by these t~aces,
we simply would be unable t<;> smgle ou~ .that object as
an independent rea;lity. In. ordmary conditlons, however,
the object is percelved as mdependent fror;n the concrete
conditions of perception and from the act Itself (the phenomenon of "constancy of perception" known in psychology). Human speech is also per<::eived in this way. T.h~
following observation was made III the att~mpts at artIfIcial reproduction o.f speech .. When speed~ IS transformed.
into light impulses 10 a special apparatus, It turns out that
119

VI,
I

.n<
eri
sci,

o!

'--

speech sounds appeari!lg as ~denti~al ul'l:der ordinary

conditions, prove to be dlffe!ent ill their P~YSICal character_
istics whereas others, WhICh we perceive as different
leave'identical visible traces. s

Thus cognition is object-oriented and deter~ined from

the very outset, in its most elementary marufestations.
The attempts of representatives of classical empiricism as
well as modem "sense data"-oriented theoreticians, to
present certain element:ar'Y subjectiv,e .e~periences uncorrelated with material objects as the mltlal elements and at
the same time units of knowledge, lead to insoluble paradoxes in epistemology and, moreover, directly contradict
the available results of scientific psychology.
Of course knowledge of objects does n6t emerge at
once in the ~ourse of ontogenetic and phylogenetic development. It is important, however, in this conI!ection to
bear in mind the following two circumstances. Flrst, where
there is no objective knowledge, sense perception does not
exist either and consequently, neither does knowledge
in the prop~r sense of the word: in this case, se!lsory information, among other things, serves as the basls for. behaviour orientation. Second, the emergence of perceptIOn,
that is, of objective knowledge, cannot be understood only
on the basis of sensory infonnation or of any other kinds
of reflection which do not reproduce the objective characteristics of reality.
James Gibson, a prominent American psychologist,
distinguishes two kinds of vision, only one of which is
perception, that is, knowledge in the proper sense. "If
you look out of the window," he writes, "there beyond
is an extended environment of ground and buildings or,
if you are lucky, scenery'. This is what we call the uisual
world. It is the familiar, ordinary scene of daily life, in
which solid objects look solid, square objects look square,
horizontal surfaces look horizontal and the book across
the room looks as big as the book iying in front of you ...
Next look at the room not as a room but insofar as you
can, as. i~ it consisted of areas or patches of coloured surface, diVIded up .by contours ... If you persist, the scene
comes to approxI~ate the appearance of a picture. You
may observe that It has characteristics somewhat different
f~om the former scene. This is what will here be called the
ul8ual field. It is less familiar than the visual world and it
cannot be observed except with some kind of special
effort. "9
In analysing the differences between the visual field
and the visual world, Gibson observes that the visual
field is limited (approximately 150 0 to 180 0 ) and is
120

oval-shaped , whereas the visual world has no boundaries

and stretches behind one's head as well as before the eyes.
The visual field is clear and distinct in the centre its
indeterminateness growing towards the boundaries. The
visual field shifts as the eyes pass on from one point of
fixation to another, whereas the visual world is stable.
The visual world is always oriented along the gravitational vertical, whereas the visual field is oriented in
relation to its boundaries. Changing the position of the
observer, e. g., his inclination by 90 0 , changes nothing
in the orientation of his visual world, while jn the visual
field the horizontals will now become verticals. The visual
world is constant. In the visual field, projection relations
obtain. In the visual world, the three-dimensional depth
forms of objects are perceived, while in the visual field,
projection forms. At the same time, although the visual
field is projectional, in the words of Gibson "it is never
flat like a surface on which a picture is painted or project.
ed' 'that is it is never wholly depthless. Nor is it lacking
in the char~cter of being outside of us, in externality. ,,1 0
According to Gibson, the visual field d~~s not underlie
the visual world at all. The two kinds of VISIon are alternative, emerging as a result of two di~ferent attit~des ~f consciousness. With the ordinary conSClOusness attitude m perception the subject confronts the visual objective. world.
The other attitude is artificial in nature, expressmg the
civilised man's chronic habit of regarding the world as a
picture.
. '
A group of Soviet psycholOgISts, who studied under
A. N. Leontyev the formation of percepti~n under u!lusual
conditions, gave a somewhat different mterpretatIon of
these facts. 1 I
.
In a series of experiments, retinal il?ages were distorted
by means of special optical devices (usmg the pseudo~co~,
inverting the retinal projections). As a result, the objective
image of perception and its sensuOUS texture were brought
completely apart. These experiments showed that ~nder
definite conditions the sensuous texture of. the unage
without an objective interpretation may be dlI~~tly presented to the subject (true, under these condItions the
subject, strictly speaking, does not have ~ kno.wle~ge. o~
the world, he is almost incapable of onentat~on In It),
moreover they have showed that the formatIO!1 of ~h~
perceptu~ image necessarily presupposes a cert:am actiVIty with the sensuous texture. But there a~e certam grounds
to believe that t~e se~suous texture IS close to what
Gibson called the ViSUal fIeld.
.
Gibson's rejection of the connectIOn between the sen121

VI.
is hell
1IItee

Scien<
coveri
of sci~
gy of
ICOres

that Yo
numb<
foreigr

sory field, se~satio~ an~ perception is en~irely unjustified.

At the same time hIS opmIOn about a qualttatlVe difference
between perception and ~~e sensory field is quite correct.
Under ordinary conditIOns the sensuous texture of the
perceptual image (corresponding to the visual field) is
not realised by the subject. At the stage of ontogenesis
when an adequate objective vision of the external world
has not yet been formed, the visual world is not yet pre.
sent in the subject's experience and, more than that the
visual field does not exist for his consciousness either.
The qualities pertaining to the visual field (colours and
their shades, the mutual arrangement of various contours
etc.) are realised only to the extent in which they are in:
eluded in the visual world, that is, the world of real objects.
John Ruskin, the outstanding art critic and t heoreti
cian, anticipated the findings of the impressionists as he
wrote: "The whole technical power of painting depends
on our recovery of what may be called the innocence of
the eye; that is to say, of a sort of childish perception of
these flat stains of colour, merely as such, without con
sciousness of what they signify,--as a blind man would
see them if suddenly gifted with sight.,,12 But under
ordinary conditions the stains of colour cannot be realised
as such, outside their objective interpretation and correla
tion. A blind person suddenly recovering sight after a
successful operation (and cases like that are well authenticated in modern science) cannot see anything at first for
he can only see in a conscious objective manner and 'that
has to be learnt.
'
,
A grownup person to whom the sensuous texture o f
tl;1e visual image. becomes accessible (as a result of a spec ial
kind. of. reflectlve. attitude. of consciousness or through
ap,?licahon. of .special techn~cal devices distorting t he usual
retmal projection of ~ o~)ect) always realises the unnat
ural?ess ?f su~h a sltua~lO n and cannot get rid of the
feehng of Irre~hty of the plcture given to h is consciousness.
The expenm~nts of Soviet psychologists permit yet
another C?!1c1usIOn .o,f .great importance for understanding
~he cogmtlve s'peC1~lclty of perception. The perceptual
unag~ of an ob]ec~ IS not only constant in relation to t he
contI?ually ch~gmg conditions of perception and to a
certain
extent mdependent
of the sensuo us te x toOt
t
t
ure 1 car
nes II?- 1. S conten structure the concept"
f th
Id
as eXlstmg amodally that is b'
Ion 0
e wor
of our sensory mod~ities-viSu~ }~~ti~elY, independently
particularly clear in the studie~ o~tlle, etc . . As bec.ru:n e
through inversion of the visual im perceptive a~tIVIty
the perception image assumes exi ~e, ~e form,atlOn of
s nce m conSCIOusness
122

as an element of the latter, of an amodal, objective world

scheme, which may exist ~n the texture of any modality
or in the form of certain Il\flemonic schemes. The perceived
world is a form of the existence of the world scheme
in a certain modality. It is essential that the world scheme
also includes the body scheme as its component, and the
perceptual image is formed only through the correlation
of the perceived world with the amodal world scheme
through the body scheme. 13
Perception as a kind of cognition thus assumes compre
hension, understanding, interpretation of what is seen.
This interpretation is a certain kind of activity. Indeed,
identical sensory data may correspond to extremely di
verse real objects.
The process of perception always presupposes choosing
(the choice being in a sense debatable) of an interpretation
of sensory data which appears most probable in a world
of real objects. Perception builds something like object
hypotheses. I act in accordance with fny perception of
the properties of the physical object, a table, rather than
with the sensation of a brown spot that is in my eye when
I look at the surface of the table.
The object is perceived as a result of a complex process
of comparing sensory information with those standards
of objects that are recorded in memory. This process
may involve errors. 14
The process of perception is continual solution of tasks
of a special kind, a special kind of thinking, ''visu~ thinking", as specialists in the psychology of perception now
describe it.IS
Let us formulate the epistemological significance of
what has been said above in clearer terms.
We should take into account first of all, that from the
standpoint of Marxist episte~ology. the differenc~ b~
tween perception and thin~ing do~s not at all conslS~ m I
that the fo rmer is purely direct whlle the latter, a medH~ted kind of kn owledge, as wa~ tradi,tion~IlY accepted 10
philosoph ical empiricism. Cogni~ion , IS one,:ted from the
outset towards objects, and the smgling out m, ~he ex~~nal
world of objects, of real things assumes cogmtlve a~tlVlty,
adopting certai n assumptions and. hypotheses which are
later verified in sensory and real actIvity. The development
of modern psychology gives .concreteness to these funda
mental p hilosophical assumptlon~.
. "'.
'\t
Sense perception or, as_Lemn referred..to It. li.'?llg ~
perception"16, differ~ .. of course... lrom a?stract rea~orung.
'U nder ordInary conaltlons, what IS consclous1y r~lsed by
the subject is merely the result of perceptual actiVIty, the
123

VI,
is het
IUtee

Seienc
COYerj

of scil
lIVof

- ..

that

\1\

... mll<

for,ta l

object image, .while. t.!"'e activity of construction of this

image is not gwen., It. IS redu~ed and c~mcealed f~om COn.
sciousness. But thmking, whIch deals In abstractlOns im.
plies detailing of ~he activity of ~onst~cti~g the object
image and a conSCIOUS control of Its reahsatlOn (although
by no means everything is realised in abstr~ct th~king,
but that is a separate problem). T.o the ~ubJect himself,
perception therefore appears as dlre~t ~venness. of the
object and is distinguIShed from. t~m~mg. precisely by \
that criterion. Another important distinction IS that knowl.
edge provided by perception assumes existence of objective meaning in a given sensuous texture or sensory modality. Both the number of sensory modalities anp. their characteristics just as, to a considerable degree, the properties
of the se~suous texture, are determined by the concrete
historical circumstances of the emergence and develop_
ment of the biological species Homo sapiens. This determination is not, of course, accidental: the receptive
organs, both in number and capacity, have always coped
with providing the Homo sapiens with the information
which was initially required for orientation in the environment, in the world of relatively stable macrobodies, in a
definite narrow circle of activity. But man's specificity
consists precisely in going beyond the biologically determined kinds of activity.
This entails the emergence of cognition in the precise
sense of the word just as the appearance of the need for
co~nizing such !eal objects, their properties and relations,
whlc~ . cannot ~n ~eneral affect man's receptive system.
Cognition of ~hlS. kind b~came possible owing to the develo.pment of thmking wh.lch uses a system of special artifiCially constructed objects: symbols signs diagrams
schemes,. models,. etc., ~or .establishing the p~operties of
those objects which: e~st 10dependently of the subject.
(Let.us note that th1Ok1Og need not necessarily be expressed 10 the fo~m <;>f verbal signs: it may also be realised
through a speCial kind of operation upon objects.)
As. we have seen, the referential meaning of the perceptual l!Oage d~s no:t s.tal!d in a one-to-one relation to sen~ory mf<?rmatlon, I~ IS 10 some respects poorer than that
lI~formatlOn, ~d 10 others, considerably richer This
Cllcu~stance 15 ~xplained by the fact that the ob"ective
mean10g of ~h:e Image ~d, consequently th
all
human cogmtIon, as dlStinct from sens' ~ SpeCl IC. Y
does not emerge in biological evolution b~p.r mfa:rmh8:tIon,
ical development through practical ac .. 10 SOCIO- l~or
can perceive those aspects of objects w~YI~Yd The subject
his sense organs. At the same time there 'C
0b~ot act on
are 0 Ject mean-

124

ings which cannot in principle be incorporated in a sensuous texture and cannot therefore be sensually perceived.
These referential meanings are reconstructed by a special
type of thinking, one that consciously operates with abstractions.
The limitations of. perception arising from its distinctive
properties (the subjective immediacy, the unconscious
nature of interpretation) are the source of possible contradictions between perception and understanding of the
object (it would be more precise to say, between two
different levels of understanding-in terms of perception "\
and of abstract thinking). Thus the moon is perceived as J
a disc some 30 cm in diameter at a distance of about a
kilometre and a half. All humans apparently perceive the
size of and distance to the moon in an approximately the
same way, erring by a factor of one million. Such examples
are numerous.
In this context, however, it is more important to stress
the similarities rather than the differences between perception and thinking, those similarities which permit to refer
to the fonner as a kind of "visual thinking", an activity
of solving tasks in object recognition.
The Marxist epistemological position is opposed to both
metaphysical materialism and gnoseological empiricism,
which in its fully developed form inevitably becomes
subjectivist and idealistic. It is at the same time interesting
to compare this position with the transcendentalist interpretation of cognition.
\
We recall that, according to Kant and Husserl, cognition }
never deals with subjective perceptions but with objects
(it is a different question how the objects themselves are
understood, what ontological status is ascribed to them by
these philosophers). Let us note, though, that for Husserl,
the intentional object which may in certain cases coincide
with the real one is' given immediately, with apodictic
certainty and kno'wledge of that object cannot in principle be a r~sult of the subject's constructive activity (the act
of intentional orientation at the object is, according to
Husserl, the act of grasping some certainty). :rhe theoretical objects with which science deals are not, In fact, genuine from the standpoint of phenomenology, they do not
characterise adequate knowledge but merely play the role
of auxiliary conceptual constructions. Kant's position on
this point appears at first glance essentially different. Kant
insists that the object given in experience, and knowledge
of that object, are in fact a result of the creative activity
of the Transcendental Subject, a product or synthesis of
perceptions. Let us observe, however, that for Kant, too,
125

VI,

is

he~

'n"
kien(
COYerj

of sci.
lIVof
ICOres

1h.t

VI

numb!
forejgr

a referential meru:in~ ~an exist in the f<;>rm of kn?wledge

only insofar as It 15 mcorporated or mcluded In some
sensuous texture. The subject possesses knowledge, Kant
points out, only insofar as the o~ject of knowled~e is given
in sensory experience (for this reason, experience and
knowledge essentially coincide, in Kant's view). Knowl.
edge and thinking are therefc:>re sharply contrasted: ~ant
believes that attempts to acquIre knowledge through thmking, that is, knowledge of those object~ that cannot be
given in experience, inevitably lead to msoluble antinomies. That does not mean that one cannot cogitate of the
given objects. However, one cannot know anything definite of them, Kant believes, for any knowledge is a synthesis of a manifold, and that synthesis is in his view only
possible in experience.
In reality, the relation between the referential meaning
and the sensuous texture is not at all reducible to a mere
"synthesis" of varied sensations by means of objective
content: many sensations are discarded, contradictions
may arise between objective content and certain sensory
impressions, and in this case the latter are not noticed,
they are not realised. The main point is, however, that a
referential meaning can be included in the system of
lmowledge also in such cases when it is not directly incorporated in sensory experience. In other words pure knowledge is also possible of such objects which cannot be
directly given in human experience. Modem microphysics,
on the ~ne hand, .and cosmo~ogy, on the other, deal with
such objects (WhICh, accordmg to Kant cannot in principle be th~ subje?t-matter of knowledge):
. In classICal epl~emology, s~bstantiation of knowledge
mvolved postulatmg s~ch kmds of knowledge which
thems~lves .do not reqUITe substantiation, those in which
the object IS gr~ped more or less directly. This is true not
only of the vanoys systems of empiricism which found
suc,~ lmowledge "m metaphysically interpreted sensations
or sensory data ,but also of transcendentalist philosophy.
T~erefor~ ~he search for the "immediately given" and its
differentIabon from deduced and constructed knowledge
have ~ways been one ~f the ~ost important tasks of preM~Ian 8.:"d non-M<l!"-~st theones of knowledge.
Dialecbcal materiahsm emphasises that it
t
~owledge that c~ be objective, or object-relaltednoa:J
109 at. the same, tIme that different levels of knowled e
deal Wlth re~ objects, alth:0ugh at different levels differe~t
types of objects and theIr aspects are reflected (th d
ve~opment of modem psychology and theo'
e eSCience confirms and specifies this thesis) ~~CbCal !lt~tu~
.
ogm Ion IS
126

the eternal endless approximation of thought to the

object," V.1. Lenin writes. "The reflection of nature in
man's thought must be understood not 'lifelessly,' not
'abstractly' not d e v 0 i d 0 f m 0 v e men t, not
wit h 0 u't con t r a d i c t ion s, but in the eternal
pro c e s s of movement, the arising of contradictions
and their solution,"17 Qf course.l- _ not_ all th~.oJ~tical
ob~~ts with which scie~t~fic th~k0g aeals, can_be correlated with actually eXlStmg objects ilirectly ana unam-mguousIy. Real objects exist, however, which can only
"be reflected through abstract reasoning and cannot be
directly given to the subject in sensory experience.
But that means that the classical problem of pre-Marxian epistemology, the problem o.f SUbstantiation of
lmowledge must not only be solved m a new manner but
it must als~ be formuIated in a new way, That means that
the most important task of scientific epistemology is n,ot
the singling out of immediately given enti~ies. the certall~
ties of lmowledge, but the discov~ry .of uruversal referential meanings and norms of the objectiveness of knowledge,
the study of the modes of formation, development, and
change of these norms and, solution on this pat~, o~ the
problem of interrelation of knowledge and the objectively
existing reality,
2. ILLUSIONS AND REALITY

The view that the true properties of reality are ~ped

as a result of direct impact of the object on the sU~Ject, or
in the form of some kind of "fusion" of the subJect ,and
the object, and that the distortions, errors, an~ i1I';1~nons
are wholly explained by t~e fact t,~at ,the, subJ~ct IS n~,t
passive enough in followu:g the, obJectIve, !pvenness ,
introducing something of hunsel~ III ~he cogllltIve process
(either of his physical and phYSIOlOgIcal nature or, of the
activeness of consciousness), was deeply rooted Ill. preMarxian epistemology. It was of co~se a 10(.lg establIshed
fact that perception may be dece~tIve. that It ,can l~ad ,to
error in understanding the mealllng of certam ObjeC~IVe
"Situations, yet it was never d~ubtedl;hat from the practical
viewpoint it in most cases Yielded correct knowled~e. ,At
the same time attaining truth through ,abstrac~ thin~g
was in one way or another linked up 10 classICal philosophy with the act of direct" passive grasping, (Plato's "intelligent vision" of ideas, mtellectual mtuitIon of ~e
rationalist philosophers of the 17th and 18th centll!le~;
Husserl's direct "insight into the essences", etc.), that IS, It
127

was understood on the analogy of passively interpreted

perception. Thus the question of the subject's activeness
~d passiveness in the co~itive ~rocess was closely linked
Wlth one of the focal philosophlCal problems widely debated Since antlqUlty-the problem of the relation qetween

VI.
It he.

.... ,

reality and appearance or illusion.

Sciel"ll.
coveri
of scil
gyof

The modem psychology of perception provides a wealth

of material to support the philosophically important proposltIon that thuesults ("traces") of the impact of the
external object on the sense organs are not at all enough
to distinguish between reality and illusion for as we have
said already, different configurations of these'traces may
correspond .to most diverse real objects. The singling out

ICOra,
...t VI

...mll<
foretgr

?f

re~l

obJect:s fro.m the sensory information through

lmposmg certain ob]ecthypotheses on the latter is ensured
no~ only by the subject's cognitive activity but also by the
obJect-~~potheses t~emselves having been tested in practical actiVlty (collective or individual) and indicating those
aspects of .t~e real objects which are essential precisely
for t~at actIVlty. When the subject encounters some objects
pre~?usly .unkn.own to him in his practical activity, or
famllIar objects In unusual situations objects viewed from
unusual angles, an illusion arises: on~ perceives something
t~at d?es n?t actu~ly exist. (We ignore here those percep~on dIstortIOns Wh.ICh result from sensory receptors being
~ed or. from theIr adaptation to prolonged or intense
stIm~latIon.) Althoug~ in this case sensory information
commg from the object may be completely undistorted
~d c~~ be fully ~a~en ~nto account, it may prove entirely
msufflc~ent for elImmatmg the illusion and establishing the
real object. In other words, illusion is in this case by no
means the result of the subject's activity but merely a
cObt:lsequen~e o.f the activity be ing inadequate to the
o ]ectlVe sItuation .
Ada! bert Arne s, . an A

.
mencan
psycholOgist,
h as perfor:r e? the followmg experiment Three peepholes are
~a e:c~n oaf St~~~ thro~~ whi~h on~ can look with one eye
of them is percei::do l'Jts dlSpl~yed in the distance. Ea~h
But when we 1 k u~ er the gIven conditions as a chalr.
angle we discov~~ t a the three objects from another
a chair. The other t : at only one of the objects is ind~d
can nevertheless prod are ettremel y str~ge objects WhIChe
projection on the retin~c~s rom a c~rtam angle the s.am
is not even one coherent a .real chau. (One of the objects
tended in front of a ba ~~]ect but a variety of wires exwe took to be the seat ~f t~~P 0t:l which is painted what
chairs which we see in this e ch.au.) T~us only one of t~e
xpenment lS a real chair, while
128

the other two are illusions. IS

The illusion arises because of all the interpretations

possible -(of all the object-hypotheses) corresponding to

the given retinal patterns, the subject unconsciously
chooses the one which accords best of all with his practical experience. Man continually handles chairs and does
not as a rule encounter those strange objects which Ames
d~monstr~ted. All kinds of illusions are as a rule quickly
dispersed m common practice: as distinct from the artificial conditions of laboratory experiment in real life t he
s~~ject does ~ot just look at a given object fro m one poSltIOn, and Wlth one eye at that, but continually shifts
hi~ posit~on, m~ving and acting vigorously, practical ly
llsmg vanous objects and creating new ones. All of th is
ensures quite sufficient conditions for correlating knowl~dge with real objects, singling out a fleeting perceptual
lmage as an illusion and separating it from impressions
corresponding to real objects. A stick immersed in water
seems broken. The illusion in this case is not due to distortion of sensory information: the objective circumstances
are such that the physical image of the stick on the retina
cannot be different here; we know that the light refraction
angles are different in the air and in water. The impression
of the unusual arises here because in ordinaxy practice we
do not deal with objects in two mediums simultaneously
in water and in air, so that our object-hypothesis cannot
correct the distortion of the projection of the stick on the
retina, as it is done by the subject perceiving the size
and form of objects seen from different angles ("constancy of perception"). But once one starts handling t hat same
stick (and that usually happens when it is not half in the
air and half under waterL one perceives it as straight,
i. e., as it actually is.
Thus the objective properties of objects perceived are
singled "1)ut in practical activity in accordance wit h the
tasks of that activity. E. H. Gombrich, t he well-known
art critic and specialist in the psychology of the perception
of painting, remarks in h is account of the Ames experiments with chairs that a hypothetical man from Mars who
is used to furniture of the same kind as the strange objects
demonstrated by Ames rather than our ordinary chairs,
would perceive the latter as the familiar arrangements of
wires (in any case, that would be his original perception,
until he found out that chairs are real objects of our
world).19 But it is exactly this circumstance, that is, the
intimate links between perception and the immediate practical needs, that conditions not only the strong but also
the weak points of perception. Practice does not simply

,..",

129

VI;
is hea

"'te,
Scienc;
coveri
of scil
gyof
ICO'"

that VI
numb<
f oreigr

compel us to perceive the real ~haracteristics of objects

The narrow limitations of practice may be the source of
stable mass i1lusio~ that ~~not be eliminated, such as the
impression of the Immobllity of the Earth and the motion
of the Sun. The conscious reflective cognition operating
with abstractions ignores the urgent needs of practice
and endeavours to discover the essential characteristics
of objects irrespective of their appearance in a concrete
situation. That does not mean that theoretical thinking in
general isolates itself from the tasks of practice, opposing
);: itself to the latter: it only means that thinking is an in.
/
strument for finding out the necessary characteristics of
objects and at the same time the essential dimensions of
practice itself. This ensures the possibility of action under
conditions which appear unusual and unfamiliar in terms
of available experience. When scientific astronomy dispel
led the illusion of the Sun's movement and immobility
of the Earth (this illusion nevertheless persists in the per
ception of a person as long as that person remains on the
Earth, for it fully accords with the ordinary practice of
taking the Earth for a frame of reference), the possibility
was thereby established, in the most abstract form, of
future WluSUal and novel practice-that of space flights
which provides a fresh view of the mutual motions of th~
Sun and the Earth.
\ /
Although in principle theoretical thinking is capable
?f establishing the .object's proper, real characteristics,
It may. u~der certam conditions persist in reproducing
s~ble illuslOns. Theoretical thinking (mostly in the social
SCIences) may be closely linked with a narrow restricted
pra~tice of a defin~te ldnd persistently thrusting on the
sub}ee:ts the perceptIOn of apparent aspects of reality only.
Of thlS .?Rture is,. for ~s~ce, t~e well-known phenome?-on of co~mo.dIt~ fe~lshlSm" dlscovered by Marx, which
15 a mass objective .11l1l:s10n inevitably shared by the proponents of the capItalIst system of social relations and
reproduced by the vulgar bourgeois political economy .
Marx was able to overcome this illusion theoretically
only ~cause he acc.epted t~e position of the proletariat's
~volutionary practice, whIch went beyond the activity
10 the. fram~wo.rk of t~e bourgeois mode of production,
assummg a.s It. dId a radical transformation of the latter
th~f~~~~~. ~~rest are the perception illusions in which
.
IV
unage to some extent or other directly
~~~~sU::h:n~~i . data, Prtially .rejecting them. This
sensory da~ is too ::::ordin~ object c?rresponding to
mon practice. A suit bl
ry and de.Vlates from c~m
a e example here IS the perception

130

of the image
of a' head turned inside out e. g., 01 thelOner
f
sur I ~ce 0 a castmg mould or of a plaster mask. Such an
illUSIon expresses n~t only the weakness but also the
st~n~h of perceptIOn. The perception hypothesis in
pnnclple behaves m the same way with regard to sensory
"facts" as theory with regard to the facts of science.
However, ~he replacement of one perception hypothesis
by another, IS, as ~ ru~e, a more difficult matter, than the
replacef!1ent o.f sCientific theories or even paradigms, for
perceptIOn ~bJecthypotheses are too intimately conne~
ed WIth ordmary human practice. In this connection the
problem of perception of unusual objects arises whi~h is
particularly acute today when man has created a world
o~ supercomplex technical apparatus often behaving
d!-fferently from the o~dinary bodies of everyday expe
~ence. Let us emphasIse once again one of the most
Important features of the cognitive relation. On the one
hand, what is. g!ven to. the subject in the act of cognition is
the. really eXlStl':lg ~bJe~t and. not his own subjective sensa~IOns. T~~ ob}eC~lVe 1l"':l~e 15 not realised as a specific
~hmg requmng special actIvity of objectification or project
mg for its correlation with the external object. On the
other hand, cognition necessarily assumes a realisation of
the difference between the subject and the object cognized
and, consequently, a realisation of the difference between
the objective image belonging to the subject and the actual
o~~ect ~tsel~. True, under ordinary conditions, when cog
mtIOn IS duected at the external object rather than the
subjective world, the realisation of the subjective relevan
ce of the objective image belonging to the subject is, as it
were, at the periphery of consciousness, while the centre
of the consciousness field is occupied by the real world of
external objects. In this case, the objective image is "transparent", as it were, to the object presented in it. However,
even when consciousness is oriented at the world of one's
own inner experiences (and that orientation is secondary,
derivative from the orientation at the external world), the
object (in this case the state of consciousness) and the
subject of cognition do not merge, being separate from one
another.
The subject may be involved in cognizing objects of
at least three kinds: objects external not only with regard
to his consciousness but also to his body; his own body
(reference here is to my body only, and not to the body
of another subject); and finally, his consciousness. Cognition which deals with the objects of the first kind is primary, basiC, and determining all the other types of knowl
edge. This cognition necessarily presupposes the presence
131

I
\
(

.I

VII

is he'a
lUte c
Scier1(

coveri
of sci!
gy of
ICOre.

1hat

VI

numbt
foreigt

in consciousness of an objective world scheme incorporat.

ing also the scheme of the subject's ~d.y as. occupying a
definite objective spatial.temporaf posItion Ul the. world
among other objects. (If. the suh}ect does not realise the
objective position of thIS . bo~Y m th~ world, he, <;annot
orient himself in the objectIve medIum.) CogmtlOn of
one's own body. on the one ,hand, assum~s ~hat some of
its states are given to the subject "from Wlthm" (through
proprioceptive reception), and on the ot~er hand, it is
based on the realisation of the body being mcorporated in
the objective network of the world's connections in which
the subject's body itself acts as one of the objects.
Thus the objective knowledge that I can pass on or communicate to other persons presupposes the existence of
objects external with regard to my body and independent
of it, and incorporation of my body in an objective network.
Ai, for the knowledge of the states of my consciousness,
it only proves possible because I can view myself as if I
were some other person, which implies not only the exist
ence of that other person outside myself but also jOint
activity with him.. (That does not exclude the existence
of such shades in the realisation of my inner experiences
which are rather hard to express externally and to communicate to someone else.) And that means that the realisa
tio~ o! the subjective states of consciousness presupposes
objective knowledge as the necessary basis and would be
impossible without it.
~t us imagine that all objects of cognition are created,
as It were, by the act of consciousness and do not exist
o~tside cOgnition. It may appear that this hypothetical
plctu!e corresponds to the world of inner experiences of
a child at the ~arl~ stages of the development of t he
psyche, when obJec~lVe pe~el?tion of reality has not yet
been form~d ~d. dlfferen~latIon between the subjective
and t.he objective IS non-eXlStent. But this view is unfound.
ed. F,!st, the early stages of the development of the psyche
contam the possi~ility ~d the necessity of the subjec t's
subsequent
conscIOus differentiat,'on between h'IS su b'Ject'
tat
Ive s. es and the world of objects; second the hypotheti.
cal ~I~ture of creation of objects by the v~ry act of their
cthogrutI.on presupposes t~e realisation and recognition of
e pnmacy of the subject and th d ' .
objects, whereas in fact the bab d e enva~l~e nature .of
even himself as a subject far f~o~es~lj:.ongmally.reahse
of objects.
, r e mg the existence
It is not hard to show the impo 1'bil'
assumed here for even the SUbjec: Ity of the situation
ness cannot be fully determined b vehstates of consciousy t e cognitive activity
132

aimed .at .t~em, although the relation between subject

and ?bJ~t. In t~e proc:::ess of reflexion is characterised by
certain difficulties, which we shall later discuss. The states
of consciousness and the subject's body certainly do not
e~~t independently of the subject ~imself. But their cog.
mtIon, as w.e have ~~essed. above, 18. only made possible
by the subject realismg himself as mcorporated in the
objective world, that is , a world filled with real objects
and ot~er SUbjects exist~g outside and in~ependently
from hlm . Most of the objects and other subjects are in
de~nde~t of the given subject both. in their origin and
therr eXistence. (Some of them are mdependent of him
in their existence but dependent on him in their origin:
these i~clud~, first) the objects, created by man, and sec
ond, hls children. If the objeCts were "tied" to the
subject and "followed" his movements and actions, the
cognitive relation would Simply be impossible.
This fundamental characteristic of cognition should
be borne in mind , in particular, in discussing the philosophical implications of the modern theories of quantum
mechanics. Both in the phYSical and the philosophical liter
ature one can come across statements to the effect that
the distinction or boundary between subject and object
is obliterafedln cognizing the 05jects of the microworld,
-aha hat man in this case deals with tIie cognition of his
own action on the object of knowledge . These arguments
are sometimes linked up with the dialectical materialist
doctrine of the unity of the subject and the object, with
the Marxist thesis of the active, practical nature of cog
nition. In reality, the philosophical significance of the
cognitive situation in quantum physics lies in the discovery
of a fundamentally new type of real objects possessing
properties sharply distinguishing them from the ordinary
objects of the macroworld, and in the need for taking into
account the conditions of observation in describing expe
rimental results. At the same time quantum mechanics
provides no grounds fo r the assertion that the boundary \
between subject and object is eliminated. The point is that
the conditions of observation refer:refl to here" are quite .
objective. The mactodi.wiCes
micro-objects exist
outside the subject. The subject conducting the experiment and recording the apparatus measurements may in
principle be replaced by an automaton.
Of course, man also cognizes the products of his own
creativity. But that is only possible insofar as these products (e. g., the wo rld of technology, cultural artifacts,
scientific theories, works of art, etc.! .Qle ..ff?rm ot signs
and symbols) function in the externa y ooJective mode,

ana

fr

133

VI.
Is he,
.... 0

that is, outside the subject's body: In any case. ,the process
of cognition, of conscious reflecti0!l o~ the obJ~c~, cannot
/" coincide with the process of creatmg It. (CognItIon itseU
is always creative in nature, b~t we h~ve ~ mind here only
the reproduction of the cogruzed object m the system of
knowledge and not its creation.)

Seien(
coveri
of scil
gyaf

3. COGNITION AND OBJECTRELATED

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY

ItOr"

tha,.

We have already pointed out the role of referential

meanings, cognitive norms, and objec~hypotheses in the
process of cognition, stressing the fact that these norms
do not simply emerge in the course of the object affecting

numb<
for.igr

the sense organs but control the choice and transforma-

tion of sensory information in shaping the object's image.

The question naturally ames as to the nature and origin
of these nonns. Aren't the transcendentalists right in asserting that cognitive standards and norms are inherent I
in the subject's consciousness and should be understood l

as a result of analysis of the latter?

The philosophy of dialectical materialism posits that
cognition in all its forms, beginning with perception, based
on ~efi.nite standards and objective norms, is formed in the
~ubJect's p:actical ac~ivity involving material objects. It
15 not passive reception but practical transformation of
the objective environment that is the starting point of
man's attitude to the world.
"The chief defect of all previous materialism (that of
Feuerbach inc1~ded)," wrote Marx, "is that things [GegenstandJ , realit.y, sensuousness are conceived only in the
form of the object, or of contemplation but not as sen~uous h~~a,! ac.tivity, practice, not subjectively, Hence,
10 contradlstmctlOn to materialism the active side was set
forth abstractly by idealism-whi~h of course does not
k:n~w real, sensuous activity as such.'~20
'
,.. ~ut men. do not at all begin with 'standing in this
theoret~cal relatIOn to, the ,things of the outer world'. As
any ~lm;u, th~y ,~egm With eating, drinking, etc., thus
ot Wlt~ standing. 10 some relation but with active behavIour, with. mastenng certain things of the outer world
throug~ J.ction and thereby satisfying their needs "21
Lemn stressed repeatedly that Marxis
.
.
the basis of its epistemology" Th m made practice
satisfy man and man d 'd . ...
e ~orld does not
ty."22 "", A full 'definit~~~,e~f ~ cl~e It by. his activiwhole of human experience b thobJect ~u8t: mclude the
,
0
as a cntenon of truth

r:

134

and a Qractical indicator of its connection with human

wants ... 23
The connection between perception formation and the
subject's activity involving objects is now widely recognised in psychology.
Thus, Piaget's studies show the incorporation of perception in more general schemes of object-directed activity-sensori-motor schemes, in the case of a baby.
The first stage in the development of sensori-motor
schemes of behaviour (of sensori-motor intellect) is marked
according to Piaget, by the use of innate sensori.moto~
mechanisms which are adapted to the properties of objects
(their fonn, size, etc.). At this stage, only a finer differentiation of stimuli may take place but not perception of
objects.
The second stage (beginning with the second month of
the child's life), or the stage of primary reactions, is
marked by repetition of accidental actions yielding a
positive result. At this stage of development, the object
appears to the child as a direct continuation of an action.
At the third stage (the stage of secondary circular
reactions, which lasts between the third and the ninU1
months), the primary reactions come to be applied to new
objects. A number of new types of behaviour emerge:
visual adaptation to slow movements (the child, following
a moving object, continues to follow the trajectory after
the disappearance of the object), repeated grasping at
one and the same place, recognition of the whole object
from its visible part, overcoming obstacles interfering
with perception (the child pulls away a piece of cloth
thrown over his face) and applying varied actions to
one and the same object.
However, although the child returns to the original
action directed at an object in a definite place, there is
no searching yet for an object that disappeared exc~pt
for continuing an action once begun along the same trajectory. Although children pull away a piece of cloth from
their face, they never attempt taking it off an object
that was covered in their presence. Piaget believes that
it is at this stage that the objectness of perception
emerges,
The fourth stage (between nine months and a year) is
the stage of coordinating the schemes of action already
acquired and their application to new situations. Systematic investigation of new objects begins, connected as it
were with discovery of their purpose (scrutinising, swinging, shaking, pressing, sticking into the mo~th, th~owin.g,
etc.). The child actively searches for the object whlch dIS135

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appears before his eyes bu.t does n?t take into account
the object's movell?-ents gomg 0!l rIght befo~ his eyes.
The object is a reallty for the chil~,. but a. reahty at a definite place in the presence of a deftnIte acbon.
At the fifth stage (between the end of the first and the
middle of the second year) t~e child ~iscov~rs new patterns of action through active expen~entt~g. Actions
are performed involving the ':Ise of auxIh~ Implements,
the simplest instrumental actlOns. In searchmg for a Concealed object, the child begins ~. take i~to acco~nt the
consecutive movements of the VISIble object, Iookmg for
it in the place where it was hidd~n I.ast. .
.
Finally the sixth stage (begInnmg Wlth the mIddle of
the second year) signifies the transition from sensori-motor experience to imagining the results of the child's own
actions on the one hand, and to imagining objects and
their ~ovements, on the other. At this stage, the child
learns to take into account several consecutive movements
of the object in searching for it even though the object
is invisible during these movements (after being shown
to the child, it is moved in a closed fist or box),24
"Implicitly, perception models, in a way, reality both
present and future, and also the future states of the object
trasnformed by man,"25 points out A. M. Korshunov.
The works of Soviet researchers have shown that initially perception processes are formed and develop as integral components of practical activity, and the overall
effect of this activity as a whole consists in establishing
the features of the observed situation. The practical
object-oriented activity develops the operations of singling out and analysing the features of a thing. As the child's
activity becomes more complex and he faces more difficult cognitive tasks, the limitations of a purely practical
stU?y of the obj~ct and the need for special perceptive
actlOns come to light. However, perceptive actions too are
at ~he. fi~st ~tag~s externally similar to actions with things.
ThIS slmilan.ty IS observed even in the case of distant receptors WhICh do not come in direct contact with
things. 26
At the ~me time the realisation that cognitive norms
and <?perabo~ are f?rmed in the subject's practical activity With matenal objects is not enough to understand the
~ature and. mod~s of functiOning of the norms of cogni- 1
tion. MarxISt philosophy posits that practical activity itsel~ I'!lust be unders~o~ in its speCifically human characterist~cs,. ~mely, as J?mt or collective activity in which

each. mdiVldu~ enters ~n~o c~rtain relations with other per.

sons, as medIated actlVlty m which man places between

himself and an external, naturally emerging object other

man-made o~j~cts functi.oning as instruments or implements of actiVity; and [mally, as historically developing
activi~y ~arrying in itself ~ts own history. 27 The socially
functlOnmg man made objects mediating various kinds of
his activity (beginning with implements of labour includ~g obj~cts of everyday. use, and en~i~g with sign'-symbolic systef!ls, model~, dIagrams, schemesJ etc:) play not
~nly an 1Ostrument~ but alS? a most Important cognitive role. In the objects cogmzed, man singles out those
properties that prove to be essential for developing social
practice, and that becomes possible precisely with the aid
of mediating objects carrying in themselves reified sociohistorical experiences of practical and cognitive activity.28 Mastering a socially functioning man-made object
the child begins to single out in external objects, first:
those features and characteristics which are essential for
the activity with the aid of the given instrument the
given man-made object, and second, those traits in ~hich
they are similar to the objects accumulated through human
activity. In other words, the instrumental man-made
objects function as objective forms of expression of cognitive nonns, standards, and object-hypotheses existing
outside the given individual. The mastering by the individual of these norms, social in their genesis, permits their
functioning as structure-forming components of cognition.
It is in the course of this mastering of norms in practical
activity with external objects that the objectness of perception is fonned. This fundamental fact was discounted
by Piaget, who made a great contribution to the study of
the links between the process of perception and the development of forms of object-oriented activity but viewed
the development of cognitive structures as entirely dependent on progressive changes in the relations of eqUilibrium
between the individual and the external environment.
In studies by Soviet psychologists relying on the basic
tenets of Marxist philosophy about the nature and ways of
formation of cognitive norms, the hypothesis was advanced
and later experimentally confirmed that the instruments
for performing perceptive actions are systems of the
objects' sensuous qualities singled out and recorded in
social experience, which, mastered by the child, function
as standards or "units of measurement", in the perception
of the varied phenomena of reality. Systems of sensuous
qualities are singled out in various kinds of human activity
(the colours of t~e spec~r':lm, geometrical forms, e~c . )
which "quantify" 10 a defImte manner the correspondmg
aspects of reality.29 That means, for instance, that a clear

136
137

t al distinction between a circle and an oval (and

pe~ep. u
t of these forms in the objects of nature) is
de~~~~~~ g~m their different func~oning in object-orient_
ed
ti 'ty Retinal images of a CIrcle and an oval may
not adif~r ~ery much, and t heir perceptu~ differentiat~on
is essentially conditioned by the practice. of operatl.ng
with man-made objects used as standards III perceptive

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know, from the standpoint of qestalt psY~hology

the singling out of the circle in the objects perceIVed .by
the subject is one of the striking examples of the a~?on
of inner structural (in fact, innate) laws .of all cogmtl(~n.
Gestalt psychologists believe that the ~am law detemnning perception of form is th~ law of Pragna~~-the tend~,~
cy of the image of perceptIOn to assu~e ~ood form
symmetrical, closed, and simple (the CIrcle IS an e~ample
of such a symmetrical and simple form). Und~rl~mg the
law of Priignanz is, in the view of t~~se .theoreticians, the
trend towards establishing R? equihbnum. between. the
physical processes in the subject and those m the objects
external with regard to the subject. AWaIe that systems
with a minimum of potential energy are the best balanced
physical systems, Gestalt psychologists endeavour to
show that the most characteristic features of the~e sys- \
tems are simplicity and symmetry.30 However, tn. ~he
case of the singling out of the circle by the percelvmg /
subject, modem psychology provides grounds fo~ the assertion that this process is mediated by assimilatIOn ~f s<;>cially formed perceptual standard. Indeed, the subJe?t IS
more inclined to single out such simple forms as the ~lrcle
than others in the objects perceived. But this is explamed,
first of all, by the special role of such forms in human
object-oriented activity, which is in its turn conditioned
by certain objective properties of these forms.
As Marx pointed out, "the eye has become a human
eye, just as its object has become a social human objectan object made by man for man. The sens;s have therefore
become directly in their practice theoreticians ... The fanning of the five senses is a labour of the entire history of
the world down to the present. "31
T~~s the implementati0l1: of the act of cognition as a
sp~Clfl~allY h~man reflection or reproduction of the
obJ~ct ~ essenb.al cha:rac~ristics presupposes not only the
sub}ect s handhng the object but also man's creation (the
SOCIal man rather than a natural individual that is man in
coo.'?e~ti0!l ,~th. other in~i'1dUals) of a definite system
of artifi~lal ob}~~ts medlatmg the process of reflection
and carrymg cogmtlVe nonns and standards in themselves.

T.h~se mediating o~ject.s, .a~t~g as instruments of cog-

138

ruhon, have a certam speclftcl.ty. On the one hand, their

purpose is to enabl e the subject to reflect in cognition
the characteristics o f objects existing independently from
them. On the other hand, the mediators themselves are
objects with speci fi c features of their own , possessing internal connections, assuming definite modes of operating
with them and existing originally in an external reified fonn
(they are only later assimilated by the individual, becoming his inner attributes). But that means that implementation of the cognitive act assumes not only the subject's
ability to correlate mediating objects with the object
cognized. The subject must also master the modes of
handling the specific reality constituted by the socially
functioning artificial objects.
Let us consider in this connection some essential moments in the general problem of interrelation between
activity and c ognition. A short historical-philosophical
excursus is in order here. The conception that there is an
intimate connection between cognition and activity is of
a relatively recent origin. The thinkers of antiquity characteristically drew a sharp distinction between knowledge
in the proper sense, that is, understanding of the ~s~nce
of things, and technical ability to produc~ or artIfiCIally
create a certain object. Art can only imitate nature to
some extent, but it cannot equal it: such was th~ view of
ancient philosophers. Man cannot produce what IS created
by nature. That does not mean, in ancient philosophers'
view that man cannot cognize the reality of nature. But
kno~ledge is not identical with ability for technical ~p~o
duction of what is cognized. The thinkers of antiq!-llty
(we ignore here the essential differences between v.arl;ous
schools in philosophy at that time) insisted that, as d18tmct
from artificial reproduction , knowledge presu~poses
neither a change in the given object nor construction . of
a new object but passive reception of the content of realIty
that is cognized as it is.
.
.
A different conception of the mterrelabon of knowledge and activity is developed in the phil<?sophy of the
New Times, a conception ~irectly .linked WIth the .f<;>rmation of new experimental SCience. Fll"St of all, the ~CtlVlty.of
artisans and technicians is re-assessed. The view. gall,!s
currency that technical ability to make some thing IS
also knowledge, and not just one kind of knowledge, !Jut
knowledge of fundamentally the same sort as theoretIcal
and moreover one that expresses the essence of any
lmo~ledge. InMmuch ~. lmowl.edge o~ the essence of
the object implies cogllltlOn of Its proximate cause, man
139

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can really know only that which he made himself, that

is the things whose proximate cause he himself IS. Knowl.
edge is thus identified with creation or ,construction. 32
Since contemporary technology ID?Stly u:'-volved mecha
nical processes of assembly and dlSmanthng, knowledge
of nature was reduced to discovery of particular construc_
tions suitably assembled and dismantled, and nature itself
was viewed as a giant clockwork. The thesis of the knowability of the world appears in this context as substantiation of the conception that all natural processes can be
technically reproduced, that human techni~al art can in
principle attain the. same .deg.r~ of perf~ction ~s natu re.
From this standpomt, sclenbflc theory 15 nothmg but a
kind of accumulation of the potential modes of technical
activity, for theory mentally dismantles and assembles
that which can later be dismantled and assembled materially.
It is in this context that statements should be understood to the effect that knowledge is power, that man is
not only a servant but also the master of nature (Bacon).
Descartes did not draw a fundamental distinction between
mechanisms created by craftsmen and bodies made by
nature.
Thus the thesis, widely discussed in the philosophy of
the New Times, that man can really know only that which
he himself created is closely bound up with the prevailing
mechanism in new experimental science that replaced the
peripatetic medieval physics. For us however, another
point is more important. This thesis is directly linked with
yet another idea that began to interest many thinkers
precis~IY at that time, the idea that the subject's knowledge 18 only adequate insofar as it is connected with the
subject himself, his state and actions that is the idea
whic~ was exp.ressed most'distinctly by bescarte~.
ThlS l~t ~lrcumstance is particularly important, for
the theSIS discussed here outlived mechanism exactly
because.o.f it. ~deed, if. we do not link up too c1ose~y
any a?t1Vlty WIth matena! and technical activity, still
!ess. ":"lth the work of mechanical assem bly and dismantlm~,. if we assume ~hat the essence of activity is purely
~pl!ltual.' the. assertlOr: may be retained that cognition
IS .ldentl<:al ~lt!t creatl(:~n ~f. the object cognized, lending
~IS t~esls ~l8tmct SUbjectIViSt meaning and at the same
~me discarding the obsolete ideas of philosophical mechanlSII!-' That w~s exactl.y what was done in German classical
p~llosophy, tn the fU'St place in the systems of Kant and
Flchte.
Let us also note that if cognition is identical with crea140

tion of the objec~ cognized, all things that cannot be

created by the subject and exist by themselves tum
t
to be unknowable.
'
ou
The estab~8~ment of fundamental links between knowledge and a.ctiv,lty I ~heory ~d prac:ti:ce, and the emphasis
on the s~bJect s a~t1v~ role In cogmtlOn, were indubitably
an essentl~ con~nbutIon to the development of epistemology. Marxist philosophy creatively assimilated these ideas
sta:ting out fro~ their treatment by the German classicai
ph~osol?he_rs. 8.tJll, ~he ide3:. that c~nition of the object
IS 10 pnnclple Identical to Its creatlOn or construction is
unacceptable to scientific epistemology. True, one Can
attempt to erase the subjectivist colouring of this thesis
by reformulating"'iXas the idea that all knowledge is a set
of some potential practical modes of object-oriented activity, and that these modes themselves express the real
struc~~re of the ~bject. and are in this sense objectively
con~lt~oned. But 10 thlS fonnulation, too, tile analysed
theSIS IS hardly acceptable, for its main drawback is retained: direct equating of knowledge and modes of practical
activity.
. The idea that man's knowledge is most adequate where
It concerns objects which he himself has created is quite
untenable, too. It is well known that one may be an excellent handicraftsman or technician and at the same time
have a vague notion of the processes which objectively
determine the success of certain technical operations.
Today. the laws of physico-chemical processes are known
much better than the laws of such a man-made phenomenon as language. Man is also far from perfect understanding of the way in which scientific theories are constructed and change. And then there is all the work to be
done towards cognizing the phenomena of consciousness.
On the other hand, great masses of quite reliable knowledge exist which cannot so far be used practically. Knowledge of t his type does not provide modes of practical artific ial reconstruction of the objects to which it refers
(although it may of course be used in the f';lture, combined with other types of lmowledge, for working out new
technologies and new modes o~ pra~tical activity). N~ver
theless this kind of knowledge 18 qwte correctly descnbed
as lmowledge.
Undoubtedly, cognition grows out of practical activity.
servicing material practice th:oug~out~ts develo~m~nt. Th~s
proposition is fundamental 10 dialectical matenalism. It IS
also true that cognition, being reflection, always appears as
a kind of activity and consequently as construction and
creation, for activity is always reWed in certain objects.
141

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Cognitive activity is direc~d at r~flection, reproduction

of the properties of real objects Wlth the aid of a special
system of artificially. created m~diator objects_ Of course
cognition may also u:volve aC~IOn <;>n an external object
(that happens, e. g., 111 expenmentmg), but that action
does not bring about_ c~anges (or, s~i1lless, construction)
of cognized charac~nstlcs of t~e ~bJect but only produc_
tion of better conditIOns for then dIscovery. (The reference
here. is to those l?roperties th~~ appear ~n the given situation as the object of cogrutIOn, for It goes without
saying that in any material action some objective properties are always changed and some are even created.) It is
through the activity of using mediator objects that creation, or construction, of objects enters cognition. Man
constructs new apparatus and measurement instrwnents
creating and developing scientific theories, constructing
models, operating with signs and symbols in a definite
manner, etc. But this cr~ative, constructive activity pertains precisely to the world of mediator objects and does
not imply creation of the object cognized. With the aid
of artificially constructed mediator objects the subject
cognitively reproduces other objects (often getting a better
knowledge of the latter than of the former). It does not
follow from the above that mediator objects themselves
cannot be o.bjects of knowledge. But in this case they cease
to be medIators and assume the construction of a new
system of mediator objects, embodying the lmowledge
a.bout them_ Importantly, the goal of theory is reproduction. of the. esse~ce of an object regardless of a concrete,
p.artIcular SItuation of practical employment of it, as distinct. from . percep~ion wh~ch includes only referential
~eat;Ings dlIectly hnked wlth existing social practice. It
18 this feature of theory that fonns the basis for the development and p~rfecti~1"! o~ practical activity, for finding
hays of practIcal utilisatlOn of new aspects of objects
/ ~at haveb~en cognized theoretically but have not yet
,
':y0hme 0 }e~~ of techni~~ activity.
tionalf CdgnltIon, an acbvl~y that is genetically and funcsame lime ef~;~t~~~ O~thobhctive practice, is. not a~ ~he
objects are constru WI. t e latter. In practical actiVlty,
society and individu~tes~bt:hat have immedia~e value ~or
assumes the use of im
)ects.-A.,t ,the same time practice
rial activity of manki~l~~~n~-Ob)ects in which the mateobjects may be reprodu~~fied. The properties of. ~eal
on~y through creation of a wh the process ~f cogn~tIon
objects subject to specific o.~io r1d of SpeCIal medIator
carrying social co~nitive ~l . aws of functioning and
penences. Mediator objects

u:

142

used in the process of c~gnition do not have a value as

suc::h but ~e~e)y as came~s, of knowledge about other
obJects_ CreatIvlty and cogrutlon are thus linkedln a most
intimate manner and ~~me each other. But in its very
essence .the act of, cogmtlOn cannot coincide with the act
of creatlOg the object cognize~, otherwise we would have
no grounds at all for any discussion of cognition and
lmowledge.
The .idea of ~he identity of ~owledge and creation of
the obJ~ct cognlzed, developed In the philosophy of the
Ne~ Tim.es, appears to be diametrically opposed to the
anCIent Vlew of knowledge as passive reception, Let us
note, however, that b?th of these ideas have one point in
common, the conceptIOn of knowledge as direct graspingof the external object in the first case and of the activity
of the subject himself, in the second_ In both cases there
is a failure to understand that tbe characteristics of a real
object may be reproduced in the process of cognition only
~rough constructi?n of another system of objects, a speClal world of mediator objects constituting social reality
of a particular kind. In other words, the mediated nature
of all knowledge is not understood.
Let us consider Gaston Bachelard's conception as an
example of consistent development of the idea about the
ide.ntity. of knowledge and constructing the cognized
object m modem Western philosophy. Pointing to the
artificial nature of most of the realities which constitute
the practical world of modem man and owe their origin to
technical creativity, the French philosopher concludes that
science more and more ceases to be knowledge of natural
phenomena, becoming a process of constructing phenomena, a kind of factory for their production. Bachelard
believes that the phenomena which a physicist or chemist studies are to a considerable extent his own creations.
It is not nature that provides the chemist with "pure"
substances: he prepares them in his laboratory starting
from a theoretical construction. In the end Bachelard
comes to the conclusion that the essence of science does
not in general lie in comprehending natural reality but in
constructing artificial objects; that it consists in technology and not in Imowledge (thus he believes that the
electron, the positron, thf' proton, the neutron pertain to
the technical aspects of electric phenomena). 3 3 As we see,
constructive activity of creating the world of artificial
mediator objects is here confused with creation of the
object itself that is to be cognized.

143

---'---- -4. REIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE,

COMMUNICATION, AND THE SOCIAL
NATU RE OF COGNITION

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So ~ar .we have ~oncent~ated on c?gnitive activity being

most mtllD.ately Imked 'wIth the eXIstence and function.
ing of a special socio-cultural world of, mediator objects.
A question, however, may naturally anse here: does not

this approach ignore the indubitable fact that cognition

is not only realised by separate individuals but as often

as not takes place "within" consciousness, without any

immediate external manifestation? One is not obliged to
inform anyone about the results of one's perception of

some object, not to mention the fact that this perception

may contain shadings of emotion that are hard to express
objectively. Although the process of thinking is apparently
impossible without some instruments of objectification
(signs of the natural language pronounced or recorded on
paper, mathematical symbols, etc.), we mostly think
without speaking.
.Interesting ideas usually emerge from the depths of consclOusness, and their verbal fonnulation often re.9.,.uires
h:ard work. Generally speaking, the existence of the subjective world of one's own consciousness is obvious to
~yone: it is an inalienable attribute of the subject and
dIffers not only from the world of real objects but also
from the external object-directed and objectively expressed actions of the subject.
These indubitable. facts cannot of course be negated.
We have already.p.omted out that the implementation of
t~e act of cogmtIo~ assumes the subject distinguishing
himself ~om t~e. obj~ct. cognized, which implies, among
~ther thmgs, dIstmguIshmg real objects from the subjec~ve state~ of consciousness. But to make this differentiatI~n pOSSIble, th~ subjective world must be present, it must
eXIst. The fact ~s, however, that the subjective world, the
world of conSClOusness, is by no means given from the
very outset. At the early stages of individual development
of . th~ psyc~e the, s~bject is not yet given the world of
objectIye thmgs dlStmct fr~m himself and leading a life
of theIr own. And, for thl:S reason the subject himself
and" the
world
of hIS conSCIOusness
d 0 no t eXIst
" f
the
t
T
h
'
,
or
t
f
su b jec .
ere 15 no subjective world t th'
development. The outstandin
S. a
15 s age .0
L. S. Vygotsky, who relied
tgh
oVlet psychologl~t
ti
f M .
h'
on e fundamental proposlarxut p. ilosophy, expressed an ide "34 th t
ons 0
a
later became the basIS of numerous thea re t' a1 ad
cal developments and was in Particula Ical"an practl,
r, re Ised In the

144

studies of A. N. Leontyev,35 A, R. Luriya,36 p, Ya.

V, V. Davydov,39
Galperin,37 A. V. Zaporozhets,38
V, P. Zinchenko, 40 and others: the idea that internal
psychical processes are a result of "interiorisation" that
is, "growing in" or transposition onto the inner pl~ne of
those actions of the subject which are originally performed
externally and directed at external objects. Implemented in external forms, activity assumes cooperation with
other individuals and utilisation ofsocio-historically shaped
instruments and modes embodied in a system of mediator
objects. In the process of interiorisation external actions
are subjected to a specific transformation - they are
generalised, verbalised, reduced, and at the same time
become capable of further development going beyond
the possibilities of external activity. 41 "In other words,
the higher specifically human psychological processes can
only emerge in the interaction between men," writes
A. N. Leontyev "that is, they can only be intrapsychological, and only later are they performed by the individual
independently, some of them losing their initial external
form, becoming interpsychological processes ... Consciousness is not given initially and neither is it generated by nature: consciousness is generated by society, it is produced. "4 2
That means that external activity in the form of operating with certain objects, signs, schemes, etc., is not just
one of the means of objectifying the "true" activity of
thinking performed in one's brain but its real basis and
the starting point of fonnation.
Therefore all ideas appear in some objectified form,
although th~ latter need not be verbal:. B:n i~ea mB:Y appear
in the shape of conception about actIVlty mvolvmg some
object, or even simply as a visual i~ag~ of some situati.on;
in the latter case the activity itself IS gIVen to the subject
in- hidden form and is included in the conception. The
translation of a verbally unformed idea (that is, unformed
even in terms of inner speech) is not simply the activity
of expressing some ready-made content in a different
material but development of the content itself. In general any form of reification or objectification of some
c~gnitive content signifies a certain change in the latter.
That means that the process of perception is not purely
subjective, being mediated by mas~ering a soc~~ly formed
world of objects whi,ch may be VIewed as relfIed ~r~p
tions just as scientific texts (although not only SCIentific
texts' of course) are reifications of thinking, Man looks at
the ~orld through the eyes of society.
The subjective world of consciousness presents itself to
145

III

the individual in the first place as a stream of visual Un

and notions replacing one another. Let us note howe~es

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that any visual image (i~cluding. the image of me'mory) n~i

only expresses a certam expenence but always refers t

so~e ,real. obje.ct (an ensemble of objects, a process, ~

~bJecbve

sItuation, e~c.). And that .presupposes differentiat.

mg between the object and the Image Itself interpretin
~e object of representati?n (in vary~g deg~s of activity~
In some network of ObjectIve relations: spatio.temporal

coordinates, certain dependences on other objects etc

The existence of visual images assumes, of course th~ ahil:
ity of the brain to ~tain traces of previous impressions.
However, human nohons are by no means identical with
~hese traces, fo! they ar~ always objectively interpreted
m nature. That IS why arumals do not have either notions
?r subj~ctive .memory: the "revived" traces of previous
ImpreSSI?nS, flf~,.are not included in this case in temporal
~onn.ectlons eXIstmg only in the presen t (that is, there
15 neIther the past nor the future for the animal, subjectively), and secon~, they do not characterise the objective
,":,orld,. connectmg the information received from the outSIde duectly with some situation reaction. Pierre Janet, a
,,:,ell-known Fr~nch psychologist, underlines the distinction bet,,:,e.en Slmple repetition and human memory. In
th~ re~tltlon of something learnt earlier, the past is Ie~ed m the .present (here belongs the entire area of
skills). In a sO?lally conditioned act of memory (in Janet's
tenru~ology, m the act of "true memory") we have a
tlve , an account of what happened in the past that is
a ~n.damentallY new action in the present in which th~
pas 15 exp~s~d symbolically. Because of this an aspect
~~fisrs~~~~ta. l?df al"!1ed that dif.fers from the re~isation of
IVl U
s self-conscIousness
Th
ed in e~~ee~a;~s:e l~y~ up and subjectively interpretwhen someone forg~tl s PhYChiatry. J. Zutta writes that
"Where has it 'got to? I!;g w ere .he P';lt some object, asks,
he does something that' and t~hm~s .It over in inactivity,
~Ivmg be.ing can do, for
he mentally translates a P~~bil:r
1
of amnesias accordin to l.y mto reality. The essence
above all the 'impossibili~Y of ge~lstebtialist psychiatry, is
situation and of memorising ?mg heyond the experienced
visual image as an elementary!? a uman manner. 43 'The
stream of consciousness is alw quant~m". of the subjective
and this interpretedness emerg~~s.mob~hctIvelY interpreted,
processes of consciousness thern I e fonnation of the
course of interiorisation or extern~ ves,..tha~ is, in the
of socially created objects em;odC~IVlty m the world
ymg social-histori-

nar

146

cal experience. It may be imagined that under different

socio-cultural conditions, that is, in different contexts of
social prac~ice, . the r~~erential meanings implemented in
external objective activity and later in the subjective world
of consciousness will vary somewhat, for their content is
determined not only by the world of real objects but also
by the degree of their assimilation in the historically developing social practice. That means that under these conditions the subjectively experienced worlds of consciousness may differ in some respects in experiencing time in
the perception of the nature of replacement of some states
of consciousness by others and of their mutual relations,
etc.
The visual image has no cognitive content different
from the content of the external objeet represented in it,
although the existence of the image itself and some of its
characteristics that do not pertain to its referential meaning (its vividness or dimness, the length of the act itself
of image perception, etc.) are realised as belonging to the
subjective world different from the world of external
objects. Visual representation always points to a real
object, being devoid of any content or meaning outside
this indicative function. It is therefore impossible to separate in consciousness the content of visual image from
the content of the object presented in it (although the
image itself is realised as different from the object). When
consciousness attempts to make the content of a given
visual image its object, it discovers that it deals with the
content of the real object itself presented in this image.
The referential interpretation of the content of consciousness emerging in the process of the fonnation of the
latter, that is, in the course of external activity with socially created objects permeates all of its components,
including the conscious perception of the most elementary units of psychical life. In this connection l~t us consider
the experience of pain. It is beyond queshon (and has
been studied thoroughly) that the basis and function of
pain sensatio ns are physiological-they serve as a kind of
signal informing the individual. about the need for eliminating certain external actions constituting a threat to the
organism. The specifically human feeling of pain implies
the realisation of this feeling as differing from all the
others its inclusion in the context of other states of
psychi~allife localisation of pain sensations in the body of
the given subject (we do not feel pain in general but pain
in the given spot of the arm, toothache, headache, etc.),
realisation of the fact that pain is always my pain and is
not therefore inherent in objects different from my body,
147

VI,
II hel
..teo
Scient;

coveri
of lCil
IW of

- ..

tho . .
numb<

for.;g.

and finally, a certain attitude to P.ai n itself. In other wo d

although the elementary sensation of pain in itself r s.,
distinct from perception or visual representation expre as
experience rather than knowledge, it is also i~cludeds~
certain meaningful structures, including cognitive 0 m
relating, on the one hand, to external objects and 0 ~~s,
other, to the subjective world. These meaningful ~tru e
tures ~e assimil~ted by .the individual ~:mly along with th~
formatIon of hIS conSCIOusness, and It therefore should
be assumed that the, feeling of pain itself at the early sta es of development dIffers from what we have justdescribJ
A ne~born ,baby cannot in principle localise the feelin'
of pam, for Its body doe~ not yet e.xist, for it as an object.
It therefore. merges, as It w~re, ~Ith Its pain, Inasmuch
~ t~e do~alfi of external objects IS not consciously given
It eIther, It may, be said that when painfully stimulated,
the ~by perc~Ives the whole world as filled with the
sen,satton of pam" Suppos~ly, even this elementary sen
satl?n (as a -conscIously realISed one) will vary with cultur
al'~lstorical conditions, in any case as far as attitude to
pam, the modes of external expression of this sensation
etc" are concerned,
'
This reference to the socially and culturally conditioned
character of the processes and functions of consciousness does n?t ?f course mean that we negate the fact
th~t, the subjectIve world of each individual is unique and
onglnal, t~at I can know something about the states of
my conscl0usn~s that is not known to anyone else,
(At the same tune someone else may know some things
abou~, mys~lf, about my personality and even about my
psyc lC3:1 hfe of ...... hich I am not aware myself.) The way
I perceIVe, expenence things think etc characterises
;r~~~ ant ~Ot o~e ,but, my~elf.'The whole p~int is that the
. f
d III enonsabon In which the subJ'ective world
IS orme
'
lions: the occurs
giv n ea
h ch rIme un~er a, umque
set of condl''
even at the s~,arr~man, orgamsm IS unlike any others
psyche; the indiVid~alPdmt of the developm,ent of ~e
self occurs each time uevelopmen,t, of con~lOusness ~t
unique relations with t nder specifIC condItIons and 111
unique position not oC:Uhe~ men; each person occupies a
socio.cultural connecti y
the syste.m of interpersonal
spatio-temporal reiatio~nsWhut even l~ the ~etwor~ of
en I I?ercelve a gIven obl~'
I do it from a certainS,
Inaccessible to anyone e:gle. whIch at this .m?ment IS
occupy thiS position' more ounply because It IS I who
lion includes my i~div'd o~r, the ~ct itself of my percepme to single out &orne ~u ~xpenences which compels
pee of the object over others.

Ib

,.8

(A great number of psychological studies deal with the

influence of personality characteristics on the process of
perception,)
And ~et ,I reali.se at ~his ~oment that I perceive the
s~e .0bJectIve t~mg whI~h 15 perceived (from positions
diffenng from mme and m somewhat different shadings)
by other individuals as well. In other words the fundamental ,meaningful connections of conscious~ess and in
particular. the system of referential meanings have general
va1i?ity, however ,v8:ried their individual c~ntent. Thus
SOcIo-cultural medIatIon takes place both in the formation ,
of unique individual features of the given subject and in
the course of assimilation of universal semantic structures
underlyin~ cognitive ~~tivity as ~ell as oth:er specifically
human kmds of actIvIty. The difference 1S that in the
former case universal norms and standards are transformed
i~ ~he rea1i~ti?n of activity under concrete unique con
d1tIons, while In the latter it is a matter of the individual
assimilating of the norms themselves.
Thus Marxist philosophy emphasises the proposition
(
(now underlying concrete psychological studies) that the
...... fundamental characteristics of cognitive activity and the
properties of knowledge cannot be understood correctly
if one proceeds from analysis of consciousness as such;
that was precisely what philosophical transcendentalism
tried to achieve, Consciousness itself is by no means something ready-made and given a priori. it is formed and
develops in the process of interiorisation of external
practical activity mediated by objects created by man and
for man and embodying mankind's socio-historical experiences. Marx wrote that the objective being itself of
human activity appears before us as "the perceptibly
existing human psychology". 4 4
It should be said that the classical German philosophy,
and in the first place the systems of Fichte and Hegel,
placed considerable emphasiS on the analysis of the significance of the activity of external objectification or reification for the development of consciousness, self-consciousness, and cognition. As we remember, the ne~essa:y
condition of the formation of the ego, of the subject, IS,
according to Fichte, alienation and objectification by the
Absolute Subject of its own activity in the form of nonego. Hegel goes even farther, indicating the role of SOC}al,
inter-individual activity in the process of self-comprehenslon
of the Absolute Spirit, that is, in the process of its forma
tion a8 the Absolute Subject-activity that is directed not
only at reification of certain representations pertaining to
the sphere of spiritual culture but also at transformation
149

VI,
is hea
tute c
Sciel'l(
coveri
of scil
gy of

scores
that

VI

numbf
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of the external natural environment, that is labour acti '

ty. However, not only for, Fi~~te ~ut even 'for Hegel itVt~
ultimately a matter of obJecbflc.atl~n, of external objec.
tive expression of the content !,hlCh IS potentially inherent
in the depths of the Absolute mterpreted as a primordially
spiritual entity (the Absolute Ego m Flchte, the Absolute
Spirit in Hegel). For this reason what IS meant here is not
strictly speaking, generation of subjectivity, of the world
of consciousness, but merely its spontaneous selfdevelopment from the depth of the Absolute, its unfolding which
is merely mediated by the activity of external obj~tifica.
ticn. In other words, first there is movement from within ,
and only then comes the reverse movement-the penetra
tion of consciousness into itself, and formation of adequate self-consciousness mediated by external reification.
The direction of reasoning in Marxist philosophy is diamet
rically opposed to that: first there is movement from
without or interiorisation, "growing in", assimilation
by the individual subject of various socially developed
modes of activity and in this connection the formation
of individual consciousness and self-consciousness. At the
same time this assimilation is achieved in the individual
subject's object-directed activity in such a way that the
movement from without expresses the transition of the
subject's activity from the external plane to the internal
one, rather than elementary causal action of an external
objec~ c:m the subject. Then, the subject's activity is directed ongmally not so much at the external objectification
of the content t~at is already inherent in the "inner plane"
as at the formation of the latter. Only on this basis is later
the . sec?n~ process ~plemented (which, once it emerges,
begms ~ "), mt~~act. WIth the first)' the exteriorisation, external, obJectIfIcation, reification of the inner content of
con~H:msness, which is a necessary component of any
creatlVIty.
T~e. Marxist conception of nature, of the ways of form~tl<=!n and modes of functiOning of consciousness is in
pnn~lple o~posed also to modern psychological behavlOUll:
Whl~h, .on the one hand, practically rejects the
POSSI 1 Y ~ SCIentific study of consciousness and on
tI:te other, mterprets the subject's external acti~ns (b~haVIOUI) as elementary organic react
h
SOcia-culturally mediated.
Ions rather t an as
Another
important
conclusion follo wsrom
f
thOIS Thr ee

kid
n s 01 ac IVI y are hnked together at th
. f th
formation of consciousness: external
e (:lUtset o. ' e
the process of cognition and
. practical actIVlty,
,mg one and the same objective
'
commulllcatl
t'
on, I n per f ormac lon, the subject simulta-

\
bU

150

1\

neously carries out a number of functions: he changes

the form of the external object, performs the act of cognitive orientation, and assimilates the socially formed
modes of practical and cognitive activity implemented in
the object which he uses as an instrument of mediation.
The act of communicating a message from one subject to
another must not be understood simply as assimilation by
the subject of social experiences reified in the given
instrument or the act of "de-reification" of the "hidden"
modes of activity performed by the subject, a process of
decoding the messages sent by the previous generations. In
actual fact the assimilation itself of adequate modes of
activity involving a socially functiOning object is only
possible on condition that the subject, in this case the
child, is included in the living communicative connection
with other persons existing at present, with adults teaching
him the human modes of using man-made objects and
thereby developing his cultural attitudes and norms,
including the standards of cognitive activity. Before the
child learns to act on his own, he acts in direct cooperation
with an adult (the so-called "joint-but-separate" activity).
Thus the relation to the object of activity is here explicitly
and visually mediated by the relation to another person.
This process is manifested especially clearly when access
to sensory information is sharply limited, as happens,
e. g" in the psychical development of blind deaf-and-m~te
children. Where distant receptors are at work, commurucation between adult and child involves a considerable
amount of the child's imitative actions which may outwardly appear as manifestations of the child 's spontaneo~s a~tiv
ity rather than the product and form. of commumcat~on,
In the case of blind deaf-and-mutes, It becomes ObVIOUS
that psychical processes an~ ,functions are mod~ll.ed or
created in the process of Jomt-~ut-separa~e actJvI~Y of
child and adults an activity in which the SOCial expene,:ce
of using man-~ade object~ ~ t!ansmitted, to the child,
The development of this activity 15 char,acten~ec;i b~ a gradual. decrease in the share of the adult s part.lc,lpat,lOn and
correspondingly by a growing sh.are of partiCipatIOn and
activity of the child, so that ultunately the pro~~sses of
assimilation of socially developed ,m~es of actIvlt~ and
creative transformation of the objective world begm to
function jointly. 45
.
Later, at the stage when con:;ClOusn~~ has bee!1,formed,
the direct links between practical activity, cogmtlO~, and
communication are broken. We have already mentioned
that it is not every cognition that is .directly connec~
with discovery of the modes of practical transformation
151

VI.
is he,

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Scient
coveri
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..
lhat.
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of the object, although a ~rofoun~ ,inn~r connection be.

tween cognition and practical activity IS retained at all
levels of knowledge. It is also obvious that a well-devel_
oped process of cOgnition does not at all coincide with the
process of commurucatlOn: the latter IS smgled out as a
separate sphere of activity governed by special laws.
Indeed when I think in my mind, many obvious and
custorr:ary mental moves are omitted, "swallowed", as
it were some premises are not formulated explicitly
some se'arch procedures are applied in hidden form, etc:
Communication of the results of my cognitive activity
implies explicit formulation of many implicit elem ents
(although not all of them, for the possibilit~ of communication presupposes a number of common l!1lph,clt pre
mises in different individuals), as well as takmg mto account the interlocutor's standpoint, the level of his knowledge in the given area, etc,
At the same time it follows from the above that any
cognitive activity, whatever the form of its direct subjective givenness, is socially mediated in character as reg~ds
the fundamental mechanisms of its implementatIOn;
consequently, it always contains the potential for communication, i, e., it is performed not only for oneself but
also for any other person included in the given system ~f
socially cultural norms, As we have already noted, that IS
also true of the cognitive ideas which emerge in conscious
ness without verbal mediation, for side by side with verbal communication there also exist the more elementary
levels of human communication, including such a basic
kind of communication as object-oriented activity its~lf,
On the ot~er hand, it is in the process of communicatlOn
that th~ mner norms governing the cognitive process
appear In the most explicit and developed fonn, Marx
wrote:, ~'But ~so when I am active SCientifically, etc,~
an aC,tlvlty which I can seldom perform in direct commUnity With others-then my activity is social because I perf?rtn it as a man. No~ only is the materiai of my activity
~ven .to me as. a soc~al product (as is even the language
m ~~Ich the thmker IS active): my own existence is social
activity, and therefore t!tat which I make of myself, I
make of myself for society and with the consciousness
of myself as a social being,"4 6
For this reaso,n, as f~ as epistemological inquiry is
conce,rned, that IS, the discovery of universal referential
meamngs, nonus, and s~andards used for production of
knowledge, the most SUitable material for analysis proves
t.? be t~e, pro~esses,. means, ~t,'ld products of communicative actIVlty, m whIch cognition is expressed in reified,

objectified fonn rather than the phenomena of consciousness taken by themselves, in which these referential meanings and standards appear transfonned, in hidden fonn, as
it were, and are not always sufficiently ap~arent, for the
subject himself, -This idea should be ~xplaJ..!led m sO,me
detail Let us note first of all that In eplstemologlcal
analy~is the process of co~rr~.unica,tion ,is not ,studied in
all its complexity and multIdImensionality: thIS task can
only be solved through coordination of the efforts of a
number of sciences, mc1udlO~ mfonna~lOn theory, semiotics psychology, psycholinguistics, social psychology,
sociology etc, In communicative activity, epistemology
singles otlt only that aspect which has a direct bearing on
it: reified, objectified, universaJ. nonns and standards of
( production and evaluation of knowledge, Strictly speaking,
\ epistemology does not therefore study the living process
of communication itself but some universal conditions of
its possibility relative to transmission of knowledge,
Inasmuch as these conditions are implemented in the
process of transmission itself, the latter provides empirical
data for epistemological analysis (that assumes, rather
than excludes, interaction between epistemology and the
specialised sciences studying both communicative processes and the mechanisms of cognition).
Let us further note that in the light of Marxist philosophy communication of knowledge presupposes objectification of knowledge not only in the form of texts or utterances but also of man-made objects carrying socia-cultural
meaning, Epistemology therefore must analyse objectoriented activity in the unity of its practical-transformative, cognitive and communicative functions as the
basis of the entire cognitive process. At the same t~e epistemology must conSider, without fail, the givenness of
referential meanings in consciousness, if only because
Object-related activity corresponding to some of the deeplying cognitive standards (in particular, perceptive objecthypotheses) has so far been quite inadequately studied
in science and we have no modes of establishing the content of these meanings other than through the data of
consciousness.
Thus Marxis~Leninist epistemology radically re-orientates the traditional epistemological range of problems
'- fundamentally' changing the m~de its.elf of specifying
and investigatmg them, The ~tartmg pomt of analysis of
cognition is understood as mvestigation of functioning
and development of systems of collective, inter-subjective activity, ~nd not as the stu~y of the relation of an
individual subject (whether organlsm or consciousness) to
153

152

"

VI,
is hea
... tee
Seiene
coveri
of scil
gy of

lCores
lhat ~
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- - -the opposing object. The inter-subjective activity'

on practical transfonnation of external objects IScba&e?
tive reflection and communication are realised in Ognj.
unity with transfonnation of objects. Transformativec1ose
cognitiye activity .ass~mes th~ .c~eation of a whole w~~
of socially functlOnmg "artifiCial" mediator objects r.
which the social experience of transformative and co I!,
tive activity is objectified. The individual subject
as the subject of consciousness and cognition emerges only
insofar as he functions as the agent of that activity i e
is included in a definite objective system of relatio~s' ~
other subjects, mastering the social modes of activity
objectified in the mediator objects. In this sense, both the
specifically human cognition, and its subject may be said
to be "artificial" products. That does not mean that cog.
nition deals with man's own creations only and does not
reflect the characteristics of real objects existing indepen.
dently of consciousness, or that the subject is a chimera
of the imagination. What is meant here is the fact, funda
mental from the positions of Marxist-Leninist epistemolo
gy, that the cognitive process, the production of knowl
edge assumes a breaking away from the organism's natu
ral relation to the environment and the use of standards
that have socio-cultural (and in this sense "artificial")
character,
In the following chapters we shall consider those elem
ents, of ,the co~itive relation the study of which is of
special mterest 10 connection with the recent results of
th~ science of science and the methodological analysis of
science.

Chapter 2
THEORY AND THE WORLD OF OBJECTS

him:r

1, OBSERVABLE AND NON,OBSERVABlE

OBJECTS

We have already given a critical analysis of phenomenal

ist epistemology which presents acquisition of knowledge
as combining of subjective "sensory data". Another, more
sophisticated variety of philosophical subjectivism has
much greater currency in present-day Western w,orks on
t he philosophy of science. Until recently, the view prevailed amongst West European and American specialists
in the logic and methodology of scien~e that only cogni
tion at the pre scientific level (perceptIOn and knowle<!ge
recorded in terms of everyday la!lguage) m~y de~ w.1~h
actually existing objects. From thl~ standpomt, ,SCientific
theoretical knowledge is different m character: It merely
records in a special schematic form the r~arly recurring dependences existing between the ?bjects of pre
scientific experience, Of course, account IS ~ken, of the
fact that acquisition of scientific ~nowl~ge m:tphes em
ployment of artificially created objects, In partIcular, ap
paratus, measurement instruments, et~.
,
The actual existence of the latter IS by no me~,s !ejected, Moreover, it is believed tha~ ~atural and artIfiCial ?bjects are equally objects of cogmtlOn, To ~e more p~ecI,se,
cognition is thought to be concerned .Wlt~ establIshmg
definite relations between vario,!~ ~ombI~atIons of sensl;l
ously perceived natural and artIficial objects, ,for ,that ~
exactly what the process of measure,m~nt consIstsrIn, a,n
"f"
"t'
is in this case limited to per ornung
scH:ntl IC cogm IOn
t'
In terms of this concepvanous measurement oPberatlotnsd" Oed by the microphysicist
"stance , the 0, jech"SUI
ti on, r or 10
"
t th processes m W IC h electrons, positrons , and
IS no
,e ,
'bl to the senses are involved but
other objects maccessl e
' i l l t"
r
the behaviour of the correspon~ing deVIces: 0sc:: a Ions a
th' , d' ators appearance of hght spots on dlSplays, etc,
err m IC rd~ it is assumed that apparatus and meas
In otherdw~ 'do not at all mediate the cognitive relation
urement eVlces
155

to the objects that are not given to the subject in pre-sc'

vrl
is hes

"'te,
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caved

of sci,
gy of
ICOre.

'Chat

'f1

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tiCic experience but appear themselves as the objec~en

knowledg~ (the adherents. of this vi~w i~~ist that natural?f
created th~s become objects of SCIentific cognition onlY
in their relation to the apparatus and measurement instni'
ments). Only that is regarded as real which can be direct! observable. Everything else, including objects that a~
specified at the theoretical level only, are regarded as
certain subjective fictions which, although playing a
certain role in the cognitive process, do not by themselves
have real objects as referents. As we have seen, these are
the characteristic arguments of the ope rationalist doctrine.
This trend of thinking is based on the opposition of
knowledge as a record of the directly observable to knowl.
edge resulting from a whole ensemble of assumptions sup.
positions, and arguments. Indeed, to make judgements
about the behaviour of microobjects from instrument read.
ings, one must be acquainted both with the theory of the
domain of reality under study and with the theory describing the work of the device itself, enabling us to correlate
the instrument readings with the corresponding character.
istics of the phenomena studied. The adherents of this
conception believe that the objects for which concepts are
introduced in these complicated arguments and asswnp
tions cannot be real in the same degree as the artificial
and natural objects of our everyday experience--stones,
trees, tables, chairs, machines, apparatus, etc. But it is
easy to show a lack of logic in this argument.
In ordinary life we have to use all kinds of mediator
objects all the time for the simplest observations--specta.
des, the magnifying glass, or, say, Simple window glass.
In the same way, the surgeon uses the probe in examining
a w~und. In al~ th~se cases man studies those objects the
rela~lOn to WhICh IS mediated by artificially constructed
<l:evlces rather than the mediators themselves. To be conSIstent, one_ !'Ilu~ als,? recognise....that. e.ven in cases of ele~entary ooservaflon the subject's relation to the object
15 medIated by ~he, environment filling the space between
~he two. The ~mgling out of a real object implies in all
mstances a. rehance (us~ally unconscious) on a number
of .assumptIons c,oncemmg the behaviour of the mediator
obJ~t. But that 15 not all. As we have tried to show in the
prevIous ~haPu:r, even those manmade objects which do
~ot functIOn duect~y as mediators in observation (labour
Iml?lements, the ,obJects o~ everyday life, etc.). are actual!y , m~trumen~ 10 the soc},al ~~iation of perception, for
It. IS I~ the objects of the artIfICial environment" that the
hlStoncally accumulated experiences of object-transform155

ing and cognitive activity, are objectified, and in particular,

the 'Standards and norms of perception are reified The
knowl~ge of the re~ object. can only be singled a'ut of
the vaned sensory mformatIOn with the help of such
norms and standards. Any perception is, as we have endeavoured to show, a complex mediating activity implying
assumptions, hypotheses, schematisation, etc.
Supporters of this variety of subjectivism do not doubt
the ac~ existence of the objects of ordinary pre-scientific expenence. Moreover, in their view, those infinitesimal
or extra-large objects that can only be studied with the aid
of special scientific apparatus (microscopes and telescopes),
also really exist. But in this case interpretation of the
results of observation requires conscious use of a number
of branches of theoretical physics covering, in particular,
the propagation of light waves in outer space, in the
Earth's atmosphere, a system of lenses, the eye, etc. Does
it not mean that knowledge acquired. through of a nwnber
of assumptions, suppositions, and theoretical reasoning,
can also relate to real objects? Why must we then negate
the existence of actual referents, e.g., of the objects of
modem microphysics? The adherents of this view reply
that observable and non-observable objects must be distinguished. The knowledge of observable objects, they
believe, relates to actual referents although it may imply
certain assumptions, hypotheses, and arguments. As for
nonobservable objects, their existence is fictitious.
Indeed, not all objects, magnitudes, and parameters with
which a certain scientific theory is concerned, are actually observable. Let us ask ourselves this question, however:
does that mean that a certain object, now non-observable
and studied at the given moment on the theoretical level
only, will never become observable at all? Apparently not.
For example, although the theory of mol~cular structu~e
of matter was originally merely a theoretIcal hypotheSIS
and there was no way of observing molecules in direct
experience the molecules of many substances can now be
observed through electronic microscopes.
The justice of this is recognised by ~he scholars hold~g
the view here criticised. But they pomt to the essentIal
difference between molecules and such subatomic objects
as the electron. The knowledge of many objects that. ~e
studied purely theoretically does not cancel the possl~il
ity of their eventual fixation in experience by some ~n
struments of experimental inquiry. But. there are th.eoret~c
al objects (the electron included) WhICh cannot 10 prmciple be observed. Only that is real which can be observed
actually or potentially. Objects that are non-observable
157

VI,
is hea

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in principle do not exist as real objects-that is the COn .

clusion drawn by the adherents of the system of view
8
considered here.
The objects with which modern microphysics deals are
indeed regarded as non-o bservable in principle. But what
does observability or non-observability of objects and their
characteristics that are studied in scientific theory mean?
Of course, only those objects can be observable which
are in some way or other included in the process of acquir_
ing sensory information. However, we have endeavoured
to show in the previous chapter that already at t he level
of ordinary pre-scientific perception, the knowledge o f the
characteristico of observed phenomena is not identical to
the information received through sensory channels, being
determined by specific referential meanings. It is t hese
referential meanings, object-hypotheses, the standards of
perception rather than sensory information by itself, that
determine what precisely is observed or perceived. In
scientific theoretical thinking, theory rather than senso ry
information by itself determines which of the objects,
magnitudes, or parameters studied in the theory can be
actually or potentially observable. Theory has to take into
account such circumstances, accidental relative to the objects studied, as the size of man's body and the specific
traits of his perceptual system. The fact that men as physical bodies belong to the class of macro-objects and that
man as the subject of perception can therefore use only
macro-objects as apparatus proves to be essential for
microphysics.
These circumstances detennine the possibility of including certain objects in the very process of acquiring
s~nsory infonnation, i. e., in the act of experiential observation. However, only within the framework of a definite
scientific theory can it be established what specific objects
studied by science mayor may not be included in the process of observation and for what reasons what the meaningful characteristics of objects of both kinds are and
what precisely is observed. Th e properties of the subject's
perceptual system are also considered in terms of the given
theory. I~ any c~se, the observability or non-observability
of. th.e gIven obJ.e~ts of scientific knowledge depends in
pnnclple on de~mlte .characteristics of these objects, assUf!1e~ or ~tablis~ed ~n the theory, and does not direc tly
COInCide with. thel~ eXistence or non-existence. The objects
th~t are not m pnncipl~ observab.1e by man can actually
eXls~. (T~at mean~ that If observatIOns were carried out by
an mtelhgent ~mg str~)I~gly differing from man in its
natural properties, e.g., If It were comparable in size with

micro-ohjects, it might record in an experimental way

many of the objects that cannot in principle be observed
by man. On the other hand, a radical revision of a given
scientific theory and a different choice of the basic assumptions will inevitably affect the notions of the observability or non-observability as a matter of principle.)
Grover Maxwell, a modem American specialist in the
philosophy of science, considers the following purely
hypothetical case as an illustration of the thesis of the
possibility of actual existence of objects unobservable in
principle.
Suppose, he argues, that new types of micro-objects are
discovered by science that are at present unknown and
which interact with electrons under certain circumstances
in such a way that the interaction does not disturb their
eigenstate. Suppose also that a drug is discovered which
alters the human perceptual apparatus-perhaps even
activates latent capacities so that a new sense modality
emerges. Finally, suppose that with our al~red perceptual
system we are able to perceive (not necessar~y vlsu~ly) ~y
means of the newly discovered type of micro-obJects m
a manner roughly analogous to visual perception in ~hich,
as is well known photons participate. Under certain additional conditio~s which we shall not characterise here,
we might be able to "observe directly" the position and
other characteristics of some electrons. It would foUow 1
of course, that quantum theory would have to be al~rea
in some respects, since the newly .disc~vez:ed type of mIcroobjects does not confonn to all Its prmclples. At the same
time the revision of the theory does not in this case provide any grounds for concluding that the electrons observed are not the same objects that were regarded as nonobservable in principle from the standpoint of old theoretical notions. No one will doubt the real~ty of the electrons
observed. But if these are the same objects that w~re not
observed earlier it is obvious that we had no nght to ' \
doubt their act~al existence before that either. How~er
)
improbable the hypothetical case ~onsidered here might
seem, it does not involve any lOgICal or conceptual ab.
."
surdity, concludes Maxwell. 47
In a conversation with Werner Heisenberg Emstem s~ld
once: "From the principled positions it is absolutely mcorrect to desire that a theory should. be. f~unded on. observable magnitudes only. For in reallt:f It 15 all precisely
the other way round. Only theory deCides what one can
observe ... Your assertion that you intro~uce only observable magnitudes is actually an asswnptlOn about a property of the theory on which you are working. "4 8
159

158

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imenter does not observe absolutely the

Thus ~h~e~6:: are t he objects of pe:ception .at the pre
~e ??Jec
The scie nt ist records m expenence (one
SCIentifiC level;,
directly") objec ts, processes and situamay even say sees ordinarily perceived at all: changes
tions wh.ich are nota dro in strength of current in the
ir;t el~tnc voltage.tin oinl here is not, of course, a change
?IrCUlt, etc..r~~ mof th e perceptual system but the ernerin the sfenSl IV! %fe rent ial meanings determined by the aegence 0 . ne,,:, .r
cepted h~lentlflC t~~7eNation aided by theory is in prin.
t. ls/esl~co~dinary perception: in both cases t he re~lP e t~!:l arntent of what is observed is detennin~ by
eren I co
.
h otheses and not by sensory mfor.
a srsterI,lts~ff r{~~ufl be a mistake, however, to slur ov~r
tit~ 1~~rferences between the two proc~sses, ~s K:uhn IS
inclined. to do for instance. The Amencan sClenttst ~or.
recti stated the extremely import~t fact t!tat theoretIcal
conc~pts do not serve simply for mterpretmg t~e re?~lts
of ordin
Perception obtained regar~ess .of then util~
tion butire included in the act of sCIentIfic observatlo~
itself determining its nature and results. ye~ ~uhn lS
hardly justified. in going still further a~d .mslstmg .that
scientific observation is of the same subjectIVe and dae~t
natwe as ordinary perception, that in both c.ase~ there IS
no conscious interpretation or ~xtended s~blecttv~ rene.
xion.49 This notion of Kuhn IS close~y hnked Wit h ~he
main idea developed. in his book- the. Vle.w ,that su cceSSIVe
replacement of scientific paradigms IS SImilar ~o changes
in the structure of the perceptive field resultm g from a
"switch in visual gestalt". But the ability, to "see dir~ctl~",
through the medium of apparat.us readmgs, t he obJect~ve
processes indicated by the de:'lces assumes ~ ex~nsive
education in which the behaVIOur of the devIces IS c,on
sciously correlated with the behaviour of the object
studied. Even when this education is completed and t he
scientist sees directly, as it were, those objective processes
which are for him meaningfully defined by a system of
theoretical concepts, fixation of observed objects also assumes the functioning of ordinary prescientific .percep.
tion: in order to observe the strength of current In a CIrcuit from ampenneter readings, the subject must be able
to perceive the ampenneter itself and the motion of its
needle as objects of ordinary experience. Thus the "give n
ness" of the objects of scientific research in experience
includes observation of two objects simultaneously: of
the object of everyday experience and of that thing whose
referential meaning is grasped by the subject in terms of

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the concepts of some theory (both of these things exist

objectively and actually, although on different levels of
reality, so to speak). When a person becomes a scientist, he
does not cease to be t he subject of ordinary prescientific
experience and of practical activity associated with it.
For this reason, t he system of referential meanings which
serve to maintain this activity, being included in the mechanism of ordinary perception, cannot in principle be
replaced by the referential meanings defined at the level
of scientific cognition (though Paul Feyerabend suggests
the opposite). The higher levels of cognitive activity do
not cancel the functioning of the mechanisms of ordinary
perception but are in a specific manner superimposed on
these mechanisms incorporating them in more complex ' \
syntheses. It would therefore be wrong to insist, for
}
instance, that the referential meanings perceived in language study are generated by language, although mastering
it signifies a new stage in the interpretation of perceptions: in actual fact they are basically formed already at
the pre-linguistic level of cognition, in the course of practical object-oriented activity, although language does in
troduce something new in them. Observation in scientific
cognition does not exclude the functioning of the mechanisms of ordinary perception. The astronomer observing the
Sun as a cosmic body at a certain distance from the Earth
and subject in its movements to theoretically formulated
laws, cannot at the same time get rid of the impression,
shown to be illusory by science, that the Sun moves
relative to the immobile Earth.
The development of science eliminates the illusions of
pre-scientific cognition. But a scientific theoretical pictu re
of reality does not at all imply a negation of the objective
reality of t hose objects (as well as of their aspects and rela
tions) with which man deals at the pre-scientific level, and
neither does it negate the truth (relative truth, of course)
of many assertions of the so-called commo n sense. This
applies not only to such objects of ordinary experience as
tables, trees, stones, etc., but also to properties of these
objects which are commonly referred to in philosophy as
secondary: colour, smell, etc. It would be inconsistent to
assert that only electromagnetic waves of definite length
and not colours and smells exist objectively and really,
and at the same time to recognise the objective reality of
the objects of ordinary pre-scientific experience, that is
exacUy the view held by those who divide the perceived
qualities of obj~cts into primary and secondary. Phy~i<:al
lheories do not mclude t h e concepts of secondary qualittes
but, more than that, they do not include the concepts of
6 __163

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the objects of ord inary pre-scientific experience. If we

were to regard as real o nly t hose o bjects to which phYsical
theories directly refer, we should c onclude that in actUal
fact only definite combinations of atoms and molecules
rather t han t rees, roc ks, a nd tables exist in reality.
In actu al fact, cognition at different levels deals with
real o bjects and real characteristics of these objects. How_
ever, objective reality itself is multidimensional it has
many levels, and different o bjects may belong to different
level~ ,of ~eaIity. O~dinary mac~o-objects and the secondary
qualitIes mherent m them eXIst at that level of objective
re~ity. ~o whic~ ~)[dinary pre-~ienti~ic experiences belong.
SCientIfiC cogmtIon, phYSICS In particular, penetrates into
a deeper level of objective reality, whose existence does
~ot cancel the reality of the objects of ordinary expenence.
A system of theoretical concepts reflects the character.
istics of actually existing objects, including those that
are actually or essentially nonobservable. The meaning of
these concepts is thus not reducible to an ensemble of
~he lab?ratory operations of measurement. as operational.
ISts belIeve. C?n the contrary, the measurement itself only
becomes possIble when we know what to measure that is
when the general characteristics of the objects ~easured
are theoreti~ally ~pecified. It is exactly scientific theory
that ~akes It possible to select from the entire diversity of
~xpe~enc.e those facts and dependences between them t he
InvestIgatIOn C?f which will permit the scientist to single
out the essentIal characteristics of the objects under study.
Measurements that are performed outside the context of
a. welldeveloped theoretical s~stem formulating the essentIal dependences between objects, including non.observ.
able ~n~s, turn, out to be absolutely meaningless, as a rule.
And It 18 not Just the fact that measurement results are
subsequently theoretically interpreted that is important
here. Well~developed ~heoretical conceptions are a neces.
sary premise of m~an~ngful measurements themselves, for
only the fO"!Ier mdlcate the object and the mode of
measurement, Itself: The measurements performed outside
o~ a correlatIOn. WIth the essential dependences of a defi.
mte type o~ .0bJe<:ts do not express, strictly speaking an
act of cogmtIOn, JUst as acquisition of inf
'f'
the environment uncorrelated with ob' tsrm!ltIon rom
cognition.
Jec
IS not ye t
"We often hear," writes Kuhn "that
~x:pressing quantitative dependenc~sl are ftheYd the laws
m~ng measurem~nts undertaken for their oun
y examci
WIthout theoretIcal commitment But h" town sake an
.
IS ory offers no

162

supp ort for so excessively ,Baconian ~ metho:<i, Boyle's

experim ents were not conceivable (and If concelVed would
have rec eived another interpretation or none at aU) until
air was recognized as an elastic fluid to which all the ela
borate concepts of hydrostatics could be applied, Cou
tomb 's success depended upon h1s constructing special
apparatus to measure the force between point charges,
(Those who had previously measured electrical ~orces
using ordinary p~ balances, etc., had fou.nd n? conSiStent
or simple regulanty at all.) But t~~t deSign, ID tum, .de.
pended upon the previous recogmtlOn that every particle
of electric fluid acts upon every other at a distance. It was
for the force between such particles-the only force which
might safely be assumed a simple function of distance-that Coulomb was looking. Joule's experiments could also
be used to illustrate how quantitative laws emerge throUR.h
paradigm articulation. I~ f~ct, so g.eneral and cl?se. IS
thE> relation between qualItative paradigm and quantitative
law that since Galileo, such laws have often been correctly
guessed ~ith the aid of a paradigm years before app~tus
could be designed for their experimental detemllna
tion .. 50
U~ing as an example the revolution in chemistry carried
out by Dalton, Kuhn shows that o.ne and the s~e opera
tion applied to nature through different paradIgms may
indicate quite different aspects of the patterns of nature,
Moreover an old measurement operation in a new role
may prod~ce other experimental results. 51
..
Einstein's analysis of the procedures for measunng tllTle
(we may recall here that it was this ~alysis that was ~he
starting point of Bridgman's fo~ulatiOn of th,e ~octnne
of operationalism) is far froJ!l belIl:1l a ~ere descnptlon of a
"directly given" operation unplymg m actual fact anum
ber of theoretical premi~es. Simultaneity can. only be
defined if we postulate that the velocity of light I,n vacuum
is the same in all directions and invariant rela~lve t? the
motions of source and receiver. This.postulate IS l?glcally
prior in the special theory of relativity to any e~p~nmen~
measurement of the velocity of light, b~ause It. IS used m
the very definition of the time scale at distant pomts. 5 2
Even the simplest prescriptions for measureme~t opera
tions used in science usually follow from theoretIcal ?on
siderations, True, instructions for laboratory operatl?ns
may be formulated in such a way that their theoretIcal
foundations will be camouflaged, but that doe~ not mean
at all that these foundations do no~ 8;ctually eXist, .
Thus scientific theories detennmmg the , meamng and
character of experimental procedures contain as often as
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not knowledge of such objects and parameters which ar

not observed and are not measured directly. Let us no~
note that there are also scientific theories, the most fun.
damental ones, actually, (usually referred to as substan.

tive in the literature on the methodology of science) which

are not applied directly to interpr~tation of observation

data at all but are only correlated wIth the empirical world
in combination with other theories (the latter are com.
monly referre:d. to as uobservational" or "~terpretative")
and on condltlOn that a number of additional assump.
tions are made. Generally speaking, the question of experj.
~ent~ applicat~on of a. fundam~ntal scient!fic theory (and,
In thIS connectIOn, of Its expenmental venfication) proves
to be far from simple, and usually the search for methods
of experimental application of such a theory requires
~onsiderable efforts fo~ further elaboration of the theo ry
Itself and the constructIOn of a number of additional t heories, hypotheses, etc.,
An. isolated theory is never directly linked up with an
expenment: an act of such association implies the use of
a whole hierarchy of theories and hypotheses including
those, from othe~ domains of knowledge, the theory of
expenmental deviCes! a number of hypotheses linking up
the non-?bservable WIth thp. observable, certain idealisation
assumptions" etc. The experimental data themselves are
formulated In tenns of a definite ("interpretative" or
"0 bservational") theory.
'
W~ shall nC?t consider in detail the important problem of
the In~erre~at1(~": af the empirical and theoretical components In ,SClentI~Ic k~owledge. In the context of the problems of ~m~edlate Interest to us, it is important to stress
the relatIye mdependence of knowledge recorded in theory
from .vanous (pot.ent~ally infinite) ways of empirical or
e~penmental apphcatH;)ll of that knowledge. Of course,
\ t eory m';!st be expenmentally tested that is to say it
up through a whole chain of mediatibns
,. ~~ht be h~ked tal
. ,expe~en ,results. The question as to how this
yenfIc~tIon IS carned out is fairly com r ted
d
mtensively studied in th r
pIca
an IS now
logy of science At the e It~rature on the methodotent of theoretical kno!i:.e t~e the me~ing, the conmined by the modes of its ~ ~ t' not . dll'ectly deterdata.
CIa Ion WIth experimental
In the Western philosophy of scie
.
logical positivism has until rec tl nce, t~e co~ceptIon of
a scientific theory as an un~:: y prevailed; It regarded
given meaningful, empirical inte ~re~d ~ormal calculus
so-called correspondence rules ~on~tlOt,n 10 terms of the
ec mg the terms of
164

the theoretical language with those used in the sentences

of observation allegedly recording only direct sensory data.
The rules of correspondence must, from this standpoint,
be necessarily included in the structure of the scientific
theory itself, for only these rules transform an uninterpreted formal caloulus, which refers to nothing, into a
theory,t that is, knowledge about a definite class of objects. 5d In reality, however, the meaning or content of
a theory is not determined directly by its empirical ap
plication'&., for meaning is specified "from above" rather
than "from below", through a model interpretation of
theoretical assertions. The number of potential modes of
empirical application of the given theory is in actual fact
infinite (and all possible applications cannot be foreseen in
advance). whereas the number of "correspondence rules"
used in the given theory is strictly limited, according to
logical positivism. And finally. the most important point
is this. Assertions linking the given th~ory with experimental results do not simply correlate theoretical and
non-theoretical, "purely observational" terms but themselves belong to an auxiliary theory (auxiliary relative to
the given one). Thus these statements (it ,wOUld be .~
precise to call them "correspondence rules", m any POSItIVist sense) are not included in th~ structure of the ~ven
theory itself, which is relatively independent from vanous
possible modes of its empirical application. Knowledge
recorded in a theory reflects the essential dependences
between real objects, far from being a set of prescriptions
for carrying out laboratory operations; neither is it restricted to listing the ways of direct practical transformation of objects.
Here we would like to draw a far-reaching analogy
between theoretical knowledge and knowledge recorded .in
ordinary perception. One may re~all that the ref~rentlal
meaning of the perceptual image IS amodB-!. tha~ 1S, relatively independent from the type of ~od~h~y (VISUal, auditory, tactile, etc.) in wh ich perceptIon IS unplemen,t~d .
This is apparently a general property of the cogmtlve
relation-relative independence of knowledg~ from ~e
modes of its correlation with actual sensory mformatlon
(the independence is indeed relative, for knowledge is
impossible in the absence of any mode of such correlation).
. .
Thus cognition may be a refl~ctlO~ o~ .real .ob)ects
both in ordinary perception and 10 ~Ientific th1Okmgat both the empirical and theoretical levels of the
latter.
165

2 IDEALISED AND REAL OBJECTS

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The interrelation of theory and its objects

another problem, one that we have not touched Poses yet
I!Dplementation of ~heoretical cognition involves ~; so far.
tion of a ~~ole se~es of idealisations, i.e. of ass e a~op..
or sUPPosItIons which essentially do not' cone umptlons )
even so.metimes contradict w~at can be directly ~b~~ and
. For mstanc.e, the abstraction of actual infinity th ted.
widely' used m classical mathematics is based on t~ Was
sUI?ptIon that we can count the entire natural nu e as.
senes, altho~gh t~at is clearly impossible in expe .mber
In ~onstructmg hlS geometry, Euclid assumed th~ence.
section of a s~r~ght !ine, however short or long it ~~y
~" may be dlvl~ed mto two with the aid of rul mig t
diVIders. In cl.8SSlcal physics, it is assumed that :~ and
measure velocity at ~y given point of the path that~n
that we can measure Insta!ltaneous velocity.
'
lS,
e~.e l~w~ fonnulated m scientific theory also refer to
c
I? ~ e cases. Therefore their employment for th
~~~rdc~o~a~~ a~t~~;xperi~ble .afnd for predic.ting futu~
tional factors are
PO~l e I a whole senes of addiignored by th
taken l!lto account, those which are
o
Inasmuch as it e. !, reve:umg the law "in pure fonn".
theoretically, th~re~~s~ble to consi~er all these factors
ways be a kmd of gap between
the flow of em "
an,d that which P::~1r:vt~nts 6redic~d by t~e given theory
thiS gap becomes small y 0 serve m expenence, although
Lenin pointed out theer ~nd s~aller, ~ science develops,
Marx's development of ro e o~ Id~~lsmg assumptions in
economy: '''Concretel ,the sc~entl~lc theory of political
as put forward by M~ l~p~~lble' IS not only realisation
by him, and avera e ' u. so land rent as put forward
wage~ and the Val~e g[Olfl~, and the equality between
~esides, But the impossibilft our-power, .and ~uch ~ore
m a pur~ f~rm is not a refutaBo~f ,~~rethmg bemg realised
, Ide~bsatlOn means not onl '
.
bons 10 fonnulating theo to Y adoption of some assump,
re Ica
m~ IdeaI'ISed. objects,
The
"m1 law ~ bu t ~so In constructwld~ly u;oed m classical mechan~ten~ pomt", a concept
an ,Ideal~ed ,obj,ect, It is assu ICS, IS an example of such
WhICh eXIsts m time and SPace ~ed that such an object,
~d at th.e same time it has no' e as m~ss (as all real bodies)
m fact Wlth thp mathematical x,ten~lOn, that is, coincides
e.r ~x~ple. of .an idealised P~b~! In ~his.~~spect, Anoth!lqUld studied In hydrodynami j ct IS mcompressible
Jects have no real referents; u~: Clearly, idealised oby are constructions of
o

166

theoretical thinking (sometimes called "intratheoretical"

distinct from "extratheoretical" objects that is thos~
which exist independently of theory). The question naturally arises.. wh.at is .the re~on fO,r such fictitious objects?
, C~nstructmg I~eallsed objects lS a way of fonnulating
IdealIsed ass!,!,mptlO~s and a method for establishing, "in
a pure form ,certam dependences expressed in theoretical
laws. For example, if a real body moves under the action
of a force applied to its centre of gravity, the motion of
that centre does not depend on either thP. geometrical
form of the body or the distribution of mass in it but only
on the ov.erall qua~tity of mass, The centre of gravity
moves as If the entue mass were concentrated in it i.e.
like the idealised object known as "material point", Estab:
lishing with the aid of the idealised object the dependences obtaining in thE' motion of bodies under the impact
of a force applied to the centre of gravity, we get a key to
the whole of the complex system of dependences existing
in the diverse cases of real mechanical motions,
What is the nature of the dependences formulated in a
theory on the basis of a number of idealising assumptions?
Should they be regarded as mere subjective "simplifications" or "schematisations" of actual empirical situations (this interpretation of the idealisation procedure is
not at all rare)?
It appears that idealisation cannot be reduced to "simplification" of that which is given in experience_ In idealisation one not only ignores certain factors given in experience but also fonnulates in some cases assumptions which
cannot be realised in experience, Idealisation can therefore
serve to establish essential, objective and real dependences, for revealing various connections "in pure fonn" is
exactly the discovery of actual substantive relations which
do not directly coincide with dependences characterising
the phenomenon and registered in experience. However,
one may accept that a theory formulating definite dependences in a system of scientific laws reflects objective,
real substantive relations, while believing at the same time
that all theoretical objects constructed with the aid of
theory have no real referents, that is, are idealised, fictitious objects playing a purely auxiliary role in fonnulating definite dependences. It will have to be recognised in
this case that only those objects are real that are fixed at
the pre-scientific level, that is, through ordinary perception and in terms of everyday language, Those who hold
this view argue that knowledge of any theoretical object is
always introduced through a number of idealisations, That
means that the object itself is always an idealisation, that
167

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is to say, it has no real referent. leading "intratheoretica!"

existence, so to speak. 55
Let us note, however, that t~e knowledge, recorded in
ordinary perception, about obJects. the. reality of which
does not occasion any doubts, also unph~s a whole series
of assumptions and hypotheses; we consldered this po int
in the previous section. Tru~, ,the assurnptio~s on which
perception is founded, as dlstmct, from the Idealisations
used in science, are implemented 10 th~ sense experience
itself and are therefore not even consclOusly realised as
a rule. It is important in any case that, far from excluding
the possibility of correlating knowledge and real objects
adopting a number of assumptions and suppositions is ~
necessary condition of such correlation. Where t here are
no definite assumptions, it is impossible to separate a
real object from a subjective illusion. Let us note further
that dependences fonnulated by science "in pure fonn "
(their establishment naturally assumes the adoption of
a number of idealisations) need not necessarily have only
"theoretical objects" as referents, that is, objects the
knowledge of which is only possible at the theoretical
level. They may also be objects fixed in ordinary experience, the reality of which causes no doubts. For instance, Marx's Capital establishes the laws of the capitalist
mode of production "in p'1,lre fonn" treating exclusively
of, real object8-commodities, men, their activity, mach1Oes, etc. Of course, the objects themselves are considered
from ~ definite ,standpoint carefully fonnulated in
theoretlcal assumptIons, the elaboration of the theoretical
system inv,olving consistent analysis of those factors that
had to be Ignored at the initial stage (the famous method
of ascending frQIDth! abstract to the concrete).56 Let us
~ote, 1\nalIY0hat SClence dOes nor-at al1 identify t heoretlCal objects Wlt~ idealised ones. That means that at least
some of the o,bJects the knowledge of which is introduced
at the the?retlCal level are accepted as existing objectively
and ,really, molec,ules, atoms, ~lectrons, positrons, virtual
Partl~les, events ,m the four-dImensional spatio-tempo ral
?ontmuum, the fIeld, quarks, etc, This point is extrem ely
Imp~rtan~, for t,he very d~tinction between idealised and
non-l~ealis~ objects, that lS, real ones, is only possible and
me~mgful lf ,w~ know which objects are real
d what
theu charactenstIcs are,
an
This knowledge is specified not only extr th
t" all
"th
th
"d
f
rd'
aeore
IC y
( e.g" WI
e at 0 0 mary percept,"on) Th
"t"f"
" t rod
'
th eory 1"tse If 10
uces
notIOns
of
such ' t alle sC len
" t"I IC
t',
ac u y eXlS 109
" ts h" h
b
o J~ W IC D?-ay."? comcide with the ob'eets fixed in
orclinary, pre-scientIfic experience or may even
J
b e non168

observable (actually or in principle). Importantly, the

assumption concerning the existence of a number of real
objects the knowledge of which is specified only at the
theoretical level is usually connected with formulating
the so-called nucleus of a research programme which serves
as a foundation for subsequent development of a series of
scientific theories; it detennines to a considerable degree
the heuristic possibilities of the given programme, Idealised
theoretical objects are constructed only relative to real
ones; they thus lack certain characteristics of real objects or, on the contrary, possess properties impossible
in real objects. 57 It follows from this, among other things,
that idealised objects may be idealisations not only of the
real objects which are given at the extra-theoretical or even
extra-scientific level (as a rule, the actual prototypes of
idealised objects are interpreted in exactly this way),
but also of t he real objects knowledge of which can only
be acquired theoretically. It is essential at the same time
that the objects which are assumed at the given stage of
the development of science to be actually existing, may be
either rejected as completely fictitious in the course of
changes in scientific conceptions (that was the destiny,
e.g. of such a theoretical object of classical physics as
eth~r) or relegated to the status of idealised objects (the
atoms of classical physics as compared to the actual atoms
with which modem physics deals),
If the structure of theory should be considered purely
formally, wi thout regard for its various meaningful layers,
and if the meaning of the theoretical system should be
reduced to a set of prescriptions for measurement operations the difference disappears, of course, between idealised 'and real theoretical objects: all objects specified at
the theoretical level will seem mere all.."{iliary constructs.
However, we shall try to demonstrate that the content
aspect, the referential meaning of theoretical constructions
cannot be ignored .
The procedu re usually referred to in logic and the met hodology of science as idealisation includes ~ B:ctual
fact a number of different procedures. Along WIth Idealisation proper aimed at establishing the SUbstantive dependences of the processes under study, and thus permitting to study a definite system of connections "in pure
form" procedures are usually included here which are not
in actual fact idealisations but might more precisely be
referred to as "simplifications". The latter are widely used
for convenience of calculations (e.g., representing the
electron orbit as circular, application of geometrical optics
as a convenient simplification for purely practical pur"

169

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poses, etc.}. It appears that the reduction of the entire

range of devices use~ in .co~structing knoW~edge about
theoretical objects to IdeahsatlOn only g!eat~y. unpedes the
analysis of the nature and struct!lre o.f s~IentIflc theory ,
Thus the application of the .1deallsa~lo~ I?rocedure as a
necessary element of constructmg a s~lentlflC theory does
not eliminate the possibility of studymg such real objects
the knowledge of which is obtained only at the theoretical
leveL
Finally let us consider yet another argument used in
contempC:rary Western literatur.e on .'t~~ philosophy of
science": the assertion of the ImpossIbility of obtaining
adequate knowledge about real objects studied at the
theoretical level.
We are dealing here with representing theoretical state.
ments as an ensemble of the so-called Ramsay proposi_
tions. For this, the given theory must first be axiomatised
and then a conjunction formed of all the axioms of the
given theory and of the "correspondence rules" linking
theoretical terms with those of observation. This conjunction may tentatively be represented as - -p- - -q- - ... , where p and q are theoretical terms and dashes
signify those propositions of the given conjunction of
which p and q are terms. Then p and q are replaced in this
conjunction by the variables connected with the existential
quantifier. As a result, the so-called Ramsay propositions
are obtained: (:!I f) (:!Ig) ... (_. _. - f - - - g - - - ... ). On
the content plane, the Ramsay method of eliminating
terms pertaining to theoretical objects may be illustrated
as follows. If, for instance, the theory originally contained
the assertion that there exist atoms with such and such
char~~teristics, and that the processes in which they
parllclpate are associated in such and such a manner with
what. is. observed in experience, after eliminating the tenns
pertammg ~~ the theoretical objects by means of the Ramsay prOP?Sltl0ns,. we shall obtain the proposition that, if
there eXlSt certam t;l0n-obsery<l:ble objects (of indefini~e
nature) <:onnecte~ m a definite manner with what IS
observed In ex~enence, we shall empirically state such and
su~~ facts. It IS ~asy to. show that after the terms pertairung to ~~eoretlcal objects are eliminated by the Ramsay. proposltU:~~S, the theory will yield the same observ~tlOn proposltI?n~ as were yielded by the original axioma~1Sed theory. ThiS IS. ~ken as proof that a theory rewritten
In. ~amsay . propositions has the same content as the
ongmal versIOn of the. the?ry. But the new variant of the
thf>ory. does not con tam dtrect knowledge of the theoretical objects. They appear as something unknown, as an x
170

which, though recognised as existing, is not an immediate

object of knowledge. Grover Maxwell, mentioned above,
infers from this that theoretically fixed real objects, as
distinct from empirical ones, may only be cognized in an
oblique, symbolic way, that is, knowledge of these objects
cannot be regarded as adequate,58
It is easy to show, though, that this conclusion is untenable. Let us point out, first of all, the inadequacy of
presenting the very structure of the theory in this case.
We have already commented on the unjustifiability of
presenting a theory in terms of an axiomatised calculus
which is given a meaningful interpretation exclusively in
terms of "correspondence rules" linking theoretical terms
with those of observation. In actual fact, science describes
experimental data in theoretical terms, and "purely"
observatio nal non-theoretical terms are not employed in
the production of scientific knowledge. For this reason
"correspondence rules" in their positivist interpretation
are non-existent, strictly speaking. It is therefore impossible to outline the potential empirical applications of
this theory (through the mediation of other, "auxiliary"
theories, as a rule) beforehand: they are not fixed, and are
discovered gradually, along with the elaboration of the
given and other theories. It is therefore difficult to coI?pare two theories (or two versions of a given theory) In
terms of the possibilities of their application in experience.
Yet even if we accept that the presentation of the stru~.
ture of a theory used in the above argument about the elimination of theoretical terms is justifiable, the very possibility of rewriting the theory in terms of the Ramsay
propositions arises only when this theory has already been
formulated. It is easy to see that if the task was, from t.he
outset to construct a theory in which the terms pertaming tC: theoretical objects were eliminated according to
Ramsay's rules, we could hardly have a sing!e th~oreti~al
system. The assertions regarding the connectu;)lls m WhICh
theoretical objects are included are determmed by the
meaning, the content ascri~ed l? these objects. If the
nature of the theoretical objects IS unknown to us (and
rewriting a theory in terms. of the R~~y propositions
compels us to recognise precIsely that), It IS not clear w.hy
these x's the existence of which we postulate accordmg
to the ~msay rules, must be c~nnected by such and such
relations. Rewriting a theory 10 terms of the Ramsay
propositions looks like a clever trick ",:hich doe~ not express real connections between theoretIcal assertions and
which itself only becomes possible on the b.asis o~ the unfolding of the content of the theory, asswnmg as It does a
171

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knowlooge of the mt'a~i!lft'ful d'lx'ndt'nc('s bptw(,C'1l th('ore

ical objects. The POSSibility of obtnl1ltn~. knowl{'(t~l' abo t,.
certain real objects only on tilt' th('ort'li<.'n\ \('v('\ dO('8 lit
at all make this knowl('dg(' inadPquuh' or dlf('ctivt'. It ~ot
be assum~ that tht'. ~x'p('rim('ntu\ obs('rvnbility of t~~
o~ject faclhtates aCQuIsition of know)edgf.' about it, but
thiS fact has no d!rect relevance to the substantive mean.
ingful characterisli.c of thiS knowled~c. The [act that a
non-observable object becomes observable (which some.
times happens, as we painted out above) does not prove
that our previous knowledge of this object was "sym bolic"
and that only now does it become genuine. On the contrary, the justifiability and adequacy of knowled e
obtained at the theoretical level is here con finned
g
. Of c~urse. man~ essentially no~-observable objects
With whIch theory is concerned radically differ in their
characteristics from ordinary observed bodies. (For in
~tanc~, th~ particles differin~ in their position in space but
~dent~cal I.n the rest of their properties, are regarded as
Idenlical. m quantum mechanics.) However, the fundamental difference bety.>een objec~ of different types does
not follow f~om. their observability or non-observab ility
but fro~ therr different real nature, for it is the latter t hat
de~rmmes the possibility or impossibility of their observatIon.
In conclusio~, let u~ touch on some general points.
In pre-Manuan ph~osophy,. it was usual to interpret
knowledge of real objects (stnctly speaking knowledge
can only relate to re~ objects, for otherwise it is not
~owl~ge bu~ somethmg else) as something more or less
un~~late~Y gIVen .. Our analysis of some methodological
pro ems I!Jvo~v~ III the study of the structure and ca n
tent of SClentl~l? knowledge proceeded from the funda
%~n!:~iC~~~P:~~?~d of t Marxist philosophy about the
endeavoured 00 ~fi
~ ~rehof an.y knowledge. We have
t"
ow a t e eXistence of definite as:r;;~l~~ d~esa~ot a~ all ex~l~de ~he possibility of relating
of an acf of COgni~~~~~~x~~~n~olll reality, independ~n~ly
of real objects can only be e t hl~rhythe characle:n stics
number of premises, assum ~i~ IS ed on the baSIS of a
course, on condition that thlse aN, hYI?otheses, etc. (of
ses are in one way or anotheru :;s~ml?tlOns a~d hypothecomplic~ted t~e justification ~i st~:\~d) III practice, however
Marxist- Lemnist philoso h g
e..
.
an~ . func~ional dependenc~ ~[emph~!-Ses the gen~tlc
actlVlty With objects directed at t cogrltIon . on practIcal
and social reality. It
po.r~~ ormatIon of natural
In
out that cognition
172

differs f'1UIf'ntially from practical activity on a number of

vital points. COKTlition is also a definite form of the suI:>
ject's activity. but this activity i, aimed, at any leve) and
in any form, at tf'vraling the substantive content of a system of real objects. The subject's activity is only possible
in the framework of definite assumptions about the content of these objects and cannot therefore be viewed as
simple constructing or creation of a certain ensemble of
artificial structures without real referents. In this case,
cognition can deal with real objects even if they are not
in principle given in experience. Cognition is an activity
of a special kind which assumes the use of definite referential meanings, object-hypotheses, norms, etc., and aims
at reconstructing a system of substantive relations between
real objects. The operations included in cognitive activity,
both experimental ones and the operations of measurement, bave meaning only in the context of definite assumptions about the real nature of the objects studied.

.- ..

Chapter 3
"ALTERNATIVE" WORLDS AND THE
PROBLEM OF CONTINUITY OF
EXPERIENCE

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1. OBJECTIVENESS OF KNOWLEDGE
AND THE POSSIBILITY OF A GAP
BETWEEN PERCEPTIVE AND
CONCEPTUAL -SYSTEMS

flY 01

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. In our .analysis of the K~ntian conception of the co ni.

bve relation between subject and object (see Part O~e)
we have n?te~ tha~ th~ cont}nuity of experience or, as
Ka~t puts It, Its umty. IS an Important indication of the
obJec~lve!le~ of knowledge. For Kant, this is even the
only mdlcatlOn. And yet, a type of experience is imagin.
able. that would be internally cohesive, continuous and
c0!lslStent 3f1d ~t the same time entirely subjective. Some.
thmg of thlS kin~ probably happens in the case of the il.
!usory worlds which some mental patients create and live
m ..T~e ~ents occuning in these worlds are subject to a
deCtmte .mner logic, but it does not correspond to the real
connections of th~ n;al objective world, which becomes
fl;ar f~o: tht~ patient s behaviour ~nd his relation to realObj~~'
0
~r peop~e. A most unportant condition of
I~eness 0 eXl?enence, as shown in Marxist philos~~~~ied a~~f:~;or~orl~t ?o~~tion wi~h practical objec~
to correct ex erien I. IS t IS connection that allows man
that which c~rresP~~dts~, ~ sep~at~ illusions in it from
t e objective real state of affairs. The latter in 1't s
subject in a system ~/u~ assumes ~he inclusion of the
As for mental cases th a equa~e SOCial communications.
,ey are eVidently incapable of any of
these things:
However, as far as sociall
morbid deviations are con Y accepted norms rather than
of experience and its corr~ered, thhe unity or continuity
~ be inseparable to the sub ~ Ion. t rough practice appear
It becomes clear that KantJ~t hhmse1f. In this connection
pr~blem indeed. Consider th~~c lied on ~ very important
if Its subsequent stage does not
expenence is discrete,
one and is not conditioned. by .{Ollow from the previous
all for regarding it as objective Of' we have no grounds at
one and the same object continu co:use , I cannot observe
ous Y and infinitely long.
174

Different things keep intruding on the field of my perception and passing beyond it. Objects may be given in
the experience of other men with whom I communicate
which are not given in my own experience. All these
facts, however, do not prove discreteness of experience.
Incorporated in the very mechanism of my perception is
the realisation that the object's existence is not discontinued simply because I cease looking at it. The objects of experience of one subject may simultaneously
or after some time become part of the experience of
another.
Objects which are not perceived by any subject at the
given moment also exist in reality. If some object disappears, if it ceases to exist, that happens only due to certain
events at a previous stage of experience. At the same time,
the disappearing object always leaves some trace, which
is expressed in the transformation of some objects into
others, so that there is a definite continuity of events and
processes relating to different stages of experience. The
realisation of the continuity of the objective processes to
which experience relates is not merely a product of interpretative reflexion, a result of reasoning, but a direct condition of the givenness of experience itself as a kind of
knowledge. In other words, the process of perception assumes the action of an amodal objective scheme of the
world, which makes possible the realisation of the independence of the objects from the act of their cognition
(see Chapter 1 of Part One). This scheme also underlies
scientific theoretical thinking which starts from the premise that the world of objects is independent from the
subject's cognitive activity. If there are gaps in experience,
we have every right to doubt its objectiveness, to suspect
that we deal with hallucinations, illusions, etc.
The question arises, however, whether we might not assume the existence of experience distinctly different from
ours iliat is, one that would relate to objects of an essentially different kind, so that there would be no direct
transition from one type of experience to another. That
would mean a gap between these two kinds of experience.
At the same time this experience of an unusual kind would
be quite nonnal al1:d objective, that .is, not o~ly inter~~ly
cohesive and contmuous but also mcluded m a deflmte
type of object-related practical <;lctivity-: true, an activity
different from ours. Such expenence mIght be characteristic of beings different from man (e.g., the inhabitants of
other cosmic worlds). Kant accepted this possibility, but
he believed this question to be insoluble, for any answer
to it involves going beyond the domain of human ex175

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perience, and this step is absolutely inadmissibl .

view.59
e, to his
Even a very preliminary contemplation of this
compels one to doubt the justifiability of posinPf?tblern
deed, if there is only one objectively real world t~ I . In.
hardly exist types of experience pertaining to 'thisere Can
that are so different that there are no transitions bet7 r1d
them and. that are at the san:e time objective. Of co~~~!n

the expenences of every subject are unique and di ffe se,

from those of other subjects. At the same time the e r~n~
ence of my experience includes the possibility of un~lS
standing th~ state~ents of other individuals about th~
da~ ~f theu expenences, for our different experiences

objectively belong to one and the same world and more.

over, .they subjectively comprise one and the same world
of <:>bJects. I can know less about this world t han another
subJe~t, or more, but the types of objects themselves
remau: the. same for both of us. Those objects t hat are
co~pnsed IIl: the experiences of another subject can also
be mclud~d III my experience. In other words, our differ.
ent expenenc~s are essentially commensurable : t he overall
sy~tem of objects ensures continuity between them . It is
qUl~ ~other matt~r when different types of objects are
subjectIvely present ill experiences objectively belonging to
the same. world. If that were possible, a gap would obvi.
o~slY eXlSt betwe~n. the~e different types of experience.
; a~much as cog~lltlon .IS reflection or reproduction of
eality, ~ps are ImpossIble not only in the framework
of the gIven type of experience but also in the relations
:tweet;t :xperiences of different types (and co nsequently,
e. eXlS ~nce of fundamentally incommensurable ex~~~eTIes IS also, impossible). It wou ld therefore appear
we encou ntered such fundamentally incommen
surable cognitive'
"
clear how th t' exp,enences (although it 15 not UIte
that all of the IS pO~dble), we would have to admit, irs~,
tion and secon~ ~o
not equally be referred t o cogmsubjectiv'e illusiC:n h~ s~me of them are apparently only a
hypothetical POSSibU,: n) t'huld , accept (albeit only as a
of cognitive experie ~%es e eXIstence o~ dif~ere!lt types
substantive structure o f on lY, beca,use, m hIS VIew, the
sciousness and conse u expenence IS constituted by con
types of consc'iousnesi ~ntly, ,the existence of d ifferent
perience. If we reject th~e~l!les, ~ifferent types of e~
p~ilosophy, we have no ri ~u JectlvlSt premise of Kant s
differ~nt, types of experienc~ t to argue the possibility of
ThiS lme of reasoning ap .
be well substantiated.
However, scientists in diff~~
lelds have now encoun

'I

176

tered facts which they deem it necessary to explain in

terms of hypotheses of the existence of different types of
cognitive experience, different perceptive and conceptual
worlds.
-Let us begin our exposition and analysis of these con
ceptions with a reminder that, according to Piaget's
theory, there are different stages in the development of
perceptive structures, so that at the early stages of this
development the continuity of experience is as yet nonexistent for the child (the object that passes beyond his
field of vision disappears for him in an absolute sense)
and there are gaps of a certain kind between different
stages of perceptive and intellectual development, each
stage being characterised by its own structures and the subsequent stages replacing the previous ones. At the same
time all these stages, in Piaget's view, express different
phases of the development of cognition in the intellectual
on togenesis.
True, Piaget deals with perceptive and intellectual
structures which characterise only different stages in the
genesis of the adult's cognitive activity rather than the
activity itself.
And yet Kuhn, the well-known specialist in the theory
and history of science, in his The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions SUbstantiates the existence in science of fundamentally different "paradigms" replacing one another
in the course of historical development of scientific knowledge. Kuhn points out extremely important facts : the impossibility of presenting the structure of scientific theories
as a system of purely formal relations between language
constructions (that was the interpretation of scientific
theory by logical positivists); the immersion of theoretical
systems in certain meaningful cognitive schemes determining both the character and the paths of further develop
ment of the theory as well as the mode of setting up and
interpreting experiments; the existence of continu?us
links between the descriptive function of the paradigm
(it is the paradigm that dete nnin ~s the ont<:>logy of, the
theory , that is, the type of real objects to which the gIv~n
theory or a whole system of theories relates) and Its
nonnative methodological, and heuristic functions. Kuhn
indicates that paradigms may be viewed as definite systems
of prescriptions shared. by the scientific ~0J!lmunity that
accepts a given paradigm. These prescnpttons are not
usually formulated as a system of clear-cut rules or fonnal
algorithms(a~parently.. such ~ kind o~ fo~mulation of the
prescriptions IS even ImpOSSible}, betng mcorp.orat~, as
it were, in the content structure of the paradlgm Itself.
177

It is the paradigm, Kuhn insists, tht~.t determines the co-

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hesion of a scientific, study at all of Its levels, its inclusion

in a definite semantIc cont~xt. T~e. mode of organisation
of the given integral whole 15 reminiscent not so much of
formal mathematical or logical structures as of the struc.
tures of perception, the perceptive Hgestalts", The transi_
tion from one paradigm to another may be regarded as
a kind of switching to a different "gestalt",
We shall not consider in detail the characteristics which
Kuhn ascribes to a paradigm, or his conception as a whole
Let us note merely that he has drawn the attention of
specialists in the theory. methodology. and history of
science to a whole series of problems which have mostly
been overshadowed by others but are nevertheless quite
real and, moreover, essential for understanding the structure and functions of scientific knowledge, for an understanding of the actual historical process of the develop_
ment of science.
It is important here to single out only one aspect of
Kuhn's conception, namely that which provoked accusa
tions of subjectivism. It is also a point that has caused the
greatest amount of argument. The transition from one
paradigm to another (that is what a scientific revolution is
about, according to Kuhn) is regarded as passing into a
different conceptual and perceptual world in which the
scientist works. What the scientist obseIVes in experience is
determined by the content of his theoretical paradigm,
states Kuhn. At the same time the paradigms being integral
wholes similar to perceptive gestalts are different from one
another, there are no transitions between them. After
a scientific revolution, the scientist sees the world in a
d~fferent v.:ay: he ~bserves those objects which previously
did not .exlSt for h~, while that which previously seemed
s~lf-obvlO.US and dllectly given no longer forms part of
hIS expenence. The new paradigm may use the same terms
~ the old. on~, and it usually includes most of the symbolI~ generall~aho.n~ present in the old paradigm (formulations of sclentIflc principles and laws) as well as the pro
cedures of me~urement, the rules for using apparatus,
etc. However, m the ~ontext of a new meaningful whole,
these terms, formulations, and rules are given a qualitatively new me.aning.60 '.' ... During revolutions scientists see
new and c?fferent thmgs when looking with familiar instruments. m places w~ere they have looked before. It is
rather as If the profeSSIonal community has been suddenlY
transported to another planet where f U
b ts are
dff
t
1
ht
am
lar
0 Jec
.
seen 10 a I eren Ig ~nd are joined by unfamiliar ones
as well. Of course, nothmg of quite that sort d oes occur..
118

there is no geographical transplantation; outside the laboratory everyday affairs usually continue as before. Nevertheless, paradigm changes do cause scientists to see the
world of their research-engagement differently. In so far
as their only recourse to that world is through what they
see and do, we may want to say that after a revolution
scientists are responding to a different world. "61 Dif
ferent paradigms are mutually intranslatable and incommensurable with each other, asserts Kuhn. Adequate
communication between representatives of different par
adigms is impossible: the same words are given different
meanings. There exists a gap between the paradigms. 62
To substantiate the thesis of the possibility of different
conceptual and perceptive worlds, some theoreticians go
even farther than Kuhn in some respects, linking up these
worlds not only with certain theoretical systems but also
with the modes of dissecting the world which are embod
ied in everyday language. The American linguists Edward
Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, generalising the results of
ethnolinguistic studies (in particular, Whorf's studies in the
language of the Hopis, an Indian tribe) came to the conclu
sions fonnulated as the so-called hypothesis of linguistic
relativity, or the SapirWhorf hypothesis. (Kuhn mentioned
the influence of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis on the shaping
of his own conception.) According to this hypothesis, the
world we perceive and interpret is unconsciously built on
the basis of definite language norms. We break up reality
into elements in accordance with classification rules
(embodied in lexical units) and grammatical structures
inherent in the given language. Inasmuch as there are no
two similar languages, different societies may be said to
exist in different worlds. "We dissect nature along lines
laid down by our native languages," writes Whorf. "The
categories and types that we isolate from the world of
phenomena we do not find there because they sta.r:e
every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world IS
presented in a kaleidoscop~c flux of impressions which has
to be organized by our mmds--and thIS means largely by
the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up,
organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we
do, largely because we are parties ~o an agreement to
organize it in th~ ~ay ... ~e are thus mtroduced to a new
principle of relatlVlty, WhICh holds that all observers are
not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture
of the universe, unless their lin~istic ba,~kgrounds ~e
similar or can in some way be cahbrated. 63" Accordmg
to the 'hypothesis of linguistic relativity, different language
pictures of the world can implement different categorical
119

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structures, thereby affecting the norms of thinking

in a mediated way. the nonns of behaviour of the ~d,
collective. In .modem ~urop~a~ ,languages of the Fn~en
European family. there IS a diVISion of words into no o
and verbs, into subjects and predicates. Whorf believes t~i
this circumstance detennines the ontology shared b
speakers of these languages-the division of the world in~
objects and their actions, processes. In Whorf's view .
the ~opi langu~e there is no division into subject ~~
predlcate, and In that of the Nootka tribe no divisio
even into verbs and nouns. In this latter case' the habitu~
division of the world into objects and pro~esses is no
existent.64
n
The Hopi language does not categorise t ime t he wa
Eur~pean lan~age~ do. " .. .I~ will ~e found t hat it is nJ
possIble to defIne event, thmg, object, relationship', and
so on, fr?m .nature, but that to define them always involves a ClrCUltouS return to the grammatical categories of
the definer's language. "65
. The most ~dicC)l and at ~h~. same time logically polIShed fonnulatlOn of the pOSSIbilIty of alternative conceptual ,:"orlds has been suggested by Willard Quine an outsta!ldmg modet;! American lOgician, mathematician and
philosopher; thIS fonnulation is linked with his theo'ry of
the so-called ontological relativity.

th

2.. TH E CO NC EPTION OF ONTOLOGICAL RELATIVIT Y

9u ine. started

out from the fact that there are alternfabve, Le., logically incompatible interpretations of a
ormal system.
'
For example, to define what kind of objects are nurnb~rs, ~~ mll:st give an interpretation of the fe nnal system
0. ant mebc t~at wO.uld satisfy the arithmetical opera~~R~ed~dw:~ 10 partI~ular, the primitive tenn 0 must be
t};e~bon S the application of which to
any element
ment Sn Two
~ gIVen system generates the next elemelo chose the v:~~0t"s If number are known. Ernst Zer{x]
for every x as sy cThs A as 0 and the singular class
respectively" ( ,I, [(xU, e a't~I\Ys 0, 1, 2, 3,,,. become
In Neumann's version th
' etc.
and the natural number' e er;npty class A is chosen as 0
ceding nurn bers that is
defmed as the class of aU precase, the numb~r 1 will 'be'
as x V {xJ ' In this
,)l
the number 3 , {tohe number 2- {0,1j ,
i.e.,
{I'll etc. 66 ,
,1,2,jor("PL

0:

f' \

180

{ar],ars

Both versions satisfy arithmetical laws and operations.

But they are alternative. To demonstrate that, let us ask
this question: does the number 3 belong to the number 5?
According to Zennelo, the answer must be negative, and
according to Neumann, positive. "Indeed, according to
Newnann's theory, for any two numbers x and y, the
number x is smaller than the number y, if and only if
x belongs to y and x is a proper subset of y. Symbolically: x < y == x E y. Since the number 3 is smaller than the
number 5, the number 3 belongs to the number 5. According to Zermelo, this argumentation leads to an incorrect
conclusion, inasmuch. as one number, x, belongs to
another, y, if, and only if, y is the number following the
number x. Sym bolically: x E y == y= Sx. Since the number
5 is not the number following the number 3, the number
3 does not belong to the number 5. Thus we come to
contradictory assertions."6 7 This contradiction is explained by the fact that the concept of the number following some x differs in the two theories.
In considering objects to which a theory relates, we
must give an interpretation of the corresponding formal
system, that is, we must translate the terms and propositions of the given system into the terms and propositions
of another. At the same time, we have seen that a given
formal system admits of different translations characterised by alternative ontologies. "We may accept that translation of a theory entails a change in ontology: e.g., one
may go on from a universe of numbers to a universe of
sets. The new objects must satisfy the laws of the old
theory, and it becomes necessary to explain in what way
translation of the theory can yield incompatible systems
with different ontologies. It might be asserted that the
new object is an explanation of the old in the sense that
the ontological status of the fonner is clearer than the
status of the latter, so that the latter is reducible to the
former. Bu t how is one to understand that the old object
is also reducible to another, new object included in an alternative theory?"68
Quine attempts to explain these facts in a philosophicallogical conception touching on a wider range of problems
than the logical fo undations of mathematics only.
He asks: what is, in general, translation from one language into another? Imagine that a researcher in anthropology has discovered a tribe absolutely unknown to science
and is trying to learn its language. To do that, the researcher must translate the terms and other linguistic constructions of a foreign language into his native one. Each
language, as Quine sees it, is an ensemble of tenns and
181

grammatical Conns that are not only connected with

another by definite dependence relations but also
ta.che~" a~ ~ome ~oints ~o the objec~s and phenomena ~
extrahngulstIc reality. It IS exactly this latter circumstan r
that pe~i~ us to use the l~guage as an instrument f~~
the descnptlOn of what occurs In the world. It is important
to understand the manner in which the language constru
tions are "attached" to what happens in the real world"
quine continues. Man can know ,s0l!'ething about realit '
fust of al,I because he gets certain l~formation about
through hIS sense organs. But sensory mformation by itself
does not yet. carry a definit,e division <?f t~e world into a
sys~m o~ o\J.Jects of a certam type. ThIS dIssection, Quine
belleves, 15 gIVen by language, by the entire totality of its
lexical and grammatical means. Different languages can
~pparently solve this task in different ways. For example
m order tha~ di!feren~ ?bjects .might be discovered in th~
world, standmg m defIntte spatIa-temporal relations to one
anoth~r and subject to definite processes, there must be
more 10 the language than the division of words into nouns
and v.erbs. Subjects and predicates must also be differentiated .m. the .utf:erance, and there must be linguistic methods
?of dlstm~lS,~~~ between and identifying objects: "this",
that which, the same", expre~ions of the singular and
plural ?um~!, etc. A language 15 possible in which all
these linguistIC meRn;S are absent. For carriers of such a
language, extern~ obJects do not exist in the same manner
as those to which speakers of European languages are
accustomed ~the character of these languages is doubtless
~onhected ~Ith a definite type of culture). Each language
::n~ ~yact~~tt by fits o~ syste~ of dissecting the world
. ype ~ meanmgs which are ascribed to these
b' ts
? Jec .' (Qume believes that meanings are the dependences
linguist
) F or thiS
. reason, not only
m a glVen
al IC ,system.
meanin
s but
sions c~not be ~ obJecttsal,!r re~e~nts of linguistic expres,
e"ven ex r mgulStlcally
.
Q ume tnes to assert

. . naturalist view of
the psyche and Ian
a behaVH:mnst,
a kind of fiction A~age. ~e belIeves consciousness to be
be described in' , I?syc ~cal phenomena may and must
higher nervo~s ~~~i~~leM In ~rms of the physiology of
world of consciousness' earungs ~ p~~nomena of the
do not exist. There are o~of a supra-IndiVIdual ideal world
ru~~s for "attaching" definite
language expressions ~
methods for transfonn' s un 1 of the given sort and
be inac~g some language expressions into
others. It
inte ur~te, however, to draw the conelusion that
believes ~70 s ~anfage as a purely formal
system. r
e ndamentally erroneous

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182

to divide language expressions into those which describe

experience (meaningful or synthetic propositions) and
those which record purely linguistic relations (analytical
propositions, that is, propositions empty of meaning).
All elements of a language system are mutually connected
he believes, and this system as a whole serves as an instru~
ment of describing experience. It is this "attachment" of
the language system to experience that makes it impossible
to single out those relations within the language that
would be purely fonnal and have no definite semantic
meaning. In actual fact, any relation between the elements
of a given language system may be regarded both as a
relation between meanings (it is important to bear in mind
that meaning, according to Quine, is not an extralinguistic
entity but belongs to the given language and expresses the
mutual relations between its elements) and a fixation of
a definite extralinguistic content, that is, knowledge of
the world. The meanings of language elements do not
exist outside knowledge of the world. In its turn, knowledge of the world can only exist through internal relations
of the elements of the linguistic system, that is, through
their meanings. Choosing the angle from which to consider
the relations of language expressions to the knowledge of
the world which they carry is purely conventional: the
choice is determined by the goals of analysis. (True, taking
into account that meanings are neither extralinguistic
nor intralinguistic entities-we shall touch on this
point below-Quine thinks it best to stop all discussion of
meanings and discuss only the relations within the language and the relations of the language to the world of objects or referents). Thus any language system is at the same
time a definite system of knowledge about the world,
a definite theory with an inherent ontology. In particular,
a natural language is also a kind of theory.
The need is sometimes asserted for distinguishing between language and theory in view of the following facts:
first,' different theories may be fonnulated with the aid
of identical language means, and even at the pre-theoretical
level the carriers of the given language may hold different
views on a number of questions; second, it is well known
that one and the same theory may be expressed in different languages, the term "language" being applied not only
to the natural languages (English, French, etc.) but also to
artificial ones, as the language of mathematics.
In his reply to these arguments Quine deems it necessary to stress the conventional nature of the division into
language and theory: every language is a kind of theory,
and any theory may be presented as a language. One must
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only remember that the theories themselves (and COrre

spondingly, the languages) may belong to different level '
they may possess a different degree of generality etc AS,
everyday natural language expresses the broade~t th~ n
possible, embodying certain g~neral orientations of lOCO:!.
mon sense". One n;tay ~ee w~th these general orientations
and at the same tlIDe differ m the understanding of rela.
tIvely more Special problems. It IS therefore possible to for_
mulate in tenns of one and the same natural language
different systems of views, among other things different
scientific theories. As for the translation of' the given
theory from one language into another, it may be regard~d as practi~all:r realisable only in some cases, but t heoret..
lc~ly, that ~, In t~e proper sense of the term, it is unattainable, Qume believes, for theoretical content unrelated
to the language means of its expression does not exist
Any translation changes the content of a theory to som~
extent ~r ?~her, and in. some cases the change may be
rati:er sigruficant, affectmg its ontology. Quine's propositIon concerning the impossibility of "radical translation" will be considered in detail somewhat later.
. The questionof the types of objects presupposed by the
glVen language IS not a purely formal one for Quine it is
not merely a question of conventionally adopting a c~rtain
mode of expression, as in Rudolf Carnap's theory. (The
latte~ assumed that ontological questions, being "external"
relatIve to the language system do not admit of theoretical. so~ution an~ are merely identical with accepting or
reJectmg th~ gIven .modes of expression.) Quine insists
that acceptmg a gwen theory (viz. language) signifies
adoptm~ not only certain modes of expression but also a
conceptlOn of ~he world, or an ontology. He therefore
regard~ ontologIcal problems as extremely important and
belongmg to the content of a theory (or language) . If a
~heory IS lOgIcally .formalIsed, the objects permitted by
It ~e the values of ItS variables. (For theories of this kind,
Qu~e fo~ulates his famous thesis: "The ontology to
fu~lC~boJ.~et! u:~ ~f ~anguage commits him comprises simp ly
c. a
~ . treats as falling within t he subject
~~!b~e~~'~~s (u~~~lfIers-within the range of values of his
of a bou~d Vari~ble~ fase "to exist" means "to be a value

ist~i~ ~~~o ~:sCe~O~'he above ~xample with an anthropolog-

tribe speakin
c er .observmg the life of an unknown
at the very b~g~n:.ntIrely unfam~iar 13!lguage attempts
sions unrelated d'
to t.ranslate lOto hIS tongue expreshe will hardly su~~~el ~~t.h what is given in experience,
. at much is obvious. Indeed, he

184

has no instruments for establishing the meaning of these

expressions. He should obviously first of all try to establish the meanings of those words and expressions which
are closest to experience, recording what is given directly.
In doing so, he will apparently assume that he observes
the same objects of the environment as the natives whom
he studies. Further, the anthropologist will bear in mind
that the neurophysiological apparatus responsible for
receiving information from the external world is common
to all men. He will thus conclude that stimulus meanings
of words and expressions and, conseque ntly those meanings which directly characterise the "attac~ent" of the
language to the objects of the external world (the referents) and which differ fro m meanings as a system of intralinguistic relations, can be relatively easily singled out
~d must. be common to different languages. (True, they
will pertam only to those expressions which are more or
less directly correlated with experience.)
The anthropologist will here start from t he premise that
referents are extralinguistic entities, namely. the objects
of the external world .
Our researcher will endeavour to apply his theoretical
orientation in practice. Supposing that he observes that
each time a rabbit scurries by, the native emits the sound
sequence "Gavagai". The anthropologist surmises that
"Gavagai" denotes, in the language of that tribe, the same
thing that is denoted by the word "rabbit" (or rather the
expression "Lo, a rabbit") in his native language. Our
researcher is not fu lly confident that the surmise is correct.
Could it be that "Gavagai" relates not to rabbits at all but
to all rapidly moving objects? Or it may be that "Gavagai"
is a rabbit but not any kind of rabbit-only a fast-running
rabbit. To test his conjecture, the anthropologist continues
his studies. On the one hand, he extends the range of observation, an d on the other, establishes contact with the
natives: pointing to a rabbit sitting still and pronouncing
the sounds "Gavagai", the researcher observes the reaction
of the members of t he tribe and tries to establish whether
they regard the pro nu nciation of this sound combination
appropriate to the given situation. Observing for some time
the behaviour of the natives and communicating with them
through gestures, the researcher will settle on "rabbit" (or,
to be more precise, the short phrase "Lo, a rabbit") as a
translation of "Gavagai". In this way the anthropologist,
Quine states, can translate a series of words and expressions of an unfamiliar language directly correlated with the
experientially perceived events.
Translation of language constructions correlated with
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experience in a more mediated fashion is a mOre com .

cated matter. In translating these constructions sPhQuine, the anthropologist will take into account fin.t ~~s
connection between them and tho.se. expr~ssion's tha't h:
can t:ansl.~te ~ready I sec?n~. their 1!1cluS1?n in "verbal
behavIOur which stands, m Its tum, 10 defmite relation
with. objective, experientially fixed situations, and thirdS

certain fund~ental .feature~ of SU~~ a specific object a~

"language" with whIch he IS familIar from his maste

wJt

of his own language. In this way the anthropologist

finally solve the task of fonnulating the instruments of

translation from the natives' language into his own.

The model for fonnulating a scheme of translation de.
scribed here is, of course, extremely general and idealised.
Still, Quine believes it to be a sufficiently precise expre~
sion of the main traits of the current practice of ethnolin_
guistic studies and, more broadly, the practice of translation from any language to any other in general. Quine has
no intention at all of criticising this practice for in his
view it is impossible in any other form. Howe~er, he tries
to .show the theoretical untenability of those precepts
whIch are usually associated with it and without which
this practice can and must do, in Quine's opinion.
Ind~, Quine argues, what proves that the referents,
the objects to which linguistic expressions refer, are extralinguistic
entities? It is true
of course
that stimulus

meanm~s are. common to all men. But objects are by no

means ld~ntlcal to stimulus meanings (whereas the anthrOPOlOgICal researcher discussed above identifies the
two). Different objective dissections may correspond to
on~ and the. same stimulus meaning, these dissections
bemg detennmed by the properties of the language. When
~?e ant~;,opologist establishes that the sound sequence
"Gav3:g~,1 refers to the same stimulus meaning as the word
r~bblt , th.at d?es not mean that both these linguistic
umts hav~ IdentlCal referents. POinting to a rabbit and
pronou!lcmg "Gavagai", a native may mean a rabbit in a
sen?e dIfferent from ours, e.g., those aspects of the rabbit
w~~ch ~e at the given moment within his field of vision
~a er
an a separate integral object characterised also
"ba~P~<?~ that are not. perceived at the given moment.
some~~g !r~r be u~ed m th~ natives' language to denote
to each oth~r e!ent r~m a kind of objects that are similar
each of them b~in th~lft~genera1. rabbity" characteristics,
denote the pheno~:
e s;me tune unique; it may rather
the given area of sp non 0 d Some general "rabbitness" in
case the language wJ\e
at the given moment (in this
,
no Possess any means of expressing

'f

186

the grammatical form of number or a division of nouns

into abstract and concrete).70 Generally speaking, there
are many modes of objective interpretation of the stimulus
meaning corresponding to our word "rabbit" and enumerating them all is not the main thing. The mctin thing is,
according to Quine, that it is impossible to establish from
observation of the natives' behaviour what types of objects
are the referents of a given unknown language. (Let us
recall once again that Quine strictly distinguishes between
objects and stimulus meanings. It is not too difficult to
establish the latter.) One and the same group of stimulus
meanings, one and the same external behaviour may be
reflected in different language systems characterised by
different dissections of the world of objects. But if that is
so, it is in general impossible to establish unambiguously
the system of objects to which the foreign language refers. It also means that there is no unambiguously cor
rect (Quine calls it "radical") translation from one language to another. In practice the anthropolOgist studying
a foreign language will take into account the coincidence
of objects as referents of language expressions. As for the
translation of those expressions which have no direct
stimulus meanings, it will be attained, first, only by taking
into account the connections between these expressions
and those that have stimulus meaning, and second, on the
analogy with grammatical and lexical constructions of the
translator's native language. Quine believes that even if one
assumes that the ontology of the translator's language is
common to both languages (though this assumption cannot be substantiated at all, in his view), different analytical schemes are possible of the correlation of separate language expressions in the two languages, that is to say,
different variants of translation exist. In other words,
radical translation is indetenninate. As a rule, the transla
tor does not fully realise this fact, considering the analytical scheme of translation of his choosing the only possible
one. As for the mutual relations of those languages that
have a sufficiently firmly established tradition of translation (e.g., translation from Ge~an into French or fr.om
English into Russian), the eXIStence of an analytical
scheme of translation may not be realised at all, for there
is no question of s~arching for such a sc.heme: it w~ found
a long time ago m the work of prevIOUS generations of
translators, and the possibility of a fundamentally dif
ferent scheme does not even occur to translators.
In this connection, Quine asks this question: how can
we detennine the ontology of a given language or theory,
that is, the system of objects to which this language or
187

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theory refers? For the carriers of lh(' givell syst,<.'m thp I

gua~e modes of expression and, the ontolo,(.:::ical' cont:~t
are mseparable from each o~her. th' world IS giv('n them
through a system of meanmgs, and meanings em bod
knowledge of the world. To soparat<> that which belon~
to language from that which pertains to the world itself
we must go beyond t~e f~mework of the given language
system and compare It wlth the world. QUine believes
however, that we have no way of penetrating the world
as such, for the world as an ensemble of objects is always
given to us only through some language system or other
(Quine does not negate the objective and real existence of
the world, that is, its being independent of man and language, but he insists that the world is given to man only
through some linguistic or theoretical system.) We cannot
th.refore speak of absolute ontology of the given language
system but only of its relative ontology. When we ask what
are. in reality the objects of the given language or theQ..
ret~cal system, the role of the <4 wo rld of objects" with
whIch the system under study is compared is played by
another language or theoretical system and not the world
as such. The ontology of such a system is not discussed
here: the system itself and the world of its objects are
gIven as something undifferentiated. In other words in
defining the ontology of the given linguistic or theoretical
system, we perform in actual fact translation from one
language. into another. The language into which we translatE: defmes the world of objects of the language from
whIch we translate (that is to say the object to which the
~ord "G~va~ai" refers, to recur'to the above example,
15 a rabbIt, I.e. that which is denoted by the appropriate
word of OU! language). We should not forget, however,
t~at dependIng ~n the language into which a text in the
~~~n language WI~ be .translated, the latter will be ascribed
'f erent ontologIes, m Quine's opinion But even if we
reertot
.
I
.
ce t d'ffwO gIVen an~ages only, here again one may acre~all
~re~t analytical schemes of translation (let us
f d' ~l~e s th~SlS about the indeterminate character
o. ra
ranslatIon).71 In this case when the question
~~a~ o~t the 0r:'tology of the laniuage into which we
, ere .agam we run into the same problem: we
~~!a;;th~~~hmg aboQut. this ontology only in relation to
answer of ab guage. ume concludes that there can be no
jects of a giv~l~~ value to the question of what the obcan only be estab~O~ dar.e . The ?ntology of a given theory
If we want to k.n s: ~ relation to some other theory.
in fact numbers ow, or Instance, what kind of objects are
, we must translate the system of arith-

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188

metic into some other mathematical system, e.g., set

theory, and onc of the theories (Zermelo's) will provide
one answer to this question, while Neumann's will give
another. As a matter oi fact, the reverse procedure is also
possible. 'ro answer the question about the kind of objects
sets really are, we may try to translate the propositions
of set theory into the language of arithmetic. On the analogy with the relativist theory of space and time Quine be.
lieves it possible to speak of a relativist thoory of the
objects of theory, or of ontological relativity.72
An important point of Quine's conception is that each
language has its own mode of dissecting the objective
world. This assertion, however, does not entail, in Quine's
view, that each language has its own ontology, into which
we cannot penentrate from the outside, being therefore
compelled to interpret it on the analogy of the ontology
of our own language. Quine believes that one cannot discuss the ontology of the given language as long as it is
considered by itself: although a language carries a definite
world picture in 'itself, the interrelation between language
and the world of objects is not singled out in it. To find
out in what way language expressions are correlated with
objects, i.e., to single out the ontology of the given language, we have to speak about it in some other language,
the ontology of which is not discussed in the context of
this discourse. The problem of ontology is one of mutual
relation or mutual translatability of different languages or
theories. We therefore do not know the ontology of our
own language, says Quine.
The ontology of the latter can only be discussed in some
other language (and the ontology itself will look differently depending on the language into which the texts in our
own tongue are translated). True, one may attempt to
reveal the ontology of our language while remaining within
its boundaries, and such attempts are made both in everyday life and especially in logic and philosophy. In this case,
however our language must figure twice, in different capacities: o~ce as an object language (that is, the language
whose ontology is elucidated), and another time as the
language in which we discuss the ontology of the object
language. Here we translate the sentences of our language
into sentences of the same language. The sentences we
translate need not be equivalent to those that result from
translation. Generally speaking, even in this case, according
to Quine we can choose different analytical schemes of
translatio'n. And that means that the ontologies ascribed
to our language will differ depending on the scheme of
translation.
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When we communicate with another person Speaking

the same language as we do, we ~ convinced that we
refer to one and the same world of ob.Jects. We believe that
in this case, at any rate, our own object dissection of the
world and that of our partner must coincide.
But why are we ~o confident about it? QUine asks. Is it
solely because our mterlocutor pronounces approximately
the same sounds as we do in similar situations? How can
we make judgements about the meaningful world picture
which our partner associates with these sounds? We ascribe
to his words a relation to definite objective referents only
because we translate his speech into the language which we
use ourselves. From Quine's standpoint, our language as
a system of predispositions to definite verbal behaviour
appears to us in quite a different light than any other language which we always treat as an object language: that is
true not only of the language of a foreign people but also
of that of our countrymen.
Quine believes that the conception of ontological relativity is applicable to all language systems or theories:
not only to natural, ordinary (national) languages but also
to theories in mathematics and other sciences. True, we
should bear in mind the following important factor. In
mathematics, we can do more than translate the theory of
arithmetic into the language of set theory: we can also
perform retranslation. Each of these theories may apperu: as an object one (the theory whose ontology is established) or the one that functions as the premise (the
theory specifying the ontology of the object theory).
The reason f~r this freedom of action is equal mastery
o~ both theones. The situation with natural languages is
dIfferent. Only one of them is our native or mother tongue.
We therefore usually judge of the ontology of other Ian
guages on the basis. ~f translating them into our own: it is
~he latt.er that sp~clfles the object dissection of the world
m terms of WhICh we understand and interpret other
languages.
In natural scie~tific knowledge the problems of ontology are settled, m Quine's view, in the same way, i.e.,
through. translation of the terms and propositions of one
theory mto the language of another For instance if we
~k ?urselv~ the question what really' is the object r~ferred
. m phYSI~al theory as the atom, we must translate
this theoI"Y. mto t~e language of another, e.g., that which
o~rates WIth the sense datum" terms or uses the termi~e~e~go:a labora~ry operations, or 'else applies termS
last case th~~n-o hrvable objects: it will be shown in the
suc and such substantive processes of
190

obj ec tive reaJity correspond to the word "atom ". The

process of translation may reveal that some language
expression of the object theory does not correspond to
any real entity from the standpoint of the premise theory:
that is the position, e.g., with the tenn "ether" if we try to
translate the theory of classical physics into the language
o f modem science. It may also happen that we shall be
unable to find any modes of translating one theory into
another. In this case, Quine thinks, we cannot make
judgments about the ontology of the given theory. Yet
Quine believes, the attempts to reduce the content of
natural scientific knowledge to the content of "sense data"
and protocol statements (something that was intensely
practiced by logical positivists) are untenable. At the same
time he regards conceptual theoretical gaps, the emergence
of fundamentally new systems of knowledge, and scientific
revolutions as a rare and undesirable phenomenon in the
development of natural science. Here he differs strongly
with Kuhn, as we see. In Quine's view, natural sciences
develop through gradual changes and restructuring of
theoretical constructions, so that questions of ontology
arise here fairly rarely. (Quine believes that even metamathematical studies, dealing with problems of interpretation of formal systems, can in some cases do without
solution of ontological problems.)
According to Quine, the experiences of each group of
subjects that are carriers of a given language or theory are
more or less continuous, and the experiences of each individual subject are even more so. Everything that appears
in the field of his experience, including other languages
or theories, is interpreted in terms of the world picture
embodied in this experience. The question of how other
subjects that are carriers of other languages or theories see
and understand the world is meaningless, according to
Quine: one ascribes a certain ontology to other languages
proceeding from the properties of one's own. At the same
time this conception starts out from the premise that
diffe~ent language or theoretical systems implement different object dissections of reality. And that means that,
although experience is continuous within the group of
carriers of the given language, it is discrete in the relations between different groups using different languages
(or theories). 7 3 .Gro~ps of carriers of diffe!ent l~nguag~s
or theories live In different worlds. Acceptmg thIS theSIS,
Quine concurs ~~th Sap~ and Whorf as ~ell as ~u~n. ~
substantive addition Qume makes to thIS thesIs IS hIS
assertion that the subjects themselves that are carriers of
different languages or theories usually do not notice that
191

VI
is hel
1Ute (

Scie,..,
cove<
of sci
flY 01
ICOt el

th.t ~
numb
f oreig

they live in different worlds, as they interpret oth

on the analogy of their own. They can learn an er worlds
guage (translating it into their own) and even comother.lan.
with the carriers of another language and yet re~ll~nlcate
side this other world. Different worlds exist in d~f~ out,.
dimensions and do not therefore come into c Itaerent
interact. The carriers of different languages or th~ ~t?l
Quine's interpretation remind one of Leibnitz's ~nes In
which reflect the whole
world. ' yet "have no wm'donads
.
Ows"
an d d 0 no t ae tuall y mteract with other monads alth gh
~ey ha~e the impression that they do participate in ou h
mteractlOns.

SUe

That does not, of course, mean that a person can

m~ter another language so that it will become his sec nOJ
natIve language (that is only possible when a persoon.
~nclu~ed in a different cultural syst~m). The sUbject:~
m thIS case master the mode of object dissection of the
world which is characteristic of the new language. However, for Quine the main point is that one cannot simultaneously use two languages. When the given subject
speaks the ~ew language. and thinks in it, his native Ian.
guage functions as an object one, and vice versa. Two Ian.
guages. (and corresl?ondingly two world pictures) cannot
come mto contact m one experience field. The transition
from one language to another as the basis of conversation
and thinki~15. m~y in this case be viewed in the same light
as transpOSItion mto a different dimension.
Ku~n and Feye~bend, as we recall, insist that different
p~adlgms and major scientific theories carrying different
YlSlons of the w~rld come into conflict with one another;
~t even happens m the consciousness of an individual subJect, as a resul~ of whic~ one of the paradigms replaces
others. Ac~ordmg to Qume, however, different language
?r th~retI~al conceptions characterised by different obJect ~1SsectI.ons of the world cannot come into this kind of
confhct, ~ymg as they do in different dimensions: when
~~~the mterr~lation of two theoretical systems is eluci
ts and then ontologies are established one of them
ac ~? an ~bject theory and the other as a p~emise theory.
scientil~ oes I n.ot spec.ially consider the problems of
ceptUallcChrevo ut~ons. HIS assertion, however, that con
be ad
anges m the development of science can only
sucr re~~l~~~~s t~t he ~oes ~ot accept the existence of
easonmg In abstracto, we can, of
course Un . s.
placeni.ent a~r~ar~' attel!IPt at describing successive reo
ception of ontOI~ jlgmS m ~h~ language of Quine's con
we would first h g cal rel.atlvlty. In this case, however,
,ave to reject the assertion of the gradual
,
192

character of conceptual changes in science and, second,

give an interpretation of the paradigms themselves and the
process of their successive replacement that would be essentially different from Kuhn's.
3. TRANSLATION AND THE PROBLEM OF UNDERSTANDING

Let us begin a critical analysis of the conceptions of

alternative worlds with Quine's theory. That is all the more
convenient since the latter sets this problem against the
broadest philosophical background.
Let us note from the start that the existence of alternative theories in metamathematics, which was the premise
of Quine'S theory, is in itself indubitable and requires
serious philosophical study. Quine is also right when he
says that the problem of substantiation of scientific theory
cannot be solved through ontological and epistemological
r.eduction (thus, it is impossible to reduce the t~<?ry of
arithmetic to set theory; the problem of substantiation of
mathematics cannot be formulated or solved within the
framework of reductionism). But we are first of all interested in the analysis of the conception of ontological relativity in its general epistemological significance.
It is easy to show however, that its basic propositions
can hardly be regarded as acceptable. Indeed, Quine notes
that sensory information (that is precisely what his term
"stimulus meanings" refers to) does not carry in itself any
object dissection of the world. He is, of course, right here.
But he errs on another score, namely, in asserting that the
existence of objects is not inherent in the worl? outside
man and that the subject singles out external objects only
at the language level, the grouping ?f "st~ulus meaniJ.lgs"
in the objects of a definite type bemg entuely determme?
by the structure of the given language system, so that It
must be fundamentally different in different languages.
According to Quine the initial content information about
reality is restricted t~ at"!- ensembl~ of "stimu~us. meanin~s",
and human behaviour IS determmed by thiS mformation
rather than the objective properties of the objects themselves. As a matter of fact, what we have here is a kind of
revival of the subjectivist empirical theory of "sense data",
hard as Quine might try to dissociate himself from it. He is
also close to the subjectivism of logical positivism (although
he believes to have overcome the latter) at another point
of his conception-in rejecting the existence in objective
reality of objects that are referents of the given language
expressions. For Quine, just as for Camap, the subject

"

,~

--763

193

"-------~ -

VI

Is he
tute,
Scien
c;:over

of ..
gy 0

..."
1I>at

numl
fort il

cannot in a certain sense break away beyond U

'
of language to the objective world itself. th Ie Confines
through the relations of which the world ~ meanings
subj~ct are, in their view, only a system
fve~ to, the
relatIOns. Therefore the world itself a
10 rahngulstic
objec~ j~ only the product of language. s an ensemble of
ThiS lme of reasoning consistently and 1
,
mented, inevitably leads I to conclusions whi~~lcall lmple.
:-elves enough to make one doubt such
~ In them..
I~stance, it is exactly that interpretat~~~ce~t.IOhS. (~or
gIves, of s.ubjective "stimulus meanings" t~ IC QUine
~tartJ?g pOint of cognition that determine; the en as the
In t!Us ?onception, in a ne~ variant of the dff eFerge~ce
~ubJect,lV~, empiricism would nev~r solve' Ith~U, ty ~hIch
unposslbihty to cognize the state of
,lDlagInary
another person.) The main 0' t
cO~lousness of
conception cannot providf In , however, IS t hat Quine's
a whole series of important ~ctde6~a~e explanation of
ences of co.gnition cannot ignore. s w IC the modern sci
The basiC fact is that th
b
.
out the objects of the e ~ s~ Ject IS capable of Singling
the language though Q ,x m world befo,re he masters
of singling ~ut Object~Ine ~s the oPPosite. The modes
c~ly con:e~ated with definite forms of object-relaare
by ~o~iety; assimilating :~d pr:ctIcal actIvity .w~rked out
specIfICally human
' .ese 0ID?s, man assunilates the
that relation which cognitive relatI<;>n to reality, that is,
of objects to conSCio~:~mes the ,glVenness of the world
ter fr0D! t,he inner world e~ and dlf~erenti!ltion o~ the lat
The asSImilation of langu
t.~e iU~Ject! hiS conSCIOusness,
has mastered definite "::; I se f unpbes that the subject
~e modes of referrin kn
erence mec~anisms", that is,
ISms are inclUded in gthe Owl~dge to realIty: these mechan
main types of referents b~slc perceptive structures. The
constructed by the langu an systems of meaning are not
That is why expressio~~~?~em but are its premises.
common referents and
different languages may have
a n,arr?w sense of the ter~o.reover, common m ean ings in
Qume s conception com ,I.e., they may be synonymous
~.t~ynonTymy, which CO~:~!d?c~ tf reject the possib ilit y
e ementary language inI lon, hese fundamental f
or less serious theOries in .a~ts ~re recogn ised in all more
genrera! and perception in ~::ngl Into cogn itive activity in
. nasmuch as perception ICU ar.
mte f~nns of object-relat:Jructur~s are linked with defi
~~e Judgments, from the kPractlCal activity, one may
Ject s mastery of these forms nowledge of the given sub
structures and the degree in' a~~ut the character of these
w lch they are formed ,. e

or

194

'

. .,

judgements about the Conn in which the object dissection

of the world appears to the subject. That is the method of
inquiry used by Piaget, among others. (We ignore here
the fact that Piaget deals with spontaneous development
of structures and actions in the child and not with
mastering socially evolved (onns of object-related activity.)
Piaget draws conclusions about the fonns in which external objects appear to the subject [rom the child's behaviour
e,g., from its searching for an object that passed beyond
its field of vision. It is through external object-related
activity that knowledge which the subject has is actually
combined with the real objects. The forms of this activity
are of course detennined not only by the objects but
also by the historical traits of social practice: those aspects
are singled out in the object which became particularly
significant for the given types of object-related activity.
At the same time it is essential that, first, we are dealing
here with the real aspects of the objective things themselves, and second, that the essential structure of human
practical activity remains invariable, however diverse and
historically changeable types of practice may be. Therefore, the principal types of objects with which humans
deal in ordinary life are the same regardless of the languages they speak and the stage of cultural-historical
development. (Only we must not confuse the types of
objects given in knowledge with what the subject knows
about these Objects.)
If we break the real ties between systems of knowledge
and forms of practical object-oriented actiyity, it is,. of
course, impossible to assess the extent to whIch the object
dissection of the world given in knowledge corresp~nds
to what exists independently of cognition and consclOUSness. But that is exactly what Quine does, insisting that
judgments cannot be made from behaviour about the .systern of referents to which the given language expressIons
relate and that different systems of object dissection of
the w'orld implemented in differen.t languages c~ be associated with one and the same type of behaVIour, the
latter being, in Quine'S view, oriented at an ~nsemble of
"stimulus meanings" and not at a system of obJe~ts.
It is obvious, however, t~at the. most meanmgful, and
essential connections of realIty are unpiemented precLSely
in the object picture of the world. The knowledge of an
object assumes co~itive. mast~ry of a whole system of
substantive connectIons 10 therr complex mutual dependences the connections being not only actual but also
poten:tial. If man's activity were directed ~t an ensemb~e
of "stimulus meanings" rather than at objects and thetr
195

VI

I, he

....

Scien
COY"

oI sc

..."

gy 0

Ihot

numl
foreit

mutual relations, his behaviour would hardly diff much

from the behaviour of anima1s. It should be assu er d
if a rabbit were perceived as a set of actually giveme that
or as a phenomenon of "rabbitness" (to use n Q~Ct.s
examI?le), this would affect in one way or anoth ume's
behavIOur of the carriers of this kind of percepti e the
Quine himself underlines that the anthroPoIOgi~r' t ~e,
to translate a text from one language into anoth rymg
deal with relativ~ly sho~ stretches of "stimulus me~rus,~
an~ correspo~dmgly WIth relatively small fragmen~gS
natIves' behavIOur. But this restriction is hardly ju tif ~f
It may be assumed that it is this restriction that m~k Ie 'f
hard. to define the object referents of some languagee~ I
presslOns and that, consequently. its elimination d xaw~y with a ~hole serie~ o~ imaginary difficulties to wh?;h
Qu.me .re.fers 10 substantIatmg the thesis that radical t
ranslatton IS mdeterminate ,
Further, QU.ine's .co~ception of language itself also gives
cau~e. to certain ob~ectIons. In Quine's view, language is a
~~fmtte .ensemble of purely conventional (associative in
IS termmol?gy) link~ between separate sound comple~es
so.~e :::f .which stand 1.n conventional (associative) relatio~
WI
stimulus me~mngs". Language is definite more or
l~s~ stable connectIOns of verbal behaviour or predis 0sItion to ver~al behaviour of a definite kind . 'Alteration~in
verbal ?ehav1our change language too in Quine's 0 inion
!!,e believes ~hat the relations of differ~nt sound coniplexe~
theon~ anolt er and to external stimuli in the framework of
ject ~~en t~gu,e system are not determined by the obrelatio~sec Ion 0. the world. Meanings are only mutual
fore qu:teO~a~~age. expressions. For Quine, it is there'ect
.
to lOfer that the existence of a common
obJ
envl!onment of
.
apparatus in carriers' f d'~f common neurophyslQlogical
I ~rent lang~ages, and even the
substantive commun' 0
sociated with differ:tr 1of different kmds of practice asof the existence of ~ ar~ages are no indications at all
ferent languages.
sen la y common structures in difHowever, the concept
f
more and more firml Ion 0 l~nguage which becomes
based on fundamentaly r3-~:ed In m~dern linguistics is
that a language system is ~ der::ent !l0tI01!S. The point is
sen~ences similar in ce~'o e rmmed sunply by a set of
a gIve." time interval th ~ ~espects and produced within
se~ will always be fi~ite a ylS, by verbal behaviour. This
tams the possibility of' et ~ny language system conacts of verbal behaviOu~e":eratlO!l of an infinite set of
reproduce any of the PMt mcludlOg those that do not
acts. Generation of new sen

196

tences does not .necessarily entail changes in the essential

characteristics of the given language system (whereas
if language is a set of conventional connections betwee~
sentences the. emergence of t;ew sentences must change
the language Itself). An essential feature of language is the
phenomenon of synonymy-that very phenomenon which
Quine treats as a pseudoproblem. Modem linguistics works
out theoretical models of generative grammar proceeding
from the fundamenta\ p.remise t~at language selVes to express a system of deflmte meanmgs and that this system
is basically common to all the different languages (having
an extralinguistic nature). Apparently. such grammatical
categories m:..e universal as names of objects (nouns and
nominal phrases), names of situations-sentences, and the
so-called transformers, that is, linguistic objects changing
linguistic objects of one class into other linguistic objects
of the same or different class. 74 And that means, for
instance, that singling out objects in reality and distinguishing them from processes and actions, that is, from
situations, is common to all languages, being determined
by extralinguistic circumstances which inevitably affect
all languages. 7 5 The existence of invariant grammatical
structures in all languages is also an argument against the
universalist claims of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The
grammatical structure of a given language assumes a definite object dissection of the world specifying a definite
very general sense of each sentence gene~ted by the given
system of grammatical rules. Therefore, If leXical semantic connections in a sentence are disrupted but the sentence itself is constructed grammatically, it is meaningful
in a wider sense though properly speaking nonsensical;
at any rate, it is 'understandable. Noam Choms~y cites in
this connection the sentence "Colorless green Ideas sleep
furiously".76
.
But even if we deal with a completely foreIgn language,
the grammar of which is not known to us and ~ay prove
to be quite different from the gr~mar of our natIve tongu~,
the existence of language UnIversals does not permIt
us to interpret that langu~e as '!- simple set of sounds conventionally connected Wlth stlIDub fro~. the external
environment and allowing an almo~t unlimIted spe~trum
of incompatible interpretations. Qume makes a u~l1v.er~
and an absolute out of a definite procedure that IS Justified in metamathematic~ studies. I~ the latter, the need
indeed arises to view a gIVen theoretical system as a J?w~IY
formal structure (a set of srmbols o~ paper) ~unctIomng
as an object language meanmgfully dIscussed 10 metalanguage. Under ordinary circumstances, however, the atti7 __ 163

197

tude to natural language and ,eve!! those langu ages which

express the cont~nt of theones m th~ fa~tuB:l sciences

VI
is he
...te j

Scien

cove,
of ..
gy

teO,.
"'at
numl
foreil

i.e., those t hat dlffer from mathematics, IS different. If

I come across a IB;nguage .spoke~ by beings physically sim_
ilar to me and mteractmg with. the external world in
a basically similar way (and that IS expressed in their be.
haviour), I must assume at once that the semantic fields
of our different languages have essential features in common.
According to Quine's conception, only those acts of
verbal behaviour are ultimately given to me on the seman.

tic plane whose agent I myself am. A dissected picture of

the object world is given to me by the language which
characterises my predisposition to definite verbal behav
iour. As for the language of any other subjects, including
those that speak apparently the same language as myself
this l~guage. functions, according to Quine, merely ~
an object language, i.e. , a set of sounds allowing different
interpretations. However, an individual that merely receives
from the external world a set of impacts in the form of
"stimulus meanings", holding other individuals and their
actions also to be mere external stim uli, cannot be the
starting point of epistemological or even psychological
and psycholinguistic study. Such a study must have for
a starting point the subject included from the outset into
real connections of communication with other subjects
representing society and the accumulated social-historical
~x~eriences .. From the very first days of its life, the child
~ mvolved. m a meaningful interaction with an adult. At
fl!St, the bes of semantic communication are established
~:hrectly through practical activity with external real ob
Jects (and not at all with a set of "stimulus meanings"! )
and later through the use of language, too. The latter thus
actually expresses not only a definite relation of sound
co~plexes ~o e~ternal objects but also the relation of the
sUb.Jects usmg It t? one another. The types of objects to
~hICh the expressl0t.ls of the given language and the prin
CII?al ,types of relatlOns between these objects, Le., the
pnnclpal systems ?f meanings, relate are therefore comdi~~u~ecf~the c~rners of the given language. The question,
" h" h Y Qume, of what the ontolo:gy of the language
IS w IC
compatriot
" reason arise
"
in reality myd'
t ' speaks cannot for thIS
The d'1r 15 a YPlCal pseudoproblem.
world gi;ener:an~e bt~wee~ the object dissection of the
ontology of this I roug the language I speak and the
ascribed to it by Q a~age does not have the character
some sense in fo~~e,
c<;>urse, this differentiation has
an YSIS, when we have to discuSS

OJ

198

an object language in tenns of a metalanguage, but it can

hardly be so essential in all the other cases. As far as
natural languages and the languages of the theories of
factual sciences are concerned, their ontology is substan
tively determined by the objec,t dissection of ~he world
given in them and cannot be Viewed as somethmg deter
mined only by the relation of the given language or theory
to another arbitrarily chosen language or theory. Therefore
in non-fonnal contexts the ontology of a theoretical system may be regarded as inbuilt.
That does not, of course, mean that all semantic shadings included in the perception of the given object by myself and another subject are absolutel identical. Indee~,
if two subjects look at the same object, the latter wip
present to them its different aspects if only because theIr
angles of vision may not coincide, as they occupy different positions in sp,ace. Th~t me~s that the ~ackgr~unds
against which the gIven object will be perceIVed WIll, be
different to say nothing of the differences in perceptIon
determin~d by the specific traits of the persc;mal.lty and ~he
life story of each of the subjects. The SItuatIOn IS essentIally the same with their u~erances. On~ R?d t~e same word
necessarily calls forth different as~octatlons m t~em con
ditioned by their unique life expenences. For thIS reason,
if we accept that understanding another person a:sseumes
complete and absolute comp'rehens~on of the en,tlt system of the subjective semantic shadmgs of behaVIOur and
speech essential for that person, we, may ~onclu~e tt.h~t
such an understanding is in gen~ra1 unposslbl~ an
~ ,
consequently semantic interactIon or meamngfu~ t dl~
logue betwe~n two subjects, are in, general nonexlS en .
That is the conclusion to WhICh Qu~e comes..Buth we
have tried to show, the differenc,e 10 seman~lc s, a, lOgs
characterising the experiences of different sU~Jects IS Itself
possible only against the backlg~ound ~ esp~~~~fc~ cog:,fe~~
semantic structures under ymg re
'd'
and
and dl~Oguth e ~o t nils and shadings that are inessent,ial !or
ences m e e a
't'
Moreover commuDlcatIon
the needs of communlca IOn.
, ,
these differences, for no subject can cease
~~~~p'h~e:elf or transplant himself into the body and

d'

direct~d

langu~r~~~f~~~~~ii~~rl~~~e~~~~diff~!.

co~~iou;ness tff:~~~~:;pret understanding another person

'dence of semantic fields, as absolute

as c<!mple~~hc~~~Clsubjective states of another through a
hle~mf ::ect empathy, we may deduce, that a,ny undero d'o ,I '0 actual fact non-understandmg. It IS another
stan mg IS 1
ere ore,

199

VI
is he
lUte

Scien

""""
ofsc
!IV 0
100,.
thot
num!
foreij

matter that this interpretation of understanding is unten

able. To distinguis~ between the ~ene!al structure of se:
mantic fields essentl3;l for com~um~atlo~ and ~he subject,.
ive system of semantIc connec:tlOns In whIch thIS stnlcture
is implemented in the conSCIOusness of each individual
subject, A. N. Leontyev draws a distinction between the
categories of "meaning" and "personal sense",77 It does
not follow from the above that the access to another
subject's system of personal senses is absolutely closed to
me, and that I cannot to some .extent assimilate his charac_
teristic mode of interpreting the system of general mean.
ings. Every real dialogue perfonns this task, enabling
one to see the WOrld through the eyes of another person
and to allow the possibility of a standpoint different from
mine. As for the perception of the object from the same
angle of vision as it presents itself to another, it is enough
to take up the same spatial position which was earlier
occupied by anothp.r subject. It is a different matter that
absolute merging of the systems of personal senses of two
subjects is impossible, since they remain different.
The situation is much more complicated, of course in
trying to understand the behaviour and speech of the ~ar
riers of a foreign language absolutely unknown to us. We
have touched on the existence of grammatical universals
common. to different languages. But a great deal in the
~mmahcal structures of different languages is indeed
dlff~rent, and this fact, though raised to an absolute by
Sapu, Whorf, and Quine, cannot be ignored. For instance,
there are three cases in Arabic fifteen in Estonian and
no dt;clension in some language; at all. Systems of lexical
meanmgs vary particularly strongly from language to
langu~ge. If we recognise the community of different types
of o?Jects assumed by different languages, we shall have to
~onslde~ .the fact that the ways of grouping these objects
In claSSIfIcatory systems (and it is the latter that are exp~ssed in the lexical units of the given language) distingu.lsh
Ined one language system from another and are deter!l1
by t~e .specific traits of that kind of practice which
IS c~ara~tenstIc o~ the Carriers of the given language. "As
studIes In .mos~ dlyerse languages have shown the visible
spectrum 18 'dlstnbute~' in different ways by different
languages. Let us conSIder the designation of colours'
'green', 'dark-blue', 'light-blue', 'grey', brown'. In Welsh:
thre~ words correspond to this Part of the colour spectrum. qfW~rdd, glas, and elwyd. The last word denotes that
part ,0 t, e speCtrum which is tenned in English 'brown'
and grey or, to be more p.recise, 'dark grey'. The word
glas covers the Part named In English 'light-grey', 'blue',

I
and 'green'. The word qwyrdd also refers to that part
of the spectrum which we call green... And in the language of one of the Negro peoples living in Liberia, all
colours of the rainbow are designated by two words only:
one refers to the colours which painters call 'wann' (red,
orange, yellOW, etc.), and the oth~r, 'cold ' (blue, viol.et,
etc ).,,78 Inasmuch as language is drrectly conne~ted WIt~
thought not only serving as a means of expressmg cogOltive stnlctures evolved in object-related practical activity
before language but also creating for the first time the
possibility of the emergence of new cognitive structures,
it may be assumed that th.e d.ifference. between .the g~~
matical and lexical means mdlcates a dIfference In defiOlte
cognitive schemes (although these diff~rences do n?t
involve the principal schemes of reasoOln~ expressed In
language universals). One may even go still further, asswning that the difference in langua~e structu~s det~r.
mines to some extent the difference 1!1 pe.r~ept~on .. It I~,
for instance, possible that the Negro. tnbe .hvmg m Llbena
referred to above rerceives colours In a dIfferent manner
from the carriers 0 modem Eurol?ean languages ..
To evaluate this line of reasorung, .let us conSIder some
facts. A difference in the ~matlcal stru~ture of tw?
given languages does not by Itself p~edete~m~ the. POSSIbilities of rendering certain senses WIth therr ald. I~ 18 ':'Iell
known for instance that the category of detennmatlOnindeter'mination is ..Jery essential ~or Romance an~ ~fr
manic languages and is exp~ssed. m them ~ma IC y,
through definite and indefinIte artIcles. There IS no. sys~m
of articles in Russian, but the ca~go~ of detennmatIonindetermination can be expressed 10 thiS languaghethtoo-bY
.
h th
matical means (throug
e prod k k y-to nekotoriy in
leXIcal rat er 3:" gram
0. 0 ,
e
nouns etot tot m one case an
the other). 'Generally speak.ing, identIcal sen~e~ are ~~~h~
sed in. different ways in dtI~f~fnt i~ar:,~~:s'I~~ig~lY (the
' ) The vosense IS expressed gramma IC Y.,
phenomenon of lexic::o-grammatlcalte~nisn~h: ~ost flex~abulary, being. con~~11th:ra~~age system, a kind of
Ible and dynamiC p
I asmuch as there are no essen-

~~~~~srra~~:s ~~~~g~E~f~~:~~oJ t~pee:~~as~~~:~hn:

may .k~ep lO~r~. u~~~ framework of the given grammatical

remammg WIt. m . the most conservative part of the lanstructure.
which :ould therefore be rash, to say the least,
ge
SY~::em~h!!acteristic world picture ~f a I~guagefand
f
to 10 er . .
ecific for its carners duectly rom
the
, neglecting the study of lexical
the cognltIVet5calhesmtrue~t~re
gramma IC

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200
201

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systems. The study of actu~ly existing natural languages

rather provides arguments In favour of recognising the
community of their semantic fields in their basic essential
features.
As for the undoubtedly existing differences in vocabu_
lary, and consequently in certain classificatory and seman.
tic systems, their influence on the perception of the world
needs careful investigation. In any case one must bear in
mind that the main perceptive structures take shape al.
ready before language is mastered. Therefore the absence
in the given language of words for certain objects and their
aspects does not necessarily mean that the latter are not
perceived at all. Indubitably, language also affects the semantic characteristics of perception structures, although
the nature and extent of this influence have been quite
insufficiently studied. 7 9
Let us note, finally, that the social-historical changes
and the actually growing affinity between the cultures of
different regions necessarily lead to the addition of words
to the vocabulary of the given language which allow the
expression of new systems of meanings, which results in
the affinity of the semantic fields of different languages
thus growing_
However, as long as differences between cultures and
the underlying types of practical activity continue to exist,
certain differences between the semantic fields of language
systems continue to exist, too_ All of this creates actual
difficulties both for translation and for understanding.
True, these difficulties are not at all insurmountable being
~limina~ed in the course of social progress and c~ltural
m~eractlOn. At certain stages in history, however, they still
eXIst and have to be taken into account_
. ~ne-to-one, transl~tion from one language into another
15 m general ImpossIble. Separate elementary meanings of
one l~n~age often have no equivalents in another. But
combmations or systems of meanings of different languages mayan the whole correspond to each other. If the
languages are very dissimilar (owing to the difference in
cul~ures), translation of some meanings at a given stage of
S?CIal, ~ultur~l and language developrn~nt is sometimes
s!~~ly unpossible, but that does not mean that this poss~biht.Y cannot aris~ in the future. Thus the actual di!f~cultles of ~ran~latt~m are quite different from those outhned b~ Qume m hI~ the?ry of the impossibility of radical
WhICh
15 the main thO
th ey d 0 no t
translatIOn "and,

h
i
l
'
mg,
warran t Q ume ~ p ,OSOphical conclusions,
nowh Imagme
that we have to d eal WI"th a reasonLet us
h
'
"
up, the mesooamoct
f bt"
a bl e b emg w ose p YSICal make202

I
ing and processing infonnation from the surrounding
environment, and the type of interaction with the world
are essentially different from the human (extraterrestrials
are favourit~ c~aracters in scien~e fiction, as we know),
Assumedly, It will be extremely dIfficult to understand the
language of this being, It is this case, rather than what
we usually observe in ethnolinguistic studies, that is closest
to Quine's view of the situation of an anthropologist
studying the language of an unknown tribe. Yet even this
case does not fully answer Quine's interpretation. Assume
that the extraterrestrial's system of perception of the
world was formed under conditions essentially different
from terrestrial ones, that his environment did not include
solid bodies, that is to say, it was something like liquid or
gas. (Of course, this assumption is highly hypothetical if
not improbable. We temporarily accept it entirely as a
kind of "mental experiment".) In this case, the extraterrestrial will either have no means of perceiving the world
of objects with which we deal or will perceive these objects
in a specific manner different from ours. If we observe,
however, that our guest out of space fairly successfully
orients himself in our terrestrial world, we must conclude
that he perceives, in one way or another, ?ur s~stem, of
objects. And if we consider as well that object dIssectIon
of the world characterises definite systems of dependences of reality itself, far from me~ely expressing the
properties of our language (and we tned to show the necessity of exactly this interpretation of the facts), '!Ie
inevitably come to the conclusion that a reasonable bemg
different from ourselves perceives, under terrestrial co~
ditions essentially the same types of objects as we do. ThlS
conclu~ion may serve as the basis for the search for .the
modes of understanding the language of extraterrestnals.
It also allows the assumption that we shall be ~ble to translate a certain part of this language, though thIS appare~tly,
does not obtain with reference to the eX,traterrestnals
language as a whole, for the modes of eXlstenc~ of the
Earth's inhabitants and of the guests from spa7e dIffer too
greatly Success is more likely if we deal wIth. messages
contai~ing scientific infonnation: it ,is through sc.tence that
we acquire knowledge about r.ea! ~bJects an~ then dependences regardless of their beuw. mcluded l,n som,e [~nn
or other in direct practical actlvl~Y ,at the glven hlSton~al
sta e It is not accidental that I~ IS ~1?I?ed, to e~tabhsh
co~~unication with extraterr,est~~ CIvilIsatIOns (If they
exist' ) through transmitting SCIentIfIC texts. ,
'
"
II however that Thomas Kuhn belIeves that 10
Wereca,
'
science itself the assertions
about Iaws assume essen t"U
la y
203

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different senses in different paradigms, so that adherents

of such paradigms in science do not understand one an.
other. So if the inhabitants of the Earth engaged in One
and the ~e un~ertaking-:-scjentific stud.y of the given
phenomenal domam, acceptmg a whole senes of assertions
as true and using the same apparatus, still do not fully
underst~md one anothpr, according to Kuhn, how is
science to ensure understanding between ourselves and the
hypothetical reasonable inhabitants of remote Worlds differing from ours?
Can we accept Kuhn's thesis about the incommensur.
ability of different paradigms?
To answer this question, we shall have to do a certain
amount of analytical work.
Let us start by stating that the existence, at different
stages of the development of science, of various ways of
semantic organisation of systems of knowledge implement.
ed in different paradigms appears quite likely. The irreducibility of one paradigm to another is expressed not
only in that identical fonnulas are given different meanings
in them, as emphasised by Kuhn himself. Even if we ignore
the problem of semantic interpretation of assertions expressed in symbolic form and fonning scientific theOries,
it is apparently impossible to perform the operation of
formal deduction of all propositions of one theory from
the propositions of that theory which came to replace it
~d which, it would appear, must fully supplant the preVIOUS ,one. (We have in mind here sufficiently global theories,
that ,IS, close to what is termed paradigms by Kuhn,) ReductIon of one theory to another mostly proves impossible
not only on the content plane but also on the formal one,
Mario B~nge show~ that even thermodynamics is not
fully redUCIble to claSSIcal mechanics, although the relation
~tween these tw~ ~heories is often cited in philosophical
li:terature as ,a s~nk1Og example of reduction. "In fact, no
ngorou,S d~nvatIon of the second principle of thermo?ynanucs 15 known: only the thermodynamics of the
Ideal gas-a very ,special case-has so far been reduced to
molecular dynamICS, As ~ ri~id bodies, particle mechanicS
cannot account for therr eXIstence, since the 'particles'
cfunedbed are quantl.;lrn-mechanical systems and they are
, y fields, WhICh are extraneous to particle meg
~~:~cs, ,Nor doer, q~an~um mechanics yield classical meParti~l: ~~~me, 1I1llt: It retrieve,s only some formulas of
is the bulk ofa;.~iic~one of c,?ntm';1um mechanics, which
theories have no nonr~lectih~tI~S, ~~ally, some relativistic
a VIS IC luntts while others have
more than one. "80

Does that mean that communities of scientists adhering

to different paradi~s live in different worlds and cannot
adequately commulllcate?
The fact itself of the existence of paradigms hardly
proves that the mode of vision of the world is entirely
restructured in their successive replacement. Of course, the
framework of what is observed in scientific experiment is
determined by the content of the theory adopted, But the
principal structures of perception, just as interpretation of
the wodd in terms of natural everyday language, take
shape at the pre'scientific level and hardly change to any
essential degree throughout successive scientific theories,
One may rather assuf!le ~~at many semantic, syste~s
characteristic of pre-scIentifIc knowledge constitute, ,10
a transformed shape, part of science essentially detenntning its content aspects, The replacement of fundame~ta1
scientific theories or paradigms thus takes place agamst
the background of definite constant strata of knowle~ge
implemented, at any rate, in the structures of perceptton
and in the propOSitions of the so-called common sense
expressed in ordinary language,
"
Let us note further that in the actual pra,ctIce, of scientific research theory is not, as a ~l~, apphed dlIectl~"to
experience but through the medlatton of another ( 10terpretant") theory, as h~ been indicated above, The replacement of one substantIve theory by anoth~r does not,
as a rule coincide with the replacement of mte,rpretant
theories Besides as we have just noted, new theones never
fully ou'st Qut old ones, The actual multilevel structure of
scientific knowledge, the existence in, it of a number, of
systems (not a single one!), at each gIVen staJer- c~tn~~~
in different ways and at different rates, an m ,y ,
"immersion" of scientific theories in ~veryday pre-sclentif
ic knowled ge allow actual companso n an? a~essmen
of different p~adigms in tenns of exte~~ cntena, so ;h~t
the assertion of their incommensurabilIty has no aSIS

at all.,
of a common background for different
Th~ exIstence,
ossible to apply common measuring
~hem That does not mean that they
paradlgms mdk~s
rods or tst:uy aiullY transh~table, since that would imply
f ommon referent systems and common
are m~ u
the e:,ustence 0 cadi s are characterised precisely by
~eamngs, BUt~rft:r by~iving different interpretations to
~iffe~ent con ulas' and sometimes even by different refe!IdentiEal fOli~e assume that there is no complete semantIC
ents, ven
aradigms but merely a certain difference
r~eea~h~lt7~~~hPon this point somewhat later), complete

to

205
204

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mutual translatability of different paradigms is impossible

Under criticism Kuhn gave a less rigid formulation of th~
thesis about th~t draws a parallel between paradigms and
"alternative worlds", asserting in the "Postscript-1969"
that although different paradigms are mutually translat.
able' they are still incommensurable. 81 In actual fact the
reve~se is true, as we have tried to show: paradigm~ are
commensurable but not mutually translatable.
Recently specialists in scientology have been greatly
interested i~ the so-called thematic analysis of scientific
theories that is, the study of those content components
of theo~etical constructions which are passed on from one
stage in the history of scientific thought to another, linking up different paradigms and ensuring continuity of
development of scientific cognition_ For example, the
concept of force has certain characteristics invariant both
with regard tc the Aristotelian and Newtonian paradigms.
The theme of conservation (of matter, motion, electricity.
etc.) is passed on from one paradigm to the next. Some
themes, accompanying scientific- thought from its inception, are grouped in relations of antithetical couples: atomism vs continualism, holism vs reductionism, etc.8 2 The
existence of such common themes would be clearly impossible if different paradigms indeed implemented "al.
ternative worlds".
The emergence of a new paradigm certainly changes the
semantic interpretation of a number of scientific con.
cepts. However, this change should hardly be understood
as complete replacement of the old meaning. If we recognise the existence of common themes in the history of
cognition, this kind of replacement is apparently impos.
sible. Besides, the changes obviously do not involve all
concepts.. In general, it is not any appearance of a given
concept m ~ new context that entails the replacement
of one meanmg by another or others otherwise we would
be unable to communicate and to understand one another,
since languag~ involves, among other things, generation of
utterances whlch cannot have been made previously. In the
theory of relativity, the interpretation of mass differs in
several important points from that of classical mechanics.
It do~s not follow, however, that two paradigms using one
and toe same word operate with different concepts, as
K.uhn asserts. The sy~tems of objects to which these paradi~8 refer are sometimes common for the two
Finally, we must; not forget that a new p~adigm may
only be adopted If, I,lPart from everything else, it ex.
p.laIns why the para~Igm that is replaced could functIon successfully. unhl a certain moment, in a domain
206

that i? commont~~nbfst~'nlY possible if there ~xis~s a mean

f the old paradigm whIch IS ensured
ThiS explana.
ingful interpr~tattto~moe sense units and ~eparate senses of
immersed or form part of the new
by the fact t, a s
the old paradIgm S:~ ressing the new paradigm. Kuhn's
content strufcture h' ~ai1ure to distinguish between par~
error stems .rom IS structure and the separate semantIC
digm as an mtegral t ft In his view destruction of a
systems th~t form par u~t 1 to completei y discarding .all
paradigm f IS ld~et~~gs. In reality, it is the comprehe~~lve
systems 0 ,0
h emantic systems of one para ~gm
incorp~ratlOn of t : se constituted by the new p~adl~
in the mtegral struc ur
ndin and real commumcatH:)D
that makes mutual unders~a
;ssible at an inter.paradlg
between their representattv~s afl the systems of meani~gs
mal level. Imp,ortantlY!d nOr al terms and formulas comwhich are ascrIbed to ~ en lC. f rent aradigms cannot ~
cide: that is exclu~ed smc~ d~;er's l~nguages. It is suff!
fully translatable mt? eac understanding and com~um
cient for inter.p~adlgmal.
art of different paradl~S
cation that roeanIngs~~r~I~~ttial components. The ~:Jst
should coincide in ce Inst t background of know ,ge
ence of a corom,?n c0'f :Uferent paradigms and a ChOlce
allows the companson a
. can
d' the history of phYSICS .
between them.
Therefore a scientist stu ymg, but also Aristoteitan
understand nOdI t~Yt t~te i~~~t~r~rrequ~ed toIo~~~~~~
paradigm. To 0 a.
ntum mechaniCS an ,
e
theory of relativ.ity and ili~ to grasp precise.1y the sa:as
a kin~ of fmalYftliliee~g~cePts in these PO:~\Fe~o~lrary,
meamng a
. t' es long gon e.
h t the hisattributed t? ~~ef
~nod~~n scientificdtheor~i~~Saof which
O
it is in the hg th t content in the 01 pa(! g to establish
torian can see a Jves were not 3,,!are, h between iner.
their carrj~\t~:::on did notT~ist~~hologist studying
e
,
tructures un.
the fact t a, . al masses).
tial and gravr:~~formation ofdP.erctlfet~~yS a small child
the stages 0
ee the worl In
ibe the child's
doubtedly cann~:r~her does not .onl d!~~e world looks
sees it. The re~ur but also ~rm1Ses 0 ri ht to fonnulate
external b.~~aThe psychologISt as th~er~ble significan~e

:~e;~e";~g~s::u~:n~h~h%ilJ~s !O~fih~in~r~t~~rt':.';esd~i

to him) they are from th~

hical development but,
not discarded In psyc
t of mature per.
[erent as
an adult, are turing, become c~m~ot!1~n sn interview with
after' restruc
The psychlatns m a
n structures.
cep t 10

207

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a mental patient attempts to reconstruct his subject'

world from the latter's behaviou r and speech. The succ~ve
of these attempts does not at all mean that the doct 88
must in some way assume a cond it io n similar to that of
the ~atient. That is impossible as long as the doc~r
remaInS a sane person, and as soon as he ceases to be 0
he can no longer be a docto r. T he point is that the d~~
ferenc~ between a sane perso n and one with abnormal
ment3;hty does not exclude the existence of comm
psychical structures and functio ns in the two. Here t~~
doc:tor apparently understands the patient better than the
patient the doctor, an~ t hen the doctor understands himself better than th e patient understands himself.
Thus, t he problem of continuity of cognitive experi_
~nces proved to be more complicated than Kant once be.
lIeved. In the course of t he d evelopment of cognition con.
ceptual structures emerge which cannot be reduced to
each other, 3!ld that means that that process really includes semantIc gaps.
Ev~n ordinary natural languages express systems of
meam~ somehow ~iffering from one another. Therefore,
th~re IS n<;> unambIgUously determined translatability in
tillS case eIther. On t~e whole" however, translation from
~n.e natural la~guage mto another is fully realisable, and
It IS all the easIer the clo ser the cultures of the carriers of
the~ languages. Th~ , explanation lies in the basic com.
muruty C?f. the condItions of life and practical activity of
commumties .employing ordinary national languages As
for the relations of different theories emerging in' the
~e~~~~~fft of t ~entific ~no~~edge, the situation here
so
f d eren.
new SCIentifIC theory and still more
be~a~se Ut~eamentally novel. paradim e~erge precisely
pressible in ier~y f sulbdstantlvely d~ferent content inexI th
s 0 0 conceptual Instruments Natural~e h:~~ ~:~nb~t ~~ ~~~pI~te t:anslatabilit~ in th~ case. As
made to ex ;ess
n a se~ where special attempts are
attain greaer pr~~~i~~e?ry m the ,language of another to
fonner (e g in utt In expressmg the content of the
language ~f ';et th~oryl)~g the theory of arithmetic in the
At the same time ther
'
cohesion of definite meae .are relatIons of continuity and
and paradigms a general bmnkgs between different theories
ac grouf.1d of knowledge, so that
paradigms c~not be
" alternative worlds", ~uated WIt h a~solutely differe!1t
ferent paradigms are nevert~eImutUall y mtranslatable, dlf. The problem of continuit ess commen,sura~le.
mgs of concepts in the y and alteratIons m the meanCourse of the development of
208

science has so far been but little studied. However, the

understanding of t he meaningful side of scientific theoretical knowledge largely depends precisely on the solution
of this problem. It should be recognised that, although
there are certain gaps in the development of the conceptual systems o f science, they can hardly exist in perceptio n structures-at least in adults. True, if we should believe, as Sartre does, that a cognitive orientation does not
underlie experience, and that the latter is not marked by
the division into subject and object, we shall have to admit that there are complete gaps not only between the
experiences o f any two subjects but also in the experience
of each of them. The subject continually manifests himself in unique situations, Bartre believes, and separate situations have nothing in common. The subject, too,
is each time unlike himself. This interpretation can only be
accepted if one agrees with Sartre's general philosophical
and epistemological conception. We showed its untenability in the second chapter of Part One of the present work.
Abstractly speaking, certain perception structures (though
by far not all!) could, of course, c~ange if the type of
man's object environment should radIcally change,. ?r t~e
type of his practice, or the set of sen~ory modalitIes mherent in his perceptual system. In thiS case gaps could
appear in the structures of direct ex~rience. .w.e. may
recall that Gregory admits the t~~o:retIcal.possIbility of
man creating a supercomplex artifICial enVU'orunent .t~at
will demand the formation of new ways of percelvrng
objects. If man does not solve this task, he will ~e unable
to see. And if he solves it successfully, gaps will emerge
between old and new experience.
,.
As for the results of changing the set of modalItIes,
they can be assess~ by the resul~s of act~al successf~
operations of removmg cataracts owm~ to WhI7h l!'~n be~
to see. The perception of the world III su~h mdiVIduals IS
originally formed on the basis of the tactile sense. At the
same time, an amodal objective scheme of the world 'Y as
built in the system of perce~tion of the formerly ~hnd
The blind man is confIdently and correctly orlent~r~~nihe system of objects, but the appearance of a new
visual) modality disrupts the wellformed system. of
( . t t n the formerly blind person cannot at fust
onen1at 10the

,t

visual informatIon
WIh the ta ct I1e percept lVe
~orre a hee has and the earlier developed modes of tactile
unages,
'
, t t' n cannot function
as successI uII y as belore.
gr~n a ~duallY new perceptiv.e s~ructure~ are developed
hiYh fr{nk up visual and tactile mformatlOn. Apparently
w C . I gap (though not complete here eit her) between
a
terels
h
209

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old and new exp~rience. The amodal objective scheme of

the world remaInS constant, and the new experience
structure is formed on its basis.
The development of cognition is thus characterised by
extension and deepening o.f the content of knowledge, the
emergence of new semantIc systems and the singling out
of new types of objects. In this process, the characteristics of objective reality itself existing independently of
cognition and consciousness are reflected and reproduced
in more and more precise and differentiated ways' that is
to say, objectively true knowledge is produced. AS' we see
the complex dialectical interrelations between discrete~
ness and continuity in the development of cognition are
one of the modes of concrete expression of the dialectics
of absolute, relative, and objective truth, a classical philo.
sophical analysis of which was given by Lenin. 8 3
4. ''OTHER WORLDS" AND THE SUCCESSIVE
REPLACEMENT OF THE FORMS
OF OBJECTIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

. We have noted earlier tha.t most kinds of knowledge are,

m one way or another, objectified and consolidated in a
system of specific mediator objects-implements, instru
ments, symbols of oral and written language scientific
u:xts, schemes, diagrams, drawings, etc. The~e are also
ki~ds .o.f knowledge that exist in a subjective and not
o~JectIfIed form, such as perception. But, as we have
trIed: to show, they are also genetically and functionally
medIate~ by ~he !"an:made world of artificial objects
~mbodymg soclalhIstoncal experience. Qualitative changes
m the con~ent of systems of knowledge are not necessarily
exp.resse~ I~ ~he. successive replacement of the means of
theu objectIftcatlOn: as a rule, that is exactly what does
not happen.
~ea~~ng ~ text (if "text" is taken to mean any mode of
?bj~tIftcatlOD: of knowledge, and "reading"--any form of
~~ t~nterp~etatIon by the subject) always implies differen
Ia lOn
twee.n. the semantic content embodied in it
anhd thhodse spechlftc traits of the material of implementation
w IC
0 not ave the function f d'ff
..
.
In practice this d'ffe t' t"
? 1 erentIatmg mearung.
that what 'is dire;U re!1 la Ion IS usually subconscious, so
content of knowledle g:~e~. to the subject is the semantic
real objects themselv'es
wha~ the.te?C t says about the
distinction between th~ Val er~ hngulstlcs dra,:"s a clear
material of which it is built ~ 0 a lar:guage umt and the
. e matenal of different units

MId

210

may vary while their values expressed in interrelations are

constant. Wh~n a pers<.:m hew:s someone's speech (and this
case may be Included In readmg a text in the broad sense
accepted here), only the content rendered by that speech
is given to consciousness and not the way sounds are pro
noun~~ or the separate sounds themselves. (That is, on
condltlO~, . of course, that all the existing variations in
pronuncIation do not go beyond the limits where the
meaning will be distorted.) In reading a printed text I
do not notice separate letters, the kind of paper on which
the text is printed, I can miss a misprint, for consciousness
is at that moment directed at reproduction of semantic
connections. If my task is searching for misprints, however,
the perception of the given text is quite different: working
as proof-reader, I cannot grasp the meaning of the se
mantic phrases reified in the text. Basically the same thing
happens on decoding any semantic content objectified
in so me form or other. For example, if I perceive a work
of art, I do not see the canvas or the paint spots but the
content expressed with their help. Even "reading" photo
graphs, which at time~ appear as g~od a~ "natur:al replicas"
of the real objects, IS only pOSSIble. If one I~o~es the
quality of paper, the fact that the .plcture eXls~ In two
dimensions unlike the three-dimenSIOnal real objects, and
that the objects in the picture are motionless ~hile in the
world of real objects all kinds of changes contmually take
.'
f
f
f
place, etc.
Singling out the properties WhICh have ~he . '7nc .Ion 0
sense differentiation in the means of objectifIcation ?f
knowledge, and distinguishing them from the. charactens
tics indifferent to meaning, ~e not. determ~ned .by any
physical properties of these obJ~cts dl.rectly gIven .10 theIr
bodily form. This singling out IS. entuely ~etermmed by
the culture in which the given objects functlOn. If one has
""I a ted th'"s culture and has
not.
mastered
the
..
.
bl
no t aSSllm
modes of communication accepted 10 ~t. ~~e IS. mcapa e
f
. the semantic content objectified 10 tl~e me
o. expres~mg S eech in an unfamiliar langu ac,e IS p.er
dl~t~ ObJec~~m6Ie of sounds, a scientific text 111 whIch
ceiV
as a ~s and systems of symbols are used. appears
unknownglte eration of incomprehensible signs, etc. Even
as an ag om nd sculpture that are aimed at presenting
wor.ks ?f
torm in which it is ordinarily perceived, can
reality 10 th " ead" only if we have mastered the language
be correct y . r in particular if we take into account the
of a.:t.' .that }\he given sty l~ the modes of presentation
speCIfICity 0
'
etc.fact that the phYSical
.
accHep ted in itt'he
properties of the
owever,

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mediator objects do not directly de~er~~e ~he functional

role they playas instruments of objectifIcatIOn of knowl.
edge, does not at all mean that the f(:>nner are completely
indifferent to the latter. They are mdependent of each
other only within certain limits. The need for expressing
basically new cognitive content may in some ~ases produce
the requirement for other ~ypes of medIator objects,
those whose physical propertIes would be more adequate
to the solution of the given task. These mediators make it
possible to express in knowledge a new system of objective
meanings, of such aspects of the ~eal world which it would
be hard to grasp and express In tenns of the existing
means. The discovery of new types of mediators signi.
fies the rising of cognition to a new content level. Of this
nature is for instance, the transition from gesture language
directly hnked with object-related activity to sound language, or the transition from oral t o written speech.S4
(Written speech creates new possibilities for reconstructing
the object in its entirety. The development of science is
obviously impossible without writing.)
Absolutely identical content cannot be rendered in
terms of different types of objectification of knowledge.
We have already noted that verbal formulation of the content of perception introduces something new in knowledge. This kind of alteration of content happens even
where there is apparently nothing but mere copying. If
an artist paints from life, he is compelled to take into
account the properties of the material in which he embodies his w:ork, the specific properties of paints (which
are always different from the colour characteristics of the
real ~orld), .and the modes of artificially creating an impres~lOn w~lch .would. recall in some important aspects
the unpresslo.". m ordmary ,Perception (which is an im.port.a~t condition of reahstIc art) and at the same time
essentially deepen the latter. Ordinary perception and a
work ?f art represent two different systems of content
renden~g. ~he content itself cannot therefore be absolutely Identical. The potential of painting is not indifferent. to. the specific features of the material which is
In ~t th~ a ID:eans of content objectification. The
I~ art I:S among other things also the history
f ry ~
?t expenment~ng With the material itself for establishing
~: ~:h~st~~~at~~i~h p~~ntial, i~ is a search for the modes
perception of the Object"t. ectly prompted by mere
draw cannot represent
PaJ.": . d. A person that cannot
ability itself is not attain~l~~iharhobJect on paper. The
ment but through learn'
.oug .spontaneous developmg 10 which cultural-historical

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212

ex.perience is transmit~. The latter varies in ~if!erent

cultural Tegions and at different stages of the artistiC and
cognitive development of mankind. The possibility of
" drawing from nature" thus assumes that the subject is
included in a specifi~ system of mediator objects, that is,
he can operate with them according to definite rules. It
is therefore extremely difficult to draw an object for
which no modes of representation have be~n work~d ~ut
in the given cultural tradition. E. H. Gombnch conVlncln,gly illustrates this point citing a mass of data from the hiStory of

art. 8 6

Thus the emergence of new systems of mediator objects

also m~rks the appearance of new cognitive possibilities,
of other worlds, in a sense. In this c,!-se,. too, how~v~r,
there is no complete disruption of contmulty of cogmtIve
experience, there are no alternative .worlds abso.lu~el.y
excluding one another and mutually unpermeable. It IS
rather a matter of enriching experience with qualitatively
new content expressing previously unknown aspects of
objective reality.

Chapter 4
REFLEXION ABOUT KNOWLEDGE AND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION
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1. SELF.j:ONSCIOUSNESS AND REFLEX ION .

EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE

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According to Kant, the continuity and unity of expe.

rience are conditioned by the transcendental unity of
apperception, that is, the unity of the Transcendental
Subject himself. Kant believes that the proposition "I
think" is the supreme foundation of knowledge. In critically analysing the German philosopher's conception, we
have pointed out that the actual dependence is of a different kind. It is true that the knowledge of external objects
assumes self-consciousness, but the latter in its turn assumes
the former. Both knowledge and self-consciousness are
ultimately conditioned by the subject's practical object-related activity in the world of real objects, an activity
that is social in its very nature, including as it does the
relation of the given subject to others.
Thus Kant erroneously interpreted the actual facts of
cognition. Still, we have to admit that self-consciousness
indeed plays a special role in the acquisition of knowledge,
This fact merits a more careful analysis.
Let us note, first of all, that self-consciousness is always
knowledge of a special kind,
True, Kant draws a basic distinction between knowledge
and ~elf-consciousness, emphasising that the Transcendental
Subject can only be conSCiously realised but it cannot be
the ~bject of knc;>wledge. It is the attempt to think of this
SU~ject ~ an object of experience that leads to one of the
antmomles of pure reason, Kant believes. Sartre also sepa
rates consciousness and knowledge as a matter of princi
pie, p~inting out that consciousness does not necessarily
de~ w~th t~e wOrld. of objects, whereas knowledge obliga
~rily unphes. an object to which it refers. The world that
IS external Wlth regard to consciousness different and in
dependent from it (the ~orld in itself)' does not initially
appear as a world o~ objects, according to Sartre, and 15
not therefore an object of knowledge. Consciousness is
214

not reflective in its very nature and therefore does not ini
tially know itself, let alone the world of external objects.
However, it immediately realises itself as different from
the world in itself (therefore Sartre names consciousness
"Being For-Itself"). In this way the philosopher separates
self-consciousness and knowledge of self (reflexion).
Let us note that both Kant and Sartre believe that under
ordinary conditions there exists a relation of the subject to
himself which appears as knowledge of himself. It is a dif
ferent matter that, according to these philosophers, the
individual empirical su.bject's experientially given knowledge of self is not the same as grasping the true deep
nature of this subject (the latter appears as the Transcendental Subject, according to Kant, and as "pure" consciousness, Being For-Itself, according to Sartre),
Inasmuch as we begin our analysis with the study of
individual empirical subjects and their mutual relations,
the statement that a certain kind of knowledge is given in
ordinary self-consciousness can hardly raise any objections, Later we shall also try to explain the facts interpreted by Kant and Sartre as a fundamental difference between
consciousness (self-consciousness) and knowledge, W,e
have noted the very important circumstance, recorded 10
modern psychology, that the objec~ive amodal sc~eme of
the world underlying all types and kmds of percep,tio~ also
assumes the incorporation of a scheme of the subject. s body in it, The knowledge of the position of one's b?dy m the
objective network of spatio-temporal cor:n~tlOns, the
knowledge of the difference between the obje~tlv~ changes
in the real world and the succession of the sUbjectIv~ states
of consciousness, the knowledge, of the connectl<?n ~e
tween the perspectives of expenence and the ,obJec,tIVe
position of the subject's body-all of these van~ kmds
of knowledge are included in a compress~ fO!ID. 10 an elementa act of consciousness, the ac~ WhICh IS 1Odee~ assumed1,y any cognitive process,~6 WIthout ,sel~-consciousthe subject cannot determ10e the objectIVe state of
~f~irs in the world. In the s!)ecific l!lnd supreme f0!ffi of
reflection termed cognition, the subject does n?t Slmp~y
k
omething-he also realises that he knows It, that l~
no~ sa s stands in a certain relation to knowledge 8:n
~~
YIf that were not so, cognition could not ,ex~t.
unse, tated: "The animal is immediately one ~Ith l~
~s Mar:'. s It does not distinguish itself from It. It IS
~lfe .actlVl~rv'ity Man makes his life activity itself the,obl,tS life at;
'n 'and of his consciousness. He ~as conS?lous
J~t of ,h~~ W~t is not a determination with WhICh he ~lrect
life actlVl Ye'onscious life activity distinguishes man Immely merges,

215

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d" tely from animal hfe
IVl y.
18Since all this is quite true a sit~ation ~m'erges whic~
"te paradoxical and even unposslble. Indeed, If
appear~ qUI me object can I simultaneously also cognize
~ cO~~~~Z~g self and 'the act of my cognition! Does not
Y
g the thesis that knowledge of an object also asaccep lknowledge of the cognizing subject and the act of
h~~~~gnition lead to an insoluble logica~ para~ox? Is n6t
the latter similar to the paradoxes WhICh anse when an
utterance has itself for a referent? (These,para9-9xes, alo~g
th me others were discovered early In thls century m
Wl
so
,
.
51Udles In
. th e f ound a
set theory
and stimulated
I~tense
tions of mathematics.) ConsIder these facts. My eyes c~
see everything that surrounds me. They a.Iso see c~rtain
parts of my own body. They see oth.er sU.bJe.cts lookmg at
certain objects. But my eyes cannot m pnnclple see ~hem.
selves and the process of their vision. (It can be objected
that the eyes see themselves in the mirror. But what w~ see
in the mirror is not the eyes themselves bu~ only theu: reflection. Of course, the reflection in the mm:or has a lik:e.
ness to my eyes, and I can imagine with the aid of the mu
ror the way I myself, my face and my eyes loo~ to an. e~
temal observer. However, when I look in the mirror, It IS
not my eyes that are the object of my experience ~ut only
their physical reflection on the surface of a. certam body.
The fact that this reflection resembles the picture my eyes
present to a stranger is not at all evident and not known
at the early stages of the development of .the psyc.he.)
Keith Gunderson, a modem Amencan philosop~er,
points out that the cognizing subject cannot be the object
of his own experience, an object of his knowledge. Experience is directed at the world of external objects. I can
know the states and relations of physical objects. I also
know other individuals, both at the level of everyday
knowledge and through special scientific inquiry (e.g.,
physiology, psychology, sociology, etc.). In his turn,
another subject may study me and in this case I shall be
the obj~ct of this other subject.' But I cannot know mys~lf,
the subject, as an object of my own experience. Otherwise,
Gunderson believes, we would get lost in an insoluble
parado;< similar to the paradoxes of set theory. It has to be
rec<?gms~, states the American philosopher, that the
subject himself, the carrier and generator of knowledge,
drops <?ut of ~he domain to which his knowledge refers.
T~ere IS ,nothmg sU:P~ing about it, he continues, since
this fact 15 ch~ctenstlc not only of man but in general of
all syst~ms, m~luding artificially constructed techn~cal
mechanisms, which have to do with receiving informatlOn

tv.

from the environment. Any such system gathers information about objects different from the system itself, but it
cannot obtain infonnation concerning the process itself of
gathering information. Periscope lenses reflect everything
that happens around, but they cannot reflect themsel.
ves. 88
We may agree with Gunderson that the situation where
cognition of the world of objects also implies the subject's
cognition of himself and the process of such cognition
indeed appears rather paradoxical. 89 At the same time,
we cannot discard the real and basic fact of human cogni.
tion really involving self-consciousness. The examples
cited by the American philosopher do not contradict that
fact. The point is that artificial mechanisms gathering in
formation do not implement the process of cognition,
they do not have selfconsciousness or consciously realise
the world of objects. The information gathered by these
mechanisms only becomes a fact of cognition when it is
assimilated by man. A submarine's periscope by itself does
not see anything: the man using it does. Man 's perception
of the external world presupposes an elementary act of
self-consciousness, otherwise it will not see anything even
with the aid of a periscope (selfconsciousness thus per
tains to the man using the periscope rather than the peri
scope itself).
What is the way out of this paradox? Let us describe
the solution in the briefest outline, with the intention of
later recurring to this problem. The point here is that al
though selfconsciousness is knowledge, it is knowledge
of a special kind. So far we have assumed that knowledge
presents to the subject the world of objects that are real
ised as such. This is true both of perception, which is a
kind of knowledge associated with the individual subject,
and of scientific theories, which are objectified forms of
knowledge. However, the object of selfconsciousness is
not given to it (selfconsciousne,ss should not be c,!nfused
with reflexion). When I perceIve a group of objects, I
realise at the same time the difference between my con
sciousness and these objects, I realise the spatiotemporal
position of my body, etc. But all these f~cts of consci0ll:5ness are in the background or .on the penpherY ,and not I,n
the focUS of consciousness. DIrectly, my conSCIOusness IS
imed at external objects that are the object of knowledge.
a body my consciousness, my cognitive process do not
~y this c~se fonn part of the objects of experience and
In owledge. Thus knowledge of self implied by any expe.
~ ce and expressed in the fonn of self-consciousness is
~~wledge of a special kind. It might be somewhat tenta217

tive~y

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called ' ;imp~cit k.nowledge". 8S distinct from e .

pliClt knowledge with which we are usually concerned
goal of the cognitive process is acquisition of explicit k'no e
ledge. Implicit knowledge acts as a tool or method of w.
Quiring explicit knowledge.
acWhen I touch a thing with my hand, I feel the ob'ect
J
itself and. not my hand. The tactile sense speaks of the external object and not of myself. Only in the background
of my consciousness do I realise the act of touching local
ising the action ~f the ?bject ~n myself at my fingertips'
If I. tou~h the ?bJec~ with. a stick, not with my hand, th~
~ctile unpr~sslOn IS agam connected with the object
Itself, not wIth the tool I use (the stick). The latter is n
long~r in th~ focus of consciousness but on its periPheryO
and 1~ expenenced as a direct continuation of my bod '
In thIS case, the sensation of the action of the object (,:.
hav: ~eady poin~d ou~ that t~is is not the same as th:
tactile Imag~ of objects) IS expenenced as localised at the
end of the stick and not at my fingertips.

Th

2. SUBSTANTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT

OF KNOWLEDGE

Many philosophers argued that, inasmuch as a most irnporta~t .and probably the only task of epistemological
F.YslS IS substant~ation of knowledge, it should obvious.y s~gle out and dlSsec::t all premises of knowledge, inc1ud~ ~:se c~nnected wl~h self-consciousness. Epistemologimentin::~bso:::~~e~e~i~~te what is implicit, thus impleof'te:oo.miS:th~~~hat ~ne 'of the solutions to the problem
ive relation of "I ..c~on~~t~ in the. assertion that the reflexdation of an k
1 se
constitutes the supreme founthis reflexive ~ela~i~~ledget ~he proposition fonnulating
as a. en to be. absolutely indub itable and irrefutable
knowledge was interpre~ deplStemologlCal reflex ion about
self.
e as reflexion of "I" about itWe have endeavoured t h
insoluble difficulties to h~ s ow the cul-de-sacs and the
tation in epistemology l;;d lC~ the ac::ceptance of this orienshow that any knowled e s. n.partIcular, we have tried to
edge of the world of e~tec;n~ m t~e first place the knowlt~e subject's self-consciousn~ objects, though it assumes
Clple I?e reduced to the sub' SS't~annot ~ a matter of prinAnd msofar as knowled ]e c s reflexlOn about himself.
never be absolutely unqu get. a b out external objects can
es lonable (such as not to allow

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218

any further specifications and corrections), however

reliable it may be in practice, natural doubts arise about
lhe need for searching for absolute principles and absolutely indisputable foundations of knowledge.
These doubts are redoubled as we take into account the
experie nces of modern science in substantiating certain
special kinds of scientific knowledge. We have already noted, for instance, the impossibility of completely reducing
arithmetic to set theory or of one physicaJ theory to another, as well as the impossibility of reducing theoretical
knowledge to a set of protocol utterances, propositions
about "sense data" or laboratory operations. Different
structures of knowledge are linked in ways other than
reduction. This circumstance has to be taken into account
in substantiating knowledge.
The question remains, however: to what extent is absolute completeness of reflexion possible? To what degree can the premises of knowledge be singled. out, elucidated, and dissected?
In attempting to answer this question, let us recall
Quine's arguments about the problem of radical translation. Quine points out that the language in which we speak
is given to us in a different manner than a strange language
which we study. With regard to the latter, we consider the
relation of its expressions to the real objects and actual situation, that is to say , we reflect about this language. As
for our own language, it directly presents to us the picture
of the world and not its own structure. We know our own
language in the sense that we can use it for rendering some
objective content. But that is not explicit knowledge. The
language is inseparable for us from that objective knowledge which we obtain with its help, so that we do not even
notice it, as it were: it is in the background of consciousness. (That does not rule out the possibility of refiexion
about our own language, but we have to split our language
into two in t his case. One of t hem will be t he object language, t he one that is studied, that is, it will playa different role than before, functioning as an ensemble of theoretical hypotheses, idealisations, etc., rather than as implicit knowledge naturally given to consciousness. The second
language, used as a tool for studying the first, retains the
properties of implicit knowledge.) Assume that we study
the structure of the theory of arithmetic trying to establish its ontology, thus performing an act of theoretical
reflex ion about this conceptual system. In this case, we
use set theory as an instrument of reflexion. In the context of this study, set theory is not an object of reflexion
and is accepted as something familiar and clear. The re219

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verse task is also possible: translation of the propos'r

of set theory into the language of the theory of arith mehc
1 IO,ns
Here set theory itself will be the object of reOexiO n .
the theory of arithmetic will be accepted as somethin and
subject to reflex ion in the given context.
g not
In studying the history of various proofs of the s
metrical ,theore":! concernin g the correlation of the ~reo_
bers of sides, aplc~.a~d faces of a polyhedron, Imre L
tos showed that fmdmg the weak points of argu a a
that is, increasing .their rigour, always assumes th:;en?
ten~e of " foundatIOnal " knowledge. The latter serveex1San mslrument of analysis itself
as
.that
t .is
,a mode of refle',
XlOn
.
ab
Ollt prOD f 5, ,ta k en as an mtultIvely clear and unreflected
guara~tee of ngour. "By eac~ 'revolution of rigour' proof.
analysIs. penetrated deeper mto the proofs down to th
foundatIOnal layer .of 'fa.miliar bac kground knowledge' e
where crystal-clear mtultIOn ... reigned supreme and cn't:"
, m was banncu.
.. ...I ,,go A t th
IS
e same'
tune reflexion about thIC"~oundational l!lyer~',. i.e., knowledge assumed to be imm:
dlately clear (Impitclt knowledge in our terminolo )
reveals th~ proble~atic character' and even falsity ora
whole senes.!lf. Its components. 91 ' 'The amount of
assumed fwmlianty decreases as criticism turns back
ground k~owledge into knowledge. "9 2
Re~exlon about the " foundational layer" assumes
adopt~ng ~ome o~her type of knowledge as not subject to
refleXlOn In th~ gIven cont~xt of the means of analysis.
Thus ever- 10 suc~ a. SCIence as mathematics, where the
pr'dblem o~ substantlatmg knowledge figures prominently
~ reflexlon about the existing systems of knowledg~
F a!,s l:ln e~onnous role, every procedure of reflective ana
~lS IlffiPhes a. framework of implicit "foundational"
Im~lic~g:n~~~d no\ reflected upon in the given context.
factual science ge p a1's ~ much l!l0re important role in
explanation of S~~h~~ ~'fID the disciplines dealing with
cts . In these sciences, research
activity is as a uFlflc.
objects rather th e, alme at the world of real external
and development a~f at i~e th~ory itself. The elaboration
tion to empirical d a eoretlcal system and its applica
are perceived by th~ta (the ~wo are usually inseparable)
objective connections or:se:;.c ~r as establishment of the
The theoretical conc re Ity Itself. .
considered separately ;ptual system IS not in this case
o.bjects fonnulated 'n . rom the knowledge about real
nes are usually left ~nf~ts ~~s. In such disciplines, theo
The rules for processinrm lse,d. and often unaxiomatised.
standards of discourse g Jm lncal data, the noons and
an t e modes of selecting signifi-

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220

cant problems are not formulated explicitly but are

specified along with the basic paradigmal content premises
of the theory, Le., as implicit knowledge. Michael Polanyi
and Thomas Kuhp, modem specialists in the history and
theory of science, pointed out the importance of implicit
knowledge ("tacit knowledge" in their terminology) for
the development of natural science. 93 That does not mean
that thE!Rretical reflexion plays no role in the development
of naturiU scientific knowledge (although the theoreticians
mentioned here are inclined to belittle this role in every
way distorting the actual state of affairs).
The property of reflex ion indicated here (the dialectical connection between reflected and unreflected knowledge) is fully manifested with regard to those kinds of
knowledge which exist in unobjectified form, i.e., belong
to the individual subject (perception, recall, etc.), and also
with regard to individual consciousness itself. As we have
stressed, each act of individual cognition assumes self-consciousness, that is, implicit knowledge of the subject about
himself. One may try to transform this implicit knowledge
into explicit one, that is, to translate self-consciousness
into reflexion. In this case, the subject analyses his own
mental experiences, observing the flow of his psychical
life, endeavouring to find out the nature of his "I", etc.
It appears that in this act of reflexion, " I" simply merges
with itself. In actual fact that is not so. Every act of reflexion is an act of conscious realisation or understanding.
The latter always assumes definite means of understanding,
a kind of framework of semantic connections. Outside
this framework, reflexion is impossible. At the same time,
the semantic framework presupposed by the act of reflexion is not subject to reflex ion in the act itself; "dropping
out" of it it is taken as an instrument of such an act,
that is as 'implicit knowledge. The dissection of the flow
of pSy~hical life and meaningf~ definiteness of t~e images
coming to the surface of conSCIousness, the spatlO-temporal reference of memories-all of this is given to consciousness in the act of individual reflexion. However, the modes
themselves of semantic formation of this givenness are not
reflected upon. Therefore, the question does not arise in
subjective reflexio~ about the b~sic p.ossibility. of other
semantic charactenstics of psychical life, that lS, of the
possibility of the content and structure of psychical life
other than that which is given in self-observation. "I" itself also drops out of the act of reflexion, at least partially for if it makes itself the object of its reflex ion, it must
a1~0 perform this as the subject. And that means that " I"
as the subject of reflexion is not reflected upon as long as
221

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we remain within the framework of individual conscious..

ness.
This circumstance selVed as the basis for Kant's and Sartre's view that the true nature of the subject cannot be the
object of knowledge or reflexion, being given to nOn-re
~ec~ing consciousness only.~udwig Wittge':l5t~in follows ~
sunilar pattern of argument: 5.631. The thmking, presenting subject; there is no such thing. If I wrote a book The
World as 1 Found It, I should also have therein to report
on. my body and say. which members obey my will and
which do not, etc. ThIS then would be a method of isolating the subj.ect or ra~her of sh?wing that i": an important
sense there IS no subject: that is to say, of it alone in this
book mention could not be made. 5.632. The subject does
not belong to. the world ~lUt it is a limit of the world.
5.633. Where In the world IS a metaphysical subject to be
noted? You say that this case is altogether like that of the
eye and the field o~ si~ht. But. you do not really see the
eye. And from nothmg In the field of sight can it be con.
clu.ded t~at it is seen from an eye... 5.641 .... The philosophical I IS not the man, not the human body or the human
sou~ of which psychology treats but the metaphysical
sU~Ject, the lil!lit-not a part of the world ...94 The English
p'hilosopher Gilbert Ryle believes that the "systematic elu
slVen~ss.~f "I" in the course of reflexive analysis indicate~
the ..tl~t1t10US na~~ of the object of reflexion itself, i.e.
bofdilI aSh a Spe<:Ifl~ structure irreducible to the physical'
'
y c aractenstlcs of man.95
ed Does all o~ this mean that unreflected implicit knowlio~eb~Fngn~t m ~netoral be r~garded as an object of reflexcon'
oom
remam forever on the periphery of
all Tho~sn:ss, unamenable ~o analysis in principle? Not at
work, ec~ =;n~ of reflexlOn, ~hat is, its semantic frame.
but for this purp~~~e ~uesto~c.t of reflex~e analysis,
.
mterpreted In another
semantic framework h'
the new context lmpl- '~1 will not be reflected upon in
stood as somethin . IC} nowledge should not be underunrelated to realit~ l~tiO~~ as an ~b~trary assumption
always reflects with a ~ . act, this kind of knowledge
tive dependen~es and in fimte degree of precision, 0 bjective activity does' not needmany. cases practical and cogni
of the Cognitive premises spec~ analysis of at least some
There are situations how on w lch they are constructed..
pr~)Ves a necessity. 'As ev
when this kind of analysis
eXiS~, e.g., in the studwye r atvhe noted, such a situation
matics.
0
e foundations of matheLet us consider the foll'
.
owmg very IDlportant pOint.

0:

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222

Where implicit knowledge becomes explicit, thus becoming the object of reflexion, it undergoes certain changes.
Theoretical reflexion about a system of objectified knowledge means its dissection, fonnulation of a number
of assumptions and idealisations and at the same time
(which is particularly essential) specification of the knowl.
edge itself, rejection of certain implicitly accepted premises
(the procedure of reflexion is prompted exactly by the
need for revising some premises of knowledge). What
previously appeared clear, intuitively understandable and
simple, proves to be complicated enough as a result of
reflexion, and often problematic, sometimes even simply
erroneous. The result of reflexion is not therefore some
simple and self-obvious truths or a set of absolutely
indisputable assertions forming an "absolute foundation"
of the system of knowledge to which different kinds of
knowledge can be reduced in one way or another. The
result of reflex ion is a theoretical system which is a relatively
genuine reflexion of some real dependences in a definite
context and which at the same time implies a whole series
of assumptions, a certain implicit knowledge as a premise.
Reflexion thus takes one beyond the framework of the
existing system of knowledge, generating new knowledge,
both explicit and implicit. What originally seemed (e.g., in
mathematics) a purely substantiating procedure, is in
reality a mode of development of the content of knowledge
itself and one of the important ways of theoretical development. This procedure results in increasingly more precise reflection of the objective dependences of reality and
exact reproduction of the structure and content of the
scientific theories themselves. A study whose immediate
goal was merely increasing the rigour of an argument
generated in fact greater theoretical content in the given
scientific field. Summing up his investigation of the history of proofs of the stereometrical theorem, lmre Lakatos
writes: .. 'Certainty' is never achieved (the reference here
is to metaphysical absolute certainty.- V.L.), 'foundations' are never found-but the 'cunning of reason' turns
each increase in rigour into an increase in content, in the
scope of mathematics." 96
As for the factual sciences, the links between the procedure of substantiating knowledge and the development
of theoretical content are here even more explicit. We have
noted already that in these sciences the problem of substantiation does not usually figure as an independent one.
To the extent in which the existing system of theoretical
notions allows the solution of scientific problems arising
in this system, pennitting at the same time definite prac-.
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co..,
of k

......."'" "
numl
foreil

tical apPlicationS this system is regarded as sufficiently

I emergc!lcP of a subst~ ntively novel
well founded. Tie
theoretical system and adoptlon,of, new pamdlgmal research
premises reveal that the co.nvlctton of the adequacy of
the old paradigm 's foundatIOns was not quite justified
The new paradigm is not adopted through analysing th~
structure of theoreti,cal knowled~e within ,the framework
of theoretical reilexlon aball,t S?le.nce but In studying the
real objects themselves, that IS, It IS accepted as a tool for
a more adequate theoretical reproduction of the real de.-

pendences. At the same time, the adoption of a new paradigm implies a procedure for correlating it with an old
paradigm. The latter figures in this case as an object of
reflex ion. Its postulates, concepts, and semantic connec_
tions are reco nstructed and compared with the real objects
and actual connections with the aim of retaining all that
has objective real content in the old paradigm, and of
eliminating everything that has no such content that is
proves to be fictitious. Here, the new paradigm functio~
as an instrument for presenting the real objects and dependences. Thus, theoretical reflexion acts as an important
element of transition from one paradigm to another
(though Polanyi and Kuhn reject this), albeit it does not
exhaust the content of the transition. This reflexion essentially means reconstruction ' of and inquiry into the
old paradigm in the light and by means of the new one.
Thus the theory 'of relativity allowed a clarification of the
latent premises of classical mechanics which were not
(and could not be) clear to its creators themselves. Galileo
in his turn, had to subject the system of premises and as:
~umpt!ons of Aristotelian physics to theoretical reflex ion
10 laymg the foundations of classical mechanics But he
could only solve this task successfully insofar as' he went
be?,ond . the fran:tework of the conceptual system of
Arist~telian phYSICS. Theoretical reflex ion is the result
of gomg beyond the limits of a given conceptual system
~d at the ~me time the means of such a step, As we see,
10 any case It proves to be closely linked with the development of.the conte~t of theoretical knowledge.
. In thlS c~mnecbon,. one should consider the untenabil.
~ty of ~ne, mterpretabon of the special theory of relativ.
Ity. ~hlS mterpretation, wh!ch gained currency thanks
to Bndgman, r~d.uces the enbre significance of the special
theory of rela~lVlty to reflective analysis of primary con.
cepts of ,phYSICS (~ch 8S: the concept of simultaneity),
Fro~ thlS standpomt, Emstein created not so much a
PhY~lcal theory as a, meta theory which deals with the
pro em of the mearung of physical concepts. The Iabo.
224

raiory operations of measurement referred to in the special theory of relativity are viewed as an absolutely reliable
basis of science, the foundation on which physics must
be built, In acrual fact, the operations of measurement
used in the special theory of relativity, in their rurn,
assume a number of theoretical premises that are not operational in nature. The task of this theory is by no means
solutio n to the problem of meaning of scientific concepts but the discovery of new content dependences in
actual reality, Reflective analysis, that is, discussion of
the problems of the nature and meaning of the concepts
of physics, indeed played an important role in the elaboration of the principles of this theory, But this analysis
is intimately linked with comparing the old and new pa
radigms--classical mechanics and Einstein's conception.
Besides, theoretical reflexion was not and could not be
the only tool of substantiating the new theory,
Reflexion about knowledge thus proves to be closely
linked with the development of its content and with going
beyond the limits of the existing conceptual system,
(That does not mean, however, that the reverse proposition is also true, that is, that any development of the
content of knowledge appears as reflexion. For instance,
the development of a theoretical system within the given
paradigmal premises obviously cannot be taken as an
example of reflexion.)
If that is how things stand, the question arises, does
the problem of substantiation of knowledge have any
meaning at all? Classical philosophy and science presented
the solution to the task of substantiating knowledge as
finding a set of assertions which would be absolutely
indisputable and unshakeable, assertions to which ~l
other kinds and types of knowledge could be reduced 10
one way or another. Since such a task cannot be solved
(and we have tried to show that that is so), should we
not recognise that the problem of substantia~i~g k,nowl.
edge does not exist at all? ,Many W,estern spec18lists 10 the
foundations of mathematlcs, logiC, methodology, and
philosophy of science, in the theory and history of natural
science come to this conclusion,97
One can hardly agree with this view, What is the mean
ing of the task itself of substantiating knowledge? Appar
ently, it is the establishment of the sphere of aPI?lication
of the given system of knowledge and, separatmg that
which is true knowledge from that which only lays an
empty c1~im to th~ title. <?n ,the general e~iste,mological
plane it IS a question of f1Od1Og general cntena for the
soluti~n of this task, which may be applied to different
22.

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is hE

....

.....
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'l'I'
ICOn

"'It

nurnl
foreil

cases to various concrete syslt>ms o f kno wledge II

that this task has lost a II meanmg,
'
'
we
assume
the conclusio
will have to be accepted that there are no criteria ~
general wh ich allow to ~ra w a boundary line between
knowledge and absence of ll.
In reality, the evo lutio n of cogn it ion is a dialectical
process of delimitation of kno wledge from absence ot
knowledge and at t he same time a process of increasingly
more precise demarcation of t he objective sphere of
applica~ion of the existi~g sr ste ~s of knowledge. Sub.
stantiatIOn ~f knowledge Imph~s. fm.t of a1~. correlating it
with real objects through practical object-oriented activity
At the same time, not all kinds of knowledge can tM!
directly included in practical activity, Besides, practice
itself is always limited by the given concrete historical level
of its development. Therefore, even the practical appli.
cation of the given system of knowledge is not tantamount
to full sUbstantiation of the latter. Practice assumes the
development of the systems of knowledge themselves.
It is in the course of this joint development of mutually
connected practical activity involving objects and cognitive
activity that knowledge is substantiated. Substantiation
must not thus be understood as an ensemble of procedUres enabling one to provide an unshakeable basis for
knowledge once and for all but rather as historical develop~ent o~ cognition, as emergenc::e of new theoretical systems,
discarding some old conceptIons, establishment of new
links between theories, revision of old theories etc.
Substant!ating a given theoretical system means' going
beyond Its framework, including it in a deeper context,
and considering it against a broader background.
Thus, those procedures which were considered in the
~istory of philosophy and science as methods for resolvmg the problem of sUbstantiation are indeed relevant to
the solution of this problem but in a sense different from
the previously assumed. These procedures do not at all
proVlde :'abs?!ute" substantiation, being merely eleme~ts
In the hlstoncal process of substantiation coinciding WIth
~e development of knowledge itself. SUbstantiation as
It . acJ:u~Y takes place therefore includes elements of
sclen~iflc r~search. which classical pre-Marxian and non
MarxISt ~hilo~ophlcal and methodolOgical literature did
not c<?~slder ill the context of the given problem (e.g.,
th~ o r O!t::e:v theories). If sUbstantiation of knowledge
~Ol~~yesOWl itsthdevelopment, and theoretical reflexion
ne 0
e. el.ements of the latter, that means
that actual substantIation is not red UCI"bl e to re II exl"on ,
bemg' much broad .
er m scope.
226

3 . REFLEX ION AS A UNITY OF REFLECTION

AND TRANSFORMATION OF ITS OBJECT

We have already pointed out that reflexion brings about

not only a transcending of the existing system ot knowl.
~dge but.a!so its tran sformati on. lmplicit premises, becommg expliCit ones, are not merely singled out, dissected
and rec onstructed, th ough even this procedure by itself
changes the nature ot knowledge that is the object of reflexion. Some premises are specified or entirely discarded. In itself, this is quite understandable: the need for reflexion arises only when doubts appear about the substan.
tiation of the basic premises. The task of theoretical anal.
ysis lies in revising these premises, and the attainment
of this task is impossible without changing, be it partially, what is critically studied. But that means that the
very object changes as a result of theoretical reflex ion.
Let us dwell on this circumstance in somewhat greater
detail.
When theoretical knowledge reproduces the dependences between the real objects existing independently
of knowledge, as often as not one has to go beyond the
limits of the given conceptual system, including the objects under study in new relations, introducing new idealisations, constructing new systems of abstract objects, etc.
None of these processes, characterising the development of
theoretical knowledge about real objects, changes the
objects themselves to which knowledge refers. The relation
between reflex ion and its object is different. Through
reflexion, its object, the system of knowledge, is not only
included in new relations but is also completed and rebuilt,
that is, it becomes different from what it was before reo
flexion. The process of inquiry proves to be intimately
linked with creatively reshaping the very object under
study. This peculiar relation between cognition and changes
in the object arises because in this case we do not deal
with an object existing independently from cognition and
consciousness but with cognitive reproduction of cogni
tion itself and of consciousness, directing cognition towards
itself.
The peculiar relation between reflexion and its object
indicated here is found not only in systems of objectified
knowledge but also in individual consciousness. The point
is that reflex ion about the state of consciousness, about
the properties of a concrete personal "I" emerges in
the context of the task (whether realised or not) of restructuring the system of consciousness and personality.
When I realise myself as "I" with such and such traits, I
227

is hE

"'to
Sciel
COY.

of.

u.'

ICOn

thlt
num
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do not merely objec~ify certai~ moments of my psychical

life that were pz:evlously .flUId or sc~ttered. as it were
(thereby introducmg defm~te changes In the ~ate of my
consciousness). I also reflexIvely an<:uyse myself In the light
of some ideal which I accept, an Ideal which expresses a
type of relation to other persons and thus socially medi.
ates my relation to myself. When I analyse myself trying
to realise my qualities, contemplating my attitude' to life
and looking into the deep secret places of my own con:
sciousness. I thereby wish to "substantiate" myself as
it were, to find a solid basis for the frame of refere~ce
giving up some things for good and taking an even finner
hold of others. My individual "ego" thus changes and
develops in the process and as a result of reflex ion.
But does it not follow from the above that reflex ion
simply creates its own object, actually reflecting nothing?
Many modern bourgeois philosophers and some Western
specialists in the theory of science accept this view to
some extent .or another. As we recall, according to Qui~e's
"ontological relativ~ty" principle we must not speak of
~he ontology of a gIVen theory as long as we remain within
Its framework: a given theoretical system will have some
ontology (and different ontologies ascribed to the theory
may be mutua~ly excl~sive), depending on the language
of the system Into WhICh we are going to translate it. It
so app~ars .that the arbitrarily chosen "angle of view"
detenmnes 10 t~e process of reflexion its ontology and
content. PoianYI develops a conception according to which
any attempt at a theoretical reflexion about the norms and
rules. of theoretical thinking and standards of scientific
quall~Y adopted b~ a g;iv.en community of natural scientists I!l the fonn of ImpliCit knowledge is inevitably doomed
to faIlure, as th~se nonns a~d rules are not in principle
amenable to ratIOnal analyslS. He believes that what is
~Ormulated as. a re~lt of such reflexion is merely the prodct of reflexlOn. ltself,. having no relevance to the real
:nns o.f t~eoretical thinking which are forever doomed
u.remam. un~licit knowled.ge. 98 The latter thus assumes
~~tein~~vi~~lo~~, ~olou":ng. Finally, Sartre insists that
itself. Cognition att~~ ettrrely the pr~uct of reflex~on
pression that it f
P mg to .cogruze Itself has the un"I", while in actUala~:~t ~h c~~:?n definite. object termed
process of reflexion b e l had not eXISted before the
view, does not express th~g~n. Therefore "I", in Sarlre's
To answer the questio rue nature of co~sciousness ..
own experience in its enti~t w~e:her ref1~xlon creates ~ts
It is not any reflex ion
~ us contmue our analysIS.
a IS concerned with science.

u;\

228

If reflex ion is intimately connected with the development

of a ~ystem of .theoretical knowledge, only that kind of
refleXive analYSIS accords with the task it faces which facilitates the a~gmenting. and enri~hment of knowledge.
In . other words, theoretical reflexlOn can restructure its
object, .the sstem. of scientific knowledge, only to the
extent 10 whIch thiS restructuring serves to establish concept~ structures which e~pre~s m.ore precisely objective
real processes reproduced m SCientific theory and at the
same time agree. with the objective norms of development
of knowledge Itself. If this condition is not satisfied
reflex ion proves to be false. This means that the image of
knowledge reconstructed in reflexion and real scientific
knowledge itself may not correspond to each other. There
are many ~uch examples in the history of science. Thus,
the analYSIS of the theoretical premises and the logical
structure of classical mechanics performed by Ernst Mach
in the.la~ 19th century on the whole proved to be a false
refleXive Image, and could not serve as a basis for construct~n~ a new ph~sical the?ry. Sometimes the reflexive image
IS mad equate m some Important respects, capturing at the
same time certain real dependences of knowledge. For
example, the refiexion about the foundations of mathematics in the framework of intuitionism contributed to the
development of scientific thought, being unable at the
same time to reconstruct some important propositions of
mathematical theory, which could not be sacrificed without
going beyond the limits of mathematics itself.99 All of
this shows that reflexion combines, in a specific manner,
a reflection or reconstruction of its object, a system of
knowledge, with its critical restructuring.
Reflexion and its object may also fail to agree in the
framework of individual consciousness. The image of "I"
is not always adequate to the real "I".
The starting point of classical pre-Marxian philosophy
and psychology was that the subject has a special inner
access to himself and a better knowledge of himself and
of the states of his consciousness than anyone else. Moreover it is this individual subjective reflexion that was regard~d as perfect and infallible knowledge as distinct from
knowledge of external objects. It must be conceded that
indeed I know something about myself that can be unknown to others. Images of memories and subjective
associations which surface as I perceive some object
are my personal J'ropert y , something directly given to my
consciousness.lO True, many of my individual experiences
are usually objectified, being accompanied by external
actions-bodily motions, facial expressions, exclamations,
229

is ht
.. t.
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of.

gy.
1<0"

thlt
num
'Ofei

so that other individuals c:an make judgments about the

inner states of my conSCiousness. At the same tilne I
can suppress by an effort. of ~ill extern,al expression of a'ny
given experien~e. evel'! of pam. In thiS case, I alone will
know about thiS expenence.
Let us recall, .h.ow~er. that, reflex ion !s a kind of cogni.
tion. And cogmtIon, IS not sunply passrv:e absorption of
infonnation fro~ w~thout but the es~bhshment of defi.
nite links, ~he smglin~ out of sef!1ant1c depe~dences, an
activity of mterpretatIon. There IS no sense In speaking
of errors where information is simply passed on from one
system to anoth,er (what, occurs here are merely losses and
distortions of mformatIon but not errors). The possi.
bility of errors only arises where cognition appears.
What courd be more indisputable than an elementary
statement "I feel pain"? Let us note, however, that the
realisation of one's pain is associated with localisation of
this experience, and the localisation may be erroneoUs
(a fact everyone is familiar with who had toothache).
The awareness that "I feel pain" includes not only knowl_
edge of the difference between "I" and "not-I" but also
a certain semantic interpretation of the experience of pain
itself: singling it out among other experiences, knowledge
of its being conditioned by the state of my body, distinguishing between my pain and that of another subject, etc.
The life of consciousness cannot flow uninterpreted..
If an image comes to the surface of my consciousness, I
try to define it, that is, to find out what it stands for, and
to what concrete person or event of my life it refers. I
often err in interpreting separate images; for instance, I
may erroneously localise in space and time the object
of memory, mistakenly correlate a given image with some
person or other, etc.
Wh~n I h.ave. some emotional experience, e.g., joy,
reflexJv~ re~hsatlOn of this experience is inseparable from
the.feelmg It~elf. It may so happen that in reality I am not
so J?yful as It appears to me in the act of subjective refleXion. (I. appear joyful to myself because for certain
reasons which I ~o not realise I wish to be 50_) In this case,
a stranger may Judge my emotional state better than I
myself, although that stranger may also be mistaken , of
Course.

iveTyh~h~O~S;~~!~. of ~rror

grows if I try to realise reflexconcrete "I" as al~ho I my pers~nal~ty, to cogitate on ~y

my "I" is not 0
o~. The thmg.ls that my personalIty,
reflexio~ but mgs~n
me full~ 10 the act of individual
relations with other cp~mprehenslVelY manifested in my
rSOns and can be most precisely
230

understood by the latter. Another subject observing me

from the outside can evaluate my "I" better than I myself.
Of course, to the extent I take into account this evaluation
of myself by others, I can assess myself more or less correctly, too. If I am subject to mental disorder, I find
it hard to define the states of my consciousness. Another
person, a psychiatrist, will be better suited to untangle
my subjective experiences.
It is also important to bear in mind the following circumstance. As we have indicated, reflexion as a special
kind of cognition assumes a definite semantic framework
which is not reflected upon in the given act itself. Therefore, when I consciously interpret even those states of
mine which are kno.wn to me alone, being given only from
within, I use a system of semantic connections transcending the boundaries of my individual consciousness and connecting me with other subjects. I view the subjective states
of my consciousness through another person's eyes, as
it were. That means that if that "other" moved into my
body, had the same life story as myself, and occupied the
same spatio-temporal position as myself, he would reflex.
ively realise the same subjective states. As we have
already remarked the framework of semantic connections
assumed by subj~ctive reflexion emerges in the course of
joint interpersonal activity a~d is assimilat~ ~y e8:ch
individual in his development, 10 the commumcabon With
other individUals through the medium of man-made objects embodying the experience of social-cultural de~elop
ment. That means that reflex ion about the fr3;lIle Itself,
and in the first place refIexion ab?ut..s~,c~ an unport:ant
element of this frame as th~ ~eflectmg ~ ,IS only pO~lble
if we leave the limits of indlVldual conSCiousness, conSider.
ing a different, more comprehensive and fun~amental
system of relations. VIe refer ~o the system o~ IOter.personal activity, in which pr~ctl~al transform.a~lon o~ t~e
world of objects, commumcatlon and c,?gmtl,?n eXI~t. m
a direct unity. It is in ~h.e process of thiS SOCial a<;tlVlty
th t the norms of cogmhon are worked out. The mte.n~ t"on of the standards of this activity produces the Inilin~ lal "I" itself which will thus remain incompletely
uted as long 'as we remain within the individual's
re ec .ou,ness and can only become the object of reflexconSCI,
fit.
ion when we study a broader system 0 re a Ions.
..
Thus the source of norms and standards of cogmtlon
should 'be sought for exactly in collective forms of ~c
t It so appears that those kinds of knowledge w.hlch
tl~sfin intimate association with ~he subje~t (perc.epbo!ls,
~~es of memories, etc.) are, as It were, Side by Side With

fl

231

knowledge existing in objectified form as the

of everyone (knowledge reified in implements of~operty
objects of everyday life, scientific apparatus theer ab ur,
As we have attempted to show in the first ~haptei'0 ~ ./
part, it is ~he study of obj.e~tified form s of knowled t IS
the collective forms of activity producing them that ge ~d

V
is t'Il

....

one . to. ~nderstand the cognitive processes perform~a hie

the mdlVldual.

Sciel
CO'"
4. THE COLLECTIVE SUBJECT.

of.
gy.
ICon

"'at

num
forei

THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT

. So far we have paid attention to the far.reaching simi!

Ity between th~ obj~ti!ied kinds of knowledge and th~t
kno.wledge which

IS

mseparable from

the individual

subject. In. bot~ . cases there exists, along with explicit

knowledge, lDll;lliclt knowledge which is only made explicit
thr.ou~h. reflexlOn. As for the latter, both reflexion about
objectified. knowledge (let us tentatively name it objective)
a~d reflex~on about knowledge inseparable from the indio
yIdu~ subJec~ (let us call it subjective) reveal basically
Identical relatIons to their object.
In calli~g reflex ion "objective" we merely refer to the
~act ~hat It belongs to the ?bj~tified forms of knowledge,
Ign.onng th~ e~tent to which It adequately reproduces its
ob.Ject. O~ject~ve re~exion may fail to accord with the
thmg, . bemg l~ thIS sense subjective in its content.
~eflex.lon tha~ IS ~ubjective in form can also be both objec~ve. an~ ~bJectI~.e ~ c~>ntent. Thus, the designations
0rbjectlve and subjectIve" reflexion as applied here
re er only to fonn, not content.
Let us poin~ out that objectified knowledge differs in a
~~~~~ of lffip.O~~t aspec~ from the individual's
kn
ledge. (If an mdlvldual subject possesses some implicit
th~"kno!ied~:"o}h!l~nOwledge of th.e la~gu.age he speaks,
another although h d etc.), he reahses It 10 one way or
sected and renee e oes not have that knowledge in diselements can co~~s:o~ .. As f?r objectified knowle?-ge,
moment realised b
. It. ~hlch are not at the gIVen
instance, that som~ a':lY lI:dlVlduai. subject. Supposing, for
dependences and wr~ntlst e~abhshed hitherto unknown
was accepted and
. an aI"!-lcle al?out them. The article
read by several doie~blished 10 a S?le.n~ific journal. It was
the article failed to ~;r~ns specIahsmg in this field. But
sear~h and was soon fo ec the subsequent course of reo
OUTIng that time the au~ottenr' About a century passed.
or 0 the article died , as well as
23 2

t he few persons (editors and readers) who once knew its

conte nt. At present, no one knows what the article was
about, and, moreover, no one even suspects its existence.
Does that mean that knowledge objectified in the article
does not exist at all? We would hardly dare to assert this,
for the article has not disappeared: it rests in libraries
among files of old journals, being only temporarily absent
from the actual cognitive process. It is quite possible,
however, that a researcher in the history of science will
discover it, read it, and conclude that its ideas are very
much in the spirit of these times. Thereupon knowledge
objectified in the article will get a new lease on life: it will
become the object of discussion and argument, references
to it will be made in scientific journals, and scientists will
ponder the ideas expressed in it.
Let us consider another example. Suppose that at a
given moment no one thinks about the content of
Newton's theory. Does that mean that at a given moment
knowledge objectified in this theory does not exist and
that it will begin to exist again only when someone thinks
about this theory? That would be hard to accept.
Let us further take into account that in any objectified
knowledge there is, as a rule, content which is ':lot known
to anyone who is using this knowledge. '!'hlS .c0n.t~nt
may remain unrealised by the producer of thlS objectifIed
knowledge creator of a ~ientif~c theory o~ autho~ of .a
work of art. This content IS manifested only m the hlStoncal development of cognition. For example, the~ody
namics and the atomic molecular theory were ongmally
developed independently from each oth~r. But that d?es
not mean that the links between the ~heones had not.exlSted objectively until they were estabhshed an~ consciously
realised. Further, when Cantor formulated .hIS set th~ry,
he was not yet aware of the par~doxe.s mherent mit,
although the paradoxes ~eady existed m, the content ?f
the theory itself. In analysmg ~o Tolstoy s wo.rks, Lemn
showed that they were the ummor of. the ~usslan revoh.~
t" " although neither the great wrtter hunself nor hIS
Ion e'rouS readers had realised before Lenin's works this
nu~ tionally important aspect of the content of the
exc:s by the classic of Russian literature. An important
wo.r t here is that realisation of the content inherent in
pom
' \ 'y o
'
b'ectified knowledge does not lffiP
mtrd
uc~ng
su b'~ec~. J vieWS but only the establishment of the hnks obJecti~:IY inherent (though previously unrealised) in the given
knowledge.
. '
Th3t is also true of the so-called mterpretabon of
texts-SCientific, philosophical, literary , etc. Of course, any
233

is ~
lUte

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COY.

of.

gy.
ICOn

"'at

num

forei

such interpretation inevitably carries an element of sub'

tivity. But it can claim to interpret the text only insor.Jecit. brings. out th~ co~tent actually inherent in this t as
Wlthout mtroducIng m~ ~he latter something that is ~:
(and cannot be) present In It.
0
Delimitating what the author of some system of ide
wanted to say from the objective content of the latter ~
one of the fundamental principles of Marxist-Lenin,ls
philosophy in the study of science as well as of oth~t
phenomena of social consciousness and culture
r
Thus, certain elements of objectified kno~ledge rna
!lot. ,be reali~ed at the. given. moment by any of th~
mdlvldual subjects of whIch SOCIety consists.
Let us furthe~ ~ote another important circumstance
~n~wledge that IS msep~ble fro~ t~e individual Subject
I~ g.lVen to the lat~er .as dll'~ctly cOInciding with its object
(If It does not cOincIde WIth the latter, it is illusion not
knowledge). In ot~er words, knowledge of this kind appears
as someth1Og static and c,?mp!~te, while the objectified
~owledge pro~uc~~ by scIentifIc research is in principle
mcomplete. SCIentIfIc knowledge necessarily implies unsolved problems: the very concept of such knowledge in.
clude~ the ~eed for further research involving formulation
!lOd dlscussI~n of new hypotheses, their evaluation accordI~ to ce~ ~~ndards. etc. That, in its tum, is only possIble. under diVIsIOn ?f ~s~arch work and organisation of a
~pe,Clal system of SCientifIC communication-publications
In Journals, debates, and other fonns of contacts between
re~archers. Knowledge, inseparable from the individual
~bl.e~t, appears as personally addressed to him while ob.
Je<:tlfled ~nowledge explicitly includes its being intended
for all subjects concerned with the study of these problems.
~~ other words, the. m?des of treatment of objectified
stu~wl~re ru;e C?~ectlve 10 their nature. For this reason, the
scIentific
and cognition associated
WI-thY-t
I IS .Impo
-bl knowledge
-th
,SSI e WI
syste rns f unctIoning
in cout
II an
t' analYSis of communication
ed
scientific communit'
T~ ec Ives of a ,special typ~ call,
more and more' ,Ies.
e modem science of SCIence IS
But d
't Inclmed towards this conclusion 101
knoWled~:s i~ k~~~Ollow frpm the above that ~bjectifi~
exists independentl ledge Wlth?ut a subject. i.e., that It
outside of a relatitn ~6 subject and must be understood
to which Karl Poppe 0 e latter? That is the conclusion
~e0i.s philosophers a!";d one hf the ~ajor modem bOll!1Oclmed.
met odologlSts of science, IS
Let us consider his
arguments on the subject in greater
detail.

234

Popper sharply distinguishes between "su~je<:tive ~o~~

edge", i.e., knowledge intimately linked With the mdIYIdual subject and "objective knowledge". The latter mcludes the c~ntent of journals, books, libr~es, etc. This
content is expressed in the form of theoretical systems,
problems and problem situations, critical arguments, and
also of certain "states of discussion".
Popper insists on the independence of the content
referred to here from subjective opinions and .views,
including this content in a special sphere of realIty, a
"third world", the world of the objective spirit (this world
also comprises the content of belles-lettres and works of
art). The "third world" exists, according to Popper, ~ide
by side with the "first world", the world of real phYSical
objects, and the "second world", the world of individual
consciousness.
The "third world" is of course, the product of man, the
British philosopher ad~its. But, being produced .by man,
this world nevertheless became autonomous and mdependent. In any case, it is impossible to unders~,d t,he chara~~
teristics and logic of the development of the thin;i world
from an analysis of individual .humfl!l CODSCl~us~ess:
The reverse procedure is more fruItful, m P,opper s VIew.
many important features of individual CO?SClOUSness m~y
be correctly understood if one takes mto acco~nt .Its
continual interaction with the world of the objective
spirit independent of it.
'd
d
of the "third
To show more clearly the m epen ence
.
world" from man and his conscio~sness, the philosopher
suggests t~e following me~f.:al exped:~:ss'are destroyed in
Supposmg all our IDdac,u!"ule::eOusly all our subjective
.
.
d
'5
some catastrop he, an
leami!lg of using them is t~!; a;~~~: ~r:f:~s ~e,mafter
cap~c lty, to learn from eriod the world of culture an~
a hlsto~call~i~~~SS~o~structed an~ so. will the specifltechno gy mode of life associated With It.
, g,-ne that not only machines and tools
cally human
f h
t so
Let us now Ima
d toyed and the subjective knowledge 0 oWe 0 U h
are e~ r
but all libraries are destroyed too thoug
them 15 lost"ty to read books may, have survived). This
",lan '5 chapacl ill be no re-emergence of our civilisation for
tIme t ere w, 102
' ill ma
maT6eminJ~pendence of the "third world" is express~,
, to Popper not only in that man may not realise
acco~~f'ts fragments. Altho.u~h,that which pertains to the
sC?m dorn of the objective spmt IS usually created. ~~ man,
king ex,-,ts as a matter of principle the posslbiltty of
there
23'

generation of some elements of this world by U t

and not man, Popper believes. A series of bo
ornata
garit~ms m~y be produced and printed by a como US of 10l~anthms 10 these books being more exact thaJ\nt~, the
wntte,n by men. The books produced by the
oaks
may he about in a library for years unused b ancomputer
Nevertheless, these books, of which no SUbj~ t ~ person.
has ever known, contain indubitably ObJ'ec~' nokws or
edge.1 03
lVe nowl.
True, Popper admits, for the signs contained n
pages of books to be regarded as the carriers of" bo. ~he
k?owledge", the books must have a 5 eci
0 Jectr~re
tlc-:-the possibility of being read
un~ech:actens_
bel,leves, ~owever, that this possibility need n t ~ od" He
It 15 not unpossihle that the books will bOd e realised.
~ther th.an ma~ .. (Suppose that mankind pe~i~~~s ~Jt f.~ngs
les survlVe. VISItOrs from outer space rna d'
I rar
books, decode and read them.)
y Iscover our
Popper regards the biological appro h
.
in the study of the "third world" A b ~cl a.s qUlte ~ruitful
behaviour of animals must take' t O10 OgIst studymg the
pr~duce "non-living structures" thnat acco~~ hat they
SpIders spin webs, birds build ne
are VI
?r them.
.
sts, wasps build nests
beavers construct d s
Although the "noamt ,. anunals make paths in forests etc'
.
n- Ivmg structures" are
d
'
.
objectively and
between two ~ain cate ey. emerge. Popper distinguishes
study of these structure~o~~s ~.f ~roblems arising from the
method used by animai
e us category pertains to the
tures and the animals' setwpen constructing these struc
second category' of probl~ma I.ons to their products. The
teristics of the structure th s 18 concerned with the characmaterials used in the sstru~mselves: t~e chemistry of the
physical properties their de t~e, theu geometrical and
mental conditions' etc In pen en~e upon special environc~nno~ do without'studyin thalysmg the~e problems we
blOlogIcal functions. Po : b e ~tructures m terms of their
second category are mo~~ [ elieves that problems of the
conclusions about the po ~~damental, for one may draw
from the knowledge of th:~b~~.odes of their production
th Th~ sde principle is apPlicJabl~ve struc~ures themselves.
. e s u y of the products f ' accordmg to Popper to
Impl.ements, ~orks of art Th' human activity: hou;es,
particularly Slgni.ficant in . the IS approach .proves to be
asserts th.at gemune SCientific s~udy of science. Popper
cemed with the study of the ~pls~emology must be conplace the content of scientific tht~~rc:t world", in the first
236
nes, problems, scientif

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ani

ili!i:al~~et~tdrsex~~c~u~~

indf;~nd~~~y ~

ic ~gume.nts, etc:. rather than with the analysis of the

subJe<?t, hl8 consclC:)Usness, and cognitive activity. That will
be ep18tem<:>logy without the cognizing subject.
Popper 18 un.do~b.tedly right in noting that separate
fragm.ents of objectified knowledge may not be realised at
the gIVen moment by a single individual that the laws of
development of th~ knowledge cannot be reduced to the
laws of individual consciousness, and that the latter itself
must be understood as connected with the world of
objectified knowledge. We have already touched on these
imPc;>r:tant properties of cognition. Popper's critique of the
traditional approach to epistemological problems in
bourgeois philosophy is also to a great extent correct.
. ~ut does it follow from all this that the world of objectified knowledge must and can be understood irrespective
of the subject?
There are no grounds for such a conclusion. Although
objectified knowledge is not the same as conscious
knowledge, that is, knowledge possessed by an individual
subject, the two kinds of knowledge are closely bound up.
Only man, a concrete individual subject, may be the
creator of objectified knowledge. And that means that any
objectified knowledge must, at least at the time of its
emergence, be to some extent consciously realised, that is,
be the property of a subject. This is not at all contradicted
by the possibility of production by a computer of separate
fragments of objectified knowledge. The results of
computer activity can be regarded as knowledge only
insofar as behind the programme we discern man setting it
down and capable of interpreting its output. For the
computer itself, there is no knowledge.
Still less can knowledge exist "in itself", regardless of its
being used in the cognitive activity of cO!1crete i~~iv.iduals.
The utilisation may of course, be potential, but It IS Important that the potential should exist. Its preservation is
ensured by the fact that the product in which knowledge is
objectified even if it is not actually a part of the ongoing
cognitive process, remains included in so<:ial-culturall~n~
which make it possible for concrete subjects to use It m
their activity at any moment. And that means that even
those fragments of objectified knowledge which are not at
present realised retain close links with what is realised and
used in actual activity. If the connection between the fragments of knowledge that are included in the cognitive
process and those that are not, is disrupted, the latter
ceases to be any kind of knowledge at all.
Assume that a civilisation is dead and no one knows the
language once spoken by its subjects. Although the books
237

is hE

"'to

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gy,

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num

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written in that extinct language su!"Viv~. no one is capabl

of decoding them and the connectIOn IS thus lost betwe e
the defunct culture,3!1d the actual social-cultural proce~n
including the cogrutIve one. And t~at means that the
books preserv~ no longer con tam any knowledge
Properly speaking, they are not even books but sUnp} .
Y
objects with strange strokes in them.
Cognition ~ implemented. b~ real I?ers~:ms. by concrete
individual subJec~. Knowled~e ,m ~ubJectlVe or objectified
form exists only masmuch as It 15 directly or indirectly Cor.
related with that activity, At the same time, the cognitive
activity itself should be regarded on the SOCial-historicaJ
plane, as activity of interconnected subjects-past, present
and future. For this reason, if certain fragments of Objec:
tified knowledge are not consciously realised by a single
existing subject; that does not mean that these fragments
are in general outside the subjects' consciousness, for these
fragments may be associated both with the subjects of the
past and those of the future (association with the past is
obligatory, for only man can produce knowledge).
The social-historical and collective nature of the cognitive process is expressed not only in its being implemented
by an ensemble of interacting individuals. The interaction
itself assumes the existence of specific laws of the develop.
ment of knowledge, laws that are different from those
which characterise individual knowledge. Thus, the
individual subject is not the carrier of the collective cogni.
tive process, and neither is a mere agglomeration of sub.
jects. The collective subject may be regarded as such a
carrier, to be taken in the Sense of a social system
irreducible to the agglomeration of individuals constituting
it. ~~ us note that there are many collective subjects of
cognition connected by definite relations. For example,
~e study of the functioning of a given paradigm of theo~et
ICal knowledge assumes an analysis of some commumty;
the.l~tte~ ~ppears in this case as a collective subject of a
defmlte kind of cognitive activity. Different paradigms
apparent~y determine different collective subjects assoclate~ With them. At the same time, paradigms are in~l':l
ded In a ge~eral. process of development of scientifIC
knowledge, With Its characteristic Common standards and
no~s. ~nd that means that the given scientific commumty 15 a. sub-system of a more extensive systemthe ecommumty of all SPecialists in the given area of knowled:g .~d th~. community of all individuals engaged in
scI~ntIflc
tJonal actlVlty. The SCientist uses in his activity some
!'R
~nguage ~r other, and that means that he is
mcluded III the Society speaking the given language. This
238

which obviously comprises also t~ose

cO~l?um y, h re not concerned with science, is ~g~ a
irld!vI.duals
~i:e subject of cognition. The functIOmng
defd'"dl~el~p~ent of knowledge is detennined by th~tprof
an
d
ial
stem than the commum Y a
cesses in a broa er soc. sy
d" tl I ked with the
" " ts The social sciences are uec y m
. .
sclentlS . . . .
and ractical activity of definIte
soc~~ ~OSltlonT~~;e:es~,s that ~t is the latter that appear as
SOCI ~ assesb ts f the cognition of social processes. The
collective s~ Jec 0.
h cteristic of a given class detertype OfthSOChl~rii~c~fet~e ~~gnitive possibilities open t~ its
th M ist theory of society
mmes e
membe~s. As is. well known, erol:~riat provides, for the
expre~mg the u:te~;.ts g~~~efgr the study of the social
first tune, a SClen 1nIC ot involved in science is neverprocesses. A pe.rso n
d consequently, connecttheless involved m CO~1l1t Ion. an ,
ed with various C?llec.tflve stublnieCytst"he diversity but also the
.t"
"
At t he same tune I no 0
" h" to cal development of cogm Ion IS
unity of the SOCIO- IS ~
d I be regarded as a
taken into ac~ount! socI~ty shaul at ~~mber of subjects
collective sU~Ject mcl~dl!l~ a greIt is the existenc~ of
both collective. and b~dlVI~u~ifferent collective subJec.ts
definite connectIons. e wee
0 itive process. The difthat ensures the umty o~.th: ~ ~sponsible for different
ference between these su Jec s arded as cognition.
conceptions of what sh:ould ~e regnections between coHecA complete disruPtlO~ <? cO~sintegration of cognition
tive subjects would .resu t m ~d b mankind. In this ca~,
as a unified process un)~men e to be the subject of cogru.
society as a whole wou cess
is simultaneously include? m
tive activity.
.
fferent systems of cogmtIve
Each individual sub~ect
different collective .subJ~ctseD~tandards and norms, are
activity, ~iththth.el~v?d~~ into a whole. The e~tistenf~I~,f
integrated In e In
ndition of the um y o . .
the latter is .the neces:s~y Cbetween different ?o~ectIve
The disruption ?f lin. s. .
of integration WIthIn the
subjects or the lmp.osslb~I~ idual of those systems of
framework of the gI.v~n U1 IV associated with different
the disintegration of the
cognitive act~vity Wh~~
collective sub~ects, wo
..
individual sUb.Ject. .. t hilosophy asserts that CO~llltlon
Thus MarxlSt-Lemn~nderstood if it is considered I~ co~
can only ~e co~eftly s of life activity of concrete hlst0r-nection With t e orm is of studying object-related I?ra~ !b.as ac t"IVI"tOes
of collective and .mdlVIal su biects on the
C'
"catlVe
1
t t
and
commuru
d
_
the
relation
of
subJec
0
cal
"If
one
conSl
e.;,
'ects
dual su bJ

if

::;etail

239

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object in logic, one must take into a('c o~nt al so l~(' general
premisses of being of the conc:ete sub~ect (= I I (e 0 f
man) in the objectivE; surro~ndmgs:' ~ 0 stated Lenin.
The individual subject, hIs conSCiousness and cognition
must be understood in terms of their incorporation in dif.
ferent systems of collective practica~ an,d ,cognitive, activity.
But that does not mean that the mdlvldual subject is in
some way dissolved in the collective. First, the collective
subject itself does not exist outside concrete persons, real
individuals interacting among themselves according to
the specific laws of collective activity. The collective sub
ject cannot be regarded in the sa~e ~ig~t as the.indi~dUal
one. The fonner is not a personahty in Its own nght, It has
no individuality of its own and does not perform any acts
of cognition other than those perfonned by the separate
members. Second, cognition, which is inseparable from the
individual subject, does not directly coincide with the
objectified systems of knowledge, though it is closely
linked with and ultimately determined by them. The
individual traits of my perception, my memories and
subjective associations constitute knowledge that is important for me personally and is accessible to me alone.
They do not form part of the system of objectified knowledge that is the property of all individuals and is included
in the structure of the collective subject. And that means
that the types of knowledge intrinsically characteristic of
the individual and the collective subjects do not fully
coincide with or dissolve in each other but rather mutually
imply each other.
We may recall that Kant, Fichte, and Husserl posit, along
with the individual subject, the transcendental one. The
latt~r ~~resses the inner community of the various empirical md!-Vlduals.. in this respect, it may appear similar to the
collectIv~ subject. Indeed, the conceptions of these philo~ophers mclude some steps towards the collective subject
Idea. But. these are merely initial steps, and they could
o~y J:>e discerned after the Marxist doctrine of the sociohistOrIcal nature of the process of cognition was formed.
In m?re c~mcre~e term,s, the Transcendental Subject as
c?ncelVed m philosophical transcendentalism is basically
dlf~erent from the collective subject as a concrete socio-histoncal co~muni~y, ~e TI:anscendental Subject, as transcendel!tal.lS~s believe, IS an mdividual of a special kind the
supra-mdivldual
"I"
At th e same time, it is supra-em'pin-"
, .
, '.
cal,. eXlstmg outs~de tune and space. But the collective
subject,
"d al one,lsq
"u,"te
""although
d different
' . from the '"nd"IVIU
empmc an set 10 defmite spatio-te
al r 'ts The
Transcendental Subject is acee,Sleoy
"bl mnlPor om
lIDl WI:th"In,
fr

240

from the inside of individual consciousness, being in fact a

deep layer of the latter. As for the collective subject,
though non-existent outside a system of interacting individuals, it exists at the same time outside each separate
individual subject, in a sense. The collective subject
manifests itself and the laws of its functioning not so much
through the inner structures of the individual's consciousness as through external practical activity involving objects
and through collective cognitive activity with systems of
objectified knowledge. Finally, the collective subject is not
singular. A great many such subjects are in a state of
change: some collective subjects and the inherent forms of
their activity emerge while others die out. The relations
between different collective subjects may be complicated
enough. 105
Let us undertake in this connection an analysis of Popper's thesis concerning the importance of the "biological
approach" to the study of the relation between man and
the "third world" and the assumption that the analysis of
the structure of the products of scientific activity determines the study of the modes of their production.
The English philosopher's principal error lies in his
failure to understand that the man-made objects of the
"second nature", i.e., objects implementing a specifically
socio-cultural content, beginning with labour implements
and buildings and ending with scientif!c theories, are
radically different from those chang~s m th~ exte':lal
environment which animals produce, srnce man s practtcal
activity involving objects is social in its very natu~ ~d
assumes the use of labour implements and commUnIcabve
links between individual subjects. The specific features of
this activity also determine its spontaneou.s develop,?ent
and continual reaching beyond ~e e~abhshe:t confmes.
Applying the "biological approach to It~ study IS ~bsoluu:ly fruitless. "In creating a w~rld of t?b}ects by hIS practical activity, in his work upon I~Org~.IllC nat~e, man proves
himself a conscious species~bem~, I.e., a bemg tha.t treats
th species as its own essential berng, or that treats Itself as
e ecies-being" wrote Marx, "Admittedly animals also
a s~uce They' build themselves nests, dwellings, like the
pro ~avers ants, etc, But an animal only produces
b~:t it immediately needs for itself or its young. It prow es one-sidedly, whilst man produces universally, It
dU~uces only under the dominion of immediate physical
pr d whilst man produces even when he is free from
n~ sical need and only truly p~duces i!l freedom therefro~ An animal produces only Itself, whilst man reproduces the whole of nature. An animal's product belongs
241

immedi3;tely to its physic.a! body. whil~t man freely COn.

fronts his product. An anunal Conns objects only in ace
dance with the stand~ and the need of the species
which it belongs, whilst man knows how to produce i~
accordance with the standards of every species and know
how to apply everywhere the inherent standard to
object. Man therefore also fanns objects in accordance
with the laws of beauty."106
Of course, books and other man-made objects in which
knowledge is reified exist objectively. If they are to be
considered from. the stru:dpoin~ of the chemical composi.
tion of the materIals, their physical structure and geometri.
cal Conn, they do not differ basically from natural objects
including "non-living structures" created by animals. They
exist as carriers of lmowledge only as long as they are
included in the human cognitive activity. Outside the
latter, these objects have no structure at all, if the
reference is to the structure of knowledge objectified in
them and not chemical and physical structure. To under.
stand a book means to reproduce a definite structure of
cognitive activity. To assimilate a theory reified in a book
means to accept the need for further activity in this field,
an activity patterned on a definite model, for a scientific
theory is not so much ready-made knowledge as the
activity of problem solving. If a definite kind of cognitive
activity is inadequately decoded, we cannot say that we
have this knowledge.
Supposing that a book is read not by men but by some
visitors from outer space non-human reasonable beings
(t~at is the example disc~ssed by Popper). These beings
will b,e able to master the knowledge reified in the book
only if they decode ,its language, Le., when they are abl~
t? reproduce the soc.1o-culturai communicative and cogm~Ive system of connections in which the book was once
mclu~~d. And that is only possible to the extent in which
the vIsltor~ from <?uter space will become reincarnated as
hufm an bemgs" 3:S It were, assimilating the real properties
o h um~, cogrutive activity.
, Cog!'~tlOn and knowledge exist only as long as the specif.
lC actiVIty of the collective subject is maintained and
~onlsedqude~tl;r
mcu emIt, the activity of the individual subjects
If elementary perce t'
,
,
,
to
an external b'
pIon unplies not only a relatIOn
individual sUb'id t but al~o the self-consciousness of, B:"
activity are n~t ~nihethobligatory conditions of scientIfIC
the domain of ob' y ts ~ movement of cognition tt:rr0~gh
(not necessarily ~ecth ut also the conscious realisat~o:n
e fonn of reflexion, i.e., explICIt

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242

knowledge) of the modes and nonns of cognitive activity

and the standards ot assessing its results intrinsically
characteristic of the collective subject, for it is only
through these modes and norms that the problem field of
research can be specified,
Epistemology proves to be impossible without the
cognizing subject .
The role of objectified systems of knowledge in the
development of cognition, just as all the other questions of
understanding the cognitive relation between subject and
object, were given a much more precise and profouod
treatment than Popper's by Hegel, the greatest representa
tive of the German classical idealist philosophy, HI 7 Of all
the pre-Marxian and non-Marxist philosophers Hegel came
closest to understanding many of the essentiaJ features
of the problem analysed here, though at the same time
strongly mystifying it.
Hegel asserts that individual consciousness and selfconsciousness cannot be understood from within, Although
each individual is given his "I" and the unity of self-con
sciousness as immediate certainty, this unity is actually
mediated by the individual's relation to other individual
subjects, The individual consciousness recognises something
different in the other self-consciousnesses and at the same
time something that is internally identical to it, The
individual subject exists for himself as an "I" only through
a relation to others. "Everyone is the mean for the other,
through which each mediates and links up ~th h~self,
and each [is] f,!r himse~f and fo~ th~ other unmedIa~ly
given being existmg for Itself, WhIch IS at the same tune
thus for itself only through this mediation, They recognise
themselves as mutually recognising one another, "10,8
The "substance" of the individual, his "inorganIC natu
re" are forms of the objective spirit, that is, essentially
coIiective modes of activity, reified products of human
culture, Assimilating ~he 18:t~er a~d takin~ up these, f?rms
f ctivity (the objective Sptnt exists o!,ly Insofar as It IS an
o ~vit ) the individual becomes a subJec~.1?9 , "
acta. rlexion implies going beyond the hmlt of illdIVl?U~
e ious ness : recognition of oneself in th~ othe~ ill?I'
c?dn~ constituting society and at the same tune obJectIfiVI ~ s of man in the artifacts of the world of culture
,
catIon
crestr!h~~ is not simply a relation to t~e individual
I" uThe essence of reflexion consists, accordmg to Hegel,
~. , ition of the objective spirit itself, in the process of
malco~cal development of knowledge, This development
~l ecbstantiation of knowledge, reflex ion upon it and
IS

SU

243

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deepening in itself. A real foundnlion t'nwrg{'s at. the I'nd

and as a result of developm(lnl, not at th(' beginning Th
movement ahead an~ development o ~ the COntent o~
objective know~ edge IS at th e S8m(' time a movement
backwards, a dIscovery of t he true hIdden basis of the
whole process.
"Consciousness is, on the one hand , a realisation of the
object, and o,n t.he other, c~ nsciousne~ of oneself: the
conscious realisatlon of what IS . true for It and, the realisa.
tion of one'~ knowledge ab~ut It. "1 10 ~he o~Ject appears
to the conSCIOusness only m the shape In which it knows
that o~ject. ~he consc.iou~ess com~ares .its knowledge of
the object WIth the object Itself. "If m thIS comparison the
two do not correspond to one another, the consciousness
seems to be obliged to change its knowledge, to bring it in
accord with the object; but in this change of knowledge
the object itself actually changes for it, for the available
knowledge was essentially the knowledge of the object;
along with the knowledge, the object too becomes different, for it belonged in fact to this knowledge. "111 The
consciousness makes it clear that what previously appeared
as being-in-itself, i.e., independently from the given consciousness is in actual fact merely being for the given
consciousness. At the same time, it is not only the con.
sciousness and its object that change but also the standards and criteria of verifying the agreement between
knowledge and its object. "The criterion of testing is
changed, when th~t of which it was to have been the criterion does not stand the test; and the test is not only a test
of knowledge but also of its own criterion. "112
Hegel points out that the new object of knowledge
comes into being "through conuersion (Umkehrung) of
consciousness itself" .113 At the same time individual can
sciousness does not know how that occu;s for the erner6:e nce of the new object "takes place behind its back, as it
were".114
Theref?re, reflex ion of knowledge about itself at eac~
~;age of"lts. development (the latter being incomplete) IS
untrue , Imperfect reflex ion, implying the existence ?f
unreflected movements of consciousness "behind ds
bac_k",. Know~edge in some fonn or other is not yet that
whIch IS C?gnlZed, Hegel insists.
I ~c~ordmg to, Hegel, cognition is a world-historical dia~ IC b~lTO~~SS 10 which both subject and object change.
.e su Jec IS not some ideal object, it is not something
pnmordlally equal to itself but eternal motion becoming,
dev~l_opment, sublation of all est bl" h d bo d " and
positing new one Th
.
a IS e
un anes
s.
e Subject is inseparable from restless244

n('ss and aciiVeneas, expre58ing that activeness in the purest

form. He is inconceivable outside a relation with the object
he cognizes and changes. At the same time, the object
itself is transformed along with the development of
conscio usness, i.e. , it changes in the historical process of
cognitive activity. The conception of subject and object as
entities isolated from and metaphysically opposed to each
other is quite untenable and can only lead into philosophical cul-de-sacs.
However, Hegel sees reflex ion, the self-consciousne58 of
the Absolute Spirit, the Absolute Subject, as the essence of
the cognitive process, and that is where idealistic mystification of the whole problem starts.
The Absolute Subject, according to Hegel, underlies the
whole of reality in general. The substance is to be thought
of as the subject, Hegel insists. What appears to the individual consciousness as an object independent from and
cognized by it is in actual fact the product of the Absolut~
Spirit. Hegel tries to show that the development of cogmtion leads to a sublation of the independence of the cognized object from the cognizing subject, if the latter is to
be understood as the Absolute Subject and not an individual one. The Absolute is ultimately the Subject-Object,
thinking about thinking, the cognition ?f self.
_.
Hegel's attempt ~o interpret cogni~lOn as ~If-cogrution
is also connected With the above thesIS. Start~ out from
the real facts of interaction between ,consciousness and
self-consciousness, cognition and reflexlOn, Hegel, following Fichte, endeavours to present all ~0.wledge as reducible in the final analysis, to self-cognition. Tru~, Hegel
spe~ks of the self-cognition of the Absolute Subject and
not of that of an individual " I" or even of a Transcendental " I".
.
,
Hegel's analysis of the concrete hlst.?ncal deyelopm~nt
of cognition went far b,eyond the lim,ltS of philosophlc~l
transcendentalism, shOWing the collective natu_re ?f cogm.
the development of its forms and norms 10 tune, and
bon, ling the dialectics of reflexive and unreflected content
reveknowledge. At the same tiJ;ne, acc?r~ing to Hegel,
[fll adequate cognition, that IS, cogmtlOn that really
u y es its name, is only attained when absol"!-te comdese:;;ess of reflexion is achieved, when the subject (the
pl~t lute Subject) becomes, as it were, absolutely transparA s~or itself and reflects on itself w!thout going beyo~d
~nt wn limits. It is in this act of coinCldence of the C?gr:alZ~ts subject with itself that the process of substantiation
lllgknowledge is completed.
of Hegel believes that the foundation of knowledge should
245

..

.. to

....

Sciel

of.
flY'

ICOn

!hot
... m
fOl'el

not be soug~t f~r at th:e so~c.e of the cognitive proce

This foundatIon 15 not gwen, l~ 1,5 moulded ~nd takes sha ~
in the development of cogmtlOn. In thIS point He~ I
opposes the metaphysic.al view of ~he problem of S~bs~.
tiating knowledge, WIdespread m Western bourgeo'
philosophy. At the same time, though the foundation
knowledge lies, according to Hegel, at the end rather than
at the begin:nin~ of the cognit,ive, p'roce~, substantiation is
interpreted m hlS system as cOIncIdmg with absolute reflex.
ion, with the self-consciousness of ,the Absolute Spirit.
Just like Descartes, Kant and Flchte, Hegel believes that
only the self-cognition of the spirit, its knowledge of itself
can reach absolute adequacy. It is in the act of absolute
reflexion that the absolute foundation of knowledge is
found. Thus Hegel essentially reproduces the traditions of
philosophical transcendentalism at this basic point of his
epistemological conception. True, Hegel speaks of some
supra-individual, Absolute Subject. But Hegel believes that
the indivIdual, too, inasmuch as he became part of the
motion of the Absolute Spirit and assumed the standpoint
of "absolute knowledge", does not merely comprehend
the Absolute adequately but grasps at the same time his
own deep essence, i.e., cognizes himself. The individual's
self-cognition coincides in this case with absolute reflexIon.
Hegel's philosophy ultimately explains the development
of cognition by the self-cognition of the Absolute. The
~bsolute, which exists at the beginning of development in
Itself only, must eventually also become being for itself.
And that means that all the historical vicissitudes of the
real cognitive process are predetermined in the supra
humS:" spheres. The real persons, the individual subjects of
practIcal. and cognitive activity are merely disappearing
elements 10 ~he development of the supra-individual forces.
. The relatIons between individuals human communica
~Ion, the real practical activity, man's' reification of himself
m the work~ of culture,. and the unfolding of the social
pr~e~, w~l?h Hegel mcludes in the sphere of the
ob]e<;tlVe s~mt, all of these elements mediating the spirit's
rela.bon to Itself are ultimately sublated' the spirit returns
~el~lf as,~ .the "inne~". It is in the r~lation to itself as
othersmnt~ t : the .e?tlStence for itself rather than for
fonn.116 a
e spmt appears in the most adequate

or

Hnegel believes that. external object-related activity

canh.ot produ1ce consciousness This kind of activity
ac
leves
f"
.
of wh
' hmere y .obI'ect'll~atlon
of. consciousness as a result
IC consciousness Itself is enriched. But the cruJC of
246

the matter is that any external mediation of consciousness must be sublated in the unity of the immediate and
the mediated, in a dialectical identity of consciousness
with itself.
Purely immediate consciousness (whether this is taken
to mean empirical lmowledge or intellectual intuition)
does not exist, Hegel insists. Immediate certainty
inasm~ch ~ it is f!le~ely immediate, is not knowledge, Th~
latter ImplIes medlatlon. Only that knowledge is adequate
in which unity is attained of the immediate and the
mediated in the fonn of the new dialectically mediated. In
the immedia.te, which exists at the beginning of the
development of cognition, the possibility and necessity of
mediation are embedded, and the nature of the latter is
predetennined. The result of the development of
cognition and mediation is a return to the immediate on a
new basis, Hegel believes. "Mediation is nothing but
equality to itself in motion, or else it is refiexion in itself.,.
The 'I' or becoming in general is, owing to its simplicity,
precisely the immediate in the process of becoming and
the immediate itself... 116 (In real cognition, however,
there is always, in a definite sense, a unity of the
immediate and the mediating elements in knowledge. This
unity does not in itself guarantee the truth of knowledge.)
In the final analysis, Hegel reduces th~ essence of ~y
cognition to reflexion. Insofar as the object of reflexlon
changes in the course of t~e latte~. H~gel concludes that
cognition deals with an object whIch IS a product of ~h.e
Absolute Spirit itself. Hegel's Phenomenology of the Spmt
is the story of the struggle of self-consciousness with the
object as a result of which the object proves to be a
prope: moment of Absolute self-consciousness. "As. it
drives itself towards true existence, it wi.ll reach a pomt
where it will discard the appearance of belOg encumbered
th the foreign which exists only for and in the capacity
Wi another or where appearance will be equal to the
o ence its' presentation coincides thereby with precisely
e;: oint of the science of the spirit properly speaking;
t IdS f~"a1IY as it captures this its being itse1t it will express
1.1"
Id
an
h nature
of absolute k
now
e ge Itself . ,,111
.
t ~'The roain point is," wrote Marx, "that t~e object of
seiousness is nothing else but self-co11SClousness, or
ilint the object is only objectified self-consciousnessseU.consciousness as
object. (Positing of man"" self-conusness
.) therefore, IS
. to surmount the 0 bJect
.
f
scio"The
issue,
0 con. lllelS. ObjectifJity as such is regarded as an estranged
SCIOU
relationship which does not correspond to the
human
247

f man to self-consciousness. The reappropriation

esse~ceo~'ectiV~ essence of man. produced within the orbit
V
is

....

Sciel

co'"
of

'"

ICon

!hOI
num

forel

of t e l eot as something ahen, therefore denotes not

of tSY~~~~ulment
of est~ngement. but of objecti'!ity. as
y
on u Man that is to say. IS regarded as a non-obJectwe,
w~:

' . . . 118

SP'rltUGLeIb~mgw' rote- "Hegel seriously 'believed', thought

As
run
,
'bl
'
h t
te "alism as a philosophy was unPOSSl e, for
t ~ mah nis a science of thinking, of the universal, but

ph asop Ysal ,'s a thought Here he repeated the error of

the
:
the umver
same subjective ideahsm
that h e al ways c all ed 'bad'
"dealism "119

Thus' although Hegelian philosop~~ grasps a number of

.
~t moments of the real cogmttve process, ,on many
fPdamental issues it reveals an a~finity to the eplStem?lo:
':ffi
Ton
of philosophical transcendentahsm,
gIcal
.. POSIWI~thm' the limitations
of idealism, it cannot give
remammg
, ,
an adequate picture of cogmtlon.

5. HOW IS A THEORY OF COGNITION

POSSIBLE?

I the light of what has been said here let us attempt to

ans~er the following question: what are the prope~
ties of epistemological reflexion? In oth~r words, wh.~~ ~
the nature and character of research which has cogm 10
itself for its object?
.
d ly
We have already analysed some c~:mceptlO~s, WI. ~
spread in bourgeois philosophy, accordmg to which ePt.5bil
mology does not assume any premises, ,as t~~ very pOi!d e'
ity of any knowledge, including SCientIfIc kn~w. g.,
must be substantiated in its framework. Substantiation ~
in this case understood as finding types of knowl~ge ~:ir
would be absolutely reliable and directly given m t for
content. The adherents of these conceptions searched all
this knowledge in individual consciousness. We may rec.
that it was this course of reasoning that was ch~actenf
tic of epistemological transcendental.ism, in p~lc~!a~ 0_
Descartes, Fichte, and Husserl. In thIS conceptIOn, a SOe
lute", transcendental reflexion about the content of th
subject's consciousness becomes a method of ep~temol1~
ieal research, and "absolute knowledge", I~S .resu
Absolute knowledge can only be obtained wlthm th e
framework of epistemology. All other kinds of know:l~dgeal'
both everyday and scientific are relative and condition
from the standpoint of transc~ndentalism.
But that means that epistemology becomes a rather
248

specific discipline basically different from the particular

scientific theories. (Some transcendentalists, such as
Husserl, believe that epistemology, being the foundation of
sc ientific knowledge, is not itself a theory in the precise
meaning of the tenn, but a kind of pre-theoretical description of the immediately given obvious entities.)
The supporters of this approach to epistemological
problems differ in their understanding of the very nature
and content of the obvious entities which are, in their
view, directly given to the subject's consciousness. This
general type of understanding of epistemological problems
also includes some trends of subjectivist empiriCism, in
particular, such schools of bourgeois philosophy as
neorealism and critical realism.
The situation is somewhat more complicated in the case
of the epistemological conceptions of such philosophers as
Kant and particularly Hegel, who go beyond the limits of
this approach in some essential aspects.
However, in the view of Kant and Hegel, too, philosophical epistemological reflexion is concerned with obtaining
"absolute" knowledge, unlike studies in the special
scientific disciplines and reflex ion in these areas.
As a reaction to the breakdown of the attempts to solve
the problem of substantiating knowledge in its metaphysical (and as a rule, subjectivist) interpretation, the view now
gains currency in bourgeois philosophy that this problem
has no meaning at all, and that epistemology therefore
loses its right to exist as a special philosophical discipline.
All real problems pertaining to understanding the mechanisms and character of the cognitive processes are studied,
from this point of view, by the special scientific disciplines. Thus, according to Quine, cognition is the subjectmatter of scientific inquiry in the framework of the physiology of higher nervous activity, psychology, which uses
the apparatus ~f ~f?rm.ati.on, theory, ~nd. 3: n~ber of
other special sCientifiC dlSclphnes. A SCientifiC epIStemology (which in Quine'S view has not yet been created)
is only conceiva~le. as a ge.neralisation. of the results of
these special disc~plm~s. ThlS future sCience mus~ take ,a
naturalistic and biOlogical approach to man and hIS cOfmve rocess (the so-called naturali.sed ~pistemology). 20
PPiaget believes that the genetIc eplStemology he has
ean nlcted is a generalisation, on the one hand, of the
cons~ca1 and theoretical data of psychology (mostly of
~~pet' own psychological theory) and, on the other hand,
lag Sdata of the history of science.121 In this concep.
o.f the istemology actually appears as a special scientific
boon! e1.P of a certain kind: first , a rather general discidlSCIP I ne

9- _763

249

S-_~_ _ _ _

pline and second, one dependent on other, more spec'a!

sciences of cognition. (We !gno~ he~ the fact that PSYCh~l.
ogy itself may be treated In qUite different ways: both
an ~mpirical scie.nce o~ the fac~. of consciousness and ::
a science of behavlOur:-m the spmt o~ behaviourism.)
From the standpomt of early Wlttgenstein, the tradi.
tional theory of knowledge was merely an inadequate
interpretation of psychological data in terms of philo.
sophy. As distinct from psychology, Wittgenstein believed
genuine philosophy must be concerned with the study of
language and not cognition: "4.1121 Psychology is no
nearer related to philosophy, than is any other natural
science. The theory of knowledge is the philosophy of
psychology ... 12 2
The school of linguistic analysis, which is dominant in
the modem bourgeois philosophy of England the
formation of which was strongly affected by the' later
works of Wittgenstein, adheres to a special position in the
interpretation of the nature of epistemological research
one that is intermediate between the reduction of th~
research to empirical generalisation of certain objectified
data and the position, analysed above, which posits the
task of epistemology to be the analysis of the premises of
any knowledge, including scientific knowledge. The philosophy of linguistic analysis insists, on the one hand, on the
possibility and necessity of solving the philosophical
problems of cognition through studying the entirely objective and generally accepted facts of the usage of words of
the ordinary language. This study is only made possible
by painstaking collective effort of many specialists, each
of whom specifies and particularises the empirical results
already obtained by applying special technical procedures.
The work of an analytical philosopher reminds one: in
many resp~ts, o,f the work of a researcher engaged in
some specIal scIence. This philosophy declares most
proble~s of traditional epistemology, the problem of substantiatmg knowledge among them, to be pseudoproblem~
On the, other hand, the philosophy of linguistic analysIS
emphasnses that it is the usage of everyday language that
determme~ th,e. semant~c, or content, aspects of all the
SpecIal ~Ienliflc ~eones, in particular the theories of
scIences whK:h study the processes of cognition,
. ~se ilences, Psychology included cannot in prin~IPd" IOtaV~~ single philosophical questi~n ~rtaining to the
~'len ~ 109 of knowledge and cogmtion analytical
I osop .en bel.ieve, Ep,istemological problem's are solv~
analytical ~Ctlvlty whteh m itself is not .'IentITlc for It
encompa'l3t ISS
th t
.
~.
ues a are mvolved in all the sciences, and

v
is he

..to
Sc;;iel

""'.
of.
gy,

-,
....,
num

for.1

'h'*"

e,

'00

is basically a-theoretical, The results of analysis, these

philosophers insist, cannot be juxtaposed with experience
in the same way as special scientific theories, for analysis
deals with the structure of experience itself, Everyday
language, which is the o~ject of activity of an analytical
philosopher, appears as a kind of primary givenness deter
mining the content of all t he types and modes of cogni
tion. It is therefore not surprising that t he activ ity of ana
lytical philosophers manifests a certain affinity with philosophical transcendentalism, in particular phenomenology
and Kantian philosophy an affi nity that is often realised
by the analytical philosophers themselves. 123 Several
Soviet philosophers have criticised t he epistemological conception of the philosophy of linguistic analysis,124
However is it possible to reveal the true nature of
knowledge 'and cognition through simple in?uctive gene~
alisation and systematisation of the conceptions of cogm
tion formed in everyday life and in the separate sciences?
The notions of the character of cognition, of the standarels criteria and nonns of knowledge, considerably vary
not o'nlY in the transition from pre-scientific knowledge to
scientific and from science to science: they also ,v~
within the framework of a single scientific discipli!le m Its
historical development.., Indeed, one of the essential tasks
of epistemology is separating knowledge from absence of
knowledge and establishing t~e stan.dards of kno~ledge
and cognition. It proves to be ImpOSSible to solv~ th,lS task
through elementary accu~u lat!on an.d systematlsat~on of
the varied facts of cognition, mc1udmg .those studied by
psychology. Epistemology does. not SlI1lply. study the
cognitive process in its actu~ .lmpl eI?~ntatlon but sets
down the general norms of cogmtlve actiVity,
.
. .
Point.ing out th is fundamen~l fact., Popper !eJects m ~lS
book The Logic of Scientific DISCouery t~,~ nrove. naturahs
.
. temology (which he also ca1ls an mductiVe t.heory
~f ~~nce") trying to describe the empiric!ll behaviou~ of
.enlists In actual fact, Popper says, eplSt.emology l~ a
SCl erai ~ethodOlogy of cogniti,:,~. It does not ~esCTlbe
ge~ t tually takes place in cogmtlon but rather stlpuJa~s
W hat ~~uirements cognition must satisfy to agree :WI~h
w a. nonns and ideals, According to Popper, a spec.lB:hst
?erta~ntemology
fonnulates th~ gene~l,norms of cogmtlve,
ep15
In d
the first place SCientifiC, actiVIty, and fonnul~tes
an ~ oposals which are accepted purely conventIOncer~:rt cognition is, and what science is, is settled by
ally. me~t and not by empirical study. The character of
IQpee
ement detennines the boundary between statethe .~g~hich express knowledge and those that do not. In
I

men '"""

251

V
is he

""

Scier

co."

otK

gy,
leort

"'ot

num

forei

Popper's view the specialist in epistemology (or methodo_

logy) formul~tes certain ".absolute " prescriptions in the
sense that their content IS not prompted by empirical
experience. These presc~l?tions. h.owever, do not describe
any specific su~ra-empmcal r~ahty, ~~ transcendentalist
philosophers beheved, and neither do they express any
absolute truths. They are not assertions in the strict sense,

and therefore they cannot be either true or false. Some

epistemological conventions ca~ be replaced by .others.

Epistemology reveals connections between different

epistemological (methodological). norms, rese.mhling in this

respect a scientific theory. Stnctly speakmg, however
epistemology (methodology) is not a theory. according t~
Popper, for it does not reflect any object. 125
What is one to be guided by, then, in accepting some
epistemological (methodological) system or other? If the
choice is not determined either by empirical experience or
the structure of transcendental consciousness, epistemological conventions can be absolutely arbitrary. In what way
is then one epistemological system better than another? Or
must they all be recognised as acceptable? In this case, all
argument in epistemology is meaningless, all epistemolog
ical problems cease to be real problems, while their dif
ferent solutions prove to be simply camouflaged proposals
for rules of some sort of a game which we call cognition.
Popper rejects these subjectivist and relativistic conclusions which follow from his epistemological conceptions. 126 He believes that there are certain criteria which
compel the choice of one epistemological system over
another. Among these criteria Popper includes the absence
of contradictions in the system of epistemology and the
ex~~t ~ which the given system proves to be fruitful,
facthtatmg the understanding of cognition as it actually
occurs.127 It is easy to see, however, that these criteria
are, on the one h~nd , quite inadequate (even a most arbitrary ar:'-d fantastIc construction may be internally non
contrad~ctory) an~ ind~finite, and, on the other, they may
co~tradict t~e bastc pnnciples of Popper's conception (an
eptstemolo~lcal system has to be correlated in one way or
anot~er, With .actually existing cognition). '
Stil~, how IS the question of the nature and character
of eplStemoi.ogicai !esearch solved? In searching for an
answer to. thIS .question that would conform to the principle~l[ dlaleC~lc~ .materalist philosophy, let us note, first
o. ,that sclen~I~IC epistemology is a theory which deals
WIth actual e~Pltlcai [acts of cognition and attempts to
study the varted forms
kinds , and ty pes 0 f cogO!'t Ion
'
nd
.
'.
a
kn owe
1 dge (b0 th SCientific and pre-scientific) in terms of
252

thefr in herent standards and norms. In the first place,

epistemology is oriented at analysing objectified kinds of
knowledge and collective forms of cognitive activity, for
it is these kinds of knowledge and cognition that reflect
the cognitive norms in the most pure fonn. That means
that scientific epistemology appears mostly as a form of
objective reflexion. At the same time, epistemology also
has to take into account, to some extent, the facts of indio
vidual consciousness (here the cognitive norms appear in
a "transmuted form "), inasmuch as other empirically
accessible paths of the reconstruction of certain cognitive
standards are often absent.
)
A scientific theory of knowledge must thus necessarily
be compared with the empirical data of cognition. But,
just as any scientific theory, it does not merely passively
reproduce or describe these empirical data but endeavours
to reveal the essence of the process considered. For
epistemology that means the singling out of such cognitive
standards and norms which express deep characteristics of
cognition and may not directly coincide with the way
these norms are in certain cases understood in everyday
cognition or in a concrete scientific study.
Epistemology must therefore take into account, in the
first place, the real cognitive processes, correcting its
propositions and specifying and developing them in the
light of the rea1 facts of cognition. The basic principles of
dialectical materialist epistemology (the principle of reflexion, the principle of unity of practical activity and cogni
tion, the principle of unity of dialectics, logic, and epistemology, etc. ) do not at all express " absolute" and final
solution to all possible epistemological problems or the
creation of a closed epistemological construction incapable
of development. These principles specify the necessary
conditions of fruitful scientific study of epistemological
problems, a study that never stands still but formulates
and solves new questions and makes more precise certain
propositions through the development of real cognition
itself and the speciaJ sciences about it (psychology, the
history of science, the science of science, etc.). At the
same time, scientific epistemology, just as any scientific
discipline, constructs a kind of idealised model of the
process ur:ader study, later gra?ua.lly . specifying. ~nd
particularismg that model, companng It With the empmcal
data of cognition. Thus epistemology is not a product of
direct grasping of certain subjective certainties, and neither
is it a simple description of the diverse facts of cognition.
Still less can epistemology coincide with some special
science of cognition, whether it be psychology or the
253

VI
is he

....

Sciel"
covel
of "

9Y<
score

"'"

nurnl

forei

science of science.
Although epistemology is in some basic aspects sim ilar
to all the other scientific theories, it differs in some points
from most theories. We must not fo rget that epistemology
is a reflective theory .
Most scientific theories deal with objects of which they
have no previous knowledge. No science can ignore the
data of everyday experience, of course, ~ut the develop.
ment of scientific knowledge means gomg beyond the
limits of this experience. The latter sa~s n othing of the
nature of those objects with which, for Instance, modern
physics deals. The knowledge . of .t~ese objects. is only
acquired in the process of SCIentifiC research Itself. A
reflective theory, however, has, as we have noted, so~e
preliminary, implici~ ~nowledge of the o~ject about whIch
it formulates explICIt knowledge. EpIstemology as a
reflective theory proceeds from an implicit knowledge of
what knowledge and cognition are and what the basic
cognitive norms are, i.e., it begins with implicit knowledge
which is contained in individual consciousness, in everyday
language, and in the paradigmal premises of scientific
theories.
At the same time reflex ion about knowledge, translati~m
of the latter from its implicit into explicit form, and Its
theoretical formulation, involve certain changes of the very
object of reflex ion, revealing the imaginary character of
some formations which were included in knowledge
without proper foundation before the implementation of
the procedure itself. We have already cited examples ~f
reformulation of the object of refiexion as a result of thIS
procedure in the special sciences. Epistemology differs
from reflexion in the special sciences in that it tries to
establish the necessary conditions for any cognition and
universal cognitive norms. The links between an episternolo~cal system and a certain particular t heory of a special
science are therefore rather mediated. Nevertheless.,
formulation of an epistemological conception is always a!'l
a~tempt not merely to state the ex isting practice of cog~l
tIon . but also to change this practice, to reject certatn
~~bhshed canons of. cognitive activity as distracting cog
n.ltlOn f~om the attamment of its goal, and at the same
~e to mtroduc~ ~ew standards of this activity. The gener~ 1:IDage ?f cogOltJ?n and science created by epistemolo~
IS It~1f mcluded m the real course of cognition and 10
?ertam .respe::ts restructures it. Therefore any seriOUS,
~nfluentia1 . epistemological conceptions are not only an
mtel)l.retatlon of the existing practice of cognition but alsO
a cntIque of some aspects of this practice in the light of
254

some id eals of knowledge and science.

Thus, a c~rtair:' gap between the model of knowledge
c.on s ~ru cted .10 epistemology and the actual cognitive practl ~ e IS. ~xplamed not only by the differences between any
~lenhflC theory and its empirical basis. As far as these
dIfferences are .concerned , epistemology should strive
for a greater assunilation of empirical data it must be
r~ised and made more precise. At the s~e time, the
dlffe.r~nces betyveen epistemology and the corresponding
empmcal. prac~lces of cognition may mark a gap between
the . sp~clfled Ideal of knowledge and the practice of its
realisatIOn. In the latter case, practice the empirical
givenness of cognition, must be restruch~ed and brought
to the level of the ideal.
The above does not mean that all epistemological systems (and there have been quite a number of these in the
history of philosophy) could affect the actual course of
cognition. We must not assume either, that this influence
was necessarily fruitful wherever it occurred. Situations
were not infrequent in the history of philosophical and
scientific thought where a given epistemological concep
tion specified a reference frame for the production of
special scientific theories of a definite type and at the same
time an entirely erroneous conception of the nature of
cognition, knowledge and science, which resulted in an
insoluble collision in the construction of a general epistemological conception, essentially limiting at the same time
the possibilities of science itself. For instance, the epistemological empiricism of Bacon played a very progressive
role at the time of the formation of experimental science.
At the same time, it did not accord with the actual
practice of contemporary natural science and later became
a drag on its development. We have already discussed
sOme substantive defects of Descartes' epistemological
conception. It cannot be ignored, however, that Descartes'
epistemology selVes as a basis of his metaphysics, while the
latter is the nucleus of a research programme in physics
and in psychology. Some historically important results
were attained in Cartesian physics. Considerable factual
material was accumulated within the framework of
empirical psychology, though this psychology outlived its
usefulness as a scientific discipline by the beginning of the
20th century. The epistemology of Kant, a critic of which
was given above, did not merely formulate a general
research strategy in several theoretical disciplines (for
exampl~, Kant 's epistemolo~ posits the impossibility of
rationalist ontology, a speciaJ status of psychology as a
non_mathematised science, the need for complement255

ing biological descriptions with teleological ones etc)

VI

is he

"'..
"".
of
Seier
K

OV<

"""
.,,'
num

fOfal

Kant's conception (along with H~sscr~'s phenome~ologyj

was used by Brouwer and Heytmg Ill . constructing the
intuitionist programme for the foundnt~ons ?f mathema.
tics. Some important results were obtamed In mathema_
tical intuit ionism, although on the whole this trend failed
to solve the task it set itself. It is well known, however
that Kant 's aprioristic interpretation of the basic principle~
of classical science came into a sharp collision with the
development of cognition.
There are other instances, too, of the influence of
epistemological conceptions on the development of
science. An episteIll:0logical sys~em. ~ay be completely
inadequate as reflex Ion about sCIentIfIc knowledge, offer
ing an entirely false image of science and being quite
untenable on the general philosophical plane. At the same
time, such a system is used for the production of some
local special scientific theories which retain a certain value
even after their philosophical interpretation is rejected.
That is possible because some aspects of the real cognitive
process are usually grasped even in false epistemological
constructions. But the special scientific theories produced
in such cases are usually of very limited significance. At
the same time, the main paths of scientific development
are here 'obstructed by false epistemological constructions.,
and the development of theoretical thought in this area
is on the whole deflected. That was the situation, e.g., with
the epistemology of operationalism and the physical theories constructed according to operationalist prescriptions.
The epistemology of dialectical materialism is specific
in that it provides, for the first time, an adequate picture
of cognition, knowledge, and science. And that means that
the impact of this image of cognition on the actual
development of science must result in extremely
~ignific~t re~lts. ~he history of Marxist philosophy and
Its relattonshtps wIth the natural and social SCiences
cO,nf~s this idea. Marx's Capital, which embodies the
scle,ntlftc theo!y of po~tic~ economy, was created oJ? t~e
ba~ls of conscIOUS apphcatton of the dialectical materlahst
epistem,ology and methodology of science.
Rely~ng on ,a :-Cientific conception of t he nature of
th~orettca+ thmkmg and consciously employing the
phIlosophICally substantiated method of ascending from
the abst!8ct to the concrete, Marx constructed a scientific
economIC th~?ry, fonnulating in detail the methodological
pro~lems ansmg in theoretical research and consistently
SO~Vl~g them on ,t~~ basis of general epistemolOgical
pnnclples. Marx cntIctsed bourgeois political economy not
256

j~ st

by cO,mpari ng t~e content of a scientific theory with

distorted mterpretatlons of the same subject-matter, but
through co.nsistent refutation of basically erroneous
m el~h.odloIOgJCal approac~es. The main defect of bourgeois
po It,lca "econo,,!,y, which predetermined its basically
unscl~ntlflC quality and was directly linked with its social
functIOn, was, as Marx sh<?wed, a false interpretation of
both the nature
th~, object cognized and of the ways
and m ethod~ of SCientifiC cognition, Therefore a change in
methodologIcal . ~nd epistemological orientation is a
condition of creating a scientific political

or

~~:'Li~d.~e~as,
worked out by Lenin in his
,
(the entire complex of

of reflection, the
the dialectics of
the inexhaustireflection as a

science is the consciously

need for
IS
al ep.istemo!o~cal i~eas (of which the scientific
Mantl,st-I:erumst epistemology) into the production of
theOries m the special areas of knowledge, Modem science
has reached a stage in its development when its further
advance demands the weaving of self-reflexion into the
very fabric of scientific research. That is the basis for an
ever inc;:reasing i~teraction between philosophical, in particular epistemolOgIcal, and special scientific knowledge.

CONCLUSION

non-Marxist. epist.emology. sets tasks and problems before

epistemology which do not. exist for traditional bOUIgeois

VI
is he

.,,'

Seier

co."
of "

gy ,

.,,'"
thot

nurnl
foral

The approaches to the ~na1ysis of the co~itive. relation,

characteristic of preMarxlan and nonMarxlst .phdosophy,
prove to be internally untenable and c<?~tra~lc.t the prac
tice of modern cognition . Whether cogmtlon IS mterpreted
as mere interaction of two natural system s or as determined
by the structure of individual consciousness, in both
cases the very mode of fonnulating and discussing the
problem under consideratio n predetermines the fruitlessness of the researcher 's thinking, leading to false results,
Within the framework of the first approach, correct
materialist premises (the subject and t~e object bei~g
considered as definite material systems With real material
links between them) go side by side with implications
which lead the study of some basic epistemological questions into a blind alley, and compel metaphysical material
ists to make serious concessions to subjectivism on a
.,
.
number of points.
Idealistic conceptions which assume that cogmtlOn IS
conditioned by the structure of individual consciou~n~ss,
exploit for their own ends the problem of substanbatmg
knowledge and the need for establishing norms which ~elVe
as criteria for separating knowledge from absence of It. In
discussing the problem of substantiation of knowledge, the
upholders of this approach proceed from two false
assumptions which predetermine the subjectivist nature of
their, epistemological conceptions. The first is the m,,:taphYSICal notion about the existence of standards perrmttfig one to draw a distinct boundary between knowledge
and absen;,e ,of knowledge and to single out "absolute
knowl~ge m pure form which could be used as the
foundat~on of the entire system of scientific theories. :The
seco,!d IS that the adherents of the idealistic conceptions
conslder~ , her~, ~uming that raising the proble~ of
s~bstanttatl(:m. unphes a critical attitude to the vanous
kinds ~f eXlSt!ng knowledge arrive at the conclusion that
th~ philosop~cal analysis of the cognitive relation should
~~ect any !~hance on the results of the special sciences or
e prop<;lSltIO'.lS of the pre'scientific "common sense".
?;e dialectt"'fal materialist conception of the cognitive
re a lOn, apar rom answen"ng the ques t"Ions W h"IC h coofuse
258

philosophy. Marxist-Leninist epistemology makes its

starting point the recognitio.n of the unit.y of reflection,
of practical object-oriented activity and communicat.ion,
and the conception of cognition as a socially mediated and
hist.orically developing activity of reflection .
Marxist. philosophy asserts that cognition is founded on
practical activity a nd that the latter must be understood in
its specifically human characteristics, to wit, as collective
or joint activity. in which the individual enters upon defi
nite relations with other persons, as mediated activity in
which man places between himself and an external natural
ly emerging object other man made objects functioning as
the implements of activity; and finally, as a historically
developing activity carrying in itself its own history. In
the objects that are cognized, man singles out those fea
tures t hat prove to be essential for the developing social
practice, and that is only possible through mediator
sociohistorical
experiences.
objects
implementing
Manmade instruments act as the forms of expressing
objective nonn s, standards, and object,.hypotheses existing
outside a given individual. The assimilation of these norms,
social in their origin, by the individual, makes possible
their functioning as structure-forming components of
cognition.
The internal processes of consciousness emerge as the
consequence of their interiorisation, that is, "growing in "
or transposition onto the inner plane of those actions of
the subject which are originally implemented in an
external fonn and directed at external objects. At the start
of the formation of consciousness, three kinds of activity
emerge as linked together: external practical activity, the
process of cognition, and communication. In implement,.
ing one and the same object,.oriented action, the subject
simultaneously performs a number of functions-he
changes the form of the external object, performs the
act of cognitive orientation and assimilates the socially
moulded ways of practical and cognitive activity embod
ied in the object which he uses as a mediator object. The
assimilation of adequate modes of manipulating a socially
functioning object is only possible if the subject is \
included in the living communicative connections with
other persons, who teach him methods of using manmade
things and thereby shape his cultural orientations and
norms, including the standards of cognitive activity, At
the stage of wellfonned consciousness, the direct links
between practical activity, cognition and communication
259

x:

VI
is hel

"'te
.
Scien
""""
of "

IIV ,

leO"

"'ot

numl

forai

are disrupted. At the sam(' lime, any cognitive activity

whatever the form of its direct subjective givenness i~
socially mediated in the basic mechan isms of its realisa.
tion and consequently always carries the potential of
com~unicating. Therefore, as far as epistemologlcal
research i.e., the discovery of universal referential
meaning~, norms and stand~rd~. is c(,:mcerned, the most
suitable material for analysIs 15 precisely the processes
means and products of communicative activity, in which
cognition is reified and objectified, and not the
phenomena of consciousness taken as such, in which these
referential meanings and standards appear in "converted"
or "folded" fonn, so to speak, and are not always
sufficiently clear to the subject him self. In the Marxist
philosophical conception, the process of transmission of (
knowledge implies objectification of knowledge not only )
in the fonn of texts or utterances but also in the form of
man made objects carrying socia-cultural meaning.
Marxist-Leninist epistemology radically reorientates the
traditional epistemological problems and fundamentally
changes the very manner of positing and studying them.
The starting point of analysis of knowledge is not taken to
be the study of
relation of the individual
(whether it be
to the

)1

~atul,e of cogni
for further
at the
of
inter
widely discussed in
of science, scientology,
o

does not at all consist in the

a
interpreted problem of "abso
knowledge. The real substantiation
i~ at~aine~ in the
of
develop
.
.
activity.
Itself 10
of'
a complicated
continuity or
o~.o
.
is one
the aspects of the
cor:tnec::tlOn betwee':l
and relative moments in
Ob]~ctlve ~rut~! Whl7h was analysed in classical form by
epistemology
,os an Int egral an d speclal
Lenm.
t f SCIentific
. '
.
Pt%J'~ts co~mtlon:t~elther the individual nor the collective
.0. cogm Ion are the supreme guarantors of this
s
O
substantiatiO n. It may be said , or course, th at sclentOr
I IC
0

260

epist.emology is 0 b' t.'

.
cognizing su bject. t~ Ir~t. refl~lOn abo.ut. t.he collective
ent.it.y equal to it.~lr
~ er, oldwever, IS ~ot a complete
in itself but a lite' no a wor of conscIousness closed

cognit.iv~ activiticlo:l;fi~~::ra'.ltt~y dev~lopin~ coUe~tive

ed act.ivity Theref
WI pract.lcal obJect-onentstudy is, fj'rst of a8r~h~h~ proI per field of ep~~m ological
t.he hiJ
.
'
eve opment. of cogmtlVe norms,
lecti~al ~~~~:~I~ndd
on~geneSis of cogn~t~on ~n their dia
e
changes in the c ~~ opmen.t of cogmtlon unplies also
individual and ino~hlZtng subjects, ?a th collective and
same time it encomp~~fheoJ colgmzed objects. At the
eve opment of certain cog
nitive s ta~d d
some charact:ri:tic~~f ~~g~i~~~:~lf~he development of

a Principle of Dialec
Problem of the
of doctoral
th'

NOTES

VI
i, M I
tut. I

Selin

'"'''"
'l'/ ,
ICO'I

II",

~ml

'.n

In troduc tion
See e g B M Kedrov Lenin and Ihe Dialectics of the Naturnl
Sclen~e
'ZOih Century. Mosco:-v 1971 (in Russi~n).
. .
:1 See P. S. Dyshlevty. Materialist Dialectics and Physical Re/alwlSm,
1

oiihe

Kiev 19'12 pp 2223 (in Russian).

3 Niels Bohr' "Quantum Physics and Philosophy. Causality and
ComplementMity" Philosophy in the Mid(}mlur)'. A Survey, ed.
by Raymond Klibansky, La Nuova llalia Edltrice, Firenze, 1958,

r-J,ll'. Fok, Quantum Physics and the Structure of Malter, Lenin

."d 1965 p. II ('0 Ru,,''').
~ stephen 'Cole Kleene, Introduction to MetamathetnDtics. North
Holland Publishinl Co., Anuterdam,1952, p. 48.
6 Ibid .. p. 51.
1 See MathemlJti&ehes Zei/$Chnlt. No. 10 1921.
See W. V. O. Quine, Onl%gical Rl'ialivity and Other EssaYI.
New York 1969.

Se4' N. Chomsky, Cartuian Ungui$!iCf. New York! 19?6; idem,

"Recent Contributions to the Theory of Innate loeas' , Boston
Studjes in the PhiiOfophy o{ Science, Vol. III, Oordrecht, 1967.
10 See Th. Kuhn, The Sirociure o{ Scientific Reuolutions, Chicago,
1970.
11 Lenin's Theory of Reflection and Modem Scrence in 3 Vols,
Sona, 1973 (ed. by T. PavlOV); S. L. Rubinstein, Bein, and Con
SCiousnesslMoscow, 1957; Idem, "Man and the World", In Problems
o{ Genero Psychology, Moscow, 1976; P. V. Kopnln Dlaleelics as
Logic, Kiev, 1961; Idem, Introduction into Marxist Epistem~ogy,
Kiev, 1966; Idem, DiDlectics, Logic, Science, Moscow, 1973; Idem,
v
DiD/ectics as Logic and Epistemology, Moscow, 1973; B. M. Kedro ,
The Unity of Dia/ectics. Logic, alld Epi$tcmology, Moscow, 1963;
Idem, Lenin and the Dialectics of Natural Science in the 20th
Century; idem, "rom the lAborolory of Lenin's Thought, MoscOW,
1972; E. V. I1yenkov, On Idols and Ideals Moscow 1968; idem,
Dialectical Logic, Moscow, 1974; A. M. Korshunov, The Theory of
Reflection and Creotiuity Moscow 1971 Idem Cognition and
Actiuit:,, Moscow,. 1967;' A. M. Ko~huno~, V. V. Mantatov, The
Theo?, of Reflection and the Heuristic Role of Signs, MOSCOW,
1974., V. S. Tyukhtln, On the Nature of the 117U1&e (Psychical Ref/ec
ti.on In the Ught of Cy~metic Ideas), Moscow, 1963; idem, Reflec
tion. Systems, CybemellC5: The Theory of Reflection in the Light of
C?'bemd1cs ~d the SYI(rrru APproach, Moscow, 1972; A. G. Spiro
1un, The O/1l11t of COnICIOU$IU'!" Moscow 1960' idem ConsciOUS'
n~~ and Se/f-Co/tICiownus, M~w, 1972; V.'l. Shi~aruk, The
tnlty of DUilutics. ~c. and Epidemology. An Introduction into
DIOIKllcol Logic, KIn, 1977; Zb. M. Abdildin A. S. BalgiInbaYev,
The DialectiCS of Ihe SubJectl Actiutnus in Scientific Cognition,

'6'

{Uosofii ,
I Q uantum

"Philosoph ical
Objective and
,; ,~P;.
Dyshlevly,
10
"The Dialec

S.

'n

<
'63

Marxlsl Diolec,lic.: Thr U1Un~t Slage, Moscow, 1973 (jointly with

A. Kh. Kasy mJanov); Idem, "Philosophy, Science, 'The Philosophy
ot Science' ", Voprosy {ilow{il, No.4, 1973; idem, "Philosophy and
Science in the Light or the Sclentlfic and Technological Revolu- -"""_
tion", !>1an- Sc;ence- Technology, Moscow, 1973, and other works. -.....
l~ 'The history or the formulation and discussion or the problem or
subject and object Is considered in our woril:s The Problem o{ the

VI ,

is hel

Sci!!n

Subject and Object in Classical and Modem Bourgeois Philosophy;

"Epistemology", Philosophical Encyc/opedilJ, Vol. 5.

"""

Part One

tute f

of~

OV ,
, J,

IeOfe

"'ot

Understa nding, Th e Har

Rubinstein ,

numl

"I.Con-

th,

fore~

Th,

Russell, Human Knowledge. Its Scope and Limits, George

and Unwin LTD, London, 1951, p. 245.
Jean Piagel, The Psychology of Intelligence, Routledge & Kegan
Paul Limited, London, 1947, p. 4.
~ Ibid., p. 8.
S Ibid.
1 Ibid., p . 9.
8 Ibid ., .
9 Ibid.,
the stages in intellect fonnation we draw mostly on
Piaget, B. Inhelder "Die Psychologie der frtihen Kind
I;n~i"
I Enlwlc klun g von der Geburt bis zum 7. Lebensder Psycho!ogie, Hrsg. D. und R. Katz, Basel, pp. 275314.

"

'",'10" Ii /cpistem%gie genetique, Vols.

Paris, 1950.
in the FQnnation of Think
.43 (in Russian).
Pergamon Press, London,

16 For /more ' detailed discussion of invariance as an indicator of

objective knowledge see S. L. Rubinstein, Being and Consciousness,
pp. 125- 126; M. E. Omelyanovsky. V. I. Lenin and the Philosophical
265

264

Moscow HISS- Ide

"
Materialism as the Methodological Basis' of Moderl ~I DIalectical
sors~iye lUJuki, !'l0. ,1,1965,; V. A. LektOBky, 711(.lp~1~1c''', Pi/o_
Problems of Modern Physics

Subject and Object

Classlcol and Modem Bourge , p;.m of the

pp. 66-84;. idem.. "On the Subjective and the
S tlosophy,
lems of l!lOlectics, Issue VII; V. S. Tyukhtln Rene 1"
Pro/)Cybernetlcs.... pp. 107.112 <all in Russian). t
c Ion, Ystems,
17 See Jean p.aget, Introduction Ii f't!pistrm I
. ".

VI,

is he.
tute (
Scien

Objedlv~~~

In

st

18 See L. Apostel. B. Mandelbrot et J Pi e~ 0t; l!clletlqu.e, Vo!.l .

Presses universitaires de France Paris. i95~ p' 44 g,que el equi/ibre

",',ean. Piaget, Introduction ~ I'tpistem~/ogie genetique ' Vol. n,'

~.

'"'''
of "

o P. W. Bridgman, The Logic of Modem Ph

Company. New York 1954 p 1
ysics, The Macmillan

'JY 0
leore

5
I., p. .
23 Ibid., pp. 5, 6.
21
22

"'"

numi

Wd

24 Ibid., p. 10.

fore~

'

R~lJjew,

~~~tyWPre~, Prin~ton,
Co

S~:temg:~ai~onal
1
(P VI : ~Jtem pt

13-1~:'~5.

't. ...

r:3

3:

""" Ibid., p. 167.

'

Ibid., p. 435.

266

"6 Ibid.
,,7 Ibid .
.&II Ibid., p. 171.
"9 Ibid ., p. 174 .
M Ibid. , p. 169 .
iii Ibid., p. 214.
li2 Ibid., p. 216.
li3 Ibid., p. 453.
Ii" Quoted from R. J. Hirst, The Problel1U of Perception George
Allen and Unwin LTD London 1959 p '8
'

" Ib'd
L ., pp. 67 .6 .8 '

,"

li6 Ibid., p. 85.

li1 Ibid., pp. 9192.
~8

,..

A. Cornelius Benjamin Operation'

Ch 1 C
er Springfield 1955
6'7
ISm,
ar es . Thomas, Pu blish.
26PW"
. General Principle f 0
. . Bridgman,", .me
Psychological
Vol. 52, No. 5.
5 Anal y.
, p. 248.
From the operatIonal point of view it is meani gl
,'nature' from 'knowledJe ot nature' "
27 P DgIC ~ Modem PhYSiC!. p. 62.)
. . . n groan,
. W. Bridgman The Nature of Ph . I Th
1936,.pp.
eory, Princeton Uni
mill'
Bridgman, The Intelligent TndiuidlUll and Society TIt M
29 c>a::
mpany, New York 1938 p 80
'
e ac
~e V. Lenzen "Oper t' at ''Ii . .
*om,~rican PhYSical''Thacher~ V~. 7 1ge:9ryp 136~lementary PhYSiCS",
The Present State or Ope r' ali ',,'
'.
~1. 79, No..~, October 1954 ~~.12~9-~1' The SCIentific Monthly,
Adolf Grunbaum "Oper i"
.
~2onthIY,
Vol. 79, Nb. 4, OC~I;r'~5~nd R2~ativitY'" The Scientific
D. P. Gorsky. "On the K' d t
O.
ance in Science", Problems I~n s t~ De 1~ ltlons ~d ~eir Signific
0scow, 1964, p. 308 (In Russian).e LOglc of Sclentl{lc Cognit ion,
V. S. Sh vyJ'i!v "Some Probl
.
Analysis of the' Relation Bet ems In the Logico.Methodo\ogical
Level~ .of Scientific Cognition::"P; btlhe TJ:leore ticai and Empi rical
ifgnltiC?n, p. 74 (i n R ussian). ,oems In the Logic of Scientific
F Ren.e Descartes, Oeuures et lett
Ed "
3~arb~~se, PariS, 1937, pp. 97.98. res, Itlons de la Nouvelle Re vue
36
I .,p. 9 7.
3 Ibid., p. 96.
7
3 Ibid.
Ibid., p. 213.
"0 Ibid., p. 161.
"1 ~~~d . p. 162.
f2 Ib~" p. 163.

~':"
~ii~t2

"Ii Ibid ., p. 436.

Ibid. p. 102.
li9 See E~mund Husserl, Erfahrung und Urteil. Untersuchungen zur
Genea/ogJe der Logik, Academia Verlagsbuchhandlung Prague
1939, pp. 12-13.
'
'
60 .~~?ted from Z. M. Kakabadze, The Problem of "Existential
CrI~I.S. and Edmu~d Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology,
Tblhsl, 1966, p. 76 (In Russian).
61 See Quenti n Laue r, I'henomenologie de Husser! Presses univer
sitaires d e Fran~, Paris, 1955 pp. 188, 315; Joseph Kockelmans,
Edmund Husserl s Phenomenological PsYchology Duquesm Univer.
sity Press, Pittsburgb, 1967, pp. 225231, 260, 26L
62 For an analysis of the p roblem of the subject and object in
Fichte's philosophy see also A. M. Deborin, "Dialectics in Fichte",
Man: and Engels Archiues, Book 3, Moscow.Leningrad, 1927;
V. F. Asmus, Essays on the History of Dialectic! in the Philosophy
of the New Times , MoscowLeningrad, 1930; T. 1. Qizennan, The
Philosophy of Fichte, Moscow, 1962; M. Bur, Fichle, Moscow,
1965; K. N. Ly ubuti n, The Problem of lhe Subject and Object in
Classical Gennan and MarxistLeninist Philosophy, pp. 35-47 (all in
Russian).
63 Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Grundlage der gestJmten wissenschafts
/ehre, Fritz Eckardt Ve rlag, Leipzig, 1911, p. 8.
U Ibid., p. 10.
61i Ibid. , p. 17.
66 Ibid., p. 16.
67 Ibid ., p. 104.
68 Ibid., p. 105.
69 For an anal ysis o f Kant's ep istemology see also the following
works: Yu . M. Borodai, Imagination and Epistemology, Moscow,
1966' The Ph ilosophy of Kant and Modem Times (ed. by T. 1. Qi2er
man)' Mosca w, 1974 ; Critical Essays on Kant's Philosophy (ed. by
M. A: Bulatov), Kiev, 1975; T. 1. Oizennan, The Philosophy of Kant,
MoSCOW 1914; V. F. Asmus, Immanuel Kant, Moscow, 1973;
V 1. Shi'nkaruk, The Epistemology, Logic, and Dialectics of Kant,
Kiev 1974; Zh. M. Abdildin, The Dialectics of Kant, AlmaAta,
1974 ' N V. Mot roshilov1, " Husse rl and Kant: the Problem of 'Transcend~ntal Philoso phy"', in: The Philosophy of Kant and Modem
Times, MoscOW, 1974, I. S. Narsky, Kant, Moscow, 1976 (all in

Russian).
267

70 See Immanuel Kant, Criliqur of PUn' Rl'(Json, G, 8('11 and Sons

LTD" London, 1930, p. 13.

7l Ibid., p. 83.
12 Ibid., p. 86.
73 Ibid . pp . 168-169.
VI
is hel

tute (
Scien

co,",
of "
'lV 0

score

"'"

numl
foreil

74 Ibid " p. 168.

75 Ibid., p. 166.
76 Ibid., pp. 167.168.
77 Ibid., p. 169.
78 Ibid., pp. 84-85.
79 Ibid" p. 249.
80 Ibid" p. 96.

of J Plaget" In Jean Piagel, The lAnguage and Thought of

Theory .
MOlICow.Lenlngrad, 1932, pp. 3-54; L. S. Vygotsky,
l~e C:d'~YChOlOgical Studie" Moscow, 1956; idem, The D~uelop.
~/!~~~tOf the l/igher Piychlcal FunctioruJ, Moscow, 1960 (all In Russian). J
Plaget Comment' on Vygot,ky', CritiC{l1 Remarks ConSee c a n ,
, h Ch'!d"
, "1JIe lAnguage and Thought 0 t e l .'
.
.
..
cermng
l "Pensee egocentrique et pensee SOClocentnque ,
94 Jean P'lage,

93

81 One may get the impression that what has been saId here is inap.
plicable at least to the Kantian conception of "pure mathematics".
The latter is considered in the Critique of Pure Reason as a science
whose subject.matter is determined by the apriori sense fonnsspace and time, That means that, from the Kanlian standpoint, the
speculative elements playa fundamental role in mathematical knowl.
edge. However, mathematics as a science assumes, according to
Kant, application of the logical categories of reason to the pure
apriori sense forms. Kant's conception of mathematics is thus dif.
ferent from Husserl 's. It is the latter rather than the former that
underlies that modem trend in the substantiation of mathematics
that became known as intuitionism.
82 Quoted in Z. M. Kakabadze. The Problem of "Existential Crisis"
and Edmund Husserl~ Transcendental Phenomenology, p. 87.
83 Ibid., p. 90.
84 For an analysis of Sartre's philosophical conception see
V. N. Kuznetsov, JeanPaul Sartre and Existentialism, Moscow,
1969; G. Va. Streltsova, A Critique of the Existentialist Conception
of Dialectics (Analysis of the Philosophical Views of J .. p. Sartre),
Moscow, 1974 ; M. A. Kissel, The Philosophical
Evolution of
J._P. Sartre, Leningrad, 1976; L. I. Filippov, The Philosophical
Anthropology of JeanPaul Sartn, Moscow, 1977 (all in Russian).
85 See J .. p. Sartre.l. L'etre et Ie neant. Essai d'ontologie phenomeno.
logique, Librairie liallimard, Paris 1943 pp. 372 388 390.
86 Ibid., pp. 332.333.
"
"
87 Ibid . pp. 198-202.
88 Ibid. , pp. 342.343.
89 Ibid. pp. 220.240.
90 See je8!l Piag~t, The Language and Thought of the Child, The
New Am.encan LIbrary, Inc;, New .Yor~, 1974; Jean Piaget, "Pensee
egocentnque et pensee soclocentnque Cahiers internationaux de
sociologie: VOl...X, 1951, pp. 34-49; jean Piaget, Comments on

Vygotsky s CntlcaJ ,flemarks Concerning "The Language and

Thoug~t of the Child, Massachusetts Institute or Technology Press.
Cambndge, 1962; V. A. Lektorsky, V. N. Sadovsky "The Genesis

~d S,~ructure

Of. Int~llect.ual ~ctivity in the Con~ptions of Jean

Plaget , 'I!'e Mam plre'?tlOns In ~he Study of the Psychology of
~ought In the Capitalist Countries, Moscow , 1966 (in Russian).
Karl Marx, CaPital, Vol. I, Progress Publishers Mo,cew 1974
. 59.
,
,
,
See L. S. Vygotsky, "The Problems of Speech and Thought in the

~2

268

Op. cit. p. 3J 7'A

The Problem of Knowledge Macmittan & Co.
96 See A. . yer,
7 48 5052
'
LTD ., London, 1956, pp. 4,
, . .

Part Two
1

S. L. Rubinstein , Problerru of General Psychology, Moscow, 1976,

p.253.
'""e Theory of Reflection and CreatilJity, p. 20
2 A. M. Korshunov, "'
(In Russian).
Z kennann L I Information and Vision,
~ See V. O. Glezer,
uc 89 (in Ru$;an).
Moscow.Leningrad, 1961'l' AVenger, V.~. Zinchenko, A.. G. Ruz.
4 See A. V. Za.porozhets, .' Moscow, 1967, p. 55 (in RUSSian).
skaya, Perception and Action,
1974 p.77.
.
!> Karl Marx, Capital .. Vol. I, ~~';r La
des structures 109!'
nise
6 Quoted from J. PI~et, B.
e
,
ques etementaires, Pans'th195 t re of the Image , Moscow 1963,
7 V S Tyukhtin, On
e a u
40' 50 (in Russian).
.
NY 1961 p.363fPSee t. H. Gombrich, Ar! andfn~lo~1S~~1 'World,'Cambridge, Mas9 J G'bson The PercephOn 0
"
'950 , pp. 2627
sachusetts, 1
, .
P ception'"
10 Ibid., p. 42;. "" tyev "On the Ways .of Strdt~ngVi~ral Spatiai
11 See A. N. Lo<'Vn
' . the GeneratIon 0
. n of
v. Stolin, "A S~udYk
In "Percepblal Activity u.nde~ I~:p~ocesen
...
A D Logvm
0,
. "Sense.Fonnatlon In
.)
I
mage '.
Image'" A. A. Puzyrel, t"
nd Activity (in RussIan.
the Retm
al A~tivity", in Percep /On ~e to para 4; quoted from
ses of Per~ptu Elements of Drawmg, no
12 J. RGusk~n,. c~~rt and Jflusion, p. ~91' t"vity under Inversion or the
E. H. om n 'inenko, "Perceptu ..c I
252.256.
13 See A. D. ~~~ Perception and AC~lJlt~ll~ Problem of the Ade.
il:t!~alNImt':.
V~rgiles.,
Vo~'fZinn,!e~o Visual Perception)", Voprosy
.:;ICe.
age {wIth""" ere
quacy of the 1m
4 (all in Russian).
filosofi~, ~967, No.
, Book The Science of
1 ~ See Ibid., p. ~~n, "Conspectus of He~11972, p. 171.
. "
16 ~!, VcJie~ed Works, Vol. f3~ Mg~~OOk The Science of LolPc ,
L<>..' i
. "Conspectus 0 e e
17 V. 'dLeW~~ks Vol. 38, p. 195 . . ents with the Ames chairs see
Col/ede
'ptiOn or the experlm
18 For a de~~ op. cit, pp. 248-49.
E. H. Go
op. cit., p. ~!~ach" in: Karl Marx, Frederick
H mG~~~rich,
19 E.
"Theses on Fe
,
20 Karl Marx,
269

ee

V.

ai

Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 5, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1976,

fi karl

tufa (

Scien
colier
of '"

gy 0
Itar.

"'at

nurnl
fore ~

N.Y., l lh
956{ PPt ~;PI!~)'leU!:~!e~~~i~i~~~~I~~~lel;VO~et

Marx " Rand,lossen zu AdolOh Wagners Lehrbuch der

ff- A

~m

fl'i

285~e

A. V, Zaporozhets et ai" Perception and Action, pp. 265,

See A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology, Keagan Paul, Trench,

]'fubner & Co, ,~td., Lon.don, 1938, pp. 48, 50, 52.54.
Karl Matx"t. Ero,nomlc and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844" in:
Karl
l'l'edenck
Engels, Collected Works , Vol " 3 Moscow ,
1975 Marx,
pp. 300,
302.
30

cl.

lll'f'!~ents

the- .following
of Spinoza about the essence of the
';Ircle. A CIrcle may be defined as a figure, such that all straight
lInes drawn from the centre to the c1rcumfert!nce
aI" (B Sp'noza, How to Improve Your Mind, PhiloSOPhi~ i.~~rary, 'Inc.I,
270
3,2

Ij,

~;:~on~,
Moscow, 196fJ>,(ibIR~':f{he Development of t~e Mind,
36 See A. N. Leontyev,
0 e
, idem Activity. ConscIousness.

The Theory of Reflection and Creativity,

Pt

26 See N. Yu. Vergiles, V. p. Zinchenko "The oblem of the Ade_

quacy of the Image", Voprosy !ilosofij, i967 . No.~. p: 57.
.
27 For a philosophical analysIs of the Manust prmclple of objeCt..
related activity see: A M. Korshunov. Cognition and Activity;
A. P. Ogurtsov, "Practice as a Philosophical Problem", Voprosy
{iloso!ii 1967, No.7; V. A. Lektonky. "The Principle of Object..
Related' Activity and Marxist Epistemology", Ergonomics. The
Methodological Problems of Studying Activity, Trudy VNoTE,
Vol. 10, Moscow, 1976; V. S. Shvyrev, "The Tasks of Studying
the Category of Activity as a Theoretical Concept", op. cit.;
E. G. Yudin, "The Concept or Activity as a Methodological Problem",
op. cit.; N. N. 'I'rubnikov, On the Categon'es of "Goal", "Means",
and "Result", Moscow, 1968; M. A. Bulatov Activity and the Structure of Philosophical Knowledge, Kiev, 1976; V. P. Ivanov, Human
Activity-Cognition_Art, Kiev, 1977; A. I. Vatsenko, Goal&tting
and Ideals, Kiev, 1977 (all in Russian).
For a diSCUSSIOn of the significance of the category of object-orient.
ed activity for psychological theory see: S. L. Rubinstein, Being and
Consciousness, Moscow, 1957; idem, The Principles and Ways of the
Development of Psychology. On the Place of the Psychical in the
Universal Interconnection of the Phenomena of the Material World,
~oscow, 1959; A. N. Leontyev, Activity. Consciousness. PersoTUlll!y, Moscow 1975; M. S. Rogovin, A. V. Solovyov L P Urvantsev,
Sh. Sh, Shotemor, "The Structures of the Psyche an'd the 'Problem of
Cognition", Voprosy filosofii, 1977, NO.4 (all in RUssian).
28 See E. V.lly e nkov, Dialectical Logic Prom-oss Publishers Moscow 1977.
'&.~,
29'

~~ i~

not In e eas
d
d ' tI e secondary property a
a.
properties" (Ibid .), ~ at defi~~t'io~, 'A real definition m~ e~pre51
That II merely a nom ~ th'n and that in Spinou's view," ~e
the proximate ~use 0 a d I "constructing the thing. The Circle. iR
same as 'PE;c1~r!ngdt~e:o ef~Uows: the rLgUrt! described by any line
thil case Will be elm as
to ('bid )
where one end \1 Cixed and ~.e .othe.r ere; te I d. '~physique contemUSee G. Bachelard, L.ac~lVlte ratlona
'51951, p. 90.
.
. e Presses universltane1l de France, iof the Higher PsychIcal
p ora," 'L S Vygotsky. The Deve!opmen

politischen Okonomie'. Karl Marx,Friedrich Engels, lVerke, Band

19 Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962,
36263.
22'y. I. Lenin, "Conspectus 0 egej's Book The Science of Logic",
Collected Works, Vol. 38, p. 213.
23 V I Lenin "Once Again on the Trade Unions/ the Current Situa.
. ~d the Mistakes of Trotsky and Bukharin', Collected Works,
'n~,o. 1975, p. 94.
.
.:- lA construction du reel chez ('enfant, Neuchatel.Paris
from A. V. Zaporozhets et al. , Perception and Action,

VI
is hel

bel' e "dOH

Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1981 ,

PersoTUllity (in
36

See A.

.,

R~SSi~, the Hi8torical Development 0Uhe C:gn~~I7:

R. Lunya,

nta/.Psychological Study,

Processes. An Expenme

OSCO

'n the For-

thes".~tudy~~s ~e

Child's
\ in RuSSpian). Galperin The Development of
"See . "'ia,
'.
'dem "On the ...
1 'd m
tion of Mental Actions; I

'chologii 1969, No. ; I e ,

ma
Development" Voprosy PSI

}~~~~~ti~n
into PsYCholo'gy~0n:=i~9~~~t
38 See A. V, Zaporozh,ets,
. )

-<

0{ Arbitrary Moue-

60 (m RUSSIan,
"
ments, Moscow, 19 Ty esofGeneralisation In
39 See V, V. Davydo v"
p f the Structure of
1972; idem, "AnalYSIS 0

No.2; idem, "The

l!.S~EJ,;.o~~e~ of Dialectical
and Ped~goglcs , iR
"
e Problem of the Adefin Russ,an4' V rgiles V. P. Zincb~nko, ~ 4' A. V. Zaporozhets
40 See N. u. ~'voprosy filosO/iI, 1967, 0, ,
<'"

Dok/ady API'!

60

quacy of Imll4e1l 'nd Action.

.
PerzoTUllity, p. 95.
et al., Perception a ev Activity. ConsclOusness.
41 See A. N. I.,eonty
f Memory pp. 7842 Ibid., pp. 9798"
Problems in the Theory 0

43 See M. S. RogoVln,
. M uscripts of 1844" in:
79.
..
mic and PhilosophiC 'VOl 3 p.302.
" Karl Marx, E~Engels, Collected. Wo;ks
: d S. Gurgenidze,
Lift
Karl Marx, Fred~nCheryakoV, Awakenmgf ~viet 'Scie'nce" Vopro~y
46 See A. I. Me ..Outstanding Pro~
V Dyenkov, "Personal~ty
E V. Dyenkov, N
6 pp. 69-J9., 'E'
iment" Kommumst,
i
(iiosofi , 1975'the Jiesu'lts of a SCientific x p e r ,
"
n
Fonnatlo : on
.
hie Manuscripts of 1944 ,
1977, No.2.
"Economic and Philosop
., "
46 Karl Marx,
r Theoretical Entities,
tatu
p.298.
; ;cience, Vol. In, Univerwe1\ "The Qntolo,ical Sh
"
4" G Max
'n the Phl/osop Y 0
10
Minnesota Stud:Pr~ Minneapolis,1962, P'Gesprliche im Umkreis
[Minneso
'Td und das Ganze.
971 p 92 93
Co,
pp, IiI.
m.
Structure of Sclentl c
d " Atomphysl,
S
Kuhn
J
roe
49 Th.,
,

~~yw. Heisenb~:'RDKper 8.
135. 'd pp 28-29,
toO

Jbl.,

Verla~, M!-'finIC~e~luti!ns',

271

___. _

---;::=

= =...---

---

51 Ibid" pp. 132135.

52 M. Hesse, "Is There an Independent Observation L

The
and
of Scientific Theories. Essays i~n~age?'.
ed. by R. G Colod
~)ntem_
.
ny University
I

VI
is hel

?'? ,h;c

Understanding of S .
Scientific Theon'es, Univ.,,_,clen.
I Y or

ane (
Scien
cover

of",

'-:-

~;~ of

gy 0
ICO"

....

numl
fore~

P~i10S0Phical Encyclopedia
From Positivism to NeoposltJvism .....
Century, Moscow ,1974' V S Sh '
Problem. s of Empin'caf 'Su'bst ;(-

"

Moscow,
1960 '
Essays In the History of Po51't?~
a
5
1V18m
" V. J. Lenin
() II
'
~oscow. 1977', p. 34.
0 ected Works, VoL 34,
See e.g. B. S. Gryaznov, "Theory and Its World" B
g~aJo-' ThMeory and Its Object, Moscow 1973 pp 5 3S' . S. Gryaznov
n arx's method' C ,
,.of, "~arx 's "Capital", MO~~~al ]S;6r':'lKzent~,' The Dialectics
PrinCIple in Marx's Thea
d
, . . uzmm, The Systems
If~t?'?' of Marxist Diale"!h'~; fr~~t~o,::0~i.Y! Mo,scow, .1976; The
J.A:nlmst Stage (ed by M M R
ngm 0 Mar:C/sm to the

<

sian); E. V. I1yenk~v Th~

10ze,ntaJ), Moscow, 1971, (all in Rus.
crete in Marx's "Capital" P ~ctl~S
the Abstroct and the Con
57 Dudley Shapere fonnular~
ss ubhsh.ers, Moscow, 1982.
real ob~ects with which sCienSti~: i~~'ow~~gJeat.ure.s i~erent in the
re Ie thmkmg IS concerned
and whIch are absent in the 'deal' d
~1) If object A exists reall I i lse ,0 lects:
m, particular macroSCOPi~' ; can(lnh~ract. with other real objects
objects);
nes w Ich IS not true of idealised
(2) To say that "A exists" ' r
h(~)ve not yet ~en discovere!rP les that A may have properties which
'
A real object A may be
act~a11y have, but which rna ~nbed properties which it does not
obViously be meaningless to YreSfebsequently come to light (it would
~~~ if~ (3) to idealised objects)' r the features formulated in points
the ' actuall~ exists, there rna
.
acq~:~ :o~t It (as is actually ~eb~a,!!ffe~~~ttrd even competing
Se~ D, Shap~ream,~~n~ to a theoty.transce~dent ~ectron); A thus
SCIence" 171
0 s toward a Post P '., s a s.
S. F. Barker ~a1lacy of Logical PoSitiU~~SltIJIS~iC Jnterp~etation of
Also: D. Sh'ape~m~Se~ 19~9, PP. 155, 156 e . y . Achmstein and
Structure of S . '
lent,nc Theories
d
this connectio~,en tific Theon'es, pp. 567 ~ Their Domains" The
matics (numben that the so-()alied abstrac~69" We shall point out in
tween real objec'tssetsd, functions etc.) ex ~bJects st~died in mathe
58 G. Maxwell "Than ,not real objects er:u
ce.rtam relations be
The Nature a'nd eon~s, Perception
s mg In space and time. -<.
Pittsburgh Press 19~nctlon of Scjentlfican~h Stl!Jctural Realism",
59 "Other form~ of in'tP~: 334,
eorles, University of
forms of understandlngUlb~~?d!e~~~e~ ,those,ofspace and time oth
272
ISCurslve forms of thought, ~~

Vi

or

b.

i.e

of cognition, we can neither imagine nor make intelligible to our

selves; and even If we could , they would still not belong to experience
which is the only mode of cognition by which objects are presented
to us. Whether other perceptions besides those which belong to the
total of our possible experience, and consequently whether some
oth~ r s~here of matter ex!-sts, t~ understanding has no power to
~ecl~e, ~~s proper occ~~atlon bemg with the synthesis of that which
IS gIven (I. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, London, G. Bell and
Sons, LTD, 1930, pp, 17172).
60 Th. S. Kuhn , op. cit., p, 102.
61 Ibid" p, 111.
62 True, in his "Postscript-1969" Kuhn gives a less rigid {onnula
tion of the thesis about the existence of a gap between different
paradigms. Taking into account that the everyday world, language,
and most of the world of science are shared by members of different
SCientific coummunities, Kuhn now believes it possible to translate
from the language of one paradigm into the language of another
using the common vocabulary of everyday life.
63 B. L. Whorf, LangtJ6ge, Thought, and Reality. Selected Wrifincs,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966, pp, 27,213,214.
64 See Vasilyev S. A., A Philosophical Analysis of the Hypothesis
of Linguistic RelatilJity, Kiev, 1974, p, 21 (in Russian) ,
65 B. L. Whorf, op. cit., p. 215.
66 See V. V. Tselishchev, Logical Truth and Empiricism , Novosi
birsk, 1974, p. 13 (in Russian).
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid.,p. 16.
."
......
69 W. V. Quine, "Notes on Existence and Necessity . In: ",e
Journal of Philosophy. Vol. XL. No.5, March 4, 1943, p. 118.
70 W. V. Quine, Word and Object, New York and London, 1960,

~f:e~: v. Quine, Ontological ReliJtitJity and Other Essays, 1969,

~.

67.

2 Ibid., p. 50.
. _I I ,- - "to th b rd'ty
73 The conception of ontologtclU re ~ IVlty pom. .
.e a su I.
of arguments, current in modem ,~encan and B,ntlsh eplstemologlc,
al literature, concerning the posslblhty of the eXlste!,ce of a,langu,age
(and congequently of reason and of a w<>,rld picture) ~n bemgs
h'ch we ordinarily do not regard as sentient (e.g., tulJps). The
:uthon of thege ar(Ume,nts substantiate their posi~ions by assuming
th t th language to which they refer may be so different from ours
o
canno' understand its meaning, the more so that the behav
at
we
'language
has no.th-109 -m comm~)fl w!-th
.th of the canien of thIS
lour
behaviOur, We can even fail to guess tnat we are dealing WIth
h~m~ge these authors say. Situations of this kind ~e possible in
~ ,:n 'ew 'in man's contacts with sentient extraterrestnals: the lat~r
ell ~I h.ve to be similar to rr.an in appearance, they may behave Ifl
do no er completely strange to us and communicate in a manner
a ~an~rrerent from ours. In this case we shall not recognise them as
qUIte ble beings. Generally speaking, we may be surrounded by a
reas on' sentient beings these authon believe, whose presence we
mass o~ f even suspect and whose world is com~let:ely impervious to
do nQulne sweeps aside all these arguments pomtlOg out that there
",-

273

are

Of! experimental data (or their refutation r

ex~n~nce

Scien

carries in itself the object schemeo tcon firmat,ion: Our

which IS accepted in our language. Here QUine 'so ~o.rld ~Issection
cent of Kant. See A. G. Genova "K t
pos,ltlon IS reminis_
and Possible Worlds", Akten d~s 4 in:c';! ~!tem/atlve Frameworks
ses, Mainz, 6-10 April 1974 Te U' II . a IO'!O en Kant-Kongrcs.
~: 834-841 ; R. Rorty,' "The World We[~'L~e~!]~n~nThBerlin-N.Y.,
5
a
74'~OSO:~'
"VOl. LXIX, No. 19, October 2 6 '19;2 e Jo64
urn t of
. as! yev, A Philosophical A I . '
,pp.
9665
Hnguistic Relativity, p. 96 (in RUSSian)o YSIS of the HypotheSis oj

""""
of",

~rative .~B:Jl1mars.

V,
is he.
1Ute (

gy ,
lCore

"'at

nurnl

foreh

N. Chomsky, a major modern

uses the eXisten~o~~~ent of the. theory oC gen.

meduclbll!ty of language to verbal behav~guage um~rsaJs and the

the Carte.slan conception of innate ideas lour as.a basIs for reviving
of the primary semantic field ex re
. n reality, the universality
means in different languages ' is aet!sed. th~ough different language
the substantive structure of 'r t nmn~. by the community of
~rrs of different natiOnallanguP :gCe Ical actiVity characteristic of the
SeeNCh
sk y, Syntactic
. Structures
s.
om
1957
.
77
.
' 's-Gr aven h age, Mouton
See A N . Leontyev , A e fWI., y. Consciousness Personol'ty
'
140-158'
"SA'
.
',pp.
. Vasilyev A Ph '1
h'
finguislie Relati~ity P.' t~OP Ical Analysis of the Hypothesis of
9 The POSSib ilities' and ~a s
f'
e~feet of different language y st 0 expenmental research into th

?i scussed

ar:

Scris6ne~ms

in M. Cole S
on the nature of perception
~cgl~ntroduclion.
i974
' Culture and Thought: Psycholog81 Se' Bunge, Philosophy ofPhysics D
82 G.eH~t.oS. K'~Ohn, op. cit., pp. 202_20~~recht, 1973, pp. 181-182.
S.
n,
ntheRoleofTh
.
a::~~ne~, 25 April, 1975 Vol 188 Jm~i8m Scientific Thought"
Con~S!~.oJ continuous 'lines' in the d ,6, pp. 328-334. For ~
B
a IC ons in the Develo me
eve opment of science see
s~i~l}~dTh)' Moscow 1961 V
tyatural Science (ed. by
A. V' Ak' h ti.Ory , Minsk, 1976' V S B"b,pm, ~e ~onnation of a

u n, The H' t
'"
I er, Thmkmgas C
Ii'ty
(all 'in
Principles of
.
. . Lektorsky "V I
.
tical Logic" Le ..
'
.. Lenin and th
Moscow, 1969' i~mIS"!. as the Philosophy 0; ~hinciPles of Dialec
gels's Book ' .em, The Developm
. e Modern Epoch
Modem
F.
in F. En:
the Logic of the oscow, 1978; V. A Lek n 1- Uhnng" and the

N.t.

"J sf

W~e~scAoW,1967

og:i~~)he

Tim~ntMDUhring'"

Physjca'/;x~~r/

Engel~~t ~~E~!sDte~~logy

~l.~~ is~;~S~!:u;~~9fr,e;]!. ~f2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~I~::'~~h~~ge~

language of gesture of v~rbal language has usslan).

formations with idesal~b~ It p~nnits to perro:!at advantage over the
language, as compared t Jects Implemented in ~y changes or transone may reproduce' .0 gesture language' ver al material. Verbal
world with great pn:n. i.t all the propertie~ IS ~ more plastiC material'
may not coincide
atd
of the
As a crude analogy on~se oons which are P~ these. properties

may COnsider Plast. . uced In gestures.

274
Icme (the word) and

wit~I~~n

dirferentiati~n la~s

re

objectiv~

stone (gestures). Plasticine can precisely assume all kinds of Intricate

forms, w~l.le Itone offen no such possibility. But the trouble is that
the plastiCIty of the word must be handled very carefully for it may
produce properties that do not exist in the objective world." (S.A. SiTotkin , What Is Thought Better Armed With-Gesture or Word?"
Voprosy (ilosofii, 1977. No.6, p. 101).
'
8!'i See E. H. Gornbrich, op. cit.
86 " Knowledge is not identical to any psychical act it implies man's
singling out of himself from the surrounding worJd in the process
o f its realisation" (p . V. Kopnin, Introduction to Marxist Epistemology, Kiev, 1966, p . 46, in Russian). "Animals are not aware of
their knowledge while man is: he knows that he knows, that it is he
who knows, and what he knows" (A. G. Spirkin, Consciousness and
Self.Consciousness, Moscow, 1972, p. 142, in Russian).
87 Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844"
p. 276.
'
U See Keith Gunderson, "Asymmetries and Mind.Body Perplex i.
ties". In: Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. IV ,
ed. by Michael Radner and Stephen Winokur, University of Minne
sota Press, Minneapolis, 1970, pp. 273-309.
89 It was the formulation of this paradox and the search for ways of
its logical solulion that stimulated the development of dialectics on
an idealistic basis first in Fichte and later in Schelling and Hegel.
90 lmre Lakatos, Proofs and Refutations. The Logic of Mathematical Discovery, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976, p. 56.
91 Imre Lakatos thus analyses one of the stages in the history of
proofs of the stereometriC theorem: "If you did make consciouS
assumptions they were that a) removing a face always leaves a connected network and b) any nontriangular face can be dissected into
triangles by diagonals. While they were in your subconscious they
were listed as trivially true-the cylinder however made them somersault into your consciouS list as trilJially false" (Ibid., p. 46).
92 Ibid
p. Polanyi
45.
93
See .,M.
Personal Knowledge. Towards a PostCritical
Philosophy The U~iversity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1958 ...... Tacit knowledge' ... is learned by doing science rather than by acquiring
rules for doing it" (Th. S..Kuhn The StTl!cture of ScientifiC RelJolutions, the University of Chicago Press, C~lcago.. 1970,.p. 191).
94 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logreo-PhllosophlCUS, Routledge
& Kegan Paul LTD, London, 1949, pp. 151, 153.
9r, Gilbert Ryle, 'The Concept of Mind, Hutchinson'S University
LibrarY, London, 1951) pp. 186, 195198.
96 Imre Lakatos, Op. Cit., p. 56.
S A Yanovskaya points to the "importance of achievements in the
~a' of increasing 100,ical rigour ~or obtaining new results in mat~e
matics for solving Its most dIfficult problems, for constructtng
novel :Wd revolutionary trends in sciel}ce. Suffice it to recall that
the greatest achievements in calculus in the 19th century were due
to the increased precision of the basic concepts of caiculus attained
'n several debates-thOse of real and complex number, limit, contino
~um function . It may now be said that the image of modem
them
and computer mathematiCS in the first place, is increas'
atiCS
~:IY detenn'ined
by greater ngour and precision introduced in the
275

. ,, ', AnalY,,'5 of (;/'rmall ('ja.~$ica/ IJlli//)~I/PI!\',

NI /'I Bulatu Y, 1.1:~'an) ' ~ V IlYf>nkov /)w/I'chl'al/,I)/!IC
Ki'"y, 1117 1 !all I," 'I U~~lJ/ltJ'm'~no'I{J,I1il' dl" (;/'1,>;/1", Akadf'mil'Verlag,
10 K (: W , " Ilqll;
lkrlin i!16>1 , p. 142. d
fon con~i~ts, if it i~ considered from the
1110 " in lhi!> lI"pl'~ll.~ca: 'n that he gains that which is available,
~landp(jinl of lhl' mdlv! u:' I and takes pos.wy.ion of it" (Ibid.,
ab ho rbs his inorjl;anic na- Uff'

concept of algorithm (and thl' t"qulllall'llt {'onC't'pt or n'Ctlrslvp or

Vb
is hea
tu1e (
Scie ~

0",",

of sci

..,

score,
that '
numt
foreii

computablt' (unction) in thl' dl'vt'loprnent or thl' philosophical and

logical foundations of matht'n1atlcs and thl' JOllicallhoory of math...
matical prooL." (S. A. Yanovskay8, "On MalhemaUcal Rigour",
Voprosy f ilosofj;, 1966, No. 3, pp. H, -12, '13),
91 Noting the impossibility of rt'ducing one conceptual system lo
another, Quine belicl'{'s that the classical epistemological probh'm of
substantiatinj:' knowledge Is II pseudoproblcm. See e.g., Willard
V. Quine, "Epistemology Naturalized". In : 7'1u! Psychology o{
Knowing, ed. by Joseph R. Royt' and W. W. Rozeboom, Gordon
and Breach, New York, 1972. pp. 923. In Lakatos's view, " back.
ground knowledge is ~~ere we assu me that we ~now everything but
in fact know nothing (Imrc Ladatos, op. Cit., p. 45). POpper,
Feyerabend, and Kuhn also regard the problem of substantiating
knowledge as meaningless.
98 Michael Polanyi, Persollal Knowledgc. Toward$ a Post.Critical
Philosophy, pp. 6365.
99 Stephen Kleene, Illtroductioll to Metamathema tics, North-Hol_
land Publish ing Co" Amsterdam, 1952, p,
100 "We all know about ourselves su ch
and so many of them
that no one will ever [earn about them
objective
methods" (A. G, Spirkin, COllsciousness
'
p. 155).
101 See e,g, Thomas S. Kuhn , Op, cit. ; S, R. Mikulinsk:y, M,G, Yaro,
shevsky, "The Socio-Psychological Aspects of Scientific Activity",
Voprosy fifosofii, 1972, No, 12; John M, Ziman, Public K nowledge.
An Essay Concerning the Social Dimellsion of Sciellce, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1968,
102 Karl R. Popper, Objectiue Knowledge. An Evolutionary Ap.
proach , Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1979, pp. 106, 107. 108,
103 Ibid., p. 115.
104 V. I. Lenin, "Conspectus of Hegel's Book The Science of Logic ",
Collected Works, Vol. 38, 1972, p. 202.
lOr. For a discussion of collective and individual subjects see also
~. V. Kopnin , ./ntroduction into Marxist Epistemology, pp. 58-65;
Idem! DialectiCS as the Logic and Epistemology of Cognition, pp.
~06- 17.; V. A. Lektorsky, The Problem of the Subject and Object
m C~sslcal and Modern Bourgeois Ph ilosophy, pp. 100-113 (all in
RUSSian).
106 Karl Marx , "Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844",
Pg. 276-277.
~ 7 For an analYSis ?f the Hegelian conception of subject and ob.
Ject see also T. I. Olzerman, Hegel 's Philosophy, Moscow, 1956;
K. .S; ~akradzel. The System and Me thod of Hegel 's Philosophy,
TbilISI, 1958; v, I. Shinkaruk, Hegel's LOgic Dialectics and Episte,,!,Olo~, Kiev, 1964 ; B. M, Kedrov, V. I. Le.~in and H~gel's Dialecacs, . oscow, . 1975; V. A. Lektorsky, "The Subject-Object Problem m the EpIstemology of Hegel and Marx" In ' The Philosophy
K. N.
Problem Of.
L...
Philosophy pp 56-~J7~~'S ~nnan ClaSSIcal and Marxist-Le./II/11st
and the M~der'n Tim~s" 'K'
gom.olov, " The Philosophy of Hegel
dashvili The Fonns and ~mmU/llst, 1970, No. 14 ; M. K. Mamar
ontent of Thinking, Moscow, 1968;
276

s~b1:!:la~/;l tl%(~)'~e Ti~es;

Lyubu~in, 'Th~

t~e

ri~71)bid., p. 72.
I II Ibid.
1 12 Ibid" pp. 72-73.
11 3 Ibid" pp, 73-74.
,
114 Ibid., p. 74.
.
h of Kant and Ficht.e "d id not
II r. In Hegel's view, the phiiOSOPt Y it is in and for itsclf but only
as
aUain the level ~r concept o,r spm other" (G. W. F. Hegel,Enzyh
that of spirit as It IS h~ r~latl~~ist~~~ha{len im Grunarisse, Aka-dc/oplJd, c der phll.osoP ~5 en 345).
mieVerlag, Berlm,
, p. en%gie des Geistes, p. 21.
"
116 G. W. F, Hegel,T"a nom
117 Ibid., p, 75."
. and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1841 ,
118 Karl Marx, EconomIC
, .
.
333334
,
' k Lectures on the //lspp,
.
'. "Conspectus of Hegel 5
278
119 V, I. ~nm, h " Col/ected \Vorks, V . 38, p,
. al'zed" The
tOry of Phllosop Y 'V Q .
"Epistemo
atur I
,
120 See Willard
" UlIIe,?
.
/
f Knowmg, pp. 9_3..
.
d la philosophle, Presse
Piagel,
Universitaires de Fra~ce,
P;ris 1970: idem, Psychology a
ces de /'homme, GalhNea:d.vork, i971.
lemoIOlly, Grossm.an,O
t p 77.
\ Essa)'on
122 L Wittgenstem, p. CI .~~ The Bounds of Sense. '1973' Barry
123 ~e e,g., peterIFp;;:a~eason MethUen'JLond~nof Phil~sophy,
Kant's Critique
tal Arguments". The ourna

It

.__

.--

Sag;:s e~9~~~i~~,Eris/rmOIOgie d~dsE~~:

;~c~eo~aon

8v"O,o ,ut*~~s;s9r1:;
2,
1968 ,PP;,rn~;~~al Philosophy T~:;::
,
V A l"ektorsky,
K I va Philosophy an
E

124 S~e ~.g., "'" No 1 1972: M. S. ~z

'r h Bourgeois Phi/os
Vopros)' (IIOS(~/'1 972; A. S. BogomOI~\, a~~~sRussian) ,
.
gllagc, 1~~~C~Oth Gentu')'." MOr:~'~?S;i;IIJif DiscolX!ry, Hutchm
opliy
I R popper, 1 he
glc
125 &,c Kar 1972 pp.49-7 2.
d ced to an absurdity by Paul
SOil London,
'epted and e\'en re u
osed a substantia12 6' But they ardi:~le of popper who hPa~rleyerabend. A/!Oil1st
Feyerabelldnarc
,
ill epistemolo~y. r8
'y of Kllow/cd!!c, NLB,
tion of "a ,. I of all AnarcliistlC ICOI
/ldOulote
Mel U . 1975.
.
52,
London,
,R popper, Op. CIt., p.
127 SceKar
.

iC

\'sm"

NAME INDEX

VI<

Is Ile,

1Ut' (
Sci,no

co,",
of sci
gy 0
ICOrel

that '

numt

Abdildin, Zh. M. - 262 267

Abulkhanova, K. A. - 264
Akhutin, A. V. - 274
Ames, Adalbert - 128 129
Antipenko, L. G. - 268
Apostel, L. - 266
Arkhiptsev, F. T. - 263
Asmus, V. F. - 267
Ayer,' A. J. -114

forei!
B

Bachelard, Gaston - 143

Bacon, Francis - 139, 255
Bakradze, K. S. - 276
Balgimbayev, A. S. - 262
Buhan, V. V. - 263
Benjamin, A. Cornelius - '2
266
'
Bibler, V. S. - 263, 274
Bogomolov, A. S. - 276 277
Bohr, Niels - 262
'
Born, Max - 33 34
Borodai, Yu. M.'- 267
doyle, Robert - 163
Bridgman, P. W. - 17 38-45,
163,224
'
Brouwer, L. -II, 256
Brushlinsky, A. V. - 264 265
Bukhalov, Yu. F. - 263 '
fluiatov, M. A. - 267,270 277
Bunge, Mario - 204
'
Bur, M. - 267

1I1'~,

Deborin, A. M.
267
Descartel, Rell~
8 17 18
51-r;..z, 63, 65, 71, 72 76' 77'
79, aa, 84, 100, Hh '110'
114, HO, 246, 248, 255, 266 '
Duchenko, N. V. - 263
Dyshleviy, P. S, - 263
E

Eirutein, Albert - 40, 41 45

159, 163, 224 225
"
Euclid - 166 '

FlchLe, Johann Gottlieb - 17

18, 76-79, 84-87 99-101 110'
114, 140, 149, 1'50 240' 245'
246, 275, 277
'
,
,
Filippov, L, I. - 268
Fok, v. A. -11, 262
G

Dalton, John - 163

Davydov, V. V. -145, 264, 271
278

,
Uyenkov, E. V. - 262. 263,
2702,277
Inhelder, Barbel- 265, 269
Ivanov, V. P. - 270
J

~eg;~Georg Wilhelm Friedrich275

,115,149, 150, 243-49,

Heisenberg, Werner-H, 159

t.katol, Imre - 223, 275, 276

t.uer, Quentin - 267
Leibnitz, GoUfri.ed
Wilhelm
von -192
Lektonky, V. A. - 264-66, 268,
270,274.,276,277
Lenin, V.I. - 9, 123, 127,
134., 166, 210, 233, 24.0, 24.8,
257,260
Lenzen, V. - 266
Leontyev, A. N. - 121, 14.5,
200,264,265,270,271
Locke, John - 17 , 22, 23, 28,
265
Logvinenko, A. D. - 269
IjudYI, A. R. - 14.5, 264., 271
Lyubutin, K. N. - 263, 276

Janet, Pierre -1 19,146

Joule, Jamel Prescott -163

F~yerabend, Paul-161, 192

Galilei, Galileo - 163 224

Gaiperin, P. Ya. - 145. 264 _271
Genova, A. C. - 274
'
Gibson, James J. -120, 121
Glezer, V. D. - 269
Gombrich, E. H. - 213 269
gorsky, D ..p, - 45,263,266
C
G r~ory, Richard L. - 209
runbaum, Adolf - 266
Cantor, Georg - 233
Gryaznov, B. S. - 272
Carnap, Rudolf - 184 193
gunder!'On, Keith - 216, 21 7
Chomsk.y, Noam -13: 197 274
urgemdze, G. S. - 271
Cole, Mlchael- 274
'
~~~Iomb, Charles Augustin de-

Mary 272
Heytlllll, L.
11,1.66
llilll, It. J.
267
Ilolton, Gl' rlld - 274
liullert, Edmund
17, 18,
63-77,79,83-96,98,101,110,
113, 114, 125, 127,240,248,
249,256
HUll, V. P. - 263

Kakabadze, Z. M. - 268
Kant, Immanuel - 8, 17, 18,
49, 79-87, 89, 96, 100, 101,
107, 125, 126, 140,175,176,
208, 214, 215, 222, 240, 246,
249, 255, 256, 277
Karmin, A. S. - 263
Kasymjanov, A. Kh. - 265
Kazyutinsky, V. V. - 263
Kedrov, B. M. - 262,276
Kissel, M. A. - 268
Kleene, Stephen Cole - 262,
276
Kockelmans, J<eph J. - 267
Kopnin, P. V. - 262, 264, 275,
276
Korshunov, A. M. - 136, 262,
265,269,270
KozloVII, M. S. - 277
Kuhn, Thomas - 13, 14, 19,
160,162,163,177-79 ,191.93,
203, 204, 206, 207,221,224,
276
Kuptsov, V.I. - 263
Kuzmin, V. F. - 263
Kuzmin, V. P. - 272
KuznetJOv, V. N, - 268

Mach, Enut - 229

Maizl'i, 1. A. - 263
Mlmardashvili, M. K. - 276
Maool'lbrol, B. - 266
Mantatov, V. V. - 262
MIll1, Karl - 110, 119, 130,
134, 138, 149 , 152, 166, 168,
215, 241, 256, 257, 269, 270,
276, 277
Maxwell, Grover -159,171
Meshc:herylkov, A. 1. - 264,

271

Mikhailov, F. T. - 263, 265

Mikulinsky, S. R. - 276
N

Naall, G. N. - 263
Narsky, 1. S. - 267
Naumenko, L. K. - 263
Neumann - 180, 189
Newton, Isaac - 207,233

o
OgurLsov, A. P. - 270
Oizerman, T. I. - 267, 276
Oml'lyanovsky, M. E.
263,
265,266
Orudthev, Z. M. - 263
219

VI<

is he,
tute c
Seier'll

cover
of sci
gy 0
teOf$l

that I
numt
forei!

Pakhomov, B. Va. - 263

Pavlov, T. - 262
Piagel, Jean 13, 14, 1 7,
28-38, 107-11, 135, 137, 117,
195,249,269
Plato -127
Polany;, Michael - 221, 224,
228,276
Popper, Karl 19 , 234-37,
241-43,251,2 52,276
Price, H. H. - 57
Prigozhin, 1. - 35
Pu:/:)lrei, A. A. - 269

o
Quine, Willard V, -

12, 14,
19, 180-200, 202, 203, 219,
228, 249, 276, 277

Shotemo r , Sh. Sh. - 264, 270

Shv yrev, V. S. - 45, 263 264
266, 270, 272
"
Sirotkin , S. A. - 275
So!ovyov. A. V. - 264, 270
Spmoza, Baruc:h - 270 27 1
Spirkin, A. G. - 262, 275 276
Stepin, V. S. - 263, 274 '
Straw80n, Peter F. - 277
Streltsova, G. Ya. - 268
Stroud, Bany - 277
SUppe, Frederick - 272
Sychov, N. I. - 263
T

Tipukhin, V. N. - 263
Tolstoy, Leo - 233
Tomilchik, L. M. - 263
Trubnikov, N. N. - 270
TS('lUhchev, V. V. - 273
Tyukhtin, V. S. - 262, 266

u
R

Rogovin, M. S. -

Urvantsev, L. P. - 264, 270

264, 270,

ROTty. Richard - 274

Rozental, M. M. - 272
Rubinstein, S. L. - 117, 262,
264,265,269,270
Ruskin, John - 122
RuaseU, Berttand -17.26,27
Ruzskaya, A. G. - 264, 269
Ryie, Gilberl- 222

Vasilyev, S. A. - 273, 274

Venger, L. A. - 264. 269
Vergill'6, N. Yu. - 269, 270
Vygotsky, L. S. -110, 144
W

Whorf, Benjamin Lee - 19, 179,

191,197,200,273
Wittgenstein, Ludwig - 222,
250

Sadovsky, V, N. - 268
Safari, Kh. - 274
Sapir, Edward - 19, 1 79 191
197,200
'.
SutTe, Jean-Paul - 18 96-108
111, 112, 209, 214 215 222'

Yanovskaya, S. A. - 275, 276

Yaroshevs ky, M. G. - 276
Yatsenko, A. I. - 270
Yudin , E. G. - 263, 270

228

'"
Sch,elling, Friedrich - 275
Sc:nbner, Sylvia - 274
Shapere, Dudley - 272
Sheptulin, A. P. - 263
Shinkaruk, V. I. - 262 267
276
'
,
Shorokhova, Yeo V. - 264

z
Zaporozhets, A. V. - 145, 264 ,
26971
Zermeio, Ernst -181 189
Zinchenko, V. P. - '145 264,
269.270
'
Zuckermann, I. I. - 269
Zutta, J. - 146