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Research

The role of hospital managers in quality

and patient safety: a systematic review
Anam Parand,1 Sue Dopson,2 Anna Renz,1 Charles Vincent3

To cite: Parand A, Dopson S,

Renz A, et al. The role of
hospital managers in quality
and patient safety: a
systematic review. BMJ Open
2014;4:e005055.
doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014005055
Prepublication history and
additional material for is
available. To view please visit
the journal (http://dx.doi.org/
10.1136/bmjopen-2014005055).
Received 13 February 2014
Revised 19 August 2014
Accepted 20 August 2014

Department of Surgery &

Cancer, Imperial College
London, London, UK
2
Said Business School,
University of Oxford, Oxford,
UK
3
Department of Experimental
Psychology, University of
Oxford, Oxford, UK
Correspondence to
Dr Anam Parand;
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Objectives: To review the empirical literature to
identify the activities, time spent and engagement of
hospital managers in quality of care.
Design: A systematic review of the literature.
Methods: A search was carried out on the databases
MEDLINE, PSYCHINFO, EMBASE, HMIC. The search
strategy covered three facets: management, quality of
care and the hospital setting comprising medical
subject headings and key terms. Reviewers screened
15 447 titles/abstracts and 423 full texts were checked
against inclusion criteria. Data extraction and quality
assessment were performed on 19 included articles.
Results: The majority of studies were set in the USA
and investigated Board/senior level management. The
most common research designs were interviews and
surveys on the perceptions of managerial quality and
safety practices. Managerial activities comprised
strategy, culture and data-centred activities, such as
driving improvement culture and promotion of quality,
strategy/goal setting and providing feedback.
Significant positive associations with quality included
compensation attached to quality, using quality
improvement measures and having a Board quality
committee. However, there is an inconsistency and
inadequate employment of these conditions and
actions across the sample hospitals.
Conclusions: There is some evidence that managers
time spent and work can influence quality and safety
clinical outcomes, processes and performance.
However, there is a dearth of empirical studies, further
weakened by a lack of objective outcome measures and
little examination of actual actions undertaken. We
present a model to summarise the conditions and
activities that affect quality performance.

INTRODUCTION
Managers in healthcare have a legal and
moral obligation to ensure a high quality of
patient care and to strive to improve care.
These managers are in a prime position to
mandate policy, systems, procedures and
organisational climates. Accordingly, many
have argued that it is evident that healthcare
managers possess an important and obvious
role in quality of care and patient safety and
that it is one of the highest priorities of

Strengths and limitations of this study

This is the first systematic review of the literature
that has considered the evidence on Boards and
managers time spent, engagement and work
within the context of quality and safety. This
review adds to the widely anecdotal and commentary pieces that speculate on what managers
should be doing by presenting what they are actually doing.
The review reveals conditions and actions conducive to good quality management and offers a
model to transparently present these to managers
considering their own part in quality and safety.
The search for this review has screened a vast
amount of the literature (over 15 000 articles)
across a number of databases.
The small number of included studies and their
varied study aims, design and population samples
make generalisations difficult. With more literature
on this topic, distinctions could be made between
job positions.
The quality assessment scores are subjective
and may not take into consideration factors
beyond the quality assessment scale used.

healthcare managers.13 In line with this,

there have been calls for Boards to take
responsibility for quality and safety outcomes.4 5 One article warned hospital leaders
of the dangers of following in the path of
bankers falling into recession, constrained by
their lack of risk awareness and reluctance to
take responsibility.6 To add to the momentum
are some high prole publicity of hospital
management failures affecting quality and
safety, eliciting strong instruction for managerial leadership for quality at the national
level in some countries.7 8
Beyond healthcare, there is clear evidence
of managerial impact on workplace safety.912
Within the literature on healthcare, there are
non-empirical articles providing propositions
and descriptions on managerial attitudes and
efforts to improve safety and quality. This literature, made up of opinion articles, editorials and single participant experiences,
present an array of insightful suggestions and
recommendations for actions that hospital

Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

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Open Access
managers should take to improve the quality of patient
care delivery in their organisation.1317 However,
researchers have indicated that there is a limited evidence base on this topic.1821 Others highlight the literature focus on the difculties of the managers role and
the negative results of poor leadership on quality
improvement (QI) rather than considering actions that
managers presently undertake on quality and safety.22 23
Consequently, little is known about what healthcare
managers are doing in practice to ensure and improve
quality of care and patient safety, how much time they
spend on this, and what research-based guidance is available for managers in order for them to decide on appropriate areas to become involved. Due perhaps to the
broad nature of the topic, scientic studies exploring
these acts and their impact are likely to be a methodological challenge, although a systematic review of the evidence on this subject is notably absent. This present
systematic literature review aims to identify empirical
studies pertaining to the role of hospital managers in
quality of care and patient safety. We dene role to
comprise of managerial activities, time spent and active
engagement in quality and safety and its improvement.
While the primary research question is on the managers
role, we take into consideration the contextual factors
surrounding this role and its impact or importance as
highlighted by the included studies. Our overarching
question is What is the role of hospital managers in
quality and safety and its improvement? The specic
review research questions are as follows:
How much time is spent by hospital managers on
quality and safety and its improvement?
What are the managerial activities that relate to
quality and safety and its improvement?
How are managers engaged in quality and safety and
its improvement?
What impact do managers have on quality and safety
and its improvement?
How do contextual factors inuence the managers
role and impact on quality and safety and its
improvement?

METHODS
Concepts and definitions
Quality of care and patient safety were dened on the
basis of widely accepted denitions from the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) and the Agency for Healthcare
Research and Quality Patient Safety Network (AHRQ
PSN). IOM dene quality in healthcare as possessing the
following dimensions: safe, effective, patient-centred,
timely, efcient and equitable.4 They dene patient
safety simply as the prevention of harm to patients,24
and AHRQ dene it as freedom from accidental or preventable injuries produced by medical care.25 Literature
was searched for all key terms associated with quality and
patient safety to produce an all-encompassing approach.
A manager was dened as an employee who has
2

subordinates, oversees staff, is responsible for staff recruitment and training, and holds budgetary accountabilities.
Therefore, all levels of managers including Boards of
managers were included in this review with the exception
of clinical frontline employees, e.g. doctors or nurses,
who may have taken on further managerial responsibilities alongside their work but do not have a primary ofcial role as a manager. Those who have specically taken
on a role for quality of care, e.g. the modern matron,
were also excluded. Distinction between senior, middle
and frontline management was as follows: senior management holds trust-wide responsibilities26; middle managers
are in the middle of the organisational hierarchy chart
and have one or more managers reporting to them27;
frontline managers are dened as managers at the rst
level of the organisational hierarchy chart who have frontline employees reporting to them. Board managers
include all members of the Board. Although there are
overlaps between senior managers and Boards (e.g. chief
executive ofcers (CEOs) may sit on hospital Boards), we
aim to present senior and Board level managers separately due to the differences in their responsibilities and
position. Only managers who would manage within or
govern hospitals were included, with the exclusion of settings that solely served mental health or that comprised
solely of non-acute care community services (in order to
keep the sample more homogenous). The denition of
role focused on actual engagement, time spent and
activities that do or did occur rather than those recommended that should or could occur.
Search strategy
Literature was reviewed between 1 January 1983 and 1
November 2010. Eligible articles were those that
described or tested managerial roles pertaining to
quality and safety in the hospital setting. Part of the
search strategy was based on guidance by Tanon et al.28
EMBASE, MEDLINE, Health Management Information
Consortium (HMIC) and PSYCHINFO databases were
searched. The search strategy involved three facets
(management, quality and hospital setting) and ve
steps. A facet (i.e. a conceptual grouping of related
search terms) for role was not included in the search
strategy, as it would have signicantly reduced the sensitivity of the search.
Multiple iterations and combinations of all search
terms were tested to achieve the best level of specicity
and sensitivity. In addition to the key terms, Medical
Subject Headings (MeSH) terms were used, which were
exploded to include all MeSH subheadings. All databases required slightly different MeSH terms (named
Emtree in EMBASE), therefore four variations of the
search strategies were used (see online supplementary
appendix 1 for the search strategies). Additional limits
placed on the search strategy restricted study participants to human and the language to English. The
search strategy identied 15 447 articles after duplicates
had been removed.
Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

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Open Access
Screening
Three reviewers (AP, AR and Dina Grishin) independently screened the titles and abstracts of the articles for
studies that t the inclusion criteria. One reviewer (AP)
screened all 15 447 articles, while two additional
reviewers screened 30% of the total sample retrieved
from the search strategy: AR screened 20% and DG
screened 10%. On testing inter-rater reliability, Cohens
correlations showed low agreement between AR and
AP (=0.157, p<0.01) and between DG and AP (=0.137,
p<0.00).29 However, there was a high percentage of
agreement between raters (95% and 89%, respectively),
which reveals a good inter-rater reliability.30 31
Discrepancies were resolved by discussion and consensus. The main inclusion criteria were that: the setting
was hospitals; the population sample reported on was
managers; the context was quality and safety; the aim
was to identify the managerial activities/time/engagement in quality and safety. The full inclusion/exclusion
criteria and screening tool can be accessed in the online
supplementary appendices 23. Figure 1 presents the
numbers of articles included and excluded at each stage
of the review process.
Four hundred and twenty-three articles remained for
full text screening. One reviewer (AP) screened all articles and a second reviewer (AR) reviewed 7% of these.
A moderate agreement inter-rater reliability score was
calculated (=0.615, p<0.001) with 73% agreement. The
primary reoccurring difference in agreement was regarding whether the article pertained to quality of care,
owing to the broad nature of the denition. Each article
was discussed individually until a consensus was reached
on whether to include or exclude. Hand searching and
cross-referencing were carried out in case articles were
missed by the search strategy or from restriction of databases. One additional article was identied from hand
searching,32 totalling 19 articles included in the systematic review (gure 1).

Data extraction and methodological quality

The characteristics and summary ndings of the 19
included studies are presented in table 1. This table is a
simplied version of a standardised template that was
used to ensure consistency in data extracted from each
article. Each study was assessed using a quality appraisal
tool developed by Kmet et al,34 which comprised of two
checklists (qualitative and quantitative). Random
included articles (32%) were scored by Ana Wheelock
for scoring consistency. All articles were scored on up to
24 questions with a score between 0 and 2; table 2 shows
an example denition of what constitutes Yes (2),
Partial (1) and No (0) rating criteria. The total percentage scores for each study are presented in table 1.
All studies were included regardless of their quality
scores. Some cumulative evidence bias may results from
two larger data sets split into more than one study
each.3538 Through a narrative synthesis, we aimed to
Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

maintain the original meanings, interpretations and raw

data offered by the articles.39
RESULTS
This section provides an overview description of the
reviewed studies and their key ndings. The ndings are
considered under four main headings: managerial time
spent on quality and safety; managerial quality and
safety activities; managerial impact on quality and safety;
and contextual factors related to managers quality and
safety role. The section ends with a proposed model to
summarise the review ndings.
Description of the studies
From the 19 included studies, the majority were carried
out and set in the USA (14 studies) and investigated senior
management and/or Boards (13 studies). Of these, 3
focused on senior managers alone (e.g. chief nursing ofcers), 9 concentrated on Board managers and 1 included
a mixture of managerial levels. Only 3 investigated middle
managers and 3 examined frontline staff (e.g. clinical directorate managers and unit nurse managers). The settings
of the study were mostly trust or hospital-wide; a few articles were set in specic settings or contexts: elderly care,40
evidence-based medicine,41 staff productivity,42 clinical risk
management43 and hospital-acquired infection prevention.44 Two studies involved specic interventions,45 46 and
7 studies concentrated specically on QI rather than
quality and safety oversight or routine.35 40 4549 There
were a mixture of 6 qualitative designs (interviews or focus
groups); 8 quantitative survey designs and 5 mix-methods
designs. All but one study employed a cross-sectional
design.46 The primary outcome measure used in most
studies was perceptions of managerial quality and safety
practices. All reported participant perceptions and a
majority presented self-reports, i.e. either a mixture of selfreports and peer reports, or self-reports alone.41 43 45 46
Several studies asked participants about their own and/or
other managers involvement with regard to their specic
QI intervention or quality/safety issue.40 41 4447 With
some variations, the most common research design was to
interview or survey senior manager/Board members (particularly Board chairs, presidents and CEOs) perceptions
on the Board/senior managers functions, practices, priorities, agenda, time spent, engagement, challenges/issues,
drivers and literacy (e.g. familiarity of key reports) on
quality and safety.3538 4851 Five of these studies included
objective process/outcome measures, such as adjusted
mortality rates.35 37 38 49 50 No other studies included clinical outcome measures.
The quality assessment scores ranged between 50% and
100%; one study scored (what we consider to be) very low
(i.e. <55%), eight studies scored highly (i.e. >75%), two
other articles scored highly on one out of two of their
studies (quantitative/qualitative) and the remaining eight
scored a moderate rating in-between. Almost half of the
articles did not adequately describe their qualitative
3

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Open Access

Figure 1 Review stages based on PRISMA flow diagram.33

studies. Specically, 8 failed to fully describe their qualitative data collection methods, often not mentioning a standardised topic guide, what questions were asked of
participants, or no mention of consent and condentiality
assurances. In 7 studies there was no or vague qualitative
data analysis description, including omitting the type of
qualitative analysis used. Six of the studies showed no or
poor use of verication procedures to establish credibility
and 9 reported no or poor reexivity. Positively, all study
designs were evident, the context of studies were clear and
the authors showed a connection to a wider body of
knowledge.
Similarly to the qualitative studies, 7 quantitative
studies did not fully describe, justify or use appropriate
analysis methods. However, compared with the qualitative studies, the quantitative studies suffered more from
sampling issues. Three studies had particularly small
samples (e.g. n=35) and one had an especially low
response rate of 15%. Participant characteristics were
insufciently described in 5 studies; in one case the
authors did not state the number of hospitals included
in data analysis. Several studies had obtained ordinal
4

data but only presented percentages, and only one study

reported to appropriately controlled for confounding
variables. Across all articles, all but 3 studies reported
clear objectives and asserted conclusions clearly supported by the data.
Managerial time spent on quality and safety
The studies on Board level managers highlight an inadequate prioritisation of quality and patient safety on the
Board agenda and subsequent time spent at Board meetings. Not all hospitals consistently have quality on their
Board agenda, e.g. CEOs and chairpersons across 30 organisations reported that approximately a third of all Board
meetings had quality on their agenda,35 and necessary
quality items were not consistently and sometimes never
addressed.36 In all studies examining time spent on quality
and safety by the Board, less than half of the total time was
spent on quality and safety,32 37 38 4851 with a majority of
Boards spending 25% or less on quality.32 38 45 4951
Findings imply that this may be too low to have a positive
inuence on quality and safety, as higher quality
performance was demonstrated by Boards that spent
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Open Access
above 20%/25% on quality.49 50 Board members recognised that the usual time spent is insufcient.48 However,
few reported nancial goals as more important than
quality and safety goals,32 and health system Boards only
spent slightly more time on nancial issues than quality.51
Frontline managers also placed less importance and time
on QI,42 identied as the least discussed topic by clinical
managers.52
Managerial quality and safety activities
A broad range of quality-related activities were identied
to be undertaken by managers. These are presented by
the following three groupings: strategy-centred; datacentred and culture-centred.
Strategy-centred
Board priority setting and planning strategies aligned
with quality and safety goals were identied as Board
managerial actions carried out in several studies. High
percentages (over 80% in two studies) of Boards had
formally established strategic goals for quality with specic targets and aimed to create a quality plan integral
to their broader strategic agenda.32 37 Contrary ndings
however suggest that the Board rarely set the agenda for
the discussion on quality,37 did not provide the ideas for
their strategies32 and were largely uninvolved in strategic
planning for QI.48 In the latter case, the non-clinical
Board managers felt that they held passive roles in
quality decisions. This is important considering evidence
that connects the activity of setting the hospital quality
agenda with better performance in process of care and
mortality.38 Additionally, Boards that established goals in
four areas of quality and publicly disseminated strategic
goals and reported quality information were linked to
high hospital performance.35 38 50
Culture-centred
Activities aimed at enhancing patient safety/QI culture
emerged from several studies across organisational
tiers.44 47 48 53 Board and senior managements activities
included encouraging an organisational culture of QI
on norms regarding interdepartmental/multidisciplinary collaboration and advocating QI efforts to clinicians
and fellow senior managers, providing powerful messages of safety commitment and inuencing the organisations patient safety mission.47 53 Managers at differing
levels focused on cultivating a culture of clinical excellence and articulating the organisational culture to
staff.44 Factors to motivate/engage middle and senior
management in QI included senior management commitment, provision of resources and managerial role
accountability.40 46 Findings revealed connections
between senior management and Board priorities and
values with hospital performance and on middle management quality-related activities. Ensuring capacity for
high-quality standards also appears within the remit of
management, as physician credentialing was identied
as a Board managers responsibility in more than one
Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

study.38 48 From this review it is unclear to what degree

Board involvement in the credentialing process has a signicant impact on quality.38 41
Data-centred
Information on quality and safety is continually supplied
to the Board.51 At all levels of management, activities
around quality and safety data or information were
recognised in 6 studies.35 38 43 45 47 53 Activities included
collecting and collating information,43 reviewing quality
information,35 38 53 using measures such as incident
reports and infection rates to forge changes,53 using
patient satisfaction surveys,35 taking corrective action
based on adverse incidents or trends emphasised at
Board meetings38 and providing feedback.43 47 The
studies do not specify the changes made based on the
data-related activities by senior managers; one study
identied that frontline managers predominantly used
data from an incident reporting tool to change policy/
practice and training/education and communication
between care providers.45 However, overseeing data generally was found to be benecial, as hospitals that
carried out performance monitoring activities had signicantly higher scores in process of care and lower
mortality rates than hospitals that did not.38
Managerial impact on quality and safety outcomes
We have considered the associations found between specic
managerial involvement and its affect on quality and safety.
Here, we summarise the impact and importance of their
general role. Of the articles that looked at either outcomes
of management involvement in quality or at its perceived
importance, 6 articles suggested that their role was benecial to quality and safety performance.32 35 38 40 49 53 Senior
management support and engagement was identied as
one of the primary factors associated with good
hospital-wide quality outcomes and QI programme
success.35 38 40 49 Conversely, 6 articles suggest that
managers involvement (from the Board, middle and frontline) has little, no or a negative inuence on quality and
safety.35 38 41 42 44 49 Practices that showed no signicant
association with quality measures included Boards participation in physician credentialing.35 38 Another noted that if
other champion leaders are present, management leadership was not deemed necessary.44 Two articles identied a
negative or inhibitory effect on evidence-based practices
and staff productivity from frontline and middle managers.41 42
Contextual factors related to managers quality
and safety role
Most of the articles focused on issues that inuenced
the managers role or their impact, as opposed to discussing the role of the managers. These provide an
insight in to the types of conditions in which a manager
can best undertake their role to affect quality and safety.
Unfortunately it appears that many of these conditions
are not in place.
5

Table of characteristics and summary findings of included studies

First author;
year (country) Methods

Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

Balding; 2005
(Australia)46

Bradely et al;
2003 (USA)47

Bradely et al;
2006 (USA)40

Outcome measure

Management roles (managerial quality and safety activities,

time spent and engagement and key perceived
importance and context factors)

Less than half (43%) of Boards reported that they addressed quality and
patient safety issues in all meetings
One-third of Boards spend 25% of their time or more on quality and patient
safety issues
More than 80% of Boards have formally established strategic goals for
quality with specific targets, but a majority of Board chairs indicate that their
Boards did not provide the ideas for strategic direction or initiatives
Board chairs reported a low participation in education on quality and safety:
43% reported that all the Board members participated, 19% stated that more
than half participated and 23% said it was less than a quarter of the Board
Most Board chairs (87%) reported Board member induction training on
responsibilities for quality and safety, although almost a third (30%) reported
few or no opportunities for education on this, 42% reported some
opportunities and 28% reported many
Approximately half (57%) of the Board chairs acknowledged recruitment of
individuals that have knowledge, skills and experience in quality and patient
safety onto the Board. A Board skills matrix included quality and safety as
one of the competency areas
Over half (55%) of board chairs rated their boards effectiveness in quality
and safety oversight as very/extremely effective and 40% as somewhat
effective
Mixed methods n=35
Managers (middle
Self-reported
Five elements deemed essential to middle manager engagement:
(action
(1 hospital)
management
perceptions of
Senior management commitment and leadership (e.g. senior management
research,
(nursing managers
managers on their
provides strategic direction for QI plan)
surveys and
and allied health
engagement in a QI Provision of resources and opportunities for QI education and information
focus groups)
managers))
programme
dissemination (e.g. basic QI skills provided to all staff)
Senior and middle manager role accountability (e.g. senior managers and
middle managers agree QI roles and expectations)
Middle manager involvement in QI planning (e.g. senior and middle
managers plan together)
Middle managers own and operate QI programme (e.g. ongoing review and
evaluation of the progress of the QI programme by the middle and senior
managers)
Qualitative
n=45
Clinical staff and
Perceptions of roles Five common roles and activities that captured the variation in management
(interviews)
(8 hospitals)
senior management
and activities that
involvement in quality improvement efforts:
(senior management
comprise senior
Personal engagement of senior managers
(unspecified))
managements
Managements relationship with clinical staff
involvement in
Promotion of an organisational culture of quality improvement
quality improvement Support of quality improvement with organisational structures
efforts
Procurement of organisational resources for quality improvement efforts
Mixed methods n=63 survey
Managers (senior
Perceptions of
Providing resources for needed staffing or staff training
(surveys and
respondents (63 management (chief
management-related Promoting the programme among the governing Board, physicians who were
interviews)
hospitals);
operating officer, vice factors around the
initially less involved, and other administrators
n=102
president, medical
HELP programme
Senior management support reported as the primary enabling factor in the
interviewees (13 director, CNO, director
implementation of such programmes (96.6%), along with a lack of support as
hospitals)
of volunteers,
the primary reason for not implementing the programme (65.0%)
programme director))
The interviews supported that having an administrative champion was
considered essential to their programmes success
Mixed methods
(interviews,
case studies,
surveys)

n=15 interviews; Managers (Board

n=4 Board case management)
studies; n=79
surveys (79
organisations)

Perceptions of
managers on
management Board
practices in quality
and safety

Findings pertaining
to research questions
Quality
Quality
(time spent; activities,
assessment assessment engagement; impact
score for
score for
(including perceived
qualitative
quantitative effectiveness);
studies
studies
contextual factors)
16/20 (80%)

12/22
(55%)

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Baker et al;
2010
(Canada)32

Sample size
(number of
organisations)

Population
sample (level of
management
reported on
(position of
managers))

Time
Activities
Impact
Context

14/20 (70%)

15/22 (68%)

Activities
Engagement
Impact

19/20 (95%)

NA

Activities
Engagement
Impact

19/20 (95%)

17/22
(77%)

Activities
Engagement
Impact
Context

Open Access

6
Table 1

Continued

Continued

First author;
year (country) Methods

Sample size
(number of
organisations)

Braithwaite
et al; 2004
(Australia)52

Mixed methods
(ethnographic
work,
observations
and focus
groups)

Caine and
Kenwrick;
1997(UK)41

Qualitative
(interviews)

Fox, Fox and

Wells;
1999 (USA)42

Quantitative
(surveys and
self kept
activity logs)

n=16
(1 hospital)

Harris;
2000 (UK)43

Quantitative
(surveys)

n=42 (42
hospitals)

Jha and
Epstein;
2010 (USA)50

Quantitative
(surveys)

n=722 (767
hospitals)

n=64 managers
in focus groups
(1 hospital);
ethnographic
case studies
and n=4
observed
(2 hospitals)
n=10 (2
hospitals)

Population
sample (level of
management
reported on
(position of
managers))

Outcome measure

Managers (frontline
management (medical
managers, nurse
managers and allied
health managers))

Observations and
self-reported
perceptions of
clinician-managers
activities

Managers (middle
Self-reported
management (clinical perceptions of
directorate managers)) managers on the
managers role in
facilitating
evidence-based
practice in their
nursing teams
Managers (frontline
Self-reported
management (nurse
perceptions of
administrative
managers on their
managers (NAMs)))
activities impacting
unit personnel
productivity and
monitored time/effort
allocated to each
function and
managers hours
worked, patient
admissions and
length of stay
Managers (middle
Self-reported
management (nurse
perceptions of
managers))
managers on
managers quality
and safety practices

Managers (Board)

Quality was the least discussed topic (e.g. continuous quality improvement)
The most discussed topic was people (e.g. staffing, delegating) and
organisational issues, e.g. beds and equipment

16/20 (80%)

NA

Time

Managers saw their role in research implementation as a facilitator, ensuring 14/20 (70%)
quality and financial objectives and standards were met
Managers perceived their facilitatory behaviours produced a low level of
clinical change
Managers are not actively advocating research-based practice and failing to
integrate it into everyday practice. Their behaviour inhibited the development
of evidence-based nursing practice
Devolved responsibility of use of research to individual professionals
The small amount of total management allocated to QI (2.6%) was the least NA
time spent of all management functions
A negative relationship between time spent in QI activities and unit personnel
productivity. An increase (from 2.5% to 5%) in QI time/effort by NAMs would
reduce staff productivity significantly by approximately 8%
The greater the experiences of NAMs as managers, the more time spent on
QI. These seasoned NAMs spent more time on monitoring, reporting QI
results and quality improvement teams (statistics nor provided)

NA

Activities
Impact

13/22 (59%)

Time
Activities
Impact (objective
outcome measure)

The majority of managers (91%) who received collated incident information

NA
used it to feed back to their own staff. 60% always fed back to staff, 28%
sometimes did, 2% never did
Of the trusts that had written guidance on types of clinical incident to report,
80% of managers had general guidance and fewer (20%) had written
specialty specific guidance
76% of managers reported information collation of clinical incidents. Of
these, 59% were involved in data collection themselves
Two-thirds (63%) of Boards had quality as an agenda item at every meeting NA
Fewer than half (42%) of the hospitals spent at least 20% of the Boards time
on clinical quality
72% of Boards regularly reviewed a quality dashboard
Most respondents reported that their Boards had established, endorsed or
approved goals in four areas of quality: hospital-acquired infections (82%),
medication errors (83%), the HQA/Joint commission core measures (72%),
and patient satisfaction (91%)High-performing hospitals were more likely
than low-performing hospitals to have:
Board reviews of a quality dashboard regularly (<0.001)
and of clinical measures (all <0.05)

13/22 (59%)

Activities

22/22 (100%) Time

Activities
Impact (objective
outcome measure)
Context

Continued

Open Access

Perceptions of
managers on the
role of managers in
quality and safety
and quality outcome
measurement
(from HQA) i.e. 19
practices for care in
3 clinical conditions

Management roles (managerial quality and safety activities,

time spent and engagement and key perceived
importance and context factors)

Findings pertaining
to research questions
Quality
Quality
(time spent; activities,
assessment assessment engagement; impact
score for
score for
(including perceived
qualitative
quantitative effectiveness);
studies
studies
contextual factors)

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Table 1

Continued

First author;
year (country) Methods

Quantitative
(surveys)

Jiang et al;
2009 (USA)38

Quantitative
(surveys)

Joshi and
Hines; 2006
(USA)35

Mixed
methods
(surveys and
interviews)

Outcome measure

Management roles (managerial quality and safety activities,

time spent and engagement and key perceived
importance and context factors)

Findings pertaining
to research questions
Quality
Quality
(time spent; activities,
assessment assessment engagement; impact
score for
score for
(including perceived
qualitative
quantitative effectiveness);
studies
studies
contextual factors)

Quality performance on the agenda at every Board meeting (0.003)

At least 20% of Board time on clinical quality (0.001)
Has a quality subcommittee (0.001)
n=562 (387
Managers (Board and Perceptions of
75% of CEOs reported that most to all of the Board meetings have a specific NA
hospitals)
senior management
managers on
agenda item devoted to quality. Only 41% indicated that the Boards spend
(presidents/CEOs))
managers practices
more than 20% of its meeting time on the specific item of quality.The
in quality and safety;
following activities were most reported to be performed:
and outcomes of
Board establishing strategic goals for QI (81.3%)
care (composite
Use quality dashboards to track performance (86%)
scores of
Follow-up corrective actions related to adverse events (83%)The following
risk-adjusted M
activities were least reported to be performed:
indicators)
Board involvement in setting the agenda for the discussion on quality
(42.4%)
Inclusion of the quality measures in the CEOs performance evaluation
(54.6%)
Improvement of quality literacy of Board members (48.9%)
Board written policy on quality and formally communicated it (30.8%)
n=490 (490
Managers
Perceptions of
Board practices found to be associated with better performance (all p<0.05) in NA
hospitals)
(Board and senior
managers on
POC and adjusted M included:
management (CEOS
managers practices Having a Board quality committee (83.8%POC, 6.2M versus 80.2%POC,
and hospital
in quality and safety; 7.9M without a committee)
presidents reports))
and POC measures Establishing strategic goals for quality improvement (82.8% POC, 6.6M
(20 measures in 4
versus 80.3% POC, 7.9M)
clinical areas); and
Being involved in setting the quality agenda for the hospital (83.2% POC,
outcome measures
6.4M versus 80.9% POC, 7.7M)
(composite scores of Including a specific item on quality in Board meetings (83.2% POC, 6.5M
risk-adjusted M
versus 78.5% POC, 8.6M)
indicators)
Using a dashboard with national benchmarks and internal data that includes
indicators for clinical quality, patient safety and patient satisfaction (all above
80% POC and below 6.5M versus all below 80%POC and above 7M)
Linking senior executives performance evaluation to quality and patient
safety indicators (83.1% POC, 6.6M versus 80.4% POC, 7.6M)Practices that
did NOT show significant association with the quality measures for process
and M include:
Reporting to the Board of any corrective action related to adverse events
(82.5% POC, 7.0M versus 81.8% POC, 6.6M)
Boards participation in physician credentialing (82.8% POC, 6.9M versus
81.5% POC, 6.9M)
Orientation for new Board members on quality(82.9% POC, 6.8M versus
81.7% POC, 7.0M)
Education of Board members on quality issues (82.8% POC, 7.0M versus
81.9% POC, 6.9M)
n=37 survey
Managers (Board and Perceptions of
Board engagement in quality was reported as satisfactory (7.58 by CEOs
12/20 (60%)
respondents;
senior management
managers on
and 8.10 by Chairs on a 110 scale where 10 indicates greatest satisfaction)
n=47
(CEOs, Board chairs)) managers practices Board engagement was positively associated with perceptions of the rate of
interviewees (30
in quality and safety
progress in improvement (r=0.44, p =0.05), and marginally associated with
hospitals)
and ACM and
ACM scores (r=0.41, p=0.07)
risk-adjusted M.
Approximately one-third of Board meetings are devoted to discussing quality
issues (reported at 35% by CEOs and 27% by Chairs)

20/26 (77%)

Time
Activities
Impact (objective
outcome measure)
Context

22/24 (92%)

Activities
Impact (objective
outcome measure)
Context

16/20 (80%)

Time
Activities
Engagement
Impact (objective
outcome measure)
Context

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Jiang et al;
2008 (USA)37

Sample size
(number of
organisations)

Population
sample (level of
management
reported on
(position of
managers))

Open Access

Table 1

Continued

Continued

First author;
year (country) Methods

Levey et al;
2007 (USA)48

Qualitative
(interviews)

Mastal, Joshi
and Shulke;
2007 (USA)36

Poniatowski,
Stanley and
Youngberg;

n=96 (18
hospitals)

Outcome measure

Managers (Board and

senior management
(hospital Board
members, CEOs, chief
medical officers, chief
quality officers,
medical staff leaders))

Perceptions of
managers on
managers role in
quality and safety

Qualitative
n=73
(interviews and interviewees;
a focus group) 1 focus group
(63 hospitals)

Managers (Board and

senior management
(Board chairs, CEOs,
CNOs))

Perceptions of
managers on
managers role in
quality and safety

Quantitative
(surveys)

Managers (frontline
managementunclear
whether frontline or
middle managers (unit
nurse managers))

Self-reported
perceptions of
managers on their
practices with PSN

Managers (Board and

senior management
(CEOs and Boards))

Perceptions of
managers on their
role in quality and
safety

2005 (USA)45

Prybil et al;
2010 (USA)51

Sample size
(number of
organisations)

Population
sample (level of
management
reported on
(position of
managers))

n=515 (16
academic
medical
centers)

Quantitative
(surveys)

n=123 (712
hospitals)

Management roles (managerial quality and safety activities,

time spent and engagement and key perceived
importance and context factors)

13/20 (65%)

NA

Time
Activities
Engagement
Context

12/20 (60%)

NA

Time
Context

NA

10/20 (50%)

Activities

NA

14/22 (64%)

Time
Activities
Context

Continued

Open Access

Integrating Quality Planning and Strategic Planning was also rated as

satisfactory (7.67 by CEOs and 8.85 by Chairs)
Approximately two-thirds of respondents reported using patient satisfaction
surveys (70% and 65% reported by CEOs and Chairs, respectively)
Low level of CEO expertise in QI, as reported by themselves (2.70) and by
Board Chairs (3.35%) on a scale of 110 where 1 is low familiarity and 10 is
high familiarity
Few CEOs were willing to take the lead for transformation to a culture of
quality
Board members were largely uninvolved in strategic planning for QI
In terms of the Boards quality functions, respondents largely agreed that
physician credentialing was their critical responsibility
Non-physicians reported that they felt relegated to passive roles in decisions
on quality and seemed reluctant to assume leadership roles in the quality
domain
Board meeting agendas maintained a focus on financial issues, although
patient safety/care and QI were gaining prominence
About half of the respondents said that quality was not sufficiently
highlighted during meetings. Estimates of time devoted to quality and safety
issues at Board meetings were between 10% and 35%
Two CNOs reported that nursing quality was never addressed at Board
meetings
Few of the CNOs, CEOs and Board chairs responded that issues are
discussed more frequently, such as at every meeting
Quality and patient safety measures for nurses are not consistently
addressed during all hospital Board meetings
Staffing concerns are the most frequent measure of nursing quality reported
at the Board level
Managers reviewed on average 65% of the PSN events reportedAs a result
of what was learned from PSN data, 162 managers detailed their changes
made to:
Policies and practices (59%)
Training, education and communication between care providers (27%)
Purchase of new equipment and supplies (8%)
Staffing (6%)
Health system Boards spent 23% of their Board meeting time on quality and
safety issues. They only spent slightly more on financial issues (25.2%) and
strategic planning (27.2%)
Almost all (96%) CEOs said that the Boards regularly received formal written
reports on quality targets
88% of CEOs said that the Boards had assigned quality and safety oversight
to a standing Board committee
All but one (98.9%) of the CEOs stated that they have specific performance
expectations and criteria related to quality and safety
CEOs reported 59% of the Boards formally adopted system-wide measures
and standards for quality

Findings pertaining
to research questions
Quality
Quality
(time spent; activities,
assessment assessment engagement; impact
score for
score for
(including perceived
qualitative
quantitative effectiveness);
studies
studies
contextual factors)

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Table 1

Continued

First author;
year (country) Methods

Sample size
(number of
organisations)

Population
sample (level of
management
reported on
(position of
managers))

Outcome measure

Qualitative
(interviews)

n=86
(interviewees)
(14 hospitals)

Senior hospital staff

and managers (mixed
levels (nurse
managers, chief
physicians, Chairs of
medicine, chief of
staffs, hospital
directors, CEOs and
clinical non-managerial
staff))

Perceptions of
managers on
managers practices
in HAI

Vaughn et al;
2006 (USA)49

Quantitative
(surveys)

n=413 (413
hospitals)

Managers (Board and

senior management
(chief executives and
senior quality
executives; Board,
executives, clinical
leadership))

Perceptions of
managers on
managers role in QI
and observed
hospital
quality index
outcomes
(risk-adjusted
measures of
morbidity, M and
medical
complications)

Weingart and
Page; 2004
(USA)53

Qualitative
(case study
documentation
analysis and
meeting
discussions
and focus
group)

n=30
(10 hospitals
and other
stakeholder
organisations)

Managers (senior
management
(executives))

Perceptions of
managers on
managers practices
in quality and safety

Although committed leadership by CEOs can be helpful, it was not always

16/20 (80%)
necessary, provided that other hospital leaders were committed to infection
prevention Behaviours of leaders who successfully implemented/facilitated
practices to prevent HAI:
Cultivated a culture of clinical excellence and kept their eye on improving
patient care
Developed a vision
Articulated the organisational culture well and conveyed that to staff at all
levels
Focused on overcoming barriers and dealing directly with resistant staff or
process issues that impeded prevention of HAI
Cultivated leadership skills and inspired the people they supervised
(motivating and energising them to work towards the goal of preventing HAI)
Thought strategically while acting locally; planned ahead and left few things
to chance
They did the politicking before issues arose for committee votes
They leveraged personal prestige to move initiatives forward
They worked well across disciplines
72% of hospital Boards spent one-quarter of their time or less on
NA
quality-of-care issues. About 5% of Boards spent more than half of their time
on these issues
A majority of respondents reported great influence from government and
regulatory agencies (87%), consumers (72%) and accrediting bodies (74%)
on quality priorities. Although 44% of respondents also noted that multiple
government and regulatory requirements were unhelpfulBetter QIS are
associated with hospitals where the Board:
Spends more than 25% of their time on quality issues (QIS 83QIS mean
100 across hospitals)
Receives a formal quality performance measurement report (QIS 302)
Bases the senior executives compensation in part on QI performance (QIS
239)
Engages in a great amount of interaction with the medical staff on quality
strategy
Executives developed and tested a set of governance best practices in patient 14/20 (70%)
safety, such as:
Creation of a Board committee with explicit responsibility for patient safety
Development of Board level safety reports, introduction of educational
activities for Board members
Participation of Board members in executive walk rounds
Executives reviewed measures to assess safety (e.g. incident reports,
infection rates, pharmacist interventions, readmissions, etc)
Executives endorsed a statement of public commitment to patient safety
Executives believed their behaviours affected their organisations patient
safety mission

NA

Activities
Engagement
Impact

21/22 (95%)

Time
Activities
Engagement
Impact (objective
outcome measure)
Context

NA

Activities
Impact

ACM, appropriate care measure; CEO, chief executive officer; CNO, chief nursing officer; HAI, healthcare-associated infection; HQA, Hospital Quality Alliance; M, mortality; NA, not applicable;
POC, process of care; PSN, Patient Safety Net; QI, quality improvement; QIS, quality index scores.

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Saint et al;
2010 (USA)44

Management roles (managerial quality and safety activities,

time spent and engagement and key perceived
importance and context factors)

Findings pertaining
to research questions
Quality
Quality
(time spent; activities,
assessment assessment engagement; impact
score for
score for
(including perceived
qualitative
quantitative effectiveness);
studies
studies
contextual factors)

Open Access

10
Table 1

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Table 2 Example of rating criteria from Kmets quality assessment tool34

Rating Criteria to verify whether question or objective is sufficiently described
Yes
Is easily identified in the introductory section (or first paragraph of methods section). Specifies (where applicable,
depending on study design) all of the following: purpose, participants/target population, and the specific intervention
(s)/association(s)/descriptive parameter(s) under investigation. A study purpose that only becomes apparent after
studying other parts of the paper is not considered sufficiently described
Partial Vaguely/incompletely reported (e.g. describe the effect of or examine the role of or assess opinion on many
issues or explore the general attitudes...); or some information has to be gathered from parts of the paper other
than the introduction/background/objective section
No
Question or objective is not reported, or is incomprehensible
N/A
Should not be checked for this question

Two studies found that a Board quality committee is a

positive variable in quality performance, but that fewer
than 60% had them.38 50 Similarly, compensation and performance evaluation linked to executive quality performance was identied in 4 articles 35 37 38 49 and associated
with better quality performance indicators,38 49 but quality
measures were insufciently included in CEOs performance evaluation.35 37 The use of the right measures to
drive QI was raised in relation to Board managerial
engagement in quality 35 and to impact on patient care
improvement,51 yet almost half of this sample did not formally adopt system-wide measures and standards for
quality. To aid them in these tasks, evidence indicates the
common use of QI measure tools, such as a dashboard or
scorecard,37 49 50 with promising associations between
dashboard use and quality outcomes.38 50
Other factors linked to quality outcomes include managementstaff relationship/high interactions between the
Board and medical staff when setting quality strategy,49
and managerial expertise. Although a connection between
knowledge and quality outcomes was not found,38 high
performing hospitals have shown higher self-perceived
ability to inuence care, expertise at the Board and participation in training programmes that have a quality component.50 Disappointingly, there is a low level of CEO
knowledge on quality and safety reports,35 possibly little
Boardroom awareness on salient nursing quality issues,36
and little practice identied to improve quality literacy for
the Board.32 37 There is however promise for new managers through relevant training at induction and by
recruitment of those with relevant expertise.32
The quality management IPO model
The input process output (IPO) model is a conceptual
framework that helps to structure the review ndings in
a useful way (see gure 2).54 55 This literature may be
conceptualised by considering what factors contribute
(input) to managerial activities ( process) that impact on
quality and safety (output). The three factors are interrelated and interchangeable, presented by the cyclical
interconnecting diagram. This diagram enables a clearer
mental picture of what a manager should consider for
their role in quality and safety. Specically, the input
Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

factors suggest certain organisational factors that should

be put in place alongside individual factors to prepare
for such a role (e.g. standardised quality measures,
motivation, education and expertise, and a good relationship with clinicians). The processes present the strategy, culture and data-centred areas where managers
(according to the literature) are and/or should be
involved (e.g. driving improvement culture, goal setting
and providing feedback on corrective actions for adverse
events). The outputs identify managerial inuences that
are positive, negative or have little or no established association with quality performance (e.g. positive outcomes
of care, achieving objectives and engaging others in
quality of care). This helps to identify areas where it is
possible to make an impact through the processes mentioned. With further empirical studies on this topic, this
model could be strengthened to become a more robust
set of evidence-based criteria and outcomes.
DISCUSSION
Our review examined the role of managers in maintaining and promoting safe, quality care. The existing
studies detail the time spent, activities and engagement
of hospital managers and Boards, and suggest that these
can positively inuence quality and safety performance.
They further reveal that such involvement is often
absent, as are certain conditions that may help them in
their work.
Evidence from the review promotes hospitals to have a
Board quality committee, with a specic item on quality
at the Board meeting, a quality performance measurement report and a dashboard with national quality and
safety benchmarks along with standardised quality and
safety measures. Outside of the Boardroom, the implications are for senior managers to build a good infrastructure for staffmanager interactions on quality strategies
and attach compensation and performance evaluation
to quality and safety achievements. For QI programmes,
managers should keep in mind its consistency with the
hospitals mission and provide commitment, resources,
education and role accountability. Literature elsewhere
supports much of these ndings, such as the use of
quality measurement tools21 56 better quality-associated
11

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Open Access

Figure 2 The quality management IPO model (IPO, input process output; QI, quality improvement).

compensation, a separate quality committee,16 57 and

has also emphasised poor managerclinician relationships as damaging to patients and QI.58 59
Some of the variables that were shown to be associated
with good quality performance, such as having a Board
committee, compensation/performance and adoption of
system-wide measures, were lacking within the study hospitals. There are also indications of the need to develop
Board and senior managerial knowledge and training on
quality and safety. Furthermore, this review indicates that
many managers do not spend sufcient time on quality
and safety. The included studies suggest time spent by the
Board should exceed 2025%, yet the ndings expose
that certain Boards devote less time than this.
Inadequacies of time allocated to quality at the Board
meeting hold concerning implications for quality. If little
time is taken to consider quality of care matters at the
highest level, an inference is that less attention will be
paid to prevention and improvement of quality within
the hospital. While the position that the item appears on
the agenda is deemed of high importance, it is unimportant if the duration on this item is overly brief. In this vein,
the inadequate time on quality spent by some may reect
their prioritisation on quality in relation to other matters
discussed at the meetings or the value perceived to be
gained from discussing it further. It might instead
however be indicative of the difculties in measuring
time spent on quality by management. Some of these
studies provide us not necessarily with Board managers
time on quality and safety but their time spent on this at
Board meetings. The two may not equate and time spent
on quality may not necessarily be well spent.36 The emerging inference that managers greatly prioritise other
work over quality and safety is not explicit, with further
research required to identify what time is actually
devoted and required from managers inside and outside
of the Boardroom. Perhaps encouragingly, the more
12

recent studies present more time spent on quality and

safety than the earlier studies. Yet even the most recent
empirical studies not included in our review conclude
that much improvement is required.60
This review presents a wide range of managerial activities, such as public reporting of quality strategies and
driving an improvement culture. It further highlights
the activities that appear to affect quality performance.
Priorities for Boards/managers are to engage in quality,
establish goals and strategy to improve care, and get
involved in setting the quality agenda, support and
promote a safety and QI culture, cultivate leaders,
manage resisters, plan ahead and procure organisational
resources for quality. Again, much of the ndings
support the assertions made in the non-empirical literature. Above all, involvement through action, engagement and commitment has been suggested to positively
affect quality and safety.61 While researchers have
stressed the limited empirical evidence showing conclusive connection between management commitment and
quality,21 some supporting evidence however can be
unearthed in research that concentrates on organisational factors related to changes made to improve
quality and safety in healthcare.6264 In addition to this
evidence, a few studies have specically investigated the
impact that hospital managers have on quality and safety
(rather than examination of their role). These studies
have shown senior managerial leadership to be associated with a higher degree of QI implementation,65
promotion of clinical involvement,66 67 safety climate
attitudes68 and increased Board leadership for quality.57
A clear case for the positive inuence of management
involvement with quality is emerging both from the ndings of our review and related literature.
There is a dearth of empirical research on the role of
hospital managers in quality of care and patient safety
and QI. This evidence is further weakened by the largely
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Open Access
descriptive nature of many of the studies. They mostly
lack theoretical underpinnings and appropriate objective
measures. Very few studies reported objective clinical
quality outcome measures that better show the inuence
of managerial actions. Moreover, the content of many of
the articles was dominated by the contextual issues surrounding managers roles, rather than actual manager
practices. Some of the outlined managerial actions would
further benet from more detail, e.g. the literature fails
to present changes made based on the data-related activities at the Board or senior management level. Only one
study clearly demonstrated that senior management and
Board priorities can impact on middle management
quality-related activities and engagement. Considering
the likely inuence that seniors have on their managers,
examination of the interactions between the different
roles held (e.g. Boards setting policies on quality and
middle managers implementing them) would improve
our understanding of how these differences reect in
their time spent and actions undertaken. Supplementary
work could also resolve contradictions that were found
within the review, clarifying for example, the positive
impact of managerial expertise versus knowledge on
quality and who sets the Board agenda for the discussion
on quality. Research on this area is particularly required
to examine middle and frontline managers, to take into
consideration non-managers perceptions, and to assess
senior managers time and tasks outside of the
Boardroom. Future studies would benet from better
experimental controls, ideally with more than one time
point, verications and reections on qualitative work,
robust statistical analysis, appropriate study controls, consideration of confounding variables, and transparent
reporting of population samples, methodologies, and
analyses used. Box 1 presents the key messages from this
review.

Box 1

Key messages from the systematic literature review

There is a dearth of empirical evidence on hospital managerial

work and its influence on quality of care.
There is some evidence that Boards/managers time spent,
engagement and work can influence quality and safety clinical
outcomes, processes and performance.
Some variables associated with good quality performance
were lacking in study hospitals.
Many Board managers do not spend sufficient time on quality
and safety.
There is a greater focus on the contextual issues surrounding
managers roles than on examining managerial activities.
Research is required to examine middle and frontline managers, to take into consideration non-managers perceptions,
and to assess senior managers time and tasks outside of the
Boardroom. More robust methodologies with objective
outcome measures would strengthen the evidence.
We present a model to summarise the evidence-based promotion of conditions and activities for managers to best affect
quality performance.
Parand A, et al. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005055. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055

Review limitations
There are several limitations of the present review pertaining to the search strategy and review process, the
limited sample of studies, publication bias, and limitations of the studies themselves. Specically, the small
number of included studies and their varied study aims,
design and population samples make generalisations difcult. Grouped demographics, such as middle management, are justied by the overlap between positions.
With more literature on this topic, distinctions could be
made between job positions. Furthermore, more
research on lower levels of management would have provided a better balanced review of hospital managers
work and contributions to quality. Restricting the language of studies to English in the search strategy is likely
to have biased the ndings and misrepresent which
countries conduct studies on this topic. There is an overreliance on perceptions across the studies, which ultimately reduces the validity of the conclusions drawn from
their ndings. As most of the study ndings relied on
self-reports, social desirability may have resulted in exaggerated processes and inated outputs. Although,
encouragingly, one of the included studies found that
managers who perceived their Boards to be effective in
quality oversight were from hospitals that had higher
processes-of-care scores and lower risk adjusted mortality.
The quality assessment scores should be viewed with
caution; such scores are subjective and may not take into
consideration factors beyond the quality assessment scale
used. Owing to the enormity of this review, the publication of this article is some time after the search run
date. As there is little evidence published on this topic,
we consider this not to greatly impact on the current
relevance of the review, particularly as the literature
reviewed spans almost three decades. However, we
acknowledge the need for an update of the data as a
limitation of this review.

CONCLUSION
The modest literature that exists suggests that managers
time spent, engagement and work can inuence quality
and safety clinical outcomes, processes and performance. Managerial activities that affect quality performance are especially highlighted by this review, such as
establishing goals and strategy to improve care, setting
the quality agenda, engaging in quality, promoting a QI
culture, managing resisters and procurement of organisational resources for quality. Positive actions to consider include the establishment of a Board quality
committee, with a specic item on quality at the Board
meeting, a quality performance measurement report
and a dashboard with national quality and safety benchmarks, performance evaluation attached to quality and
safety, and an infrastructure for staffmanager interactions on quality strategies. However, many of these
arrangements were not in place within the study
samples. There are also indications of a need for
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Open Access
managers to devote more time to quality and safety.
More than one study suggest time spent by the Board
should exceed 2025%, yet the ndings expose that
certain Boards devote less time than this. Much of the
content of the articles focused on such contextual
factors rather than on the managerial role itself; more
empirical research is required to elucidate managers
actual activities. Research is additionally required to
examine middle and frontline managers, non-manager
perceptions, and to assess senior managers time and
tasks outside of the Boardroom. We present the quality
management IPO model to summarise the evidencebased promotion of conditions and activities in order to
guide managers on the approaches taken to inuence
quality performance. More robust empirical research
with objective outcome measures could strengthen this
guidance.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Miss Dina Grishin for
helping to review the abstracts and Miss Ana Wheelock for helping to assess
the quality of the articles.
Contributors All coauthors contributed to the study design and reviewed
drafts of the article. The first author screened all the articles for inclusion in
this review and appraised the study quality. AR and Dina Grishin screened a
sample of these at title/abstract and full text, and Ana Wheelock scored the
quality of a sample of the included articles.

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Funding This work was supported by funding from the Health Foundation
and the National Institute for Health Research (grant number: P04636).

24.

Competing interests None.

25.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Data sharing statement The extraction table of the included studies and
individual study quality scores can be made available on request to the
corresponding author at [email protected].
Open Access This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which
permits others to distribute, remix, adapt and build upon this work, for
commercial use, provided the original work is properly cited. See: http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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The role of hospital managers in quality and

patient safety: a systematic review
Anam Parand, Sue Dopson, Anna Renz and Charles Vincent
BMJ Open 2014 4:

doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005055
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