Politics and Economics of Land Reform in the Philippines: a survey

By
Nobuhiko Fuwa
Chiba University, 648 Matsudo,
Matsudo-City, Chiba, 271-8510 Japan
[email protected]
Phone/Fax: 81-47-308-8932
May, 2000

A background paper prepared for a World Bank Study, Dynamism of Rural Sector Growth: Policy
Lessons from East Asian Countries. The author acknowledges helpful comments by Arsenio Balisacan.

Introduction
Recent developments in both theoretical and empirical economics literature have
demonstrated many aspects of the negative socio-economic consequences of high inequality in
the distribution of wealth. High inequality tends to hinder subsequent economic growth (e.
g., Persson and Tabellini 1994?), inhibits the poor from realizing their full potential in
economic activities and human development through credit constraints (e. g., Deininger and
Squire 1998), encourage rent-seeking activities (e. g., Rodrik 1996), and seriously hinder the
poverty reduction impact of economic growth (e. g., Ravallion and Dutt ??). The Philippines
is a classic example of an economy suffering from all of these consequences. The
Philippines has long been known for its high inequality in distribution of wealth and income;
unlike many of its Asian neighbors characterized by relatively less inequality by international
standards, the Philippine economy has often been compared to Latin American countries
which are characterized by high inequality in land distribution. Partly due to its historically
high inequality there has long been intermittent incidence of peasant unrest and rural
insurgencies in the Philippines. As a result, the issue of land reform (or agrarian reform as
more commonly called in the Philippines, of which land reform constitutes the major part) has
continuously been on political agenda at least since the early part of the 20th century;
nevertheless land reform in the Philippines has been, and still is, an unfinished business.
Against such a historical background, the main objective of this essay is to synthesize a broad
range of existing literature on the various aspects of land reform policies in the Philippine
context as relevant for todays policy makers. The paper is meant as a stock taking exercise
delineating what is known and what is not. We will pay attention to both political and
economic issues arising from the land reform policies since both of these aspects are equally
important for policy making. Furthermore, in our attempts to derive some
lessons/implications for the current policy makers we will draw on both historical experiences
in the Philippines and recent land reform experiences from other developing countries.
The paper is organized as follows; section 1 provides a historical overview of the
land reform legislation and the implementation records in the Philippines for the past forty
years; section 2 focuses on the political dynamics behind the evolution of the land reform
legislation and implementation records as reviewed in the previous section; section 3 turns to
the major economic issues involved in land reform by drawing on both theoretical
development and accumulated empirical evidence; based on the previous sections, section 4
focuses on major issues involved in the design of land reform schemes in the contemporary
Philippine contexts, drawing on recent policy experiments in other developing countries as
well as on the theoretical and empirical literature from the Philippines; and final section pulls
together our survey results and concludes the paper.
1. Historical Overview of Land Reform Legislation and Implementation Record in the
Philippines
1-1. Evolution of Land Reform Code

A series of land reform programs have been legislated and, to a lesser extent,
implemented by successive administrations during the last several decades in the Philippines.
In this subsection, we will review a few distinct episodes in the evolution of land reform
legislation, mainly in terms of its stated goals and its design. We will take a closer look at
the actual implementation of land reform laws in the next subsection.
Land reform policies have been continuously on political agenda in the Philippines
since the early part of this century. Generally, the land reform initiatives of the government
have been combinations of (though not limited to) regulation on land tenancy, resettlement to
public lands, and appropriation and redistribution of private lands. Since the Commonwealth
period, among these three broad categories of land reform measures, governments in the past
tended to rely more heavily on the first two (tenancy regulation and resettlement) rather than
on the politically contentious land redistribution. However, as the relative scarcity of land
increased due to the closure of the frontier areas, and in response to the continuing peasant
unrest, redistributive land reform has become increasingly high on policy agenda more
recently.
The land reform initiatives by the Philippine government since the 1950s are broadly in
line with the series of initiatives taken by President Manuel L. Quezons administration
(1935-41). More specifically, President Quezons initiatives included regulation of tenancy
relations, an anti-usury law, organized land settlement in Mindanao for the landless of Luzon
and Cebu, issuance of free patents to homesteaders on cultivable public land, and a landed
estates policy which provided funds for the negotiated purchase of large holdings for resale
to tenants. Strongly influenced by the American land reform policy at the time, the main
focus was on resettlement and tenancy regulation rather than on land redistribution. (e. g.,
Hayami, et al. 1990).
The land reform initiatives by the successive administrations of Manuel Roxas (194648), Elpidio Quirino (1948-53), and Ramon Magsaysay (1954-56) generally fell along these
lines although each had its own policy initiatives. In particular, a series of land reform
legislation during the Magsaysay administration is seen by some as the first significant
legislation toward land reform in the post-war Philippines. (Wurfel 1988) The 1954
Agricultural Tenancy Act limited land rent at 30%, placed an interest rate cap of 8 10% per
annum, and increased tenants exceptions from creditors liens. The 1955 Land Reform Act
embraced the idea of compulsory land expropriation for rice lands but the retention limit was
set generously at 300 contiguous hectare for private lands planted with rice, 600 hectare for
corporate farms, and 1024 hectares for private farms other than rice. (Takigawa 1976, Putzel
1992, Riedinger 1995)
Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963
One of the major turning points in the recent history of land reform legislation (if not
implementation, as we will see later) appears to be the 1963 Agricultural Land Reform Code.

The stated goal of the 1963 Code was to establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic
family-sized farm to make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant. A
distinct feature of the Code was that, unlike in the earlier land reform initiatives, land reform
was considered as a means to increase agricultural productivity, which, in turn, was based on
the need for supply of cheap food for urban consumers as well as the Marshallian view of
inefficient share tenancy which was widespread among young economist-technoclats of the
day. (Hayami, et al. 1990; see below for more on the Marshallian view.) In its attempt to
increase agricultural productivity by creating owner-cultivatorship, the Code stipulated a two
step procedure for land redistribution: (1) Operation Leasehold, which was to convert share
tenancy to leasehold with the fixed rent at 25 percent of the average harvest in the three
normal years preceding the Operation, and (2) Operation Land Transfer, where the
government was to expropriate land in excess of the retention limit of 75 hectares, with
compensation to landowners of 10 percent of the land value in cash and the rest in interestfree Land Bank bonds, and then was to resell to tenants for annual amortization payments
within twenty five years. Such reforms were to apply only to land planted with rice or corn.
While the Code can be seen as a major advance in land reform legislation, there were
serious limits in design as well. For example, the reform Code covered only rice and corn
land (which represented ??% of all agricultural land and ??% of tenant farmers as of 1960),
thereby excluding land planted with sugar, coconut, fruits and other crops. This also meant
that landowners could avoid land reform implementation simply by shifting their crop away
from rice or corn. Another fault in design was that there was no sanctions against evasion
through transforming land use or transferring ownership to family members, which were
common means of sabotaging land reform implementation. Furthermore, the initial version
of the Code included progressive land tax, which was subsequently deleted in the final version.
Indeed, these limits generally persisted through the subsequent land reform codes (1971 and
1972) until the enactment of CARP in 1988 (see below).
Land Reform under Marcos Presidency
While President Ferdinand Marcos took office in 1966, it was not until the early
1970s that land reform program made any major advance. First, in responding to the
pressures from farmers protests supported by a highly politicized student and workers
movement in 1971 (see below for the political process leading to the legislation), Congress
passed the Code of Agrarian Reform (Republic Act No. 6389). It established the Department
of Agrarian Reform, declared the entire Philippines a land reform area (the 1963 Code, on the
other hand, required that the National Land Reform Council should first declare a given
region to be covered by the program before actual implementation could proceed in a given
region), provided for the automatic conversion of tenancy to leasehold tenancy in all areas and
declared share tenancy illegal, included regulations on interest rates, on the sale of farm
animals and implements and on the conversion of agricultural land into other uses, and finally,
reduced the landlord retention limit from 75 hectares to 24 hectares.
Just about a year later in September 1972, President Marcos imposed Martial law.

In the early years of the Martial Law period land reform was high on policy agenda. A
month after the Martial law regime started, President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No.
27 (PD 27) aimed at emancipation of the tiller from the bondage of the soil. (as quoted in
Hayami, et al. 1990). Under PD 27, all rice and corn fields over the lowered retention limit
of 7 hectares were to be transferred to the tenants who tilled them at a price 2.5 times the
value of average annual production, payable to the Land Bank at 6 percent interest within
fifteen years. When the tenant completed amortization she/he would be issued a land title,
called Emancipation Patent (EP), transferable only to her/his heirs; during the period of
amortization the tenant would receive a Certificate of Land Transfer identifying her/his
cultivated area and promising her/him the right to purchase it. On the other hand, land
owners were to be paid 10 percent in cash and 90 percent in Land Bank bonds, as was
stipulated in the 1963 Code. Furthermore, under the Operation Leasehold (OLH) Program,
tenanted rice and corn fields under the 7 hectare retention limit were to be tilled under fixedrent lease contract with the official rental ceiling of 25 percent of average output (net of costs
for seeds, harvesting, threshing, loading, hauling, and processing) for three normal years
prior to the reform implementation.
While PD 27 can be seen as an improvement in expanding the potential coverage of
land reform compared to earlier legislation, it still included some notable limitations in its
design, which were also shared by the earlier laws. Among others, PD 27 stipulated; (1) that
the land must already have been in agricultural production by 1972, thereby excluding new
agricultural land which subsequently amounted to 1.24 million hectares between 1971 and
1980, (2) that land reform was limited to rice and corn fields which amounted to about 4
million hectare as of 1972 while excluding its application to 2.5 million hectares of coconut
and sugar lands (as of 1972), and (3) that the decree applied only to tenanted areas, which
represented about 24 percent of all rice and corn areas, excluding landless laborers and
subtenants amounting to 3.5 million in 1975. As so designed, PD 27 would cover about 12
percent of the total Philippine farm area as of 1972. (Hayami, et. al. 1990, Mangahas 1985,
Balisacan 1990) In addition, such design provided landowners covered by the decree with
opportunities to avoid its implementation by shifting to crops other than rice or corn (or to
non-agricultural use), or by evicting tenants, replacing them with hired labor and undertaking
direct management of the farm operation. (see below for more on the impact of such evasion
practices by landowners.)
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) under Aquino Presidency1
President Corazon Aquino assumed her presidency amid hightened expectations
toward a more comprehensive land reform program than any previous land reform initiatives.
As a start, the 1986 Philippine Constitution was drafted (and later supported by plebiscite in
February 1987) by a 48 member Constitutional Commission appointed by the President2.
1

This subsection draws heavily on Balisacan 1990, Hayami, et al. 1990, Riedinger 1995, and Putzel 1992.
Of the 48 members of the Commission, only one, Jaime Tadeo, the leader of KMP, was generally seen as
representing the peasantry. According to Tadeo, only 9 out of the 48 members were in favor of
distributive land reform. (as cited in Putzel 1992)

While it was a substantially watered down version of the initial draft adopted by the
Committee on Social Justice under the Commission, the Constitution was nevertheless a
major improvement vis--vis the previous Constitution. Above all, it mandated a
comprehensive land reform covering all agricultural lands and natural resources (thus going
beyond rice and corn lands under PD27) and both tenants and regular farm workers (who had
been excluded as beneficiaries in the previous reform Codes). At the same time, however,
many of the crucial aspects of the defining characteristics of the reform were left with the
Congress to determine, including: the retention limits, to be set according to ecological,
developmental, and equity considerations; types of exempted lands; and phasing and time
table of the program. Constitution also included various alternative measures to land redistribution, such as voluntary land sharing, and it allowed private corporations to lease up to
1000 hectares (while local citizens 500 hectares) of public lands.
The second step that the Aquino administration took before the newly elected
Congress convened was to issue Executive Order 229 (EO229) in June 1987. It was a
response to the mounting pressures from pro-reform social forces following the Mendiola
Bridge massacre (where thirteen members and supporters of Kilusang Magbubukid ng
Pilipinas (Peasant Movement of the Philippines) rallying near Malacaan Palace for a
genuine land reform were killed) on January 22, 1987. During this period, however,
President Aquino rejected (acting upon the recommendations from her key economic
ministers, such as Finance Secretary Jaime Ongpin) the Accelerated Land Reform Program
(ALRP) proposal put together by key government officials immediately following the
Mendiola incident, which included a uniform 7 hectare ceiling for all croplands and the
sequencing of reform program starting with large privately owned farms. Instead, EO229,
drafted by her conservative cabinet members including Secretary Ongpin and then signed by
President Aquino, mostly focused on procedural matters and, once again, left many of the
critical aspects of land reform, including retention limits and priority setting/phasing, to the
Congress.3 EO229 was issued five days before the new Congress was to meet for the first
time in fifteen years. Many observers have concluded that, by leaving the most critical
aspects of her land reform program to the Congressional process, President Aquino was not
able to take full advantage of the historically rare opportunity to initiate a massive
transformation of Philippine rural economies, due to her strong popular support, especially
among the middle class, and to the fact that the opposing landlord block had not been
consolidated, during the initial days of her presidency
The newly elected Senate and the Lower House of the Congress proposed, debated
and passed their respective versions of land reform bills during the period between June 1987
and June 1988. The House bill (HB400) was originally based on a draft proposed by the
Congress for a Peoples Agrarian Reform (CPAR), a coalition of major peasant organizations,
and initially included a uniform land retention limit of 7 hectares, sliding scale of
3

In addition, some observers note that the clause in EO229 permanently disqualifying from participation
in the program of all persons, associations, or entities who prematurely enter the land effectively ruled
out cooperation with peasant movements/organizations, some of whom were engaged in land occupation
tactics, in the process of land reform implementation. (Putzel 1992)
5

compensation for landowners based on size, and full peasant involvement in the
implementation process. Such features of the bill, however, disappeared in the process of
passing through the House Committee on agrarian reform and to the House floor, where more
than half of its members were considered landowners or having them as patrons. Indeed, the
bill was so substantially watered down that its initial sponsors withdrew their support from
the bill. (Hayami, et al. 1990; Balisacan 1990; Putzel 1992, Reidinger 1995) The bill that
eventually passed the House floor, HB400, stipulated retention limits of 7 hectares, with 3
hectares for each heir, for landowners, 24 hectares for homesteaders, and 3 hectares for
reform beneficiaries. HB400 also included as exempted lands farms under corporate stock
sharing or voluntary land sharing as well as the exemptions included in EO 229. In terms of
the timing of reform implementation, HB400 placed priority on alienable and disposable
public lands and lands under management of multinational firms over (domestically owned)
private lands. The bill that passed the Senate, on the other hand, had a 5 hectare retention
limit for landowners (except for the rice and corn lands under PD 27 where 7 hectare limit
applied) with the 3 hectare limit for the reform beneficiaries, and included additional
exemptions such as lands with 18 percent slope, lands for the underprivileged, vegetable
farms, commercial sites, residential sites, industrial sites, parks, forest reserves, mangroves,
wildlife grounds, watersheds, and other lands of specified uses. In terms of the time table,
the Senate bill placed its first priority on private farms of over 50 hectares and corporate farms
with lease contracts for public lands over 1000 hectares (for the contract with 1000 hectares or
below contracts were to be honored for five years), with second priority on alienable and
disposable public lands and private farms between 24 and 50 hectares, then followed by
private farms below 24 hectares, plantations (including fishponds, prawn ponds,
livestock/poultry lands), and corporate farms under local management (for lands under the
management of multinational firms contracts were to be honored until the contracts expired).
Based on these bills, a compromise was reached between the both chambers and the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL, or Republic Act 6657) was passed in June,
1988.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL: RA6657) stipulated the
following:
Retention limit: CARL set the retention limit at 5 hectares but also allowed additional 3
hectares for each hair (of at least age 15 and actually tilling the land or directly managing
it).
Land valuation and owner compensation : The law stipulated: that the land owner
compensation be based on the fair market value including various valuation
considerations (such as the cost of acquiring the land, the current value of like properties,
owners sworn valuation, the assessment made by the government); that landowners with
50 hectares or more, 24 or more, or below 24 hectares receive, respectively, 25%, 30%
and 35% of payments in cash; and that landowners be allowed to contest decisions made
by the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) in the judiciary system.
Beneficiary repayments: The law stipulated that beneficiaries pay the amortization over
30 years with 6 % annual interest.
Alternatives to land re-distribution: As an alternative to land re-distribution, the law
6

allowed corporate landowners to satisfy their reform obligations by giving their

farmworkers the right to purchase such proportion of the capital stock of the corporation
that the agricultural land, actually devoted to agricultural activities, bears in relation to the
companys total assets. (Sec.31 as quoted in Reidinger 1995)
Exemptions: As exception to the reform coverage, a 10 year deferment was allowed on
lands for: commercial livestock, poultry and swaine raising, aquaculture, fruit farms,
orchards, vegetable and cut-flower farms, cacao, coffee and rubber plantations. Also
lands leased to agribusiness corporations were excepted for 10 years or until the lease
expired.
Program phasing and priority: The reform program was to be implemented in three
phases: (Phase 1) Year one to four: rice and corn lands covered under PD27, idle and
abandoned lands, lands foreclosed by government financial institutions, lands acquired by
the Presidential Commission on Good Government, and Private lands voluntarily
offered; (Phase 2) Year one to four: Public agricultural lands and private lands in holdings
greater than 50 hectares; (Phase 3) Year four to seven: Private lands in holdings between
24 and 50 hectares; and in year six to ten: Private lands in holdings less than 24 hectares.

Other Legislation after CARP

While CARP provided the basic framework for the Philippine land reform policy
throughout the Aquino and Ramos administrations the legislative battle did not end with the
enactment of CARP in 1988. Opponents of land reform repeatedly introduced bills to
restrict land reform implementation, such as proposals for the exemption of all commercial
farms, suspension of reform in Mindanao until year 2020, and many others. Despite all these
attempts of rolling back land reform, however, few made any headway after all.
Nevertheless, some of the court rulings, following a large number of legal challenges mounted
against land reform by disgruntled landowners, did place limitations on reform
implementation. For example, a 1990 Supreme Court ruling restricted the scope of the
reform by exempting commercial livestock, poultry and swine operations. (Riedinger 1995)
On the other hand, toward the end of the Ramos presidency, there was additional
legislation to supplement CARP. Administrative Order No. 363 (Oct. 1997) and subsequent
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 set out some conditions on the
conversion of lands from agricultural into other uses (such as industrial, housing, etc.),
including a five year moratorium on the conversion of all irrigated lands and penalties for
agricultural inactivity on lands and for premature land conversion. (Garilao 1998)
Furthermore, immediately before the 1997 Congressional session went on recess, with
national election fast approaching, RA 8532 was enacted, extending CARP implementation
for another ten years and providing additional 50 billion pesos of funding for its
implementation. (Garilao 1998, Borras 1999)
Conclusions on Land Reform Legislation
In this sub-section, we have reviewed the evolution of land reform codes since the
7

1950s, which is summarized in Table 1. Land reform has been continuously on the political
agenda throughout the period and a new piece of reform legislation has intermittently been
introduced. Generally, every time such new legislation was enacted, the scope of coverage
under land reform increased, albeit very slowly. Such expansion of the reform coverage over
time is most evident in the gradual lowering of the retention limits for landowners. We will
discuss the political dynamics behind such processes in Section 2 below. Before turning to
the political processes, however, we now turn, in the next sub-section, to the actual
implementation records and the impact of land reform during the past few decades. Land
reform codes enacted by the national legislature is one thing, and the process of actual
implementation of the reform code and its impact on rural communities in different parts of
the Philippines is quite another aspect of the land reform. We now examine such aspects.
1-2. Implementation Records in the Philippine Land Reform
Land Reform Implementation before Marcos Presidency
Based on the official record obtained from the Department of Agrarian Reform
(DAR), the implementation record of the land reform program before the Marcos martial law
was generally quite modest. Despite the unprecedented popularity in rural areas and the
apparent political will of President Magsaysay (see below), his implementation record of the
land re-distribution under the Landed Estates Programs (initiated under the 1940
Commonwealth Act 539 but subsequently amended or supplemented by the 1955, 1956 and
1963 codes), is apparently quite dismal. For example, the extremely generous retention
limits appeared to have severely restricted the potential scope of the reform. In addition, the
requirement of tenants petition to invoke expropriation, the requirement of cash payment to
landowners, and the modest budgetary commitment made of Peso 300,000 for land
acquisition apparently reduced the potential impact of the reform program. (Riedinger 1995,
Putzel 1992) At the end, the record shows that less than 20,000 hectares of land was
acquired during the Magsaysay (who died in an airplane crash in 1956) and Garcia
administrations.4 (see Table 2-1)
Similarly, despite the enactment of the 1963 Land Reform Code under the Macapagal
administration (1961-1965) addressing some of the shortcomings of the earlier laws, actual
record of implementation during his presidency was equally quite limited. Not only were
there still important design limitations, as we saw in the previous subsection, but also very
limited implementation of the reform apparently further reduced the real impact on the ground
of the land reform under his presidency. The operations based on the 1963 Code were
limited to pilot areas in Central Luzon, and the actual implementation with significant level of
intensity was further limited to the pilot project in Nueva Ecija (de los Reyes 1972, as cited in
Hayami, et al. 1990). The record shows that it took about two years for the newly
established program to go through a trial and error period with no land purchased by the
government under the Code, and the actual budget expenditure (32.4 million pesos) was only
4

Takigawa (1976) also cites similar, though slightly different, figures for the implementation from Land
Tenure Administration; 18,742 hectares composed of 36 farms were appropriated between 1955 and 1961.
8

20 % of what originally was allotted. The areas declared as covered under the Code were
limited to 12 municipalities which were concentrated in Central Luzon. (Wurfel 1983,
Takigawa 1976)
The official record (Table 2-1) indicates that during the thirty year period between
1935 and 1965, the administration under President Quirino (1949-53) accomplished more
amount of land acquisition, under the Landed Estate Programs, than any other administration
during this period, even surpassing that of the Marcos regime.
Land Reform Implementation under Marcos Presidency
During his first and second terms in office (i. e., before the declaration of martial law
in 1972) President Marcos took over the implementation of the 1963 Code. He appeared to
have shown little interest in carrying out the program set up by his predecessor during his first
term in office (1966-69). For example, the amount of land acquired under the Landed Estate
Program was smaller than the amount acquired by President Macapagal. However, there was
a major increase in the implementation of the Landed Estate Program during President
Marcoss second term (1970-1972); the amount purchased by the government increased by
fourfold (from 2700 ha in his first term to 12,000 ha in his second: Table 2-1.).
The impact of the 1971 Code on actual land re-distribution was minimal since it was
superceded a year later by PD27 issued immediately following the declaration of martial law.
Despite President Marcos own characterization of the agrarian reform program being the
center piece of his New Society (see below), the implementation record, as represented by
the amount of lands purchased, lagged far behind his rhetoric. About 17,000 hectares under
the Landed Estate Program (Table 2-1) and additional 15,000 hectares under the Operation
Land Transfer (Table 2-2) of lands were acquired during the remaining years of Marcos
presidency (1972 1986); on the basis of the annual average amount of purchased lands under
the Landed Estates Program of 1300 hectare, his record surpassed only Macapagals among
his post-war predecessors and lagged far behind his own implementation record during the
1970-72 period and also behind the records of Magsaysay-Garcia, Quirino and Roxas
presidency. (Table 2-1) Nevertheless, the aggregate record of President Marcos 20 year rule
(including the period before martial law) on Land Estates acquisition was still larger than most
of his predecessors, almost matching President Quirinos accomplishments.
Land transfer from landowners to tenant beneficiaries under the Operation Land
Transfer (OLT) was to proceed in several stages; first, tenants and their landlords were to be
identified and parcellary mapping was to be conducted by DAR, followed by the issuance of
Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT) to the tenant-beneficiaries; subsequently land valuation
was to be conducted by DAR and compensation to the landowners was to be made and
amortization payment by the beneficiaries was to start; finally, upon the completion of the
amortization the beneficiaries were to receive Emancipation Patents (EPs), certifying them as

legal owner of the land.5 Furthermore, under PD 27, the implementation of the land
redistribution program proceeded with a step-by-step manner according to the size of land
ownership; landholdings of size over 100 hectares were covered first, followed by lands of 50
hectares or more, and then 24 hectares or more. It has been observed that President Marcos
simply lost his originally keen interest after the owners with more than 100 hectares had been
dispossessed. (Wurfel 1983: 8) As shown in Table 2-3 President Marcoss land reform
implementation appears to have mostly been concentrated in the early 1970s; of all the CLTs
printed (but not necessarily received by the beneficiaries) during the period between 1972 and
1985, CLTs covering roughly one third of the entire areas and beneficiaries covered in the
whole period were printed in 1973 alone. However, the major delay in the reform
implementation apparently occurred in the land valuation and landowner compensation stage,
which was to take place after the issuance of CLTs, mainly due to disputes over the valuation
of lands. (Hayami, et al. 1990) Furthremore, among the CLT beneficiaries on their way of
paying up their amortization installments to become full owners, the record of their payment
appears to have been quite dismal; as of mid-1980s at most 10% of those were current in their
payments.6 (Riedinger 1995)
In 1982 in order to accelerate the land reform accomplishments in appearance,
President Marcos revised the original requirement for the EP issuance of full amortization
payment and allowed EPs to be issued upon the payment of only two successive payments.7
This procedural change appears to account for the sudden increase in the number of EPs
printed in 1982 and onward. Nevertheless, as of 1985, while CLTs were printed for some
444,000 beneficiaries, covering a little above 100% of the government-claimed potential
beneficiaries, EPs were printed (much less distributed) for only less than one third of them.
(Putzel 1992: 139)
In addition to President Marcos loss of personal interest in carrying through the
reform after the initial few years of PD27 implementation (we will discuss likely reasons for
this below), a few observers have noted the capacity and design of the implementation agency,
especially DAR, as another source of the slow pace of implementation. For example, a
comparison between the organizational structure of DAR in the early 1970s and the post-war
Japanese land reform implementation reveals that, in the Philippines, each Agrarian Reform
5

See Hayami, et al. (1990), for example, for a more detailed account of these procedures.
Whether this was mainly due to the inability of the beneficiaries to pay, or due mainly to the
unwillingness (despite their ability) to pay, is not immediately clear, and either could have been true
depending on local circumstances. While unwillingness was likely the main reason in areas where
favorable conditions existed for the introduction of high yielding varieties (Umehara provides a concrete
example of this), inability due to high increase in production costs relative to modest yield increase, or
due to higher rent/amortization payment requirements (as a result of, say, landowners bargaining power in
the process of land valuation) might have been the case in other areas. Detailed account of the latter case,
however, has not been found by the author.
7
Later on during the days immediately preceding the 1986 presidential election, President Marcos further
relaxed the requirements for EP issuance by authorizing the immediate distribution of EPs to designated
beneficiaries regardless of their amortization payment status, in a desperate (but ultimately unsuccessful)
attempt for re-election. (see Putzel 1992: 193).
6

10

Team (ART) consisting of 20 members the basic implementing unit of DAR, covered
one municipality (or more) which in turn included some 20 villages, while its parallel
institution in Japan, Land Reform Committee including a minimum of 13 members, was
created for each village, indicating the extremely heavy burden placed on the Philippine
reform institution. More importantly, the Japanese Land Reform Committee consisted of
representatives of the tenant farmer (5), of the owner-farmer (3) and of the landlord (2) plus
(at least) 3 staff, while the Philippine ART members were all DAR staff members.8 This
meant that in the Philippines, unlike in Japan, the land reform implementation design had no
direct involvement by the peasant beneficiaries. (Takigawa 1976, Putzel 1992)9 Another
major difference between the Philippine and the Japanese land reform episodes regarding the
institutional capacity of the reform agencies, as pointed out by many observers, was the
existence (or lack thereof) of reliable (i. e., undisputed) land registration records as well as of
well-disciplined bureaucracy. (e. g., Hayami, et al. 1990)
Furthermore, since the reform program covered lands planted with only rice and corn,
the reform program created an incentive for landowners, who would have continued rice or
corn production without land reform, to shift from rice or corn production to other crops
excluded from the reform program for the sake of avoiding being subject to the reform
program. This likely distorted incentives for agricultural production contributing to
inefficiency in land (and other) resource allocation although it is difficult to quantify the effect
of the reform program on such crop-shifting.10 In addition, among the lands planted with
rice and corn, PD27 applied only to the lands cultivated by tenants and non-tenanted lands (i.
e., lands under the direct management by landowners with hired laborers) were exempt from
land reform. This provided an incentive for landowners, in an attempt to avoid land reform
application, to evict tenants and convert their lands into farms with direct management using
hired laborers. (See next subsection for more on this)
Besides land redistribution under Operation Land Transfer (OLT), official records
indicate that some 646,000 tenants held leasehold tenancy covering 690,000 hectares,
representing 122 percent of the targeted beneficiaries by the end of 1985. However, studies
based on micro-level surveys suggest that conversion of share tenancy into leasehold was
equally slow and uneven, and there are reports of areas where tenancy contract, once
8

In the Philippines, Barrio Committees on Land Production (BCLP) were created in charge of setting the
value of the land to be transferred and with their membership composition similar to the Japanese Land
Reform Committee; however, BCLPs scope appears much more limited than the Japanese LRC, and
moreover, the landlord-tenant agreement on land valuation was not bound by the BCLP determination.
(Umehara 1997, Putzel 1992)
9
Incidentally, in comparing the post-war Japanese land reform and the early PD27 implementation,
Takigawa (1976) notes as a major similarity the kinds of tactics that landlord employed, including eviction,
law suits, and threat and use of violence, in their attempts to resist reform implementation.
10
For example, area harvested with sugarcane increased from 326,000 hectare in 1958 to 550,000 hectares
in the mid-1970s due to the increasing price in sugar as well as due to such likely effects of the reform
program. Although sugar planted areas dropped again to 300,000 hectares by 1980 following the collapse
of sugar price, such sugar planters who temporarily turned to rice and corn production were specifically
exempted from the reform program. (Riedinger 1995, 100)
11

converted to leasehold, was reverted back to share tenancy. (See, for example, case studies
included in Ledesma, et al. (eds.)) As a consequence, there have remained areas where
(supposedly illegal) share tenancy is the dominant contract on rice fields, although the
quantitative magnitude of how widespread such areas are is not known.11 (Otsuka 1991,
Putzel 1992)
Apart from the official record published by DAR, actual implementation of land
reform might be also inferred by looking at the change in aggregate statistics on farm
ownership. The farm ownership patterns, measured by the share of fully or partly owned
farms to total farms, changed very little among rice and corn farms, while there was a slight
indication of increasing leasehold tenancy, between the 1971 and the 1980 Agricultural
Censuses. (Quisumbing 1988) Between 1971 and 1980, the Gini coefficient based on
operated farm sizes decreased not only in the areas where the reform program was targeted but
in all regions except for Ilocos, whereas it increased in all regions except for (again) Ilocos
between 1980 and 1991. Furthermore, the Gini coefficient on the farm size distribution in
rice lands increased moderately while the Gini coefficient in corn lands decreased sharply
between 1971 and 1980. (Balisacan 1995) Little impact of the land reform program thus can
be discerned from the Agricultural Census data. As noted by Otsuka (1994: 174), the
seeming inconsistency of the data on the land reform implementation as indicated between the
Agricultural Census, on the one hand, and DAR records and numerous micro-level studies, on
the other, remains an unresolved issue. One possibility is that there were major factors other
than land reform policy (e. g., population pressure) that were mainly affecting the farm size
distribution and the impact of reform policy on farm sizes was relatively small. Another
possibility might be that the Marcos reform, targeted mainly to the rice haciendas where
small-scale tenant farming prevailed, indeed had little effects on operational farm sizes which
are reported in the agricultural censuses (Census does not report land ownership distribution.).
Overall, one observer credits that with more than 110,000 tenants placed on the road
to ownership, representing 11 percent of a very conservative estimate of all rice and corn
tenants, the accomplishment was . . . greater than in any previous administration.12
(Wurfel 1988:169) Nevertheless, despite the rhetoric employed by President Marcos, seen in
the national aggregate figures, the impact of land reform during the Marcos era ended up quite
modest and very unevenly distributed nationwide. Many see the increasing spread of
organized peasant unrest in the countryside, toward the end of the 1970s and into the 1980s, as
a major piece of evidence for the lack of nationwide impact of the land reform on the plight of
the majority of the peasants. (Riedinger 1995, Wurfel 1992)

11

For example, the authors fieldwork in one village in Pangasinan revealed that 86 % of the rice planted
areas under tenancy cultivation in the village was under share agreement while only 14 % under lease
tenancy as of 1994.
12
Wurfel (1988: 169) hasten to add, however, that such accomplishments raised expectations of the
nations peasants and, given the limited nature of the implementation of the program, for every farmer
grateful for having achieved a new status and perhaps improved income, there were many who resented the
frustration of their hopes.
See also the unintended consequences of the reform, as discussed below.
12

Micro Studies on the Impact of PD 27

Despite such a modest aggregate record, however, observers based on micro-level
studies all agree that PD27 under President Marcos did succeed in striking a final blow at the
landed estates based on rice in Luzon. Although landlord resistance using tenant eviction,
crop shifting, various attempts to drive up land values etc., was sometimes quite successful, in
certain areas the reform did give to all who survived the evictions secure tenure and fixed
rents (Fegan 1989a: 134) and thus had a significant, though geographically limited, impact
on rural economies. (e. g., Hayami, et al 1990, Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, 2000, Otsuka 1991,
Fegan 1989a, 1989b, Kirkvleit 1990, Umehara 1997, Ledesma, et al. (eds.), Deininger, et al.
2000) Some villages in Central Luzon, the initial target areas of the Philippine land reform,
have traditionally provided a very rich laboratory for social scientists (e. g., anthropologists,
economists, political scientists and sociologists) conducting village studies since the 1950s,
and many of them report the concrete impacts of the land reform programs, as well as other
changes such as the introduction of modern rice varieties, of opportunities for overseas
contract workers, etc. (See Muijzenberg 1996 for a survey)
There are a few broad points of consensus among these micro-studies about the
impact of the land reform program, mainly in Luzon, under Marcos Presidency. First, large
scale rice haciendas, whose owners had formed a prominent political force in the rice bowl
of the Central Luzon until the 1960s, more or less disappeared. For example, according to
Umehara (1997)s account of the land reform implementation in a Nueva Ecija village one of
the areas where the PD27 implementation was initiated, the 224 hectare portion in the village
of a 4000 hectare rice hacienda was mostly re-distributed among the 81 tenant farmers by
1978 when the majority of the former tenants had signed an agreement on the terms of land
transfer (including the price of P8000 per hectare, which appeared to be roughly twice the
level determined by the Barangay Committee on Land Production BCLP earlier13); the
attempts by the hacienda owners in resisting such re-distribution was circumscribed by the
disarmament of private armies enforced under martial law in the area. In this village only
10% of amortization payment had been paid in by the beneficiaries as of 1992 (and perhaps
unlikely to be paid14) and thus EPs had not yet been distributed; nevertheless the beneficiaries
appeared to enjoy de facto land ownership. Such delinquency in amortization payment
among reform beneficiaries is apparently widespread, especially in the successful reform
areas under PD27. (e. g., Fegan 1989, Putzel 1992, Otsuka 1991) A quite different but
similarly successful land re-distribution example in Central Luzon, not through tenantlandowner negotiation but through occupation of idle portions of hacienda lands in 1977, is
13

Umehara (1997) notes, however, that such overvaluation of land was still not likely to be too excessive a
burden for the tenant-beneficiaries because of inflation and the increasing rice yield due to the introduction
of high yielding varieties at that time, and that the tenants actually tended to go along with such terms of
agreement despite such overvaluation.
14
According to Umehara (1997), only10 cavans (1 cavan = about 45 kilograms) of palay (unhusked rice),
out of their average annual production of 80 cavans, worth of payment is required to receive EP; his
tentative conclusion thus was that the beneficiaries were not so much unable as not finding it necessary to
pay the amortization.
13

reported in Banzon-Bautista (1989)s account of a Panpanga village15. Furthermore, the

demise of rice landowners is also apparent in the national political arena; for example, the
contrast between the 1963/55 and 1986 Congressional debate over the respective land reform
bills reveals that the rice bloc feared prominent in the former occasions while no mention of
the rice bloc is found in the latter. (Riedinger 1995)
Secondly, there were significant income transfers from (former) land owners to the
land reform beneficiaries who were converted into lease holders or who obtained the
Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT) during the relatively early phase of the PD27
implementation. It has been demonstrated that the amount of annual amortization payment
as stipulated by law 2.5 times normal net output equally divided over a 15 year period plus
6% interest and the leasehold rent 25% of net production after deducting production costs
were roughly equivalent; thus the leasehold tenant beneficiaries were able to obtain as much
income transfers as did the CLT beneficiaries. (Mangahas 1985, as quoted in Otsuka 1991).
This was a result of the combination of the land reform and the introduction of modern rice
varieties. That is, the timing of the land reform implementation and the adoption of new
varieties, coupled with irrigation development, in Central Luzon was such that rice yields
were increasing due to new rice varieties and irrigation development while the rent and
amortization payments were largely fixed at the level before such yield increases started (early
1970s) in the successful reform areas. Consequently the large economic surpluses from
yield increases were appropriated by the land reform beneficiary (lease holders or
amortization owners). As of the early 1970s, since the traditional share cropping rent was
estimated as roughly one third to 40% of the total rice production there was expected to be a
modest gain to tenant beneficiaries from Operation Leasehold (OLH) who would pay the legal
lease rent fixed at 25% of production (net of production costs). (Hayami, et al. 1990,
Hayami and Kikuchi 2000) However, much larger subsequent gains from yield increases,
often reaching 100%, following the introduction of new varieties and irrigation development
were to accrue to the leasehold tenants/amortization owners as long as the lease rent or the
amortization payment was fixed at the prevailing level in the early 1970s, as was the case in at
least some of the Central and Southern Luzon villages. (Hayami, et al. 1990, HayamiKikuchi 2000, Otsuka 1991, Fegan 1989a, 1989b, Kirkvliet 1990, Umehara 1997)
For example, in a small-holder village in Laguna, Hayami and Kikuchi (2000: Chap.
4) found: that OLH had a larger impact than OLT (because of the relatively small holdings
prevailing in the village, unlike in hacienda villages in the Inner Central Luzon, the impact of
OLT aimed at land ownership above 7 ha. was relatively small); that the estimated effective
share of the rent paid by the tenants declined from 40% under the 50% share tenancy to 14%
under the OLH program as of 1995 due to the combined effects as described above; and that
the income share of the landlords in total gross value added in the village declined from more
than 40% in the mid-1960s to about 10% in 1995 while the income share of the reform
15

Banzon-Bautista (1989) notes as possible sources of such success: a long history of organized peasant
struggles/resistance in the village dating back to the 1930s, the tacit support of village officers (village
council members and the leader of farmers association), and participation of an owner of a large local store
and a local labor contractor who had political leverage in the municipality.
14

beneficiaries (i. e., former share tenants) increased from around 30% to 60% during the same
period. Otsuka (1991) similarly finds that, as of 1985, the implicit return on lands was
roughly twice to three times the going rate of amortization fee or leasehold rent (as fixed by
law) in his sample villages of irrigated or of un-irrigated-but-favorable conditions. At the
same time, however, while the income gains to the leasehold tenants were substantial,
observes have noted that significant income inequality and intra-class differentiation among
reform beneficiaries emerged based primarily on the distribution of the operational farm sizes
at the time of the land reform implementation. (Hayami and Kikuchi 2000, Umehara 1997)
More recently, using a longitudinal household data set extending the data used in
Otsuka (1991), Deininger, et al. (2000) find that the PD27 beneficiaries (mostly the early
beneficiaries in the mid-1970s) tended to have substantially higher investments in physical
capital and in childrens education than did non-beneficiaries during the period between 1972
and 1985; the average difference in the asset accumulation between the beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries over the period amounted to roughly US$1,000. Furthermore, the impact of the
land reform on accumulation appears to have been larger for the households with smaller
before-reform asset holding than those with greater assets, implying that the reform helped
poorer beneficiaries catch up with relatively better-off beneficiaries.16 Also, the years of
schooling among children were roughly one year higher among the PD27 beneficiary
households compared to the non-beneficiary households during the same period. In addition,
they find that the PD27 beneficiaries tended to have higher household income and higher rice
productivity levels than did non-beneficiaries during the period between 1985 and 1998; the
difference in income growth during the period was a little less than US$100, and the
difference in rice yield increase roughly 600 kilograms, between the beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries.
Such substantial benefits to the former share tenants, however, are not likely to have
materialized either where PD27 was not implemented vigorously or where the circumstances
did not allow farmers to extract the full benefit of adopting modern rice varieties. Many
observers have noted the very uneven implementation across different parts of the Philippines.
In some communities most of the former tenants benefited (e.g., the above example due to
Umehara 1997, Hayami and Kikuchi 2000, and others), in some other communities only 20 to
30% of the prospective beneficiaries received CLTs, and in still other places no tenants
appeared to have benefited at all; among the reform beneficiaries, some continued to pay their
rent to the owners, some continued to pay their amortization well beyond the fifteen years as
specified by the law, and others stopped paying either to the owners or to the government.
(Riedinger 1995: 94, Hayami, et al. 1990: 67) For example, in the areas where rice yields
fluctuate and the gains from new technologies were small tenants (who are risk averse) are
likely to prefer share tenancy to lease contract. Otsuka (1991) found that the conversion of
share tenancy was more pronounced in irrigated or favorable rain-fed areas than in
unfavorable rain-fed areas, and that the extent of conversion to leasehold was also greater
where (1) the increase in the rice yield (between 1970 and 1986) was higher, (2) the ratio of
16

This appears to contradict the intra-class differentiation observed by Hayami and Kikuchi, and by
Umehara, as noted above.
15

the number of landlords to the number of DAR technicians in the municipality was smaller
(representing the relative administrative capacity of the municipality, which Otsuka (1991)
interprets as indicating political will), and (3) the incidence of tenancy was higher as of 1970
(but found no significant association with yield variation indicating the degree of riskiness).
In general, according to Fegan (1989a), PD27 was weakly implemented outside the Central
Luzon, Iloilo, and Isabela rice bowls while it had little impact in areas such as the Eastern
Visayas and Mindanao.
The third point as a broad consensus in the literature on the impact of PD27 is that
the class of landless laborers in rural Philippines, who are at the bottom of village hierarchies,
did not gain and more likely was made even worse-off due to land reform, and that some of
the former tenants lost access to land due to tenant eviction triggered by land reform. As
noted above, the land reform beneficiaries under PD 27 (as well as under earlier reform codes)
were limited to tenant farmers and excluded landless laborers, thereby bypassing altogether
the landless as reform beneficiaries. Furthermore, because of the reform program
landowners possibly grew increasingly reluctant to rent out their land in fear of losing their
ownership to land to the tenants. As a consequence, some observers have argued, the
opportunities for upward mobility for a landless laborer by climbing up the agricultural
ladder through a tenant farmer to a owner farmer appeared to have been virtually closed after
the 1970s. (e. g., Hayami, et al. 1990, Hayami and Kikuchi 2000, Deininger, et al. 2000)
To what extent such closure of the agricultural ladder, preventing upward mobility among
landless laborers through agriculture, was a direct consequence of the land reform program is
not clear, however. As pointed out by Lipton (1990), such route for upward mobility is
expected to be more important in a land abundant environment rather than in land scarce one
(such as in the Philippines). A longitudinal study in a Pangasinan village suggests that the
possibility for upward mobility through the agricultural ladder was substantially reduced
since the early 1980s, possibly due to population pressure, even in a village where land reform
implementation had very little impact. (Fuwa 1999) Similarly, Deininger, et. al. (2000)s
finding that the significant narrowing the agricultural ladder occurred after the mid-1980s
among their sample of rice growing villages where PD27 was implemented in the mid-1970s
appears to imply (the authors own conclusions notwithstanding) that the main source of the
observed decrease in land access by the landless may not have been the land reform program.
In addition, many landowners apparently evicted their tenants and resorted to selfcultivation with hired laborers in their attempts to avoid land redistribution (since such farms
were exempted from the reform coverage). While the quantitative magnitude of such tenant
eviction at the national level is not known, Otsuka (1991)s survey finds that in three of his
five sample villages where a significant proportion of share tenancy was converted into
leasehold and significant yield increases due to MV were observed, about half of the landless
workers as of 1985 were former tenants (as of 1972) and a significant proportion (20 to 30%)
reported to have been evicted by landlords. Hayami, et al. (1990: 94) notes an example
where a landowner, who held a 30 hectare rice hacienda in Nueva Ecija, managed her farm
with the use of an overseer (katiwala) and permanent laborers and had forced her workers to
sign written contracts indicating that they are laborers but not tenants. In a widely quoted

16

statement, one observer speculates that in 1980 those deprived of the land they were
cultivating by corporate farming were more numerous than the approximately 100,000
amortizing owners and recipients of Emancipation Patents. (Wurfel 1988:174; cited by
Fegan 1989, Riedinger 1995, etc.)
In addition to tenant eviction and increasing reluctance of landowners to rent out
their land, another significant development in the successful land reform areas was the
increasing practice of sub-tenancy or permanent labor arrangements. Under these
arrangements, land reform beneficiaries rent out their newly acquired lands to landless or
other farm families, despite the legal prohibition of such practices. Partly due to the
increased disutility of their own work in farm operations following a significant increase in
income (i. e., leisure being a normal good) and partly due to changing labor endowment
within the household (e. g., aging of household members, regular non-agricultural
employment opportunities obtained by household members, household partition, widowhood,
etc.) supposedly illegal land renting or permanent laborer contract emerged. Additional
demand for permanent laborers also came from large farmers and moneylenders/middlemen
/landlords who were accumulating their de facto cultivation rights through (illegal) land
pawning or purchase of leasehold titles. (e. g., Hayami, et al. 1990, Fegan 1989a17) With a
significant risk of losing the land title in favor of the subtenants or permanent laborers under
the land-to-the-tillers reform program on the part of the landowners/leaseholders, and with
increasingly desperate landless laborers seeking employment opportunities, such tenancy or
permanent labor arrangements were invariably for a short term, usually for one year18.
(Hayami, et al. 1990, Umehara 1997) As a result, the economic security of those newly
emerged subtenants or permanent laborers was significantly lower than that of the traditional
tenant farmers. Ironically, the reform program of land-to-the-tiller induced at least some
of these former tillers of land to become non-tilling farmers or semi-landlords (see Hayami
and Kikuchi 2000, and Hayami, et al. 1990 Chapter 4 for examples)
While the supply of rental land offered to prospective tenant farmers decreased as
noted above, increasing population pressures likely depressed wage rates in agricultural labor
markets. The welfare level of the landless laborer class thus was likely to have deteriorated.
Because of the (unintended) negative effects of the land reform as well as of the continuing
population pressure, a new social underclass was observed to have emerged in rural
Philippines, with an increasing income disparity between them and the reform beneficiaries (i.
e., former share tenants turned leaseholders/amortization owners). (e. g., Hayami, et al. 1990,
Fegan 1989b, Hayami and Kikuchi 2000, Umehara 1997)
Finally, while there was a significant distributional impact due to the income transfer
from the former landowner to the former share tenant class, efficiency gains from the land
reform program have been less clear. Before the land reform implementation, rice and corn
17

In some (many?) cases, permanent laborers were recruited not among village residents but from migrant
workers from poorer regions such as Bohol, Cebu, Bikol, and Samar.
18
There were at least three different types of permanent labor contract in different parts of Luzon as of
1987. See Hayami, et al. (1990) chapter 4.
17

fields were cultivated mostly by small-size family farm-tenants even when hacienda owners
held hundreds of hectares of land ownership in Central Luzon. Thus when the land-to-thetiller program was implemented the operational size of farms did not change dramatically.
Thus, possible gains from breaking-up larger farms by land reform, arising from scale diseconomies in rice production, were likely to be minimal. To the extent there was to be an
efficiency impact of the reform, it could have come from incentive effects due to the change in
tenancy, from share tenancy to leasehold or to owner-cultivatorship. However, many
observers (e. g., Hayami and Kikuchi 2000, Mangahas, et al. 1976, etc.) have found little
difference in per-hectare rice production across tenancy types, such as between share tenancy
and leasehold. (see below for more on the incentive effects of alternative tenancy contract
types in the Philippines)19 On the other hand, however, a recent study by Deininger, et al.
(2000), as we saw above, do find positive impact among reform beneficiaries on asset (both
physical and human capital) accumulation. This suggests that land reform had some positive
incentive effects on investment.
Land Reform Implementation under Aquino and Ramos Administrations
a. Official land re-distribution records:
It is difficult to obtain a consistent series of data on land reform implementation for
use in comparing the relative achievements among Marcos, Aquino and Ramos
administrations. Table 2-1 through Table 2-4 collect land reform implementation records as
reported in the existing literature, although the original source of all the data is the
Department of Agrarian Reform, produced at different points in time; each table presents a
data series provided to the author by DAR as of June 1999 and a comparable series previously
published in the literature. Two data series produced in different points in time by DAR
differ with each other but still are generally close enough so that relative order of reform
achievements among the three administrations is not affected. Generally, the data series
produced by DAR in different points in time could be incomparable for various reasons
including: underreporting or downward revision of the reform accomplishments of the
predecessor administration (which can inflate the achievements by the current administration)
as well as change in reporting period (e. g., in reporting Aquino Presidencys achievements
DAR used calendar year and period since July 1987), and change in data aggregation
subcategories. (Riedinger 1995; Puzel 1992) Indeed, Riedinger (1995: 194) found various
DAR figures, reported in different points in time, of the cumulative land acquisition by the
government as of end 1985 ranging between 64,000 ha and 315,000 ha! A strong possibility
of some double counting in reporting land reform achievements has also been pointed out.
(Quisumbing 1999) These observations should alert us about the reliability of the official
record reported by DAR at different points in time in the past.
With such caveats in mind, let us examine available data in an attempt to assess the
19

Incidentally, such a finding of the neutral efficiency or incentive effects of land reform is in line with a
recent study on the post-war Japanese land reform, which converted share tenancy into owner cultivation
but, like the Philippine case, did not significantly affect the operational size distribution. (Kawagoe 1995)
18

relative land redistribution achievements among Marcos, Aquino and Ramos administrations.
Land re-distribution under these three administrations consists of: Landed Estates, Operation
Land Transfer (OLT) and the new redistribution programs under CARP. Landed estate
programs are the oldest (dating back to 1940) but its relative importance among land
redistribution programs became quite small during the period of both Aquino and Ramos
administrations; under this program, the Aquino administration acquired more lands
(26,000ha) than did the Marcos martial law regime (between 11,000 ha and 17,000 ha,
depending on data series), although if pre-martial law period is also included then more lands
were acquired (between 43,000 ha and 48,000 ha) under the Landed Estate program during the
twenty year Marcos period than during the six year Aquino presidency. On the other hand,
the Ramos administration acquired more lands (41,000 ha) than any of its predecessors under
the Landed Estate program. Redistribution of rice and corn lands under Operation Land
Transfer (OLT) made a major advance under the Aquino administration (340,000 ha), with an
increase of more than twenty fold compared to the amount transferred during the Marcos
martial law regime (15,000 ha). Land transfer under OLT during the Ramos administration
(155,000 ha) was less than half the amount transferred under the Aquino administration but
still ten times the amount transferred under the Marcos administration. While the total
amount of land transferred under OLT was much larger during the Aquino and Ramos
administrations than during the Marcos martial law period, it is not likely that the kind of
substantial income transfers from landlords to former tenants, as observed in some parts of
Central and Southern Luzon during the 1970s, occurred after the 1980s. As we saw above,
such income transfers were mainly due to the timing of the land reform implementation
(especially the fixing of the land value or of the lease rent) being immediately preceding the
substantial yield increase due to the introduction of high yielding varieties, as well as
accompanying irrigation investment and modern inputs, during the 1970s. Such conditions
no longer existed, however, during the Aquino and Ramos administrations (the Green
Revolution potential appears to have been exhausted in the 1980s). Thus, it would be
reasonable to expect that, despite the impressive expansion of the program coverage of OLT
after the fall of Marcos presidency, the income redistribution impact on each beneficiary was
likely to be more modest than it was during the martial law period. Unfortunately, however,
the kind of systematic empirical studies, as we saw on the impact of OLT during Marcos
presidency, do not yet seem to exist for the period under Aquino and Ramos presidency.
Apart from the acceleration of OLT implementation, a major advance under CARP
was the newly enacted redistribution of privately owned land (above the retention limit of five
hectares plus three hectares each for qualified heirs) planted with crops other than rice or
corn. Such redistribution could be implemented through voluntary offer to sell (VOS) and
voluntary land transfer (VLT) initiated by landowners, or through compulsory acquisition
(CA). During the Aquino administration, the total amount of non-rice/corn lands acquired
was rather modest (88,000ha) although it still exceeded the total amount of land redistribution
under the Marcos regime (47,000ha combining landed estate and OLT programs). Among
the three sub-components, the major emphasis was apparently on the voluntary offer to sell
(VOS), representing 60% of non-rice/corn private land transfers, rather than on the
compulsory acquisition (AC), representing only 15%. (Also see below on major scandals

19

involving the VOS program during Aquino presidency, however) A remarkable advance in
land redistribution of private lands was recorded under the Ramos administration; the total
amount of land transferred/acquired, under CA, VOS and VLT combined, increased eight-fold
between Aquino and Ramos periods. The main mode of transfer appears to have sifted from
VOS (now representing 36%) to VLT (47%) with the continuously low priority on the land
transfer through CA (17%). Apparently, unlike the pattern during the Aquino administration,
the re-distribution of non-rice/corn lands became by far the most important component of
redistributive land reform, surpassing land re-distribution under OLT, during the period under
the Ramos administration.
The amount of lands acquired by the government, often called the land reform
accomplishment, has often been discussed in relation to the reform targets. Observers
have pointed out the very frequent changes in the declared targets that have been in constant
revision from one administration to another, coupled with the changes and ambiguities in the
reported accomplishments, making difficult any serious assessment of land reform
implementation relative to the potential pool of beneficiaries. Despite such difficulties, what
is clear from the DAR record is that there are enormous variations in the degree of
accomplishment among program components and among successive administrations. As
shown in Table 2-5, which contains land reform accomplishments relative to the targets as
of June 1999, the accomplishment rates were quite modest during Marcos presidency. Only
2.6% of the target area under OLT was actually covered during the period under President
Marcos.20 The great majority of the OLT target was covered during the Aquino
administration, with roughly 60% of total areas to be covered under OLT being accomplished
during this period; additional 27% of the potential OLT land was covered during the Ramo
administration. Altogether, according to the DAR record, almost 90% of the potential OLT
lands (tenanted rice or corn lands) was already redistributed among tenants as of 1998.
On the other hand, the progress has been much slower in redistributing privately
owned lands not covered under OLT but covered by compulsory acquisition (CA), voluntary
offer to sell (VOS) and voluntary land transfer (VLT) under CARP in 1988. Redistribution
of these lands was almost negligible (i. e., 4%) vis--vis the program targets during the
Aquino administration. While land redistribution in these program components gained much
momentum during the Ramos administration, only 37% of the potential lands was
redistributed under CA, VOS and VLT combined by the end of the Presidents term in 1998.
Furthermore, there are even larger variations in the reform accomplishment rates among
these three modes of private land transfers. Only 9% of the total potential areas was covered
under CA by the end of the Ramos administration, while the land transfer on voluntary basis
proceeded at a much faster pace, with 78% and 123% accomplishment rates under VOS and
VLT, respectively.
20

Again, this accomplishment record fluctuates depending on which data series to use. For example,
according to the data series obtained by Putzel (1992: 139), EPs printed covered about 25.6% of the target
areas as of 1985 (data source: DAR) and EPs distributed covered about 1.6% of the target areas as of 1986
(data source: NEDA). Thus our 1999 DAR data series is, in the order of magnitude, comparable to the
data on EPs distributed as reported by NEDA in 1986.
20

Finally, land transfers under the much older components of the agrarian reform code,
i. e., landed estates and resettlement programs, went relatively more smoothly than OLT or
other private land transfer schemes discussed above during the Aquino and Ramos
administrations. Under both of these program components, land transfer accomplishment
rates were over 100% as of the end of the Ramos administration. This is not surprising given
the fact that these programs have much longer history and are presumably much less
controversial politically than the other two components of the reform.
b. Budget
Shortage in funding during the implementation stage of a reform program has always
been a major constraint in all the reform programs, and CARP is not an exception. The
initial cost estimate of the CARP implementation was P221 billion as of 1986. Economists
have pointed out the heavy fiscal burden implied by the original budget; its annual budget
would have represented about 30 percent of the total national government budget as of 1987.
(e. g., Balisacan 1995) About a quarter of its total, or P52.7 billion, was initially allocated by
the Aquino administration. Additional international assistance to the CARP implementation
was minimal during the Aquino administration; as of 1993, US$31 million (P828 million) of
foreign funding had been committed as ongoing funding. (Riedinger 1995: 204) During
the Ramos administration, however, the amount of foreign assistance increased dramatically
with US$22 billion added in support of Agrarian Reform Community development (see
below). (Garilao 1998) As in the previous reform programs, budget constraint could
always be a major bottleneck in CARP. Furthermore, in relation to the CARP
implementation, additional concerns have been raised as to (1) the potential diversion of
resources from non-agrarian reform areas where improvement of support services are equally
important and (2) the possibility of tying the provision of necessary support services to the
pace of the land redistribution, which has been quite slow. (Balisacan 1995)
During the period under Aquino presidency (July 1987-June 1992) a total of P17
billion was utilized while P27.7 billion was utilized under Ramos presidency as of December
1997, a 67% increase. Apart from the increase in the aggregate amount spent, a major shift
in the cost allocation occurred between the two successive administrations. On average the
Aquino administration spent P3,617 per beneficiary on land acquisition and distribution
(including initial payments for landowners compensation) and P9,950 per beneficiary on
support services. In contrast, the Ramos administration spent P9,863 per beneficiary on land
acquisition and distribution and P3,432 per beneficiary on support services. (Garilao 1998)
According to the account of Secretary Garilao himself, there appear to be two major reasons
behind such a policy change. One was the administrations relatively stronger emphasis
(compared to Aquinos) on the need for increasing landowner compensation in order to
moderate landowner resistance and to facilitate land redistribution. The guideline for land
valuation under the Ramos administration raised the value of land acquired under CARP by as
much as 50%. (Garilao 1998: 12) The second reason was their increasing dependence on
foreign funding for support services while maintaining domestic funding of the direct land

21

redistribution costs, which in turn was seen as political in nature and thus was to be funded
by the Filipino people. (Garilao 1998: 29)
c. Implementation obstacles and other criticisms during the Aquino administration
The initial years of the CARP implementation under President Aquino suffered a
series of scandals, intra-administration conflicts over issues related to land reform
implementation and frequent leadership changes. A series of scandals involving the
Voluntary Offer to Sell (VOS) program occupied newspaper front pages in Manila in mid1989, to the extent of a near-paralysis of the reform program for months. (Reidinger 1995:
178) The most infamous among them was the Garchitorena estate scandal involving a hilly
property of about 1,900 hectares of land largely unsuited to cultivation in the province of
Camarines Sur. The land was initially purchased by Sharp International Marketing Inc. as a
foreclosed estate from United Coconut Planters Bank for P3 million in April 1988 and then
was offered as VOS land at P63 million to which DAR agreed in December 1988. Land
Bank of the Philippines (LBP), whose president was reportedly in political rivalry with the
DAR secretary, objected the deal in April 1989 and the scam became public. Other
scandals followed, with a series of congressional investigations, and the then DAR secretary
Philip Juico resigned. These scandals involved abuses of the VOS program, presumably
under the collusion between landowners and DAR officials, with extreme overvaluation of
lands of little productive value. Many suspected that the Garchitorena and other headline
cases were merely the tip of the iceberg, which some critics saw as a result of the land
valuation provisions under CARP. Observers also pointed out that most of the VOS lands
were remote, unproductive, with unclear ownership, foreclosed by banks, or/and in areas
where insurgency activity was strong, with none or very few families cultivating the properties
in some cases, and that many real estate speculators exploited the VOS program for their own
profit. (Borras 1999, Riedinger 1995, Putzel 1992)
While President Aquino, following the resignation of Secretary Juico, named Miriam
Defensor-Santiago, known as a graft buster, as the new DAR secretary-designate with a
mandate of cleaning up the department, Congress refused to confirm her appointment.21 In
addition to the land valuation scandals, another CARP related issue that wrecked the DAR
leadership was the issue of land conversions. For example, in an intra-governmental
controversy in 1990, then-newly-appointed DAR secretary Florencio Abad attempted to block
the conversion into nonagricultural uses of the Langkaan estate, a 232-hectare prime
agricultural land owned by the government in Dasmarinas, Cavite Province, which had
already been reclassified as industrial by the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board
(HLURB) in 1980. The land conversion was strongly supported by the then Trade and
Industry Secretary (Jose Concepcion, Jr.) and Justice Secretary (Franklin Drilon), the view
upheld within the administration at the end.22 Many observers pointed out that agricultural
21

There are various accounts as to why Defensor-Santiago was not confirmed, including her combative
personality, and, perhaps more importantly, her announced intention to expedite compulsory acquisition of
farms over 50 hectares. (Reidinger 1995: 184)
22
See Riedinger (1995) and Putzel (1992) for more detailed chronologies of the event.
22

lands were being converted prematurely (i. e., social net benefit of such conversions was
lower than the private net benefit of the conversion) into non-agricultural uses by landowners
whose prime motive was to avoid application of land reform, although the quantitative
magnitude of such conversions is not known. (e. g., Medalla and Centeno 1994; Reidinger
1995; Takigawa 1997) In addition, a major consequence of the Langkaan estate controversy,
argues Riedinger (1995: 182), was the withdrawal of the nomination of Abad, widely regarded
as pro-land reform (who as a member of the House of Representatives had proposed a land
reform bill including a zero retention limit in 1987 and later voted against what became of
CARL due to its conservative nature in 1988), as DAR Secretary. All in all there were five
successive secretaries-designate of Agrarian Reform, two of whom were subsequently
withdrawn due to the Congressional opposition to confirm, during the four years of CARP
implementation under President Aquino.
Some critics have also argued that some provisions under CARP run directly counter
to the spirit of (genuine) land redistribution and were taken advantage by some of large
landowners in their successful attempts to avoid distributing their lands to small farmers. (e.
g., Borras 1999, Putzel 1992, Reidinger 1995) Notable among these provisions were the
corporate stock-distribution option and the leaseback arrangements for multinational
corporations operating on government-owned lands. The former option allowed corporate
landowners to satisfy their reform obligations by offering their farm workers to purchase
capital stock of the corporation proportional to the share of agricultural land to the companys
total assets. Most symbolic was the stock-distribution scheme adopted by Hacienda Luisita,
the 6,200 hectare sugarcane plantation owned by President Aquinos natal (Cojuangco) family.
In addition to opposing the very idea of substituting such a scheme for land redistribution
critics charge that under the scheme land values tended to be excessively undervalued and
non-land assets overvalued thereby unduly reducing the value of the stock to be offered to the
farm-worker beneficiaries; Putzel (1992: 336-337), for example, argue that, as of 1989, the
additional incomes due to the stock sharing scheme per beneficiaries was only in the range
between 30 Pesos and 133 Pesos per month. Balisacan (1995) also casts doubts about the
effects of stock sharing option on a similar ground. Hayami, et al. (1990) also criticize the
stock-sharing option as both impractical and discriminatory.
On the other hand, the leaseback arrangements allowed multinational corporations
operating plantations on government-owned lands to maintain leasehold over such lands,
whose ownership was to be transferred to worker-cooperatives under CARP; Putzel (1992)
argues, however: that in none of the three largest cases of such land transfer in Mindanao (two
of them involving major transnational corporations, Del Monte and Dole) workercooperatives were independently organized by workers (but rather under strong influence of
the corporation management or of a trade union); that lease rent was set at a very low level;
and that the poorer segment of the landless workers gained little from these arrangements
since they benefited (though very modestly) only corporate farm workers who were already
better paid than most surrounding workers. Despite such anecdotal pieces of evidence,
however, detailed studies on the effects of these schemes on the productive capacities and
economic welfare of farm worker-beneficiaries have not yet been available.

23

d. DAR leadership under Ramos administration and Agrarian Reform Communities (ARC):
One notable contrast in the CARP implementation process between the Aquino and
Ramos administrations is the fact that the DAR leadership during Ramos presidency was very
stable. One observer in a peasant organization at the time has noted that while the
background of President Ramos as a top military general under Marcos presidency, as well as
his campaign platform of raising the retention limit from 5 to 50 hectares, elicited grim
predictions about the fate of the already much weakened CARP, such predictions were
proven incorrect. (Borras 1999: 48) President Ramos appointed as DAR secretary
Ernesto Garilao, the head of the countrys biggest mainstream NGOs funded by large
corporations and foreign donors and loosely identified with the conservative wing of the
social democrats. (Borras 1999: 48) Garilao was not only confirmed by the Congress but
served as DAR secretary for the entire six year term under Ramos presidency. Furthermore,
upon his appointment as secretary, Garilao convinced President Ramos to drop his campaign
promise of a 50 hectare retention limit, recruited several NGO activists into DAR leadership
positions, and directed a shift in CARP implementation toward greater consultation and
cooperation with the members of the NGO community to the surprise of many of [those
members]. (Borras 1999) In addition, Garilao, one of the only two Ramos cabinet members
serving the full six year term, has been credited for his maintenance of stable two-way
relationships with the office of the President. As explained by Secretary Galilao himself, he
placed a major emphasis on increasing the landowner compensation by modifying the land
valuation scheme for the purpose of facilitating redistributive components of CARP but he
also recognized the crucial importance of the participation by farmers organizations for
successful implementation of the land reform program. (Garilao 1998)
As a result, argues Borras (1999), the new leadership provided under Garilao initiated
a major shift in the CARP implementation processes within DAR toward the combined forces
between DAR bureaucracy and social mobilization from below (we will come back to this in
a later section) which appears to have pushed forward significantly the redistributive land
reform program under Ramos presidency compared to the much more limited accomplishment
under Aquino presidency, as we saw earlier.
Another policy initiative in CARP implementation under Secretary Garilao was the
new focus on Agrarian Reform Communities (ARC). The ARC approach to beneficiary
development was launched in 1993 and was intended to concentrate DAR resources for
support services in selected areas, rather than to spread the resources thinly in a wide range of
areas. Behind this idea was the recognition that the reform sector needed to be made
productive and economically viable.23 (Borras 1999) The main components of ARC
23

Additional consequences of adopting ARC strategy, according to Borras (1999: 67), were: enhanced
interests within the foreign donor community for funding, countering the political attacks often mounted by
reform opponents on the ground that land reform disrupts production, and ARC projects provided capacitybuilding opportunities for rural development related skills for state bureaucracy as well as for the civil
society.
24

development programs include: basic social services (such as water and power supply, health,
and education), investment and marketing assistance, and Agrarian Reform Beneficiary
Information and monitoring system. ARC development was implemented with active
involvement of NGOs/POs and agribusiness communities, although many NGOs and peasant
organizations were initially quite critical of the idea and thus was inactive.24 As of end 1998,
921 ARCs covering over 350,000 farmer-beneficiaries had been launched. (Garilao 1998)
Discussions in the literature on the success or failure of CARP have often focused
mostly on how much land was redistributed but relatively little attention has been paid to the
economic consequences such as the economic welfare and the competitiveness of reform
beneficiaries. In contrast with PD27, there have not yet been thorough studies on the
economic impact of CARP based on micro level data. There has been, however, a series of
household-level surveys conducted by the Institute of Agrarian Studies at the University of the
Philippines at Los Baos (IASt-UPLB). The comparison of the 1989 baseline and the 1995
survey indicated that the incomes of agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARBs) had increased by
21 % during the six year period and that three out of every four ARBs perceived their lives to
have improved after CARP implementation. (Garilao 1988) Without a detailed analysis,
however, it is not clear how much of the 21% income increase could be attributed to the net
impact of the CARP implementation.25
Conclusions on Land Reform Implementation Record and Impact
According to official records by DAR (and its predecessor), the amount of land
redistributed by the government remained quite modest before CARP was enacted. Despite
the rhetoric accompanying the martial law rule, the actual amount redistributed under Marcos
presidency was much smaller than under his successors. Redistribution of rice and corn
lands gained much momentum, however, during the Aquino administration. While CARP
was enacted during Aquino presidency, redistribution of non-rice/corn lands (especially
through compulsory acquisition rather than through voluntary offers by landowners) did not
get under way until Ramos presidency. While the land reform implementation under the
Aquino administration focused on rice and corn lands and other private lands voluntarily
offered by landowners, the reform implementation during the Ramos administration made
some headway into appropriating non-rice/corn lands through the compulsory acquisition
(CA) program. As of the end of the Ramos administration about 90% of the targeted rice
and corn lands and 36% of the targeted non-rice/corn private lands had reportedly been
redistributed, at least on paper. We will turn to political explanations of the evolution of
reform implementation in the second subsection of the next section.

24

Main points raised by the critics was the rather exclusionary character of the ARC idea by focussing
only on a fraction of potential beneficiaries, but many NGOs increasingly became drawn into ARC
programs over time. (Borras 1999: 67)
25
Similarly Geron (1994), for example, addresses the question of the CARP impact on coconut and sugar
sectors; but her survey data set (a cross section on beneficiaries only) does not allow any identification of
CARP impact.
25

While the implementation of land reform under PD27 was limited to specific
geographical areas and thus the total mount of land redistributed ended up very modest, many
village-level studies found significant impact of the reform program in the areas where the
program was targeted. While the reform program led to significant income transfer effects
from landowners to former tenants and induced higher asset accumulation among
beneficiaries, the reform design also provided incentives for landowners to evict tenants, to
shift crops away from rice or corn and to become reluctant to rent out lands. As a result,
many have argued, the net impact of the program on landless laborers, who form the bottom
stratum of village hierarchies, was negative. PD27, in accordance with President Marcos
intention, also placed a final blow to the political power of the owners of rice hacienda in
Central Luzon. The micro-level impact of CARP, on the other hand, has not been as well
studied as that of PD27. While it is unlikely that the implementation of OLT (rice and corn
lands) since the 1980s had the kind of impact similar to the PD27 implementation in the
1970s, not much has yet been known. Equally understudied at the moment is the impact of
CARP on non-rice/corn lands, including that of the non-distributive options (e. g., corporate
stock sharing option), on the productive efficiency and on the economic welfare of the reform
beneficiaries.
2. Political Dynamics Behind Philippine Land Reform
In the previous section we have reviewed the evolution of the Philippine land reform
codes and the patterns of reform implementation as well as of some of their impact. In this
section, we will examine the political dynamics behind such land reform outcomes (land
reform legislation and its implementation). Before discussing the political forces behind
land reform in the past four decades in the Philippines, however, we will start with a brief
overview of historical legacies that have significant implications in todays political dynamics
in the first subsection. In the second subsection, we will briefly discuss a basic framework
for analyzing political dynamics found in the economics literature, i. e., the neo-classical
political economy. In third and fourth subsections, we will discuss political forces behind
land reform legislation and those behind reform implementation, respectively, during the past
four decades in the Philippines. In reviewing the processes of land reform legislation and
implementation, one question naturally arises; why land reform in the Philippines has been
taking so long? This question will be explored in the fifth subsection.
2-1. Historical Legacy
Both the origin of the various episodes of rural unrest that have prompted land reform
initiatives by the government (see below), on the one hand, and the inability of the
government to legislate and implement substantial land re-distribution in a swift manner (as
we saw above), on the other, have their roots in the historical legacies spanning over the past
500 years. While it is impossible to do enough justice to the entire history over the period
here, for our present purposes, we will briefly discuss some of the more prominent historical
legacies that exert major influence in todays Philippine political economy.

26

Pre-Hispanic Period
On the eve of the Spanish arrival in the mid-sixteenth century, people inhibiting what
today constitutes the Philippine archipelago were mostly of Malay ethnic stock, engaging in
hunting, fishing and shifting cultivation. Usually the largest political unit was a kinship
group of fewer than one hundred households, called barangay, headed by a chieftain, or datu.
(Wurfel 1988) There appear to have existed some degree of stratification within barangay,
such as freemen, serfs and slaves (although the exact composition of social stratification is
still being debated), and the main source of wealth and power was the command over labor
and not over land. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, Fegan 1989a, Putzel 1992, Wurfel 1988)
Population was generally sparse, located mainly on the coasts and rivers, and there is no report
of large farms or production of crops for long-distance trade. (Fegan 1989a)
Hispanic Legacy
The Spanish conquest starting in 1571 superimposed a colonial state and church,
producing a profound impact which still characterizes many aspects of the Philippine political
economy today. For example, Putzel (1992: 43) argues that [t]hree hundred and fifty years
of Spanish rule followed by half a century of US colonial administration largely set the
parameters within which families like Aquinos, Cojuancos and Laurels compete for power in
todays Republic, while peasants struggle to survive on the land. Many of the Spanish
legacies were perhaps unintended (Wurfel 1988), but they have nevertheless been profound
and long-lasting.
Initially the main interest of the Spanish in the Philippines was twofold: a base for
galleon trade (between Mexico and China) and evangelism. (Putzel 1988, Fegan 1989a,
Riedinger 1995) This relatively limited interest in maintaining the colony resulted in: (1)
reliance on the traditional datus (chieftain) for colonial governance and (2) the monopoly of
land ownership by the Catholic church with powerful institutions to protect its own economic
interests. The reliance on datus (or renamed as caciques) for colonial governance was seen
as a way of minimizing the cost of colonial administration. (Riedinger 1995) The newly
endowed role of a datu (cacique), as a colonial headman (i. e., as a tax collector, an organizer
of compulsory labor services and a judge), in turn enhanced the power of a datu/cacique over
his fellow members in a barangay, and gave him opportunities to collect landholdings from
those who defaulted on loans advanced by the datu/cacique for tax payment. (Hayami and
Kikuchi 1982) Caciques often abused their power, prompting the history of continual
peasant resistance and periodic peasant rebellion. (Riedinger 1995) Many families or
communities are reported to have fled inland from tribute and forced labor. (Fegan 1989a)
Among the most profound of the Spanish legacy is the introduction of the notion of
private property rights on land. With the newly introduced notion of land title and the
principle that all lands except those officially proved to be private or communal possessions
belonged to the Spanish crown, the crowns land ownership was established over vast areas
of uncultivated land. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, Puzel 1992) While Spanish officials

27

limited their attention to Manila galleon trade the Catholic friars established themselves on
agricultural lands from early on, and by the end of the colonial period the Church owned much
of the best land in the Philippines. (Putzel 1992) The church not only owned the largest
chunk of land but also developed powerful techniques for protecting its interests including
centralized bureaucracy. (Wurfel 1988) Later in the 19th and into 20th century, much of the
lands owned by the Church were leased, sold or re-distributed via state to the Filipino landed
elite, which is the ancestor of the politically and economically powerful families today.
Another major event having a profound impact during the Spanish regime was the
opening of the colony to exports of tropical agricultural products toward late 18th century after
the British occupation of Manila (during the Seven Years War). This move was induced by
the decline of galleon trade, the opening of new shipping routes with improved shipping, and
the example of British and Dutch India companies. (Fegan 1989a) Foreign demand for
tropical agricultural products created induced demand for lands in the Philippines. (Hayami
and Kikuchi 1982) On one hand, newly created demand for lands in turn induced migration
of peasants from old seacoast and river towns into the interiors. (Fegan 1989a) On the other
hand, the demand for agricultural products induced Chinese mestizos to expand their land
holding. Before the opening of world trade, Chinese merchants (originating from Fukien and
Kwantung and attracted to the Mexican silver found in Manila) had earlier started to expand
their internal trading network and had intermarried with the local elite to form a group of
Chinese mestizos. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, Putzel 1992) Toward late 18th century,
these Chinese mestizo traders expanded their land holding by purchase or by foreclosure on
debt (called pacto de retroventa) from traditional elite (casique) and also inter-marring further
with them to form a group of rural elite (principalia). This process eventually created
patterns of small and medium scale landownership where landlords typically reside in
provincial towns (poblacion), with patron-client relations prevailing between landowners and
tenants, on the coastal areas of Luzon. (Fegan 1989a, Hayami and Kikuchi 1982) The
expansion of trade opportunity also induced the monastic orders, who had established
ownership of land over huge areas of inner islands, to lease their idle or pasture lands to
agricultural entrepreneurs/middlemen (inquilino/ inquilinato), who in turn sub-rented the
lands to share tenants, forming vast tracts of hacienda in the inner areas of Luzon. In
addition, private haciendas were established through royal grants and purchases of royal lands.
Many of the tenants who cleared and cultivated the inner haciendas on Luzon were migrants
from Ilocos or Southern Tagalog. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, Putzel 1992) On the island of
Negros, where large sugar plantations developed, sugar monopoly was initially introduced in
the mid-19th century by the Spanish authorities but the commercial house established in 1857
by a British vice-consul in the Philippines appears often credited with catalyzing the
development of sugar industry in Negros. Introduction of new canes from Sumatra and of
advanced milling equipment and the high sugar prices (especially between 1850-1860) led to
sugarcane monoculture on the island, and the frontier characteristics of the islandrelative
land abundance and labor shortage led to the system of centrally and hierarchically
managed haciendas employing hired labor, which is distinct from the patterns observed on the
Luzon island. (Hayami, et al. 1990)

28

Thus by the end of the 19th century, most of the basis of the present day elite in the
Philippines had been established, coming from two original sources: educated Chinese and
Spanish mestizos, on the one hand, and cacique, traditional elite who were descendants of
datu-turned-colonial administrators. (Putzel 1992) For example, the 19th century witnessed
the founding of many of the prominent family enterprises such as Ayala (1834), Soriano (San
Miguel) (1890), Cojuanco (1870) as well as sugar haciendas in Negros Occidental. (Putzel
1992)
In addition, other historical legacies that are direct consequences of, or that started
during the period of, Spanish colonial policies have been identified in the literature. They
include: (1) loss of cultural self-confidence and of consciousness of Malay cultural roots
(Wurfel 1988); (2) practice of corruption, such as selling of offices (Wurfel 1988); (3) loss of
traditional Asian trade networks (Fegan 1989); (4) exacerbation of the incentive for land
accumulation induced by trade liberalization by granting tobacco (and other?) monopoly
(Fegan 1989a, Putzel 1992); and (5) preservation of regional fragmentation, and thus of the
barrier to the development of centralized statehood, as a result of the Spanish clerics decision
to translate Christian doctrines into local vernaculars. (Riedinger 1995)
American Legacy
As had their Spanish predecessors, U.S. colonial administrators (1898-1946) relied
upon the Filipino elite and their clientelist networks for social control. (Riedinger 1995)
Following the revolutionary movement against Spain, the U.S. pacified the revolutionary
forces by winning over the elite (ilustrado), who had emerged toward the end of the 19th
century as we saw above. (Wurfel 1988) Consequently, the U.S. policies essentially reenforced the position of the elite. Institutionally, the U.S. introduced elected legislature
(1907), political parties, strong presidency and independent judiciary. Shortly after the initial
introduction of those institutions, during the period of 1913-1921 witnessed a rapid
Filipinization of cabinet, civil service and school teachers. The Filipinized posts in
bureaucracy and legislature were naturally filled by the landowning elite. (Wurfel 1988, Putzel
1992) Furthermore, the control of the state corporations given to House of Representatives
further provided opportunities to accumulate wealth by the landed elite, by, for example,
allowing these state corporations (such as Philippine National Bank) preferential treatments
for their family owned businesses. (Putzel 1992)
In addition, land policies under the American colonial administration also helped
further consolidate the economic power of the Philippine elite. As an early land reform
attempt, the U.S. administration purchased about 200,000 hectares of friar estates,
representing about 90% of total friar estates, for $7 million in 1905, intending to re-distribute
the estate to 60,000 share tenants. Their subsequent decision to sell these lands at cost of
purchase, however, ensured the result that much/most of these lands were purchased by the
landed oligarchy and inquilinos, rather than by landless tenants. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982,
Putzel 1992) Furthermore, the land titling introduced in 1902 created great windows of
opportunity for land-grabbing by the same group of elite. (Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, Putzel

29

1992) As a consequence, the history of the combined colonial rule by the Spanish and the
Americans led to [t]he process of land acquisition by the elite, through royal land grants,
land-grabbing and privileged access to legal formalities creating a system of property rights
which tends to appear arbitrary to peasants in the barrios. (Putzel 1992: 60)
Finally, the access to the U. S. market under the American colonial rule provided
additional economic opportunities for the landowning Filipino elite. For example, the U.S.
market quota and the subsequent free trade with the U. S. (1913-1935) created handsome
profit opportunities for export agriculture. This induced an increase in sugarcane haciendas
in Luzon as well as the further expansion of sugar haciendas coupled with infrastructure
investment in Negros, and what is today the Del Monte Philippines (Philippine Packing
Corporation) laid the foundations of its huge pineapple plantation in 1926 in Bukidnon on the
island of Mindanao, which represented the last frontier for colonization at the turn of the
century. (Putzel 1992, Hayami, et al. 1990, Tsurumi 1982)
Historical Legacy: conclusions
In sum, many aspects of the Philippine socio-economic structure and politics have
their roots in the Spanish and American colonial periods. This helps us understand how
long-standing and deeply rooted the todays political dynamics are. Such understanding
would warn us against easy optimism for the prospects for rapid and sweeping land reform
(which never occurred) and against an idea of transplanting other countries policy
prescriptions without enough consideration of historical contexts within the respective
societies. The major legacies of the Philippine colonial history include: the patterns of
highly concentrated land ownership throughout the archipelago; the patterns of paternalistic
(patron-client based) tenancy in some parts of the Philippines (such as in the coastal Luzon),
of haciendas which dominate other parts (such as the inner Central Luzon), and of plantations
on the island of Negros and others; the dominance of landowning families in both local and
national politics; the prominence, in particular, of a small number of land-owning families
(landed oligarchy) in both economic and political spheres; (arguably) a relatively fragmented
society with weak state apparatus (which is not capable, for example, of administrating
substantial land re-distribution policy) and with weak collective action capacities among the
peasantry; and the dubious legitimacy of the system of private property rights on land in the
views among the rural poor.
2-2. A Theoretical Framework for Political Dynamics of Land Reform
The so called new/neoclassical political economy approach could be a starting point
providing a broad framework to understand political outcomes (such as various land reform
codes) as equilibria between the demand for and supply of such policy outcomes.26 It
sees the equilibrium amount of land redistribution as an intersection between the marginal
cost schedule (which tends to increase as more land is redistributed as a result of land reform)
26

See Hayami, et al. (1990) and Balisacan (1990) for more detailed discussions of this framework in the
Philippine land reform context.
30

and the marginal revenue/benefit schedule (which tends to decrease as more land is
redistributed as a result of land reform), as perceived by policy makers who are mainly
motivated to maximize the likelihood of staying in power. In order to stay in power, so the
argument goes, policy makers need to balance the cost of making more radical land
redistribution (coming mainly from landlords and their allies opposition and from any other
economic cost, if any, depleting the policy makers political capital) and the benefit (coming
from peasants political support, from calming rural unrest and from any other economic
benefits such as productivity gains ultimately contributing to their political capital), as shown
in Figure 1. [add a figure] This framework helps us in making a distinction between the
political forces pushing for and against more radical land redistribution (this is roughly similar
to Putzel (1992)s political analysis in terms of pro- versus anti- land reform forces) and in
highlighting the general nature of such forces (e. g, the increasing marginal cost and the
decreasing marginal benefit as more land is redistributed). This framework has been used,
for example, to explain the very different locations of the political equilibria among other
East Asian land reform episodes, such as the one in Japan, and the Philippine case. (Hayami,
et al. 1990, Balisacan 1990)
In most of the developing countries, it has been observed, the effective demand for
(marginal benefit of) land reform for policy makers tends to be relatively small since the
potentials for collective action among the would-be beneficiaries, peasants, tend to be weak
due to their large number and their geographical dispersion (so it is difficult to get together
and to act together), their relative lack of education, their lack of cooperatism or unionism,
and their being prone to free-rider problem. On the other hand, the effective supply or
marginal cost of reform tends to be relatively large since there are relatively greater
collective action potentials among landowners due to their relatively small number (so it is
easier to get together and act together), their education, and their good access to political
power in general and to legislators, both local and national levels, in particular. Such
demand and supply schedules in the political market constantly shifts overtime, however,
and we need to understand the dynamics of those factors shifting the demand and supply
schedules. In the following subsections, we will discuss the historical events that were likely
to be related to such shifts in the political market.
2-3. Politics of Land reform Legislation in the Philippines
In understanding the changing political dynamics of land reform in the Philippines, it
seems useful to distinguish the legislative process of land reform policy making, on the one
hand, and the implementation stage of such policy, on the other. (Riedinger 1995, Borras
1999). The political dynamics behind legislative processes of setting the terms of land
redistribution, allocating budget envelope for its implementation and appointing DAR
secretary (which requires Congressional approval) is mainly played out in the national
political arena (mainly by the executive branch in the case of PD 27 and EO 229 and in
Congress in most other post-war land reform legislation including CARL). Furthermore, any
legal code is a reflection of the political equilibrium in such national political arena at a
particular point in time when the law is enacted. On the other hand, the actual

31

implementation (of identifying beneficiaries and lands for re-distribution, valuing the lands
and transferring them to the beneficiaries) is necessarily a much more decentralized process; it
reflects more localized political processes and it is also a continuing process over an extended
period of time (such as 10 years or more, as in CARP). For example, despite the modest
(though geographically limited) success of PD 27 under the Marcos martial law regime, its
implementation seems to have toned down substantially after the initial few years; part of the
reason was that President Marcos increasingly came to appreciate his need for local leaders as
intermediaries in the patrimonial system through which he controlled local-level political
processes including the implementation of land reform. (Wurfel 1988, Fegan 1989)
Similarly, CARL was a political compromise reflecting a political equilibrium in the specific
point in time; while the law governing land reform has remained essentially the same since
1988, the implementation record and the mode of operation have changed significantly in the
subsequent years, especially between the Aquino and Ramos administrations. Furthermore,
one observer noted a difference in the speed of decline in the political power of the landed
elite between central and local politics, which could induce divergence between the legislation
and the implementation stages of land reform; while the political influence among landed elite
was generally on the decline in the national political arena, changes in local elite were much
slower to come (Wurfel 1983).
We will discuss the political dynamics in these processes in turn. What are the
main factors affecting the particular political equilibria resulting in the land reform codes as
described above?; in this subsection, we will review various political explanations behind the
major episodes of land reform legislation in the past three decades. We will explore what
common factors may have been operating throughout these episodes in the concluding subsection. (subsection 2-5)
1954/55 Land Reform Legislation
Some observers argue that the 1954 Land Tenancy Act and the 1955 Land Reform
Act under the Magsaysay administration were the first serious, if modest, effort to carry out
land reform in the Philippines. (Wurfel 1988) During the mid-1940s the Huk rebellion, a
peasant rebellion movement spread across Central Luzon, emerged; it was, in a large part, a
reaction on the part of peasants to the rapid deterioration of the traditional patron-client
relationship and it was mainly a call for the restoration of such relationship, which ultimately
failed, rather than a call for outright land redistribution. (Kirkvliet 1977) In response to the
rising rural unrest, coupled with the perceived threat of spreading communism prompted by
the newly established Communist China, the U. S. government, covertly and overtly,
supported the presidential bid by Ramon Magsaysay, then the defense secretary in the Quirino
cabinet as an opposition-party candidate. The U.S. government attempted to replace the
corrupt regime of President Elpidio Quirino partly because he favored resettlement over land
redistribution among land reform options. Apart from the U.S. concern, Magsaysay himself,
who had led the battle against the Huk, well recognized the social unrest behind the
movement. (Hayami, et al. 1990) While Magsaysay won an overwhelming victory by
capturing the rural support with the help of his land reform agenda (which was vaguely

32

defined27), the US appears to have backed away from an earlier support of liberal land redistribution in the wake of the decline of the Huk rebellion toward the mid-1950s.28 (See
Putzel 1992 for a detailed accounts of the US involvement in Magsaysays election)
President Magsaysay also faced a fierce opposition from landowners against his reform
attempts who employed strong nationalistic rhetoric. As a result, while the initial bill
proposed by the President included the idea of a retention limit of 144 hectares, of conversion
of share tenancy into leasehold, of including sugar land tenants under the reform program, and
of progressive land tax, they were all excluded, through the Congressional process, from the
actual legislation enacted under the Magsaysay administration.
There is a general consensus in the literature regarding the main political forces
behind the Magsaysay reform; the most important factor prompting the legislation was the
need to pacify the Huk rebellion that swept the main rice bowl of the Central Luzon. Many
observers also tend to agree that there was a significant degree of involvement by the United
States government both in the election of President Magsaysay and in placing land reform
onto the political agenda in the process.29 Such forces pushing toward land redistribution
were largely blocked, however, by the powerful political interests of the landed oligarchy, as
we can see from the watering down process in the Congress. (See Riedinger 1995 for the
congressional debate, and Putzel 1992 for a broader discussion of the political climate)
Finally, the political motives toward significant reform, both domestically and from the US,
weakened significantly as a result of the decline of the Huk rebellion in the early to mid-1950s.
1963 Land Reform Code
While President Magsaysay has been credited by some political observers for his
political will toward land reform (e.g., Putzel 1992, Wurfel 1988), one of the major turning
points in the recent history of land reform legislation appears to be the 1963 Agricultural Land
Reform Code. There does not seem to exist, however, a clear consensus among observers on
the political explanation behind such a significant piece of legislation in general, and, in
particular, as to what prompted President Macapagal to initiate the land reform legislation.30
Apparently land reform was not among his political agenda of the then opposition candidate
Macapagal during the Presidential election (his main campaign issue was corruption instead),
nor was he vocal about land reform in the initial years of his presidency. (e. g., Putzel 1992,
27

One observer remarked that the promise of reform was more important than the reform itself. (Karl
Jackson, as quoted in Putzel 1992)
28
A major episode during this period was a U.S. government mission in 1952 headed by Robert Hardie, a
land reform advisor who had worked on the Japanese land reform program during 1946-49. The Hardie
report, released in December 1952, called for establishment of family-sized, owner-operated farms by
introducing a re-distributive land reform with a four hectare retention limit as well as tenancy reform, a
program that included all the essential components of the post-war land reform in Japan. The report
induced strong opposition among Filipino elites, including the then President Quirino, and the U.S.
government backed away from its recommendation. (See, for example, Putzel 1992: 85-99, Takigawa 1517)
29
Putzel (1992), Takigawa (1976), Wurfel (1988), and Hayami, et al. (1990), to some extents.
30
A detailed account of the 1963 Code legislation can be found in Takigawa (1976).
33

Takigawa 1976) Nevertheless, all of sudden,31 it seems, he initiated a major improvement

in land reform legislation, which addressed some of the deficiencies of the 1954/55 codes.
Some observers appear to credit President Macapagals apparent passion toward
enacting further land reform legislation as a result of the triumph of influential economic
advisors who saw land reform as a necessary component of a strategy for rapid economic
development (Balisacan 1990, Wurfel 1983); this could be inferred from the fact that the
tenancy reform of the automatic conversion from share tenancy to fixed-rent lease contract
was given a major role in the program, which in turn appears to be based on the Marshallian
inefficiency view of the share tenancy, a dominant view among economists at that time. (see
below) Presidents passion toward land reform could also have come from the fact that he
was a son of a poor tenant farmer (Takigawa 1976). Many tend to conclude, however, that
the main political motive behind his initiative was an attempt to enlist tenant farmers support
for his upcoming re-election bid two years after32 (e. g., Putzel 1992, Wurfel 1983). Yet
another observer, Takigawa (1976), for example, argues that the main motivation behind his
initiative was his perceived threat, despite the demise of Huk rebellion ten years earlier33, of
spreading communism in Southeast Asia, symbolized by the intensifying war in Vietnam;
such a perception likely was developed through his earlier career as a diplomat. Regarding
the broader social forces for land reform during this time, which must have supported
President Macapagals initiative, Takigawa (1976) attributes the then rising force of new
middle class composed of urban industrialists and other professionals (e. g., school teachers,
bureaucrats, etc.) as the broader social force behind his initiative.34
Marcos Land Reform
While the 1971 Code had little impact on the land reform implementation due to PD
27 issued a year later that superseded the 1971 Code, the political processes leading to the
1971 Code deserve a major attention. Toward the late 1960s, the potential for rural unrest
appeared to have increased once again. This was partially in response to the further
breakdown of the patron-client system that started in Central Luzon much earlier, which
prompted Huk rebellion in the 1940s (recall that the initial aim the Huk of restoring the old
patron-client system was never achieved when the Huk rebellion was pacified in the mid
31

Another piece of evidence attesting to this apparent suddenness of his interest in land reform is the fact
that Macapagal, a congressman in the 1950s, had earlier opposed the Hardie report, had not participated in
the debate, nor had even voted on the bill that later became the 1955 Land Reform Code. (Wurfel 1983: 4,
Putzel 1992: 114)
32
Macapagal lost to Ferdinand Marcos in the presidential election, and thus his attempt was ultimately
unsuccessful; however, he did win in tenant-dominated Central Luzon (Wurfel 1983: fn. 17).
33
The 1963 Land Reform Law appears to be an anomaly within the history of Philippine land reform
legislation in that it did not emerge as a direct response to domestic rural unrest.
34
Many other observers (e. g., Hutchcroft 1998, Putzel 1992, etc.) emphasize, and Takigawa (1976) also
admits, that the major portion of the Philippine industrialists and other emerging elite in non-agricultural
sectors (e. g., banking) were from landed oligarchy who had started to diversify their portfolio. Thus, it is
not clear to what extent these really represented new middle class who pursued policies in conflict with
the landed oligarchy.
34

1950s), but was spreading over the country. (Wurfel 1988, Kirkvliet 1977) Such growing
potentials for peasant unrest developed despite, and possibly because of, the enactment of the
1963 reform code and its limited implementation in Central Luzon, where the reform program
was targeted. Some observers attribute the rise in peasant unrest to the increased tension
between the landowner and the tenants, exacerbated by the land reform implementation:
through disputes over the rent (in the case of conversion of share tenancy into leasehold),
tenant eviction and other tactics employed by landowners in resisting land reform (such as
filing a law suite against tenants in an attempt to delay the reform, to intimidate or even to
imprison the tenant, using private armies in similar attempts, etc.), and growing frustration
among tenants given the gap between their elevated expectation and the ineffective
implementation in the land reform processes. In some parts of the Philippines, there was a
revival of the Huk rebellion which had been suppressed 10 years earlier. (Takigawa 1976)
Furthermore, against such a background, the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) was
re-established in 1968, and its military arm, New Peoples Army (NPA), launched in 1969.
NPA engaged in political as well as military campaigns by offering training for peasants,
setting up makeshift irrigation and launching own land reform program, thereby spreading its
influence in Central Luzon.35 (Putzel 1990:122) Perhaps fuelled by the successful reelection campaign of President Marcos in 1969 charged with massive fraud, inducement and
intimidation36, massive popular mobilization developed in 1970.
The raucous demonstrations accompanying President Marcoss second inauguration
in 1970 and subsequent series of demonstrations, mobilizing among peasant groups, labor
unions and students, pressured the Congress to initiate, for the first time in the Philippine
history, land reform legislation (all the previous reform legislation was initiated by presidents).
After a prolonged and intermittent Congressional debate, against the background of a
continuous live-in picket lasting for more than two months in front of the national legislature,
led to enactment of the 1971 Code (RA6389 and RA6390), including the lowered retention
limit, which was opposed by President Marcos, and the creation of the Department of
Agrarian Reform.37 In a broader social context, the political forces behind the legislation
included political leaders, senior bureaucrats and intellectuals who were alarmed by the rising
socio-political crisis, some elements of Catholic church, peasant organizations (such as the
Federation of Free Farmers), labor unions and student movements. (Takigawa 1976)
With his second (and the last allowed under the Constitution) term expiring, and in
an attempt to exploit the growing desire for change among both the popular movements and
35

Putzel (1990: 122) and others note, however, that the CPP-NPA influence then was nowhere near the
kind of threat posed against the government as claimed by President Marcos when justifying the imposition
of martial law.
36
One veteran observer of the Philippine politics account of the 1969 election states as follows: The
election of 1969 was a devastating blow to the electoral process. The campaign presented informed
citizens with a more lackluster choice than at any time since independence. . . . both [candidates] were
flawed by serious charges of corruption, and neither offered either charisma or clear-cut policy alternatives.
Under the circumstances, it was perhaps inevitable that the incumbents money and threats of violence
would bring success. (Wurfel 1988:17)
37
See Wurfel (1983) and Takigawa (1976) for concise accounts of the series of events during this time.
35

the elite (especially among frustrated bureaucrats), President Marcos declared imposition of
martial law in September 1972.38 PD27 was issued just one month after the declaration of
martial law. Land reform was given great prominence in the initial years of the martial law
period; in an often-quoted statement delivered on the first anniversary of PD27, President
Marcos went so far as to declare, Land reform is the only gauge for the success or failure of
the New Society. If land reform fails, there is no New Society. (Wurfel 83: 8) What was
the motivation behind PD 27? There exists a broad consensus in the literature on this
question. Clearly, as mentioned above, the growing fear of rural unrest and the threat of
Communists, as developed through the late 1960s, was the major underlying factor. Land
reform was seen as a means of pacifying the growing rural unrest, as had been in the previous
episodes of land reform initiatives. For President Marcos himself, however, observers tend
to agree that the most important political function of PD27 was to place a selective attack on
his political opponents among the traditional landed oligarchy. (Wurfel 1983 and 1988,
Fegan 1989, Hayami, et al. 1990, Balisacan 1990, Putzel 1992, etc.) According to one
account, President Marcos seems to have calculated that a large proportion of riceland was
owned by a few very big owners, so that the reform would make many friends and few
enemies. (Fegan 1989: 133) This selective blow view appears to be consistent with the
facts such as: that the Aquino estates, held by Presidents single biggest political rival, were
among the first to be expropriated; that the President took a step-by-step approach starting
with lands with size of 100 hectare or more and seemed to have lost his originally keen
interest in reform after the owners with more than 100 hectares had been dispossessed; that
landed estates other than rice and corn lands were excluded so that he would not antagonize
all the landed elite; and that he and his family members maintained interests in investments in
export crops. (Wurfel 1988) During the initial few years of the martial law regime, his land
reform policy did seem to help create some support for Marcos in the countryside, blunted
foreign criticism of his regime, and put the landed elite on the political defensive. (Wurfel
1983: 8) We will also discuss the accelerating loss of his interest in pushing through land
reform as the years went by through the late 1970s and early 1980s below, in the context of
political dynamics behind reform implementation.
1986-88: Politics of CARP Legislation
There appear to be two broad reasons why a genuine agrarian reform became top
priority in the Presidential campaign of Cory Aquino and in the political agenda in the first
few years of her presidency; one was (once again) the perceived necessity to address the rural
unrest and communist inspired insurgency movements, and the other was the political
circumstances that necessitated the Aquino coalition to place land reform as a key policy issue
in its attempt to win political support against President Marcos.
Toward the end of Marcos presidency, the perceived threat of communist insurgency
38

Additional factors affecting the timing of the declaration of martial law were: the then-ongoing sessions
of the Constitutional Convention, and a Supreme Court decision severely restricting the private right to
ownership by Americans, with serious implications for American corporations operating in the Philippines.
(Wurfel 1988)
36

led by NPA was wide spread. The rather slaggish start of the military campaign by the newly
established NPA at the end of the 1960s, according to Wurfel (1988: 226), was rescued from
oblivion by the declaration of martial law in 1972; Authoritarian repression went a long way
to create those conditions favorable to revolution by driving hundreds of well-educated
youths into the countryside to become NPA cadres. With the deepening of the economic
and political crisis under the Marcos regime, the plight of the rural population, especially the
rural poor, had become increasingly serious nationwide in the 1980s. With the land reform
implementation stalled after the initial martial law period, the NPA version of agrarian
reformprimarily rent reduction, wage increases, and debt reduction or cancellation likely
had become more attractive for the rural poor by the early 1980s. (Wurfel 1988) As a
result, the NPA forces, estimated at the size of 8,000 as of 1972 (on the eve of the declaration
of martial law), were estimated to be of the size 25,200 as of 1987, with about 12% of
barangay (villages) infiltrated, i. e., areas where the insurgents stay for long periods of
time . . . without fear of being discovered or attacked by government forces. (see also Table
4) Furthermore, their main activities had spread from Central Luzon in early days to a
diverse set of areas including Eastern and Northern Mindanao, Samar, Bicol, Negros, Panay,
the Visayas and Cordillera. (Reidinger 1995: 56, Wurfel 1988: 227) Thus, as was the case
with most of the previous land reform legislation initiatives, the Aquino coalitions attempt to
place land reform on its political agenda was an attempt to address growing rural unrest (and
potentials for communist-led revolution).
At the same time, it seems, the prevailing political dynamics toward the end of the
Marcos regime necessitated the Aquino coalition to place a genuine land reform on its top
policy agenda in order to succeed, as it did ultimately, in uniting much of the broad antiMarcos opposition and in preempting other potential opposition candidates. According to
Putzel (1992), behind such an attempt was a tacit alliance among the powerful right wing of
the Catholic Church, the business community and the Cojuangco clan (Cory Aquinos natal
family), which had emerged in as early as 1984 with three broad objectives: (1) preempting
the presidential candidacy of the prominent opposition leader Salvador Laurel, (2) bringing as
much of the militant grass-roots movement as possible actively into the electoral campaign (to
legitimize their own candidate and to marginalize the extra-parliamentary opposition), which
was deemed necessary to challenge President Marcos successfully, and (3) coming up with a
single candidate capable of gathering popular support as well as the support of the elite and
the U.S. It was in this context, Putzel (1992) argues, that the land reform agenda inevitably
became a main campaign promise and Cory Aquino became a presidential candidate.39 In
addition, while such a view appears consistent with the rather passive attitude taken by the
Aquino government and the President herself toward land reform policy after she became
President, a relatively more benign view of President Aquino identifies behind her
governments impetus for land reform four broader political objectives: (1) to increase the
peasants stake in the Philippine society; (2) to defuse the NPA insurgency; (3) to shift rural
39

However, some observers have raised a serious doubt about the extent to which the unorganized rural
constituency with limited media access actually knew of Aquinos campaign platform and voted on it, and
conclude instead that their votes simply reflected the voters rejection of Marcos rather than anything else.
(Riedinger 1995)
37

resources from land to rural industrialization; and (4) to rationalize and increase agricultural
production. (Riedinger 1995)
No matter what the main motivations may have been, a genuine land reform
became a top campaign promise of Cory Aquino during the snap presidential election held in
February 1986. Once on the top policy agenda, the shaping of the land reform legislation
underwent an extraordinary period of political tag of war in the national political arena
between the pro- and anti-land reform forces (e. g., peasant mobilization toward greater
redistribution including land occupation and demonstration in Manila, on the one hand, and
the pressure against redistribution from the military including attempted coups, on the other)
in search of a political equilibrium, during the period between the People Power revolution
in February 1986 and June 1988 when the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) was
finally adopted. Major events during this period are summarized in Table 5. As we saw in
section one, three major government actions were taken during the period: the new
Constitution, EO229 and CARL enacted by the Congress. The whole process during this
period can be characterized as: (1) general inaction (or, at least, lack of strong initiative) on
the part of the Aquino administration regarding land reform40; (2) (partly in response to such
government inaction) a series of proposals made by pro-reform Cabinet members, who
occupied a small minority in the government, and by activists outside the government
accompanied by various lobbying and mass mobilization activities; and (3) attempts, largely
successful, from those opposing liberal redistributive reform inside and outside the Cabinet to
weaken redistributive elements incorporated in the reform program following each pro-reform
initiatives. (Balisacan 1990, Hayami, et al. 1990, Riedinger 1995, Putzel 1992) As a result,
many of the important defining features were left for the Congress to determine.
The initial period of Aquino presidency prior to the restoration of the Congress, it
appears, also witnessed the weakening of the urgency, on the part of the administration,
attached to the communist led insurgency, one of the major driving forces behind the demand
for land reform. This was in part due to the disarray of the CPP/NPA following the February
1986 presidential election; CPP decided to boycott the presidential election in which they had
expected Marcos to win as he did in the previous electionsan apparent tactical error, in
retrospect, that subsequently led to their diminished political influences in the series of
political event leading to, and after, the People Power revolution, which in turn precipitated
internal conflicts and dissent within the party ranks. (e. g., Riedinger 1995, Wurfel 1988,
Borras 1998) Along with such a weakening over time of the perceived threat from the left,
came political influences from the right: the strong pressures from the military, which played
the crucial role in bringing President Aquino into power. Observers point out the strong
military influence, as witnessed by the cabinet reorganization involving a few liberal cabinet
members as well as the Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile only nine months after assuming
power, and by a series of military coup attempts, which shook the land reform (as well as
other) policy making in the initial years of the Aquino administration. (e. g., Riedinger 1995,
Putzel 1992, Wurfel 1988)
40

On one account, the Cabinet had any substantive discussion on land reform in only one occasion before
EO229 was issued. (Putzel 1992)
38

By all accounts, the newly elected Congress was a restoration of the pre-martial law
Congress largely dominated by the landed oligarchy. For example, of the 200 elected
members of the House, 129 were believed to be the members of traditional clans and
additional 38 were related to them. Riedinger (1995) emphasizes the close similarities in the
tones of Congressional debate on land reform between the 1950s and 1960s, on the one hand,
and the 1980s, on the other, with the exception of the relative prominence in the 1950s and its
conspicuous absence in the 1980s of the rice landowner bloc. The bill originally passed by
Senate appeared to have a slightly more liberal flavor, including a lower retention limit.
Some observers interpret such differences between the bills in two chambers as reflecting the
difference in the class interests represented between the two chambers; the House bill,
reflecting the strong landowner bloc in the chamber, tended to protect the interests of locally
owned plantations, while the Senate bill, reflecting the urban elite base in the chamber, tended
to protect plantations operated by multinational corporations. (Hayami, et al. 1990). Others
argue, however, that senators, who are elected by a national vote, rather than a constituency
vote (which is strongly dominated by local landed oligarchy), have less direct demands on
them from landowner networks than do the House members, and senators, some of whom
have ambitions for higher political offices, could afford to be bolder in their rhetoric about
reform.41 (Putzel 1988: 271)
While it took the national political process more than two years to reach such a
political equilibrium in the newly restored democratic polity, many observers agree that
there existed a unique and historic window of opportunity for President Aquino, with a
wealth of popular support and an image transcending her ties to the political clans (Putzel
1992: 249), to preempt the landlord-dominated Congressional action by the use of
presidential decrees and to institute a substantive redistributive land reform policy. There
were also strong social forces exerting pressures on the President toward such an action.
After all, however, President Aquino did not act upon such an opportunity but instead left to
Congress most of the crucial features of the reform program, consistent with the notions of
representative democracy. In retrospect, many observers contend, such inaction on the part
of the President was the greatest triumph of the anti-reform forces. (Riedinger 1995: 176,
also Putzel 1992) One interpretation of the Presidents inaction was that President viewed
her role only in terms of the restoration of democratic institutions and that she thus refrained
from any unilateral action on any issue, i. e., on land reform or otherwise. (e. g., Riedinger
1995) According to another view, Presidents inaction was a politically rational move since
by shifting the political responsibility for reform onto Congress and emerging above the
fray, the President could avoid making enemies either among the powerful (by enacting
redistributive reform) or among her peasant supporters (by preventing reform). (e. g., Putzel
1992)
Post-CARP Legislative Politics

41

Reidinger (1995) notes that this was the prevailing conventional wisdom among the observers.
39

As noted in section one, after CARL was enacted in 1988 opponents of land reform
still repeatedly introduced various bills to amend CARL in attempts to restrict the scope of the
reform.42 Few of them, however, made any headway. It is not entirely clear why this was
the case, but several possible explanations for such relative inaction on the part of the reform
opponents have been offered, such as: (1) that the House and Senate committee activities were
relatively inactive on any issue; (2) that reform opponents may have found it enough to have
merely threat posed by these amendments for the purpose of derailing or slowing the reform
implementation process; (3) that landowners may have been successful enough in avoiding or
sabotaging reform at its implementation level so that it was not really necessary to push
through these legislative actions; and (4) that legislators may have been concerned about
potential political liability of being identified as anti-land reform. In addition, despite the
rhetoric employed by reform opponents, following the passage of CARL, to characterize the
1992 elections (Presidential, Congressional, and provincial and local levels) as a referendum
on CARP, land reform appears to have played a relatively minor role in these elections. The
new Congress elected in 1992, however, was seen by some observers as more conservative
than its predecessor; for example, 117 of the 197 members of the House of Representatives
were medium and large landowners. (Riedinger 1995)
One major, if modest, legislative advance from the pro-land reform point of view,
made toward the end of Ramos presidency, was the passage of RA 8532, in February 1998,
providing additional P50 billion of funding for CARP implementation as well as its ten year
extension. The detailed account of the final three days of the legislative process leading to
the passage of RA8532 suggests that the strong leadership performance by the then House
Speaker Jose de Venecia (e. g., instructing all of his own LAKAS party congressmen not to
object to the bill) was instrumental in pushing through the bill within a very limited timeframe
left toward the end of the Congressional session. (Borras 1999: 80-84) On the one hand,
Speaker de Venecia was running for the presidential election immediately following the
Congressional session, and was likely in need of a political asset to generate mass support for
his campaign.43 By taking advantage of such political circumstances, strong lobbying efforts
orchestrated jointly by the DAR leadership and major peasant organizations at the national
level were directed toward Speaker de Venecia. Similar to what was repeatedly found by
Presidents Magsaysay, Macapagal and Aquino before their respective initiatives for land
reform legislation, Speaker de Venecia appears to have found the instrumental worth of taking
an initiative in legislating a land reform-related law as a means of mass campaign aimed at
presidency.

42

This paragraph draws upon Reidinger (1995).

Indeed, the final passage of the bill on the House floor and the intensive lobbying within the
Congressional building mobilizing some 600 peasants culminated in a symbolic photo session, where de
Venecia shook hands with the DKMP leader Jaime Tadeo and then abruptly pulled [their hands] up,
making it appear that Tadeo was raising his hands as though to endorse of his presidential candidacy in
front of a crowd of hundreds of peasants. Earlier in a private conversation between Speaker de Venecia
and DAR secretary Garilao, de Venecia reportedly asked Garilao, How many votes are we talking about
here? to which Garilao reportedly replied, At least three million. (Borras 1999: 83)
43

40

2-4. Politics of Land Reform Implementation in the Philippines

We now explore the main factors affecting the political forces resulting in the
implementation records of the Marcos land reform and CARP. It is not easy to understand
the political dynamics behind the lengthy processes of implementing land reform laws. This
difficulty partly stems from the serious reliability issues regarding the official data on land
reform implementation, and partly from the fact that the literature focusing on the
implementation dynamics appears relatively scarce compared to the one on the national-level
legislative processes of land reform. Generally speaking, a major impetus for pushing
implementation from above seems to come from electoral cycle, while major dynamics of
land reform implementation from below come from the development in the civil society.
For example, the very slow start of implementing the 1963 Code was partially offset by
President Macapagals push for implementation toward the period immediately proceeding the
November presidential election. (Wurfel 1983) President Marcos also expanded the declared
land reform areas under the 1963 Code toward his 1969 re-election bid. (Takigawa 1976)
Similarly during the days immediately preceding the 1986 presidential election, President
Marcos authorized the immediate distribution of EPs to designated beneficiaries, regardless of
their amortization payment status, in a desperate (but ultimately unsuccessful) attempt for reelection. (Putzel 1992: 193) In what follows, we now discuss such dynamics in some
detail.
Land Reform Implementation During Marcos Presidency
The DAR data show that there was a major increase in the implementation of the
1963 land reform code during President Marcoss second term (1970-1972). As discussed in
some detail above, there was a growing rural unrest and political mobilization among peasants,
labor unions and students in the national political arena. Such political climate, the same set
of factors that pushed the Congress to enact the 1971 Code, appears to have forced Marcos
government to recognize the political urgency of stepping up the land reform implementation
during this period.
As we saw above, the implementation record of the Marcos regime indicates that a
significant portion of the modest accomplishment under his presidency was concentrated in
the early 1970s. Many observers interpret such results as an indication of the change in the
Presidents intention: the fading of the Presidents even modest commitment to his
implementing the land reform program, as years went by, for various reasons. Wurfel (1988:
176) notes that toward the late 1970s President Marcos came to appreciate more fully his
need for local leaders as intermediaries in the patrimonial system, . . . [and] . . . he became
even less inclined to disturb modestly landed elites. According to another account, Marcos
wavered when it turned out that a greater proportion of land was owned by small and medium
owners than expected and that these included the professionals, officials, officers, and
economic middle class in general on whom the regime depended for implementation of its
overall policies and who Marcos hoped might become a new constituency for his regime after
destruction of the rural oligarchs. (Fegan 1989a: 133) Similarly, Hayami, et al. (1990), also

41

suggested that it reflected the emergence of the rural landed middle class. Another political
explanation for the slowing-down of the reform implementation beyond the initial stage could
also be found in the relative forces of resistance between the small number of rice hacienda
owners, who was targeted first, and the middle-sized landowners targeted after the initial stage.
The former, though still powerful, had been already targeted by the social and land reform
measures by the previous administration, was a relative minority in number and had rather
shallow roots in rural communities (many of them were absentee landlords). The latter,
midium-size landowners, were large in number and made allies with wealthy peasants and
were well connected among the local-level polities. (Hayami, et al. 1990)
Furthermore, the speed of land reform also partially reflected the institutional design
of implementation agencies. On the one hand, as noted above, each Agrarian Reform Team
had a whole municipality (typically including some 20 villages) to work with, being
overburdened (compared to their much earlier Japanese counterparts, for example), thereby
exacerbating the problems arising from information asymmetry. In addition, the complete
lack of peasant representation in ART likely allowed traditional political forces in the locality,
dominated by landlords, to influence the land reform implementation outcomes. As a result,
despite the similar tactics employed by landlords in resisting the reform implementation, both
the institutional capacity and the political dynamics at the grass root level of the reform
implementation was likely quite different between the Philippines and Japan. (Takigawa
1976)
Was There Any Shift in the Land Reform Implementation Politics Between Aquino and Ramos
Presidency?
As we saw in section one, most of the land redistribution achievements during
Aquino presidency was concentrated on the OLT program (i. e., redistribution of tenanted rice
and corn lands). The relatively small achievements, compared to those of the Ramos
administration, in the redistribution of private lands that was newly introduced under CARP
concentrated in the Voluntary Offer to Sell (VOS) program rather than in the more
controversial operation of Compulsory Acquisition (AC). The impressive record of
implementing the OLT program under President Aquino, compared to the record of the
Marcos administration, appears still noteworthy. One likely reason could be the predilection
of the Marcos-era holdovers within the DAR pipelines although, as we saw above, President
Marcos himself appeared to have lost interest in expanding land reform after the initial years.
In addition, it appears that the landowners in the rice and corn sectors had been politically
marginalized considerably by this time. While landlord resistance with various tactics was
highly noticeable during the early period of implementing PD27 (e. g., Takigawa 1976,
Umehara 1997), the implementation of OLT during the Aquino administration appears to have
involved less controversy, except in the area of compensation. A symbolic indication of the
substantial political marginalization of rice and corn landlords was the contrast between the
agrarian reform debate during the 1950s where these landlords were actively involved in
opposing the reform and the 1986-88 CARP debate where rice and corn growers were
conspicuously absent. (Riedinger 1995) Another explanation offered in the literature is that

42

due to the deteriorating terms of trade against rice farming during the 1970s rice landowners
had diverted their investments away from rice land and diversified their asset holdings into
non-agricultural investments such as: in urban investment and higher education (in the case of
larger landlords), or in rural light engineering, commercial poultry and pig raising, and farm
services (in the case of small and medium provincial landlords). In other words, the once
powerful (in the 1950s) rice landowners did not have as much stake in the rice land any more
by the 1980s. (Fegan 1989b)
The DAR record shows that, during the period of President Ramos, there was a
significant increase in the land redistribution accomplishments in the more contentious
elements of CARP, especially in the redistribution of privately owned land through
compulsory acquisition. One plausible interpretation appears to be that such a seemingly
impressive achievements under Ramos presidency merely reflected the acceleration of the
CARP implementation that started in 1988. While the process started with the enactment of
CARP under the Aquino administration, it likely took a few years for the CARP
implementation to gain its momentum. According to this view, there was no significant
difference in the degree of pre-reform tendency between the Aquino and Ramos
administrations.
In addition, however, there appear to be two supplementary factors that might have
partially contributed to the significant increase in the land redistribution achievements under
Ramos presidency: the leadership change, as well as subsequent organizational-orientational
changes, within DAR, on the one hand, and the broader changes in peasant mobilization and
in civil society, on the other. The latter forces, in turn, can be characterized by the increasing
diversity among peasant organizations and among their mode of mobilization. On the one
hand, as noted above, Secretary Garilao apparently established stable leadership in reorienting
DAR toward pro-reform stance with much greater cooperation with the peasant organizations.
On the other hand, there were social movements from below pressuring the DAR
bureaucracy toward greater land redistribution. During the Marcos martial law regime,
which permitted only armed and clandestine forms of struggle, the Maoist Communist Party
of the Philippines (CPP) developed a virtual hegemony within the social mobilization against
the martial law regime. CPP considered the peasantry as the main force (as opposed to the
proletariats as the leading force) and carried out selective land reform in the areas where
they had control. This orientation of CPP helped its organized armed struggles to spread in
the countryside during the late 1970s and the early 1980s. KPM (Kilusang Magbubukid ng
Pilipinas: Peasant Movement of the Philippines) was formally launched in 1985 under CPP as
the main legal peasant movement and quickly became the main forces in peasant organization.
(Borras 1999) However, the People Power revolution in February 1986, leading to the fall
of the Marcos regime and the subsequent democratization of the Philippines, precipitated the
major split within CPP and its subsequent decline in its influence,44 on the one hand, and the
44

In this context, a major turning point, as we saw above, was the decision by CPP to boycott the 1986
snap Presidential election, which ultimately triggered the People Power revolution. It led to its
substantial decline in political influence in the national political arena and the declining influence of CPP
and its affiliated peasant organizations.
43

multiplication of social actors and the diversification in the forms of social mobilization
among peasant sectors, on the other. While KMP remained the most vocal leader of peasant
movements lobbying for liberal land reform during the initial years of the Aquino
administration, including the peasant demonstrations leading to the Mendiola massacre, its
relative dominance subsequently eroded; the movements led by CPP, including KMP,
formally split into sub-groups between the late 1980s and the early 1990s. At the same time,
multiple groups have emerged in peasant movements since the mid-1980s, sometimes allying
and sometimes competing with the KMP leadership. They included highly diversified set of
groups including a broad-based and moderate social-democratic bloc under the Congress for a
Peoples Agrarian Reform (CPAR), which actively lobbied during the process leading to the
enactment of CARL and subsequently (after the passage of the substantially watered down
CARL) led a (ultimately failed) signature campaign for the pro-peasant Peoples Agrarian
Reform Code (PARCode).
Not only were there more diverse sets of peasant organizations, but there also
emerged diversified modes of peasant mobilization. This included the organized land
occupation movements, as an intermediate tactic between the full-blown revolutionary armed
struggle and the everyday form of peasant resistance (Kiekvliet 1993). While a
successful land occupation attempt was reported in as early as 1977 in a Bulacan village the
height of this movement, led by national peasant organizations such as KMP, came around
1987-88 when the major legislative battle on CARP was being waged in the national political
arena. (Banzon-Bautista 1989; Kirkvliet 1993; Borras 1999; Riedinger 1995; Putzel 1992)
KMP claimed that 100,000 hectares of lands had been claimed via such land occupation as of
1991. (as cited in Kirkvliet 1993) Political observers note that these land occupations had
some political impact on the agrarian reform debate by drawing attention to the plight of
landless workers (rather than tenants) and by keeping reform issues high in the policy agenda
at the national level. (Borras 1999, Kiekvliet 1993) Also, in some cases, land occupation
incidents set in motion events resulting in more land being redistributed under agrarian
reform laws although the occupiers themselves were often excluded from the beneficiary
groups which nevertheless could include relatives of the occupation participants. (Kirkvliet
1993: 485)45 Furthermore, amid these developments was a shift in the perception of CARP
within the peasant community; when CARL was passed in 1988 most of the peasant groups
dismissed the law as anti-peasant, but by the early 1990s somewhat revised views emerged
looking to CARP as a progressive policy to work with, among the relatively moderate
sections of the peasant community, such as DKMP (Democratic Peasant Movement of the
Philippines) which had split from the CPP-led KMP.46 (Borras 1999)
45

At the end, however, [land occupation] failed as an alternative land reform program because much of
those occupied lands were later recovered by the original landowners, with the aid of private armies and the
military; [t]he large majority of take-overs were brief at most two or three harvests, more likely not even
a full season, often not longer than a week or two. (Kiekvliet 1993: 482) Furthermore, much of the lands
not later recovered by the owners were not made productive; in one account on the island of Negros, where
KMP organized occupation of about 45,000 hectares, not more than 10 % of the occupied land were
rendered productive. (Borras 1999)
46
According to Borras (1999 :63), a former DKMP Deputy Secretary General, DKMPs perception of
44

As a consequence, such a shift in the perception on CARP within the peasant

community and the shift in the orientation within DAR, triggered by its new leadership,
toward greater peasant participation converged in the early 1990s, manifesting itself as series
of DAR-NGO-PO workshops, formation of joint DAR-NGO working committees focused on
high priority provinces (e.g., Task Force 24 focusing on fast-tracking land re-distribution in
24 provinces, which later expanded to form Project 40 Now! covering 40 provinces), and
other direct dialogues between DAR and the civil society where conflicts between local
NGOs/ peasant organizations and local DAR officials were mediated by national level NGOs
and DAR officials. (Borras 1999) According to micro-level studies on land redistribution
cases under the compulsory acquisition (CA) program, drawn from Nueva Ecija, Davao del
Norte, Pampanga, Quizon and Laguna provinces, increasingly active involvement in the land
redistribution by local NGOs took the form of: providing legal advice to counter the
landowners legal tactics, contacting pro-reform DAR officials at the local (i. e., municipal)
level; helping peasants to bring a dispute with their landowners to higher-level DAR offices
beyond their own locality (e. g., provincial DAR office); and supporting peasant mobilization
with demonstration, picketing, land occupation and dialogue with DAR officials. On the
other hand, national-level NGOs provided peasants with: logistical support (e. g., providing
transportation to and accommodation in Manila during the lobbying activities by peasant
groups, national-level lobbying activities); further legal assistance; supporting collective
actions; drawing media attention with public relations materials;47 facilitating linkages among
peasant groups from different localities; providing international linkages with foreign NGOs
(e. g., facilitating field visits by foreigners which could subsequently lead to international
campaigns such as letter writing by major donor country citizens to the Philippine
government); and, perhaps most importantly, making an alliance with pro-reform DAR
officials at the national level to intervene by pressing the local level officials (who tend to be
under stronger pressure from, and be dependent on, landowners than national officials) for
land acquisition. All of these case studies indicate that, at least in those successful
redistribution cases, the interactive processes of converging social mobilizations involving
NGOs/POs at various levels as well as peasants themselves (from below), on the one hand,
and the pro-reform leadership in DAR and other bureaucracy (from above), on the other,
emerged to counteract the traditionally powerful political forces (which included both legal
and extra-legal means including use of violence) of the landowners and their allies opposing
the implementation of redistributive land reform. (Borras 1999: chapter 3)
2-5. Why Has Land Reform been Taking So Long?

CARP was transformed from a conservative into a progressive policy because in the early 1990s, when
most of the reformed sectors in many countries in Latin America, indigenous communal lands in Africa,
and state cooperative farms were being dismantled and privatized and the states role and initiatives were
being rolled back especially from redistributive reforms like land reform, CARP emerged as progressive
policy in this current context.
47
Watchful media attention not only facilitated political mobilization but, it appears, sometimes had an
effect of restraining violence to some extent even in rather intensive confrontations.
45

As our discussion above indicates, the processes of land reform legislation and
implementation in the Philippines has been a continuous process constantly evolving for the
past several decades. In the neo-classical political economy framework, as discussed in
section 2-2 above, such evolution could be seen as shifting political equiribria, reflecting
constantly shifting demand for and supply of land reform in the political market. For
example, the relative shift over time in the military strength of the rural insurgency
movements (see Table 4) is apparently one major element, which certainly contributed the
evolution of the land reform politics in the Philippines. As we saw above, the growth in the
number of insurgency forces apparently coincide with the shift in the political equilibrium
toward larger redistribution of lands in the occasions of the 1955 legislation under Magsaysay
presidency and the 1988 CARP legislatin under Aquino presidency.
Furthermore, according to de Janvry and Sadoulet (1989) the failure of redistributive
land reform programs in Latin America was a result of the rising relative economic power
(vis--vis the competing interests of the urban classes) of medium and large landowners over
time, which presumably shifted the demand and supply of land reform in the political market.
Despite the inverse relations between farm size and productivity (and thus the potentials for
net social gains from reditributive land reform), the Latin American states who mainly were
motivated to raise agricultural productivity, presumably backed by the political alliance
between the urban classes and the landless agricultural workers, chose to use the land reform
legislation as a means of forcing medium and large landowners to modernize their farms; the
landowners were forced to modernize since the states threat that their land be expropriated
if modernization did not occur was credible given the inverse relations (i. e ., since land
redistribution would have raised total productivity, it would have been possible for the state to
expropriate lands and compensate the landlords who lost lands). Because of the
modernization by medium and large farms initially induced by such a threat of distributive
land reform, however, their productivity and, consequently, their relative economic power
improved over time; their rise in the economic power, in turn, led to the rise in the relative
political power of the landlords to the extent that they were able to block the redistributive
land reform altogether. According to the de Janvry-Sadoulet model, such path-dependency (i.
e., because of the states initial choice of forcing the modernization of larger farms instead of
outright redistributive land reform, the state later on lost the opportunity for redistributive
reform altogether) essentially resulted from the political myopia on the part of the state (and
thus, presumably, on the part of the urban classes and the landless workers who backed the
states legislation on land reform); the state lost its opportunity for pareto efficient land reform
since it was not able to predict, either for lack of political foresight or because political
restructuring was beyond the political horizon of the state itself, the political consequences
induced by its own initial policy of modernization before redistribution.48 (de Janvey and
48

It is not clear, however, how well this model, developed for explaining Latin American cases, also
captures the Philippine land reform processes. For example, some would argue that the kind of the shift in
the relative political power between the landlords and the urban classes may not fit well as an explanation
of the land reform dynamics in the Philippines; some observers have pointed out that the landed oligarchy
has continuously dominated the Philippine politics and thus there never was any significant growth of an
independent urban industrial class who would have been in competition with the rural landlords. For
46

Sadoulet 1989: 1399)

Apart from such political myopia, however, there may be an inertia of some kind in
the nature of the politics of land reform itself that may explain the long history of incomplete
land reform in the Philippine context. A dynamic game theoretic model developed by
Horowitz (1993) explores such possibilities by analyzing the interaction between the rural
unrest and land reform policy in a simplified dynamic model with infinite time horizon. One
of the major differences of the Horowitzs model vis--vis the de Janvry-Sadoulet model
discussed above is that the kind of political myopia assumed in the de Janvry-Sadoulet
model is now ruled out and political actors are assumed to be rational in the sense of forward
looking. The model envisions the land reform policy as the prime instrument for preventing
rural unrest. It demonstrates that there exists a unique amount of land redistribution49 (as a
Nash equilibrium) which is just enough to pacify the potential rebels (i. e., either landless
tenants and laborers or landlords who are dissatisfied by land reform) depending on the initial
land distribution and the probability of successful revolution when the potential rebel finds
the reform unsatisfactory; the amount of such redistribution is likely to be larger if the
divergence between the strategic endowment (i. e., probability of successful revolt, which is
exogenously given and fixed over time) and the actual initial land endowment between the
landlords and the landless is larger. Furthermore, the model demonstrates that, under some
conditions (i. e., (1) there is non-zero probability of armed revolt leading to a stalemate which
sustains status quo in land distribution, and (2) the initial land distribution between landlord
and landless is not exactly proportional to the relative probability of wining by landlord and
landless), the land reform process can be self-sustaining, rather than a one time re-distribution
alone preventing all the potential future revolts.
One remarkable feature of this model is that this self-perpetuating property emerges
even though the probability of successful revolt is held constant over time. Such selfperpetuating property results from the fact that every land reform episode in one period raises
the expected payoff from revolt for the reform beneficiaries in the next period, creating an
additional demand for further reform. Each reform episode raises the expected payoff from
revolt because, as far as there is a positive probability of the stalemate or status-quo outcome
(which does not change the existing land distribution pattern after the conflict) from revolt50,
each reform episode increases the expected (future) payoff for the reform beneficiaries in the
case of status-quo/stalemate outcome (vis--vis such payoff in the last period before the
reform), which in turn raises the expected payoff from engaging in revolt by the reform
beneficiaries, creating new demand for additional land redistribution. While each land
redistribution creates new demand for additional redistribution in the next period, the
optimal redistribution is shown to decrease over time.

example, see Hutchcroft (1998) for such a view.

The uniqueness of such land reform plan is dependent on the risk neutrality of both landless and
landlords. (Horowitz 1993: 1008)
50
The other outcomes are: successful revolt leading to revolutionary land reform and the total suppression
of revolt leading to the capture of all the land by the landlords.
49

47

Thus the Horowitz model demonstrates that: (1) if rational landlords concede to the
degree of land redistribution that is just enough to prevent the revolt by the potential reform
beneficiaries in each period, (2) if the revolt can lead to a stalemate (status-quo) outcome
without changing land distribution patterns, and (3) both landlords and the reform
beneficiaries are risk neutral51, then a land reform program in any one period is not likely to
result in a land redistribution of enough amount so that the reform ends up as a one time
reform preventing all the future threat of revolt. In other words, the model illustrates a
situation where interactions between rational landlords (who is willing to implement land
reform in an attempt to prevent peasant revolt) and a dissatisfied but rational mass of
peasants/ landless (who poses potential threat of violent revolution) stop short of the kind of
once-and-for-all land reform as observed in Japan or in other East Asian countries (where
significant exogenous factors were operating simultaneously). The hypothesis of such
political rationality among actors appears to be consistent with the sequence of the
inadequate or incomplete reform attempts in one administration after another as observed
in the Philippine land reform history, as described in the previous two subsections.52 One
might argue, however, that the kind of rationality incorporated in the model is nevertheless
still rather limited. In particular, the models dynamics follow (first order) Markov
processes; the decision by the agents is rational in the sense of forward-looking, but the
agents are assumed not to learn from the past history. Furthermore, such purely political
rationality nevertheless lead to economic costs such as large administrative costs of
prolonged reform, investment disincentive effects due to the uncertainty due to prolonged
reform, and various social costs of conflict due to prolonged reform processes (see below).
2-6. Conclusions on the Politics of Land Reform in the Philippines
In this section we have discussed political aspects of the Philippine land reform in the
recent past. Our discussion suggests that political dynamics of reform legislation, played out
mainly at the national political (legislative) arena, and that of reform implementation, played
out in each locality, could be different. At the national level, each new piece of land reform
legislation was a modest improvement in terms of the scope for land redistribution over the
previous law, as observed typically in the evolution of the retention limits for the landowners.
At each time such small improvements were made by a government initiative, the political
motivations behind such an initiative was the combination of the perceived need for
addressing rural unrest and the substantial and immediate instrumental value (i. e., as a means
of ensuring political survival) of placing land reform on political agenda. The timing of the
most of the legislative initiatives in land reform (except the one in 1965) corresponds to the
periods of rising rural unrest and insurgency activities. Examples of the instrumental
political value of reform initiatives include: the need for building as broad an electoral support
51

If the landlords and the reform beneficiaries are risk averse, then the optimal reform path is no longer
unique, and the perpetual nature of land reform is somewhat weakened. But the inertia of land reform
program still remains, preventing a once-and-for-all land reform.
52
One of the Horowitz models predictions that are not supported by the actual historical record, however,
is the pattern of decreasing land-redistribution over time as generated by the model, while the actual land
redistribution accomplishment has increased over the last three administrations.
48

as possible by an opposition Presidential candidate (Magsaysay, Aquino), one of the reelection campaign tactics by an incumbent President (Macapagal), or the need for striking a
selective blow at the economic base of political opponents in an attempt to consolidate
Presidents political power under an authoritarian rule (Marcos). Furthermore, the recent
game-theoretic model developed by Horowitz (1993) indicates that there may be a systematic
tendency in land reform politics where such purely political rationality between the
government (mainly controlled by landlords) and the landless is not likely to lead to a swift
and significant land redistribution, as was observed in East Asia, that will prevent future rural
unrest once and for all.
Despite such a pessimistic picture of the general political dynamics of land reform,
however, there appear be some new developments in land reform dynamics at the level of
local implementation. Recent experiences during the period of the Ramos administration
indicate that the involvement by peoples organizations and the effective linkages among
beneficiaries, peoples organizations, NGOs at local and national levels and the land reform
administrators have a potential of forging a political force counteracting the strong resistance
by landlords against land redistribution, which has traditionally constrained sweeping
implementation of even modest redistributive land reform codes legislated in the past.
3. Major Economic Issues in Land Reform
In this section, we will depart from the politics of land reform and will focus on
major economic issues involved in the land reform policy making. There are two major
economic issues involved in the Philippine land reform; one has to do with the conversion of
share tenancy into fixed-rent leasehold, and the other has to do with economic rationale for
land re-distribution in terms of improving efficiency in agricultural production.
3-1. Tenancy Reform
As we saw in section one, the conversion of share tenancy into fixed-rent leasehold
was introduced in the 1963 Code under the Macapagal administration. Much of the thrust in
the Congressional debate indicates that the major rationale for the prohibition of share tenancy
was the perceived inefficiency of the share tenancy contract. (e. g., Hayami, et al. 1990,
Takigawa 1976) Many of the economists of the time appeared to share such Marshallian
inefficiency view of share tenancy. (Hayami and Otsuka 1993) Theoretical work during
the following three decades, however, has led to a more subtle view of the relative efficiency
among alternative contract types suggesting that share tenancy can lead to efficient outcomes
under various circumstances. Furthermore, empirical evidence has shown that, at least in the
Philippines, there is not much of a difference in efficiency among alternative contract forms in
many cases, and that prohibiting share tenancy in the Philippines likely induced inefficient as
well as inequitable resource allocation.
Theoretical Reasoning

49

The so called Marshallian inefficiency view rests on the argument that share
tenancy is inefficient due to the agency problem. Agency problem arises when
agricultural workers or tenant farmers face weak incentives to work diligently (or face
incentives to shirk) on the farm under the contractual arrangement with their farm
operators/landowners. Under share tenancy a portion of the tenants marginal products is
taken away as share rent and thus the tenants labor effort would be less than the optimal level
which should occur if he receives full marginal products (i. e., under owner-cultivation or
fixed-rent leasehold). If it is possible to monitor the labor effort of the tenant and such
monitoring is not highly costly, however, then such inefficiency can be avoided by specifying
the optimal labor effort level by the tenant in the contract. (e. g., Cheung 1969) Thus, if
landowners are able to observe the labor effort with relatively low cost (as likely to be the case
if, for example, the landowner and her/his tenants live in the same community) and if sanction
can be enforced onto the tenant when the contract is violated (through, for example, tenant
eviction and/or loss of reputation which could preclude the tenants future employment
prospect within the community), then serious Marshallian inefficiency is not likely to arise.
It appears that such conditions tended to apply in the rice growing areas in the Philippines
where the tenancy reform was mainly targeted. (Hayami and Otsuka 1993) Theoretical
arguments suggest that under these circumstances of perfect enforceability of optimal labor
input of the tenant/laborer, the optimal level of per hectare yield would be the same under
share tenancy, fixed-rent lease or owner cultivation. (For a detailed theoretical discussion,
see Hayami and Otsuka 1993: chapter 3-5)
The agency problem arising from the imperfect monitoring of the labor effort of the
tenant is a real one, however, and the cost of such monitoring can be quite high in certain
circumstances. Even under such conditions, share tenancy can still be seen as an efficient
contract form due to missing market phenomena. For example, since markets are usually
missing for insurance in the case of crop failure for tenant farmers, share tenancy can be seen
as a risk sharing devise in such a situation. (e. g,. Stiglitz 1974) It has been shown that when
tenants are risk-averse share tenancy can be an efficient contract choice.53 Furthermore, even
without such consideration of risk sharing, a somewhat similar logic can apply under the twoway moral hazard problem of the costly monitoring of labor services of tenants by
landowners and the non-enforceability of managerial skills provision (e. g., information on
new technology and inputs, on market, etc.) from landowners by tenants under the condition
where landowners are better equipped with such managerial skills (such might be the case
especially under rapidly changing circumstances); since fixed-rent leasehold would provide no
incentive for landowners to provide their managerial skills share tenancy could be an
efficient contract form that gives incentives for both the parties to provide their respective
production inputs. (Eswaran and Kotowal 1985)
Theoretical development in the literature thus suggests that, whether or not the labor
53

In general, when tenants are risk-averse, per hectare yield can be higher or lower under share tenancy
than under fixed-rent lease or owner cultivation depending on the size of the elasticity of substitution
between labor (work effort) and land (per worker farm size) in the production function. (e. g., Hayami
and Otsuka 1993: 49)
50

monitoring costs are high for landowners, prohibiting share tenancy could lead to inefficient
resource allocation in either case. As a result, a strong consensus appears to have emerged
among economists that ban on share tenancy is not a desirable policy instrument.
Empirical Evidence
Given the wide variety of theoretical possibilities where share tenancy can lead to
efficient or inefficient outcomes, the question of whether share tenancy leads to relatively
inefficient outcomes vis--vis leasehold or owner cultivation and, if so, the question of the
degree of such inefficiency become largely an empirical question. Generally it is not easy to
compare the relative productivity under alternative land tenure arrangements (i. e., share
tenancy vs. fixed-rent leasehold vs. owner cultivation) due to the difficulties in fully
controlling for the various factors, other than the tenurial arrangement, simultaneously
affecting productivity. Nevertheless, there have been numerous studies comparing per
hectare yields under alternative land tenure arrangements in the Philippines as well as in other
countries. As a whole there appears no strong empirical evidence to support the existence of
Marshallian inefficiency of share tenancy in the Philippines. For example, Mangahas et al.
(1976) and Hayami and Kikuchi (2000) found no significant yield difference among share
tenancy, leasehold or owner cultivation in Nueva Ecija and in Laguna communities,
respectively. Agricultural census data collected in the 1950s as well as in the 1960s
indicated higher per hectare rice yields on share tenancy lands than on owner cultivated lands
though the differences were found to be small. (Berry and Cline 197954) Furthermore,
Hayami and Otsuka (1993) surveyed some 32 empirical/case- studies, drawn mainly from
South and Southeast Asia, and constructed empirical distributions of the yield and input use
differences between share tenancy, on the one hand, and fixed-rent leasehold or owner
cultivation, on the other. Their overall conclusion is that on balance, the evidence is
stronger to support the hypothesis of equal efficiency between share tenancy and other landtenure forms. (Hayami and Otsuka 1993: 98) Carroll (1983), on the other hand, found
significantly higher per hectare yields on leasehold farms than on share tenancy farms, but he
interprets such difference as the result of the inherent productivity of the farmers self-selecting
the leasehold (under PD27) than to the incentive effects of the tenure contract.
In one of the more carefully done statistical analyses on the subject, Shaban (1987)
found evidence of significant Marshallian inefficiency in input use and output (e. g., 16%
difference in per acre outputs) of share tenancy but no significant difference between fixedrent lease and owner cultivation in Indian villages, after controlling for farmer characteristics,
farmer ability and various land quality measures. Hayami and Otsuka (1993: 102) note,
however, that such inefficiency found in Shaban (1986)s study is likely to be the result of not
so much the share tenancy per se as of the short-term tenancy contract as a disguised labor54

As noted by Berry and Cline (1979), it is not clear if such results reflected the productivity differences
between share tenancy and owner cultivation, or they were due to some other factors. Nevertheless, one
possible explanation offered for the higher yields under share tenancy is that, as indicated by a 1955 survey
by the University of the Philippines, the tenant farmers appeared to have better access to capital, perhaps
through their landlords credit, than did owner cultivators.
51

employment contract under a specific policy context, viz. the land reform regulation
prohibiting long-term lease, and that the result cannot be taken as evidence of Marshallian
inefficiency of general share tenancy after all.
A recent study by Foster and Rosenzweig (1994), based on data from Bukidnon
province (northern Mindanao) collected in the mid-1980s, directly tested the existence of the
moral hazard problem (costly monitoring of hired laborers on farm) by estimating the effects
of alternative contract arrangements on the level of work efforts (as measured by the decrease
in the body mass index BMI : weight divided by height squared). They find that farmers
spend about 13% more work efforts under owner cultivation, on average, than they do under
share tenancy, thereby confirming the significant moral hazard problem involved in hired
labor under share tenancy (i. e., Marshallian inefficiency). Although Foster and
Rosenzweig (1994) contain no discussion of the social environments of the tenancy contracts
in the data area that are important for interpreting their results (c.f. Hayami and Otsuka 1993),
according to the description of the data area provided by Bouis and Haddad (1990), the data
area is predominantly small holder based (average farm size being 2.6 hectares) with the
majority engaged in corn production (255 out of the total 448 households) with prevalent
share tenancy (58% of the corn farm households being tenants while 35% being owner farms
and the rest being laborers) although a minority of farms (77 out of the total 448) are engaged
primarily in sugarcane production with low (fixed rent) tenancy (17% of sugarcane producing
households).55 Thus, the Foster-Rosenzweigs findings appear to be primarily driven by the
inefficiency of the small scale share tenants in corn production. Although no discussion is
provided about the extent of absentee landlordism, judging from the facts that the area was
inhabited by relatively recent immigrants and that the average size of owned farms is small
(Bouis and Haddad 1990), the owners of the corn farms cultivated by their share tenants in the
sample are likely to have resided in the same or nearby communities as the tenants own.
Therefore, it appears that the Foster and Rosenzweig (1994)s findings do contradict the
Hayami and Otsuka (1993)s findings on the absence of moral hazard problem in share
tenancy (see above)56. It is not clear, however, to what extent such degree of labor shirking
under share tenancy translates into efficiency losses in production, although Foster and
Rosenzweig (1994: 225) argue that existing empirical evidence on moral hazard, based on
directly observed input use, such as labor time, fertilizer, etc., understates the extent of moral
hazard. Furthermore, the existence of significant moral hazard in hired labor under share
tenancy would not necessarily mean inefficiency of share tenancy contract given other
possible functions that share tenancy serves, such as risk sharing or incentive for landowners
provision of managerial skills (see above). Nevertheless, at least in parts of the Philippines
that are similar to the Bukidnon data areas (e. g., corn predominates in agricultural production
55

Smallholder agriculture in the area was almost exclusively devoted to semisubsistence corn production
until the mid-1970s, but the establishment of a sugar mill in 1977 in the area led to a rapid spread of
sugarcane production. (Bouis and Haddad 1990)
56
One major obstacle for drawing this conclusion definitively, however, is the lack of descriptive
information on the characteristics of the landlord-tenant relationship (e. g., the degree of paternalism), on
which the cost of monitoring tenants labor effort could very much depend as Hayami and Otsuka point out,
in the Bukidnon area.
52

accompanied by relatively small production of rice and sugarcane), the study suggests a
distinct possibility that moral hazard is a real problem, unlike in the areas where Hayami and
Otsuka (1993)s observations were based on. The issue of the Marshallian inefficiency
under share tenancy does not yet appear to be quite settled in the empirical literature. On
overall balance, however, we might tentatively conclude that [t]he empirical discussion
shows that inefficiencies of share-cropping, measured at the farm level, are not large.
(Binswanger, et al. 1995)
3-2. Economic Rationales for Land Re-distribution: Farm size and productivity
Another major economic issue closely related to land reform is the question of
whether breaking up large farms into smaller farms would have negative effects on
agricultural productivity. For example, during the Congressional debate over CARP
concerns were expressed that redistributive land reform, by breaking up plantations where
there were significant economies of scale existed, would disrupt agricultural production, and
that decline in production of export crops, produced by plantations, would weaken the
countrys foreign exchange earnings capacity.
Based on theoretical and empirical work in the literature in the last three decades, a
rather strong consensus has emerged among economists about the desirability of land
redistribution in developing countries where distribution of wealth is highly unequal. Land
redistribution is largely seen as improving efficiency as well as equity. Such reasoning is
mainly based on the widely-accepted view of the inverse relation between firm size and
productivity.
Theoretical Reasoning57
There are various potential sources of economies of scale in agricultural production.
They include: (1) lumpy inputs, such as machinery, farm animals and management skills; (2)
processing and marketing; (3) credit access and risk diffusion; and (4) occupational choice
among farmers. Starting with draft animals for plowing, and later re-enforced by the
introduction of modern farm machinery for various farm tasks, such as threshers, tractors,
harvesters, etc., a certain minimum size of land is required to make efficient use of these
lumpy inputs. Management skills (e. g., making decisions about introducing new
technologies and various inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides) can also be seen as a lumpy
input whose cost increases less than proportional to the increase in the firm size.
In addition, for the cases of typical plantation crops, such as sugarcane, banana, oil
palm and tea, economies of scale seem to arise in processing or marketing stage. Sugarcane,
for example, needs to be crashed within a short period of time after harvest and such
processing of sugarcane is a heavily capital intensive operation with strong scale economies.
57

Theoretical discussions along the lines similar to the ones presented here can be found in: Banerjee
(1999), Berry and Cline (1979), Binswanger, et al. (1995), Hayami, et al. (1990), Rashid and Quibria
(1994) .
53

To take an another example, bananas need to be placed into a cold boat within 24 hours of
harvest, posing a major challenge of careful coordination, including coordination of harvest
timing, arrangement of boats arriving timely and ensuring transportation between harvest
point and shipment, which is very difficult to do for a large number of independent small
farmers. As a yet another example, careful marketing is said to be required for tea.
Furthermore, credit is one of the important inputs in developing country agriculture
partly because of the lack of other inter-temporal markets (such as insurance) to insure against
crop failure or price risks, but credit markets are quite thin in rural areas in these countries.
Lager farmers tend to have better access to credit than small farmers. This is partly due to
the economies of scale in lending i. e., the transaction costs of providing formal credit in
such areas are high and do not increase with loan size, leading to declining unit costs with
loan size. Scale economy in credit access can also arise because farmers with larger land
ownership tend to have larger political power and such political power may play important
role in the allocation of highly rationed resources such as credit. Given the much more
limited access to credit among smaller farmers, these farmers may be forced to accumulate
assets as a risk diffusing device. This need could make smaller farmers less able to choose
efficient (i. e., profit maximizing) asset portfolio than do wealthier farmers who have better
access to the markets to diffuse risks (such as credit), a yet another potential source of
allocative inefficiency disadvantaging smaller farmers vis--vis larger farmers. (Banerjee
1999, Binswanger, et al. 1995, etc.)
Finally, the process of occupational choice among farmers could also lead to a
tendency of larger farms being more productive than smaller farms. That is, more
productive/talented/technologically-savvy farmers would want to work with more land than
would less productive farmers. Thus larger farms may tend to be cultivated by more
productive farmers. (Banerjee 1999)58
On the other hand, however, at least some of the potential sources of economies of
scale identified above could be (and have been) mitigated by various institutional innovations.
For example, possible scale economies due to lumpy inputs (e. g., draft animals, farm
machinery) could be utilized by small-scale farms through rental markets. Similarly,
possible advantages of larger farms could be counteracted by smaller farms by the use of
contract farming. (see below for empirical examples) These institutional innovations such
as rental markets for lumpy inputs and contract farming, however, could potentially involve
agency/moral hazard problems. The viability of rental markets for lumpy inputs depends on
the importance of maintenance activities required to keep the input function while on rental;
since such maintenance (e. g., feeding and other care required) is crucial for the proper
functioning of draft animals, for example, it is more difficult for rental markets for draft
animals to develop (or if a rental market emerges, the term of rental would tend to be short
term, rather than long term, rental) than it is for lumpy inputs that require less maintenance (e.
58

Banerjee (1999: 3) notes, however, such increasing return should be smaller in agriculture than in other
industries due to relatively slow pace of technological change and relatively smaller importance of talent in
production success in agriculture.
54

g., machine). (Binswanger and Rosenzweig 1986)

Furthermore, a major force counteracting potential sources of scale economies is the
agency problem contributing to greater inefficiency of larger farms. In the present context,
agency problem arises because large farms usually require hired labor force while small farms
are typically cultivated by family labor; unlike family labor (whose labor effort is easily
monitored or who are motivated to work diligently), in order to prevent hired labor force from
opportunistic behavior of not working sufficiently hard it is necessary to monitor the work
effort of these laborers or tenants. In agriculture, such labor monitoring tends to be costly,
leading to relative inefficiency of larger farms, which tend to depend more heavily on hired
labor force, vis--vis smaller farms, which mainly depends on family labor. Feder (1985)
has shown, for example, that the presence of such costly monitoring of hired labor coupled
with the limited access to credit (e. g., available credit amount being constrained by the
amount of land owned that is used as collateral) can lead to the often observed (see below)
inverse relationship between farm size and productivity.59 Thus if such agency problem
is serious, braking-up large farms into smaller units would enhance overall production
efficiency.
In addition, if operators of large farms can choose optimal contract forms60 then
making laborers residual claimants, i. e., making them fixed-rent tenants, would provide
maximum incentive to work hard, but it also makes the laborers or tenants bear all the risks as
well. If they are (more) risk averse (than large farmers or farm managers) it could be in both
parties interest to move away from fixed-rent contract to sharing arrangement, leading again
to lower work incentive. (a la Stiglitz 1974) In such situations, again, land redistribution can
enhance overall efficiency if the degree of risk aversion among farm workers/tenants is
dependent on wealth.
In a recent paper, however, Banerjee (1999) cautions that there are a few distinct
theoretical possibilities where redistributive land reforms may not lead to any efficiency gains
(or even to negative productivity effects) despite the presence of the seemingly inverse
relationship between farm size and productivity which has been consistently observed in
empirical studies from various parts of the world (see below). For example, in the context of
the previous paragraph, if the degree of risk aversion among landless laborers or tenants
59

Even if monitoring is not very costly, Banerjee (1999) argues that, agency problems leading to greater
inefficiency of larger farms relative to smaller ones could also result from the limitation on enforcement.
Hired laborers may face weaker incentives to work hard because there is a limit, physically or socially, as to
how much poor laborers can be punished when they are found not working diligently enough taking away
too much as punishment from poor laborers could well be counterproductive (thus such a threat of
punishment non credible) since such a punishment could render laborers run away or rebel. Alternatively,
larger farmers (or managers of large farms) could reward rather than punish laborers in order to provide
work incentives but rewarding costs money.
60
Feder (1985)s model considers only wage labor as the labor hiring contract in his analysis of possible
relationship between farm size and productivity. To what extent land owners can choose contract forms
(i.e., among fixed-wage, share tenancy and fixed rent lease) depends on social contexts such as current land
reform regulations and the fear of future land reform granting ownership to the tiller.
55

depends on the combination of individual heterogeneity and self-selection (i. e., the landless
are more risk averse than landowners because the landless are inherently risk averse people
who self-selected into the position of laborer/tenants since such positions (occupations) need
not bear much risks consequently their attitudes toward risk do not change even if they
become richer), rather than due to the fact that the degree of risk aversion is a function of
wealth, then land re-distribution will not enhance efficiency.61 More generally, Banerjee
(1999)s discussion suggests that if the observed inverse relationship stems solely from some
exogenous characteristics of the small farmers or the lands they till, rather than endogenous
factors dependent on the fact that the small farmers are relatively asset poor vis--vis larger
farmers, then land redistribution would not enhance efficiency (though still enhancing equity).
Apart from the agency problem and the resultant inverse relation between farm
size and productivity, another theoretical justification for redistributive land reform is the
nutrition-based efficiency wage argument.62 The main argument here is that labor
efficiency is affected by income; higher incomes or wealth lead to better nutrition and thus
more productive workers. For example, Dasgupta and Ray (1996, 1997) show that assetless
laborers or tenants, who are usually at the bottom of the social strata in rural areas, tend to be
disadvantaged vis--vis laborers or tenants with some assets in rural agricultural labor
market63 since the assetless require higher wages per output than those with some assets to be
employable (while performing work requires certain levels of income to obtain minimum
amount of food, those with assets can under-cut their wage rates to obtain jobs by
supplementing incomes from non-labor asset incomes but the assetless need to obtain all
incomes from wage thus making their required wage higher than those with assets64); thus
assetless laborers/tenants suffer involuntary unemployment and malnutrition. If those
assetless are malnourished, according to this model, redistribution of asset (land) from
landlords (who do not enter into agricultural labor market) to the landless would lead not only
to reduction of malnutrition and of poverty but also to higher overall outputs through the
increased productivity of the impoverished. (Dasgupta and Ray 1987, Dasgupta 1993)
Moene (1992)s model builds on Dasgupta and Ray (1986, 1987) to include urban sector and
examine further the relationship between the amount of total land endowment and effects of
land reform; model shows, among others, that in a highly land scarce society redistributive
land reform reduces poverty in both rural and urban areas (while in relatively more land
61

Another possibility cited is that small farms may tend to be better land; they may be better, for example,
in the sense of being safer lands where crop failure is less likely and smaller farmers likely place high
premium on such safety than larger farmers. In this case, if higher productivity of smaller farmers is
solely due to exogenous land quality (rather than endogenous land investments or improvements which
depend on incentives faced by the tenants), again re-distributive land reform would have no
incentive/productivity effects.
62
Early references to this line of literature include: Leibenstein (1957), Mirrlees (1975), Stiglitz (1976),
Bliss and Stern (1978). Rosenzweig (1988) is an early critique, mainly on empirical grounds (see below).
63
The focus of attention here is the markets for casual agricultural labor in rural areas on which most of
the poorest depend on for their livelihood and which are more or less competitive.
64
In other words, the wage level at which the landless can be productive enough (i. e., the level of their
efficiency wage) is higher than the efficiency wage level of the potential laborers with some assets,
which makes the landless less attractive candidates for employee from potential employers point of view.
56

abundant society such is not necessarily the case), and that redistributive land reform always
increase aggregate agricultural production while urban-modern sector production could
decline in certain circumstances. Both of these theoretical models generally65 support the
view that land reform enhances both equity and efficiency.
Empirical Evidence
In this sub-section, we will briefly review empirical evidence on the relative
productivity of large versus small farms, as well as on the nutrition-based efficiency wage
theory that justifies redistributive land reform. If smaller farms are more efficient or more
productive than larger farms then redistributive land reform is likely to lead to both better
efficiency and better equity with a possible exception of the case of agency problem arising
from exogenous, rather than endogenous, risk averse behavior among laborers/tenants.
Whether that is really the case is an empirical question.
Like the empirical studies on the relative efficiency of alternative land tenancy
contract arrangements, investigating the effects of farm size on productivity is complicated by
the difficulties in controlling fully for all the other factors, other than the farm size,
simultaneously affecting productivity. Indeed, despite the large number of empirical studies
found in the literature, none appears to be successful in controlling for all those factors.
(Binswanger, et al. 1995) Nevertheless, it has long been recognized in the empirical
literature that small family operated farms tend to yield larger amount of production per
hectare than do larger farms. In one of the well known studies, for example, Berry and Cline
(1979) find with their cross-country analysis that land tends to be used more intensively on
smaller farms than on larger farms with such differentials relatively more pronounced in land
abundant countries. Based on micro data from six developing countries (i. e., Brazil,
Colombia, the Philippines, Pakistan, India and Malaysia) Berry and Cline (1979) also find
consistently negative relationship between farm size and per hectare yields. A recent
literature review by Binswanger, et al. (1995) similarly argue that three of the more carefully
controlled empirical studies from Malaysia and Brazil in Berry and Cline (1979) and from
India by Rosenzweig and Binswanger (1993) all found negative relationship between farm
size and profit per unit wealth, and conclude that even in fairly technologically advanced and
mechanized areas . . . small farms retain a productivity advantage over large farms
suggesting that rental markets can substitute to a certain degree for the indivisibility of
machines and some management skills. (Binwanger, et al. 1995: 2706)66
65

A main point of these theoretical exercises is to investigate specific conditions which may or may not
prevent such outcomes.
66
Additional generalizations based on their review of empirical literature include: (1) the relative
productivity advantage of smaller farms tends to be larger where land holding inequalities are larger and
also in land-abundant countries, such as in Latin America and Africa, (2) the highest per unit areas is often
observed not on the smallest farms (who tend to be part-time farmers) but on the second-smallest farm size
class (where full-time farmers prevail), (3) some plantation crops, represented by sugarcane in Brazil do not
indicate negative farm-size productivity relationship, (4) when land quality is controlled for the relative
productivity advantage of smaller farms weakens but does not disappear, and (5) introduction of green
revolution technology in India led to weakening but not the disappearance of raw productivity differentials.
57

More specifically on the Philippines, the 1960 agricultural census data indicate that at
the national aggregate level per hectare yield tends to decline as farm size increases. Based
on crop by crop comparisons, however, per hectare yields do not vary much across farm sizes
in producing rice, sugar cane, coconuts and corn, although there appeared to be slight negative
relations in rice and coconut, and slight positive relations in sugar cane and corn, between
farm size and per hectare yield. (Berry and Cline 1979: chapter 4) The 1980 agricultural
census also showed generally similar patterns of little systematic relationship between farm
size and productivity. (Hayami, et al. 1990) Per hectare rice yields were similar across farm
sizes although they were slightly higher on very small farms (those below 1 hectare, with per
hectare yields between 2.4 and 2.6 tons) than among slightly larger-small farms (those with 1
hectare or larger with per hectare yields between 1.9 and 2.2). Even among the typical cash
crops which are traditionally major earners of foreign exchanges, and for whose lands
redistributive land reform had long been exempted prior to the 1988 CARP due to the alleged
existence of scale economy, there does not appear to exist strong evidence supporting
economies of scale in production. For example, per tree coconut yields do not appear to vary
much across farm sizes although the farm size of the 2 to 3 hectare range has slightly higher
yields than do farms of below or above this range. Based on this and other evidence
including their own field observations, Hayami, et al. (1990) conclude that there is no support
for the existence of scale economies in coconut production, as does Habito (1988). Hayami,
et al. (1990) and Habito (1988) also note the higher intensity in intercropping on the coconut
lands by smaller farmers than by larger farmers, indicating the higher per hectare agricultural
output (including coconuts and other crops that are intercropped) on smaller coconut farms
than on larger farms.
On the other hand, per hectare sugar yields do tend to be moderately higher on larger
farms than on smaller farms but per hectare production costs also tend to be higher on larger
farms than on smaller farms.67 (Hayami, et al. 1990)
Such patterns appear to reflect,
according to Hayami, et al. (1990), the fact that yield-increasing modern inputs were used on
larger farms beyond socially optimal level, which in turn is a result of their preferential access
to subsidized credit. If such an interpretation is warranted then, despite the seemingly
existent scale economy in the per hectare yield data, subdivision of large scale sugar farms
into small family sized farms is likely to lead to more efficient input use in sugar production.
Furthermore, Hayami, et al. (1990) note some examples of institutional development to
circumvent potential scale economies due to lumpy inputs (e. g., tractor use) or coordination
between growers and processing (e. g., in sugar) in some parts of the Philippines; for example,
rental markets for large tractors (markets for custom-plowing services) were observed in sugar
areas in Batangas and Bukidnon where both small and large sugar plantations coexist68, and
67

A small household data set taken from small/medium holder communities in Bukidnon province also
indicates somewhat higher sugar yields on relatively larger farms (above 2 hectares) than on smaller farms.
(Bouis and Haddad 1990)
68
Hayami, et al (1995) noted the possible economies of scale in sugarcane production up to 50 hectare due
to the use of a large tractor for deep plowing as expressed by many planters and technicians during their
field interviews in Negros, but argue that such potential source of scale economy can be counteracted for
58

an example is found of successful coordination of sugarcane delivery scheduling between a

sugar mill and small scale sugar planters in Batangas. (Hayami, et al. 1990: Chapter 6)
Nor is there much evidence of scale economy in typical plantation crops, which are
often operated by large multinational firms. According to the data reported in Tsurumi
(1982: its original source is David 1981), for example, under the management of the same
multinational corporation the average per hectare yield of banana was higher among small
scale contract farms (average farm size being 7 hectares) than among the large-scale corporate
plantations (size ranging between 500 and 1000 hectares). Similarly, per hectare yield
comparisons for pineapples (between small farms and corporate plantations) indicate no
significant difference across farm sizes. (Hayami, et al. 1990: chapter 6) Hayami, et al.
(1990: 144) add, however, that [u]nder the prevailing set-up, the need for precision in
production control and coordination to meet the demands of marketing/processing operations
appears to be so great for banana and pineapple that the cost of coordination and supervision
of a large number of small contract growers appears to be greater than that of a centrally
managed wage laborers.
Furthermore, a longitudinal micro study in a Laguna village during the period
between the 1970s and the 1980s also show no significant yield differentials in rice production
across farm sizes. (Hayami and Kikuchi 200069) In addition, Umehara (1997) finds in a
Nueva Ecija rice village that larger land holders in the community (meaning the Marcos land
reform beneficiaries, who were mostly CLT holders) tended to rent out a part of their land;
this also indicate the lack of any scale economy in the rice bowl. The household data taken
from the Bukidnon province in the mid-1980s also appear to indicate little relationship
between corn yields and farm size. (Bouis and Haddad 1990) Thus, on the whole, strong
support for the inverse relation between the farm size and productivity is not found in the
Philippines. Rather, there does not appear to be any strong systematic relationship between
farm size and productivity (with a possible exception of sugar production). This indicate that
redistributive land reform is not likely to result in any loss in total production, including the
plantation sectors where substantial economies of scale are often said to exist. We should
note, however, that none of the empirical studies from the Philippines comes close to the ideal
study with appropriate measures of productivity and with appropriate control variables, as
discussed in Binswanger, et al. (1995).
Apart from the possible scale diseconomies observed in larger farms, another distinct
argument for land redistribution is based on the nutrition-based efficiency wage theory as we
saw above. According to this argument, if household access to land affects labor
productivity of its members through their nutritional status, this provides an additional case
smaller farms once rental markets for tractor services develop.
Hayami and Kikuchi (2000) do find a significant yield differential between larger (2 hectares and above)
and smaller farms in their 1995 data in the same village; the emergence of such differential is attributed to
the faster utilization of privately-owned pump irrigation by larger farmers than by smaller farms in response
to the degradation in the national irrigation system. As access to pump irrigation spreads, via private
ownership or via the development of rental market, however, such yield differential is likely to diminish.
69

59

for land redistribution which enhances both efficiency and equity. One crucial proposition in
this theory is that wealth holding and nutritional status affect productivity. Empirical results
(and the interpretations of them) on this subject in the literature have been somewhat
controversial, partly due to various technical and data issues. While Rosenzweig (1988: 720)
concluded, based on an early set of empirical evidence, that it is unclear if the [nutritionbased efficiency wage] model has any relevance to any known population on this planet,
more recent reviews of the literature indicate that there has increasingly been an accumulation
of evidence from more recent studies that nutritional and health status is significantly
associated with higher labor productivity. (e. g., see Strauss and Thomas 1995) For
example, data from Bukidnon province in the Philippines, where many of the workers are
sugarcane cutters, show that the nutritional status or calorie intake has significant effects on
market wages. (Haddad and Bouis 1991; Foster and Rosenzweig 1992, 1994) To the
extent such evidence support the efficiency-wage argument land re-distribution is likely to
raise productivity among the poor landless laborers or tenants.
3-3. Conclusions on the Economics of Land Reform
In this section we have discussed some major economic issues involved in land
reform policies. A major component of explaining both the potential Marshallian
inefficiency of share tenancy and the potential inverse relationship between farm size and
productivity is the higher supervision costs of the hired labor/tenants as opposed to the family
labor. However, the empirical literature has tended to suggest that such higher supervision
costs of hired labor/tenants is not generally very serious in the Philippines, except in the
plantation sector, although the issue does not appear to be quite settled (e. g., the evidence
from Foster and Rosenzweig 1994 to the contrary). There has been relatively little evidence
of either inefficiency of share tenancy or of systematic inverse relationship between farm size
and productivity in the Philippines, in contrast with South Asia. This, in turn, suggests that
prohibiting share tenancy has no efficiency gains while it likely had negative equity effects.
Furthermore, it also follows that not much efficiency gains can be expected from land
redistribution per se in the Philippines either, unlike in the areas where much stronger inverse
relation between farm size and productivity has been observed. It appears rather unlikely
that the redistributive land reform under PD27, which had substantial income redistribution
effects in some geographically limited areas in Central and Southern Luzon, was a major
factor with the increase in the rice production observed in the 1970s. The lack of strong
systematic relationship between farm size and productivity in the Philippines also suggests
that much efficiency loss is not likely to arise from redistributive land reform even in the
traditionally more controversial plantation/cash crop sectors. In the Philippines, therefore,
redistributive land reform can be seen mainly as a policy instrument for equitable asset
distribution and rural poverty reduction, but, perhaps, not so much as a policy for increased
production in agriculture.
4. Alternative Land Reform Designs

60

The foregoing discussion on the politics and economics of land reform leads to the
question: what should the government do (or not do)? This section reviews recent policy
debates on designing land reform programs. The main policy questions arising in the
Philippine context include: (1) Is tenancy regulation desirable?; (2) Is redistributive land
reform desirable?; (3) And if redistribution is desirable, how should the government design
policies to facilitate land redistribution that benefits the rural poor?
4-1. A Strong Consensus on the Negative Effects of Tenancy Regulation
There is a strong consensus among economists that regulating tenancy, such as the
prohibition of share tenancy under the Philippine agrarian reform code, likely has negative
efficiency and negative equity implications. Theoretical arguments suggest that share
tenancy can be an important device for risk sharing between landowners and tenants or for
working capital finance (if share tenancy entails cost sharing, as is often the case) under the
condition of market imperfection in insurance and credit. Generally, there has been
relatively little empirical evidence to support the existence of so called Marshallian
inefficiency of share tenancy although the literature does not seem conclusive. Furthermore,
tenancy regulation could limit the access to land by landless laborers by way of becoming
tenant farmers (i. e., via agricultural ladder). It also reduced land access by former tenant
farmers by providing incentives for landowners to evict their tenants and to engage in (likely
inefficient) direct farming coupled with long-term wage laborer arrangements. More
generally, as Binswanger et al. (1995) conclude, [t]he empirical evidence suggests that
government interventions into [tenancy and sharecropping] have had little success in
achieving their stated objective of protecting tenants, which is hardly surprising given the
market imperfections leading to the emergence of share tenancy. Economists thus agree, in
discussing alternative land reform designs, that the tenancy regulation prohibiting the share
tenancy contract should be abolished. (Banerjee 1999, Balisacan 1990, Hayami, et al. 1990,
Hayami and Kikuchi 1982, 2000, Hayami and Otsuka 1993, Lipton 1990, Binswanger, et
al.1995, Rashid and Quibria 1995)
4-2. On Land Redistribution: Alternative Policy Options
Given the ineffectiveness or undesirability of tenancy regulation, it follows, the
efficiency and equity objectives of land reform could better be addressed through land
redistribution rather than tenancy reform. Historically, argue Binswanger et al. (1995),
land reform that resulted in establishing owner-operated farms appears to have been a far
more successful way of addressing the equity question. As we saw above, there is a strong
theoretical as well as empirical case for land redistribution for both potential efficiency as well
as apparent equity gains although the efficiency gains may be somewhat limited in the
Philippine context.
Generally, [o]perating on their own, land sales markets are notably thin, segmented,
and exclusionary of the poor. . . Indeed, land markets have failed to autonomously allocate
land to smallholders inspite of the presumed inverse relation. . . . Special interventions are

61

consequently needed if the rural poor are to participate to [sic] these markets. (de Janvry et.
al. 1998) The question is how such interventions can best be designed. While most
discussions in the literature on land reform by economists note, as we did in the previous
section, that land redistribution is desirable in principle, on both theoretical and empirical
grounds, there is yet to emerge a clear consensus on how best to design the policies to
implement land redistribution.
a. Is land reform the best way of re-distributing wealth?
Despite the near unanimity on the desirability of asset redistribution for both
efficiency and equity grounds, some economists wonder whether land redistribution is the best
means of redistribution. Theories supporting the efficiency gains from wealth distribution
support any kind of asset distribution, not necessarily land. In theory, the government could
expropriate lands, sell them and distribute the proceeds to the beneficiaries, which economists
would tend to prefer (to distributing land) because the beneficiaries then have a choice of
purchasing land as well as other alternatives which they might prefer. Extending along this
line of argument, Rashid and Quibria (1995)s detailed survey concludes that land reform is
passe due mainly to political and administrative difficulties involved despite the strong
economic rationale on both equity and efficiency grounds (to which the authors very much
agree70); summarizing their argument, Rashid and Quibria (1995: 129) note that [i]f a State is
too weak to enforce justice and legislate appropriate taxes, it is too weak to enact effective
land reform; if a State is strong enough to uphold the law and enforce its taxes, it can achieve
all the goals claimed for land reform through other, less interventionist, means.
The case for land redistribution rather than redistributing money could be made
(only) if all the poor landless would want to buy land even if given the option of investing in
something else with the same amount of money, in which case redistributing land saves
transactions costs compared to the case where expropriating lands, selling it, distributing the
money and then buying back the lands by the beneficiaries; not much appears to be known,
however, whether such is the case. (Banerjee 1999) Nevertheless, some would argue that
rural poor would prefer acquiring land to any other alternative investment, given the
perception of many Filipino peasants that land is more than an economic factor of production,
but is also an integral part of the social, cultural and political being of peasants. (Borras
1999: 137) In addition, recent both theoretical and empirical literature on intra-household
resource allocation indicates that the household head does not necessarily act in the collective
interest of the household; if there are conflicts of interests within the household or between the
current and future generations, then the goal of redistribution may be better served by giving
the family an asset rather than money thereby preventing a husband from decamping with
the money, leaving his wife and children. (Banergee, 1999: 15-16)
Also land reform implementation requires administrative costs as well as state
70

Rashid and Quibria (1995) do caution, however, that in the realm of the economics of land reform the yetlargely-unexplored issues involved in the effects of land reform on gender and environmental issues can turn out
to be a serious lacuna.

62

subsidy that fills the gap between the landowner compensation and the beneficiaries
amortization (the effective subsidy rate under CARP has been said to be roughly 10%
Borras 1999), which must be provided by fiscal resources. Unfortunately relatively little is
known in the existing empirical literature on the relative returns (in terms of, say, poverty
reduction) on government investment in alternative activities between land redistribution and
other investment, such as infrastructure, or other services for the poor, such as education and
health. (Banerjee 1999) One study that attempts to address this question (albeit in a
somewhat limited way) is Balisacan and Bacawag (1995) who caution against diverting fiscal
resources from infrastructure development and education toward land reform administration;
based on household-level earnings function (control variables at the household-level include
age, sex and education of household head, household size and the number of household
members employed, but not land holding) regression they find that effects of reducing the
regional-level average inequality in landholdings down to the national average in the areas
where land distribution is highly skewed has relatively little impact on household income
while improving access to road and electricity in under-served regions up to the level of the
national mean has a larger impact on household income.71 They also find that improving
access to education up to high school level has a large impact.72
b. Social costs of delayed reform
Despite some skepticism about the cost-effectiveness of administering land
redistribution, however, one additional argument for land reform could be the social costs of
delayed reform. Given the nature of land as the integral part of socio, cultural and political
being as perceived by Filipino peasants, it is likely that the demand for land redistribution is
likely to continue to be quite high in rural areas. As the Philippine history shows the social
costs of the un-satisfied demand for land redistribution, seen as social justice, is likely to be
high, manifesting through various levels of violence. Such consideration thus could provide
a justification for land redistribution in the current Philippine context. More generally, many
analysts emphasize the important role of peasant discontent in incidents of regional and
national violence, and [i]n many countries, protracted and violent struggles have significantly
reduced the performance of the agricultural sector and the economy as a whole.
(Binswanger, et al. 1995: 2691)
c. Land re-distribution is not enough
71

The authors note a few potential caveats, however, such as the somewhat limited geographical coverage
(17% of total farm area in 6 out of 12 agricultural regions is covered in the simulation) and its partial
equilibrium nature (e. g., effects of inter-regional labor migration implied by the simulated land redistribution is not taken into account). Furthermore, since the earnings equations are estimated with crosssection data, if policy variables (e. g,. regional allocation of electricity, roads and farm size distribution) are
endogenous with respect to household income, then the estimated impact of policies on household earnings
could be biased. (See, for example, Binswanger, et al. 1993, for this line of argument and for a
methodology for overcoming such a potential problem.)
72
In the household earnings function, education of household head is controlled at the household level
while the effects of farm size is controlled by the regional average (but not at the household-level). It is
thus not clear whether policy impacts are directly comparable between the two.
63

All advocates of redistributive land reform, however, agree that simply redistributing
lands to the landless poor would not achieve equity nor efficiency objectives of land reform.
The ultimate achievement of land reform program would not be so much land redistribution
per se as enabling reform beneficiaries to become competitive in the context of liberalized
markets and a sharply reduced role of the state. (de Janvry, et al. 1999: 14) Thus
additional measures are needed to ensure that small family farms constitute a stable class and
that lands not be re-consolidated into large landholdings, as has sometimes happened
historically. Most observers agree that one of the most important of such additional
measures is the elimination of distortionary government interventions favoring larger farms
vis--vis small farms, prior to land redistribution. These distortionary interventions include
taxes, output and input subsidies and subsidized credit schemes which larger landowners tend
to have disproportional access. More specifically in the Philippine context, argues Balisacan
(1996), the high import protection for sugar producers and the so-called safety nets intended
to cushion the impact of the GATT ratification on agriculture (including concessional credit,
output support prices, post-harvest facilities and subsidies to cooperatives) fall into such
distortionary interventions. Such distortions make land values for large owners to be higher
than the discounted sum of agricultural profits. With such distortions, after land
redistribution small farmers are likely to have an incentive to sell out their newly acquired
lands to larger farmers.
Another policy measure to complement land redistribution is to ensure access to
complementary inputs and to output markets by reform beneficiaries. Making appropriate
institutional arrangements would be needed for extension services, credit and markets.
(Binswanger, et al. 1995) Furthermore, a few others advocate a progressive land tax as one
of the effective measures of discouraging possible land re-consolidation. (Hayami, et al.
1990, Otsuka 1996; see below for more on land taxation) In addition, a longitudinal study
from Northern Luzon village shows that access to education is one of the major determinants
of social mobility between the small-farmer and the landless classes, thereby indicating that
educational investment could be another additional measure to ensure the stability of the
reform beneficiaries. (Fuwa 1999)
d. Retention limits and restrictions on land sales
Measures often used to ensure the stability of reform beneficiaries and to prevent the
re-consolidation of lands by large landowners include the ban on land sales by the reform
beneficiaries and landholding retention limits. CARP prohibits sale or transfer of lands by
reform beneficiaries for a period of 10 years except through hereditary succession or except
for sales to the government, to the Land Bank of the Philippines or to other qualified reform
beneficiaries. It has been estimated, however, that about 30% of farmer beneficiaries have
engaged in currently illegal land sales. (Garilao: 1998: 33, 39) Also under CARP
landholding retention limits were set at 5 hectares (plus 3 hectares for each child of the
landowner provided the child is at least 15 years old and is actually tilling the land or directly

64

managing it) for landowners73 and at 3 hectares for the reform beneficiaries.
There appears to be a broad consensus that crop-specific retention limits (e. g.,
PD27s retention limits on rice and corn lands) or retention limits based on the organization of
farm (e. g., exemptions for commercial farms under CARP, or reform coverage of only
tenanted farms under PD27) are distortionary and thus should be avoided. (e. g., Banerjee
1999, Binswanger, et al. 1995, Hayami, et al. 1990) To the extent a retention limit is
desirable such limit should be applied uniformly regardless of crop types or of farm
organization. Furthermore, the major role played by retention limits in preventing new land
(re-)consolidation in the successful land reforms in the past, such as in Japan and in Korea,
has been recognized. (Binswanger, et al. 1995)
Desirability (or undesirability) of restrictions on land sales for the reform
beneficiaries, on the other hand, appears much less straightforward, and no clear-cut answer
seems to exist. To the extent the negotiated land reform schemes (see next subsection) can
self-select farmer beneficiaries who are more likely to be viable/competitive farmers,
potentials for land sales after redistribution could be mitigated by use of such mode of
redistribution. However, some fundamental issues still remain. On the one hand, the nontransferability of land diminishes collateral value of the land and thus restricts severely the
critically needed access to credit by the reform beneficiaries. (Geron 1994 for empirical
evidence) Such limited access to credit, as combined with land rental regulation, has
sometimes led to sub-optimal land rental or labor contracts as a partial substitute for credit.
(Binswanger, et al. 1995, Hayami and Otsuka 1993) In addition, ban on land sales could
also limit potentially efficiency-enhancing land redistribution such as potentially more
talented farmers taking up farming or could limit land sales for consumption smoothing;
talented farmers, however, can obtain and expand farm operation by renting or leasing if land
rental markets are de-regulated, which most observers advocate,74 and, to the extent the
beneficiaries may need to sell parts of their land for consumption-smoothing purposes, ban on
land sales could be complemented with emergency income assistance, such as a food-for-work
program. (Banerjee 1999)
On the positive side, on the other hand, ban on land sales could be desirable in the
early years after redistribution if land markets are thin and accurate information is not
available on the expected stream of incomes from the land; Binswanger, et al. (1995) argue,
for example, that a temporary ban on land sales of up to three to four years would be
73

Landowners whose lands were previously covered under PD27 and homestead grantees (or their direct
compulsory heirs) were allowed to retain their original 7 hectare and 24 hectare retention limits,
respectively.
74
The issue could still remain that, to the extent land renting is less secure claim on land than fullownership (otherwise ban on land sales would have no effect in the first place), investment in land by such
talented tenants would be discouraged. Such negative effects, argues Banerjee (1999), can be mitigated
somewhat by making it easier, through publicly funded research on agricultural technology, better
extension services, infrastructure investments and improved credit access, for land owners to make
necessary investments.
65

reasonable. Such is not generally the case, however, in the land-to-the tiller reform (e. g.,
PD27) since the current tillers (tenants) are likely to be reasonably familiar with the
productive values of their land.
In addition, a major advantage of a permanent reform by restricting land sales could
be that it reduces uncertainly; once there is one reform there can always arise a social pressure
for another one, which is always costly (politically, fiscally, and administratively), if the land
distribution reverts to being too unequal again, and this would provide disincentive to
investing in lands. Such argument thus becomes a justification for some kind of restriction
on land sales. (Banerjee 1999) In this regard, removing any distortions encouraging the
tendency for land re-consolidation would become all the more critical. Nevertheless, to what
extent such measures could eliminate the possible future pressures for redistribution is not
clear.
e. Alternative modes of land redistribution
Traditionally redistributive land reform programs have mostly been state-led in the
sense that state initiates land redistribution by expropriating and distributing private lands or
by resettlement on public lands. State-led land reform in the post-World War II period
resulted in swift and substantial land re-distribution, effectively eliminating landlordism and
establishing small-scale owner family farms, in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. However,
it has become increasingly understood that such successful results of state-led land reform
were partially attributable to special socio-political circumstances (e. g., occupation by the U.
S. forces in the case of Japan) that cannot be replicated in many other currently developing
countries including the Philippines. (Balisacan 1990, Hayami, et al. 1990, Putzel 1992,
Rashid and Quibria 1995) As we saw in section one, the record of state-led land reform
legislation and its implementation in the Philippines has been an extremely slow process filled
with cases of resistance, evasion and corruption. Similarly in Latin America, the sixty-year
history of state-led land reforms has still left the fundamental aims of the land reform, i. e.,
providing land access to rural poor and rendering reform beneficiaries competitive in the
market place, incomplete. (de Janvry, et. al. 1999)
Such disappointing results of the state-led land reforms worldwide have led many to
search for alternative land reform designs. Such alternative approaches to state-led land
redistribution, according to de Janvry, et al. (1999), can be grouped into two categories:
negotiated (also known as market-assisted or market-based), on the one hand, and grassroots initiated, on the other. One of the most notable examples of the grassroots-initiated
land reform can be found in Brazil. Over its 15 year history, the Rural Landless Workers
Movement (MST), a grassroots organization (GRO), has helped to establish more than 1,100
land reform settlements by mobilizing approximately 145,000 families to occupy
unproductive land and pressuring the government to negotiate for title to the property. (de
Janvry, et al. 1999: 13) De Janvry, et al (1999) note that the success of the MST in Brazil
is a rather special case and do not foresee its replication even in other relatively land abundant
Latin American countries. While in the Philippines somewhat similar attempts for land

66

redistribution initiated by organized land occupation emerged during the initial years of the
Aquino administration even their very limited success was largely due to the rather special
socio-political circumstances after the fall of the Marcos dictatorship (Kirkvliet 1993), and
these attempts were never viable alternative land reform operation. Nevertheless, the success
of Brazils MST, as well as the recent experiences in land reform implementation in the
Philippines, does underline the importance of grass-roots mobilization/initiatives and of the
appropriate state-society coordination/linkages at both local and national levels, and thus
should be taken into account when searching for an alternative land reform design. (Borras
1999, de Janvry, et al. 1999)
In the rest of this subsection, we will review recent discussions on negotiated land
reform as an alternative to the state-led land reform. In response to the disappointing records
of traditional state-led land reform programs, negotiated land reform programs have been
experimented in recent years in Colombia, Guatemala, Brazil and South Africa. The specific
contexts triggering the introduction of these negotiated land reform programs differ among
countries. While in Colombia the loss of the traditional source of finance for the countrys
land reform agency (INCORA), as well as the nearly 35 years of unsatisfactory achievements
of the state-led reform programs under INCORA, resulted in the new reform experiments, the
search for an administratively cheap and quick implementation scheme at state level led to a
market assisted pilot scheme in Brazil. In South Africa, on the other hand, the main reasons
for its pilot schemes utilizing negotiated reform were the felt need to maintain public
confidence in land markets and respect for property rights. (Deininger 1999)
Nevertheless, there are a few basic features that are common among different country
programs (Banerjee 1999; Deininger 1999; de Janvry, et al. 1999):
(1) Land transfer is voluntary and demand-driven; beneficiaries are self-selected (except for
the Colombian case) and desirable lands are identified by the beneficiaries, with the
assistance of grass-roots organizations, peasant organizations and NGOs, and land
purchases are negotiated between buyer and seller with government mediation.
(2) As a consequence, no target is set a priori for the type of lands, the number of
beneficiaries, the amount of lands to be transferred, or a time frame.
(3) In order to ensure economic viability of the reform beneficiary farms, some of these
programs require the selection of beneficiaries based on productive projects or farm
plan (outlining crops grown, input requirements, and complementary investments) before
acquiring lands.
(4) The major roles of the government are to help determine appropriate land price, to provide
subsidy to the landless beneficiaries for land purchase, and to provide various support
services to beneficiaries so their farms become economically viable.
Such basic design features of the negotiated land reform appear to have a few major
advantages. Perhaps the key feature of these negotiated reform experiments concerns its
reliance on local information and local initiatives for beneficiary identification and technical
assistance. One major constraint on the state-led reform programs has been the fact that
government is often ill-equipped to acquire critical local information such as potentially

67

successful beneficiaries, lands suitable for redistribution and necessary assistance that reform
beneficiaries might need in order to establish viable and competitive farm operations. Being
demand-driven, negotiated land reform schemes address the problem of such information
asymmetry between the government and reform beneficiaries by leaving the identification of
beneficiaries and lands to the beneficiary self-selection, thereby leading to better targeting in
terms of economic viability and competitiveness of beneficiaries. Furthermore, negotiated
reform schemes tap local information by facilitating involvement of NGO/PO/GRO, which
have better access to local information (esp. the local needs of the beneficiaries), in land
redistribution and provision of support services. Also, the requirements of drawing up a
productive project /farm plan for potential beneficiaries before land acquisition, as is done in
the Colombian case, likely enhance the identification of beneficiaries more likely to be
successful. It is less clear, however, to what extent such a scheme can well target the poorest
population. The role of NGO/PO/GROs in encouraging and assisting the participation by the
poor is likely to be crucial for greater equity.
Secondly, since buyers and sellers negotiate directly, reform beneficiaries (buyers)
are likely to have better incentives to negotiate for lower prices than would the land reform
bureaucracy (such as DAR). Given the many scandals and other cases of abuse involving the
Voluntary Offer to Sell (VOS) program under CARP, this feature could potentially be a major
improvement vis--vis the state-led reform programs, where state officials who negotiate the
price with the landowners are likely to have less incentive to price down lands than the
beneficiaries who would have to pay themselves. Since direct negotiation between sellers
(i. e., landlords) and buyers (i. e., landless tenants/ laborers) could entail massive power
asymmetry, organization and mobilization of the potential beneficiaries, with assistance of
local and national-level NGOs, would become a key to successful reform implementation.
Finally, the feature that no specific type of lands nor any specific time table needs to
be specified a priori might somewhat ease/bypass the traditionally fierce political opposition
by landowners against reform legislation. The historical experiences in the political
processes of land reform legislation in the Philippines indicate that the tactical moves made by
landowners have often been to focus on precisely these aspects of reform programs without
opposing the basic principles of land redistribution per se. Main results of these landowner
tactics have been specific loopholes inserted into the law, often with negative consequences
for both equity and efficiency (as we have seen earlier), as well as the long delay in the
legislative processes while those specifics are debated among legislators. Therefore, the
vagueness on targeted lands, on beneficiary and on time table of the negotiated reform may
make it easier to set the basic legal framework of land reform.
Beyond these common features, however, are the differences in design of the
negotiated land redistribution among different country experiments. For example, in terms
of beneficiary selection, income ceiling for eligibility is imposed on the self-selected
beneficiaries in South Africa, while in Brazil beneficiaries, though self-selected, are required
to obtain state clearance on price and land title. In the Colombian scheme, while the final
selection of the beneficiaries is based on the productive projects proposed by potential

68

beneficiaries, there is also an additional INCORA involvement in requiring potential

beneficiaries to register with their information on reported income, asset, education, etc.,
which in turn is used for their pre-qualification. Lands to be negotiated are identified by
the individual beneficiaries under the Colombian scheme while they are identified by the
community in the Brazilian and South African cases.
Furthermore, a major difference observed among different negotiated reform
schemes is the degree and mode of government subsidy for land purchase. The Colombian
scheme provides a grant of 70% of land value (with a ceiling of US$22,000 per beneficiary); a
flat subsidy of US$ 1,600 is given in Guatemala; maximum grant of US$3,300 is provided
under the South African scheme. In the Brazilian case, considerably subsidized bank finance
is available but no grant is provided. (de Janvry, et al. 1999, Deininger 1999) It appears
that the level of state subsidy has been set in specific country contexts (e. g, in conjunction
with the pre-existing land reform scheme) and it is not clear what principles should guide how
its level is set. In the Philippines, one DAR estimate notes that 10% to 15% of land purchase
amount is subsidized. (Borras 1999) Given the relatively high rate of delinquency in
amortization payment among PD27 beneficiaries the effective subsidy rate is likely to be
higher.75
In general, (regardless of whether a land reform is negotiated or state-led) there is a
fundamental trade-off in any land reform design between higher (i. e., more generous)
landowner compensation, which makes landowners less resistant and thus makes land
redistribution easier, and the extent of wealth redistribution (the larger the landowner
compensation, through higher land prices set under the reform, the more beneficiaries would
have to pay, thereby reducing the wealth re-distribution impact). In this context, the
Philippine land reform appears to be one of the reform programs where landowners are more
generously compensated. According to some theoretical arguments, if real wealth
redistribution impact is small then the likely efficiency, as well as equity, gains are also likely
to be small.76 (Banerjee 1999) State subsidy can enhance both land redistribution and
efficiency gains from reform among poor beneficiaries. The trade-off here is between the
more easily implemented land redistribution through larger subsidy, on the one hand, and the
larger fiscal burden placed by larger subsidy, on the other, which would in turn limit the
program scope. Indeed, one of the most serious questions raised in the literature against the
negotiated reform experiments appears to be that, given their heavy subsidy elements, these
schemes are very expensive. (Banerjee 1999; de Janvry, et al. 1999)
Financing land reform with a heavy state subsidy means that the funding has to come
from the tax money which could otherwise have been spent in other (possibly pro-poor)
investments, from taxing non-agricultural sector, or from taxing the landowners. At the
75

Actual (quantitative) magnitude of such delinquency has not been clear, however, under the
implementation of PD27 nor under CARP.
76
At the same time, however, Banerjee (1999) discusses a few theoretical arguments for efficiency gains
from land re-distribution when beneficiaries have to pay all the landowner compensation (i. e., zero state
subsidy).
69

moment, there is not any solid empirical basis on the relative cost and benefit of investing the
tax money in land reform implementation versus other investments presumably helping the
rural poor. (Banerjee 1999) The most natural candidate for funding the reform
implementation thus emerged in the literature is the tax on landowners; progressive land tax
has been advocated as a means of fiscal revenue generation as well as for its desirable
incentive effects upon larger landholders to sell their lands. (Hayami, et al. 1990; Deininger,
et al. 1999, Otsuka 1996)
Apart from the state subsidy for land purchase, the financing provided to the
beneficiaries for activities other than land purchase differs among various country experiments
in negotiated land reform. While the Brazilian scheme includes credit for reform
beneficiaries and a $4,000 community grant for off-farm investments, no special financing is
provided for complementary investments by beneficiaries and off-farm investments are left
with the municipalities in Colombia and South Africa. In Colombian case, however, a
municipal land reform plan is required, as a key document for reform implementation prior
to initiating land reform in the municipality, in an attempt to enhance program ownership by
the local government and to integrate land reform into existing municipal development
priorities. (Deininger 1999)
Despite the potential advantages of negotiated land reform design, it is certainly not
a panacea. For example, according to Deininger (1999), experiences during the early years
of negotiated land reform in Colombia encountered several problems and shortcomings that
other countries could potentially face. They included: that the restriction of subsidy to land
purchase (but not complementary investment components) provided a biased incentive away
from redistributing underutilized land (since investments to make underutilized lands more
productive was not subsidized, it gave incentive for potential beneficiaries to focus on well
developed lands that do not require additional investments); that the program had set too high
a minimum income requirement with the intention of targeting beneficiaries with greater
viability potentials; and that despite its decentralized institutional structure little incentive was
in fact given for local leaders.
Also, the emphasis on the self-selection of the reform beneficiaries with greater
potential for economic viability and competitiveness suggest some inevitable trade-offs
against equity consideration. Thus it would be critical to simultaneously initiate alternative
programs that take care of the specific needs of the groups among the poor who would not
benefit from the land reform in the immediate future. In Colombia, for example, such
programs include chicken hatcheries and other micro-enterprises for female headed
households, construction of rural roads under seasonal food for work schemes, and
reforestation of environmentally fragile zones. (Deiniger 1999)
Based on the recent experiments in Colombia, Brazil and South Africa, Deininger
(1999) summarizes the preconditions for successful implementation of negotiated land
reform programs as follows:

70

(1) Negotiated reform can only succeed if measures are simultaneously taken to make the
market for land sales and rental transparent and fluid. Since there is often little
information on land market (e. g., prices) and beneficiaries ability to assess the value (i. e.,
the productive potential) of a piece of land can be quite limited, a reform program would
need to provide additionally: (a) technical assistance at the community level, (b) cofinancing by private financial intermediary, who, by bearing a part of the risk, has an
incentive to assess the viability of farm projects, and (c) market information system that
provides price information.
(2) Productive projects, rather than land re-distribution per se, are a core element for
establishing economically viable and productive farms. This in turn requires active
beneficiary involvement (e. g., familiarizing themselves with the realities they face as
independent farmers and with their own aspirations, potential and limitations) prior to
land acquisition.
(3) The only way to achieve effective coordination among various entities involved in reform
implementation is through decentralized and demand-driven implementation.
(4) The long run success of land reform is likely to depend on private sector involvement,
especially by crowding in private investment by the use of land purchase grant. In
providing land purchase grant, a flat and fungible grant (like the South African scheme
and not like the Colombian scheme) is preferable. At the same time, beneficiary
contribution and assured financial market access are also important.
Perhaps many of these conditions for success do not necessarily apply exclusively to
the negotiated reform schemes but rather they are more general conditions for successful
land reform regardless of the mode of land reform implementation.
In fact, many of the features of the recent negotiated land reform experiments are
not entirely new in the Philippine contexts. Most notably, the reliance of all of the
negotiated land reform experiments on local information and local initiatives, assisted by
local NGOs/POs, for beneficiary self-selection, beneficiary organization and the identification
of the lands to be redistributed arguably the key feature of the negotiated reform schemes-parallels the major policy shift within DAR in the Philippines under Secretary Garilao in the
early 1990s, which subsequently facilitated, as we saw earlier, the faster land redistribution
accomplishments under the Ramos administration. Despite frequent reference to their being
market-based or market-assisted, negotiated land redistribution transactions are heavily
subsidized by the state, as the state-led Philippine land redistribution has been. Furthermore,
as we saw earlier in Table 2-4, the majority of the land redistribution transactions of nonrice/corn lands under CARP did not take place through compulsory acquisition but through
either the voluntary offer to sell (VOS) or the voluntary land transfer (VLT). Especially
during the Ramos administration, the majority (about 47%) of the transactions were made
through VLT. While, unfortunately, relatively little has been written on how these
voluntary transactions took place and on the consequences of those transactions under
CARP, one might argue that the recent CARP implementation potentially contains, if not
systematically, some of the elements incorporated in the recent negotiated reform
experiments, and that there might be much room for systematic mutual learning between the

71

Philippine experiences and those in the negotiated reform experiments in Latin America and
in South Africa.
f. Alternative Proposals for the Philippine Land Reform
After the passage of CARL in 1988, alternative design proposals for the Philippine
land reform program have been put forth by various authors, based on their perceptions of
various shortcomings of the current CARP design. As a principle, all proposals agree that
the reform rules (e. g., retention limit, land valuation) should be simple, transparent and
uniform. This is a natural conclusion from the past experiences in the Philippine land
reform; complex regulations and numerous clauses for exemptions have provided ample
grounds for (legal) evasion from reform by landowners, rent-seeking activities by political
elite and by bureaucracy and long delay in implementation, all of which are to the detriment to
both efficiency and equity. (Hayami, et al. 1990, Otsuka 1996, Balisacan 1995, 1996, Lipton
1990) Furthermore, all the proposed alternative reform programs advocate de-regulating
tenancy contract; they all argue, in particular, that the current prohibition on the share tenancy
should be abolished.
Among the earlier and more comprehensive of the proposed alternative land reform
paradigms was the one presented by Hayami, et al. (1990). They advocate the combination
of: (1) land tenure de-regulation, (2) uniform land ceiling for all types of lands and
confiscation with modest compensation after a sufficiently long transition period, with longterm credit programs for land purchase by the poor during the transition period, (3)
progressive land taxation, both as a disincentive for speculative land holding and as a source
of funding for credit subsidy, complementary services and land confiscation after the
transition period, and (4) progressive rent on public land lease. Among these components,
progressive land tax appears to have gained particularly strong support by proponents of
various alternative land reform designs for the Philippines (Hayami, et al. 1990, Otsuka 1996,
Balisacan 1995, Lipton 1990, Deininger, et al. 2000), but it is not without controversy. For
instance, skepticism has been raised by Binswanger, et al. (1995) in that landowners tend to
find ways around such taxes, that similar attempts were in fact applied but failed in Argentina,
Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia and Jamaica, and that progressive land taxes could entail higher
administrative costs and protracted litigation. Binswanger, et al. (1995), as well as Rashid
and Quibria (1995), also argue that it is not obvious why such an indirect approach would be
politically more acceptable than direct redistribution of land, and somewhat similar (though
slightly weaker) point was also made by Otsuka (1996), while Lipton (1990) appears to have
an opposite view arguing that progressive land tax offers few political problems (if levies and
progressiveness are modest)77. Thus, while there is no question about the logical necessity
and desirability of progressive land taxation, its practicality has been debated.
A relatively more recent proposal by Balisacan (1996) has some similarities with the
recent experiments in land reform design attempted in Latin America and South Africa as
77

Nevertheless, Lipton also argues that such a scheme is likely to entail serious administrative problems.
72

discussed above. While agreeing with Hayami, et al. (1990) for advocating land tenancy deregulation, simplicity in rules, progressive land taxation and use of market forces, Balisacan
(1996) appears to place a greater emphasis on de-centralized decision making including fiscal
federalism and reliance on NGOs/POs. He argues that the relative priority placed on land
reform, vis--vis other development priorities such as infrastructure investment and exportmanufacturing development, should be left with each local government unit (LGU) to
determine. Generally, political observers have often equated de-centralized decision making
in the realm of agrarian reform implementation with greater influence of landowners in the
decision making (Putzel 1992, Riedinger 1995, Wurfel 1983, 1992). Wurfel (1983) noted
that the relative decline of the political influence by the landed elite, to the extent such is the
case, was much slower at the local level than at the national level. Riedinger (1995) also
characterize the attempts by major landowner legislators, most notably Jose Cojuangco, Jr., to
amend CARP by decentralizing agrarian reform implementation as a landowners tactic to
derail land reform in landowners favor. As a consequence, most political scientists have
tended to prefer land reform implementation by a strong and centralized national authority;
how such a strong state could be brought about has never been clear, however. Balisacan
(1996) argues, on the other hand, that a central authority (such as DAR), without a centralized
system, can guide LGUs in land reform implementation by providing matching grants to
LGUs; the national government could enhance land reform by linking its fiscal assistance for
farm infrastructure and agricultural support services with reform implementation. He
similarly advocates matching grant schemes for inducing reform beneficiaries to self-select
and to engage in land market transactions; similar in spirit to negotiated reform experiments
worldwide. He also suggests additional measures to increase land supply (e. g., sale of
public lands) or to somewhat reduce land demand (e. g., distribution of public lands) in the
market in order to check the land price from rising out of control.
5. Conclusions
There has emerged a substantial range of consensus within the economics literature
that informs policy makers involved in land reform programs. While the empirical evidence
is perhaps not yet fully conclusive, there has been relatively little support, both in theory and
in empirical evidence, for the view that share tenancy is inefficient, at least in the Philippine
context. There has also been a growing view that regulating tenancy contracts is likely to
have some negative consequences. Therefore, economists generally agree that regulating
tenancy contracts (such as the prohibition of share tenancy) does not achieve its stated
objectives and thus should be abolished. Furthermore, there has emerged a strong theoretical
case within the economics literature for the desirability of equitable redistribution of wealth
for both equity and efficiency goals. Observers tend to agree that there is little reason to
expect much efficiency losses from land redistribution, if it were to occur, because of: the
general lack of systematic relationship between farm size and productivity in a wide range of
crops (including the traditionally controversial ones, such as those grown on traditional
plantationse. g., sugar and coconut and on large commercial farmse.g., banana and
pineapple) in the empirical literature from the Philippines, and of the examples of
institutional innovations (e. g., rental market for tractors, contract farming), which can

73

substitute for the economies of scale that do seem to exist in the production/processing of
some crops. As a result, there has emerged a strong consensus among economists supporting
policies for greater equity in wealth distribution. Such consensus appears to break down,
however, when it comes to the question of whether redistributive land reform is the best
means of wealth redistribution. A main reason for this controversy seems to be the fact that
little has yet been known empirically about the marginal impact, in terms of poverty reduction,
of investing fiscal resources into alternative policy instruments such as land reform, human
capital investment and infrastructure development. Another source of this controversy
appears to be the varying assessment of relative political feasibility among alternative means
of wealth distribution, such as redistributive land reform versus redistribution through taxation.
Once redistributive land reform is determined as one of the desirable policy
instruments, however, land reform advocates agree that a successful land reform requires a
wide range of policy measures. Economists agree that the main objective of the land reform
program should not be redistribution per se but the creation of economically viable and
competitive small farms, which in turn requires policy measures in addition to land
redistribution. Among the most important of such additional policy measures are the
elimination of distortionary taxes, subsidies and credit schemes favoring larger farms vis--vis
small farms and measures to ensure access to inputs and outputs markets by reform
beneficiaries.
The question of how redistribution of land should be carried out is obviously a
central policy issue in designing a land reform program. Given the historical experiences
regarding the landlord tactics of prolonged legislative debate over details, of inserting legal
loopholes and of evasion by exploiting the discriminatory reform implementation by crop type
or by farm organization (e. g., tenanted versus use of hired labor), observers agree that land
redistribution rules should be simple, transparent and uniform. The desirability of land
retention limits and some types of restriction on land sales by the reform beneficiaries has
been debated, with a clear consensus yet to emerge, and it would also depend on specific local
circumstances. But many would agree that such a restriction, if at all desirable, needs to be
applied uniformly regardless of crop types or of farm organization.
Furthermore, there has been an emerging consensus that the past experiences from
the state-led land reform, where the government expropriates lands from above and then
sells/redistributes them to beneficiaries, has inherent problems in its design which resulted in
unsatisfactory accomplishments worldwide (except for the few East Asian examples whose
success critically depended on the exceptional political and social circumstances which are
unlikely to be replicated elsewhere). The changing attitudes within the Philippine civil
society during the Ramos period, as well as the experiments of negotiated land reform
programs in Latin America and in South Africa, are based on such recognition, where the
basic thrust is the emphasis on local initiatives. Common elements among the recent
negotiated land reform experiments include: (1) self-selection of land reform beneficiaries
and of lands to be negotiated; (2) direct negotiation between the potential beneficiaries and
the landowners, mediated by the government, over land transactions including the price; (3)

74

the emphasis on identifying productive farm projects prior to land redistribution; (4) the
crucial roles played by local organizations (i. e ., GROs, POs, NGOs) in facilitating all of
these processes; and (5) the states role being limited to subsidizing land purchase and
facilitating the functioning of land transactions. A great variation exists among these
experiments, however, in terms of: the mode and the amount of state subsidy for land
purchase by beneficiaries, the criteria for beneficiary eligibility, and the processes of
beneficiary identification. In addition, while it is recognized that the negotiated reform
programs need to be complemented by other types of projects to take care of the segment of
the poor population who have limited potentials as productive and competitive farmers, little
has been known as to how serious the inherent trade-off between the emphasis on productive
potential and equity consideration may turn out to be. Systematic principles to guide the
land reform program design in these aspects do not yet seem to exist; a systematic research
integrating experiences from such negotiated land reform experiments worldwide and from
CARP implementation where some of the common threads can also be found is likely to yield
a high payoff for such an attempt.
In the context of the Philippine land reform, a solid consensus has emerged among
economists who advocate land reform on the necessity and desirability of progressive land
taxation, which would both generate fiscal resources and provide strong incentives against
land consolidation, but some controversy has focused on its political and administrative
feasibility. There has also been some divergence in views over the desirability of
decentralizing the reform implementation between economists, who have increasingly
recognized the virtue of decentralized decision making processes including fiscal resource
allocation, and political scientists, who tend to emphasize the stronger influence of landlords
over local politics than over national politics and to favor centralized implementation by a
strong state bureaucracy. Given the serious information asymmetry between the central
government and local actors, and given the lack of our knowledge on how political processes
for creating strong bureaucracy can be designed, realistic approach might be a combination
of decentralized administrative structures with fiscal federalism, provision of some fiscal
incentives by central government, and development of civil society that facilitates initiatives
from below by the potential reform beneficiaries. (see below)
In discussing land reform, its political aspects are no less important than its economic
aspects. We have made a distinction between the political processes of land reform
legislation which play out at the national level and the implementation processes of enacted
land reform laws on the ground which mainly play out at the local level. In the Philippines,
land reform has been on national political agenda at least since the early 20th century and the
scope of land redistribution has gradually expanded over time as a new piece of reform
legislation was enacted intermittently as a means of responding to rising rural unrest and of
other immediate political gains (such as re-election campaign by an incumbent President, or a
coalition building tool to defeat an incumbent President). The latest of such legislation,
CARP, has far more comprehensive scopes for land redistribution than any other previous
agrarian reform law, but it sufferes from legal loopholes, budgetary shortage, and lack of
adequate administrative capacities, which hinder swift and massive land redistribution. The

75

national-level political dynamics dominated by the landed oligarchy behind such legislative
outcomes have been a constant feature of the Philippine politics with its origin rooted in the
colonial period. As has historically been the case in the Philippines, and as the logic of a
simplified game-theoretic model (by Horowitz) shows, it appears quite difficult (unlikely) for
the interaction between the landlord dominated state and the periodic rise in rural rebellion to
produce the kind of sweeping land redistribution program that will end such prolonged cycles
of incomplete/partial land reform and intermittent rural unrest.
Despite such a pessimistic prospect for the national-level political scene, however,
there appear to be some indications of changes in the land reform implementation processes at
the local level. Especially after the fall of the Marcos dictatorship, there has been a spread of
local level peasant organizations, peoples organizations (POs) and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and increasing linkages among these local organizations, national (and
international) NGOs and also some elements of the land reform bureaucracy. In some cases,
land reform implementation has been enhanced by such new movements which became a
political force to counter-balance the political force of the landlords who had traditionally
dominated local politics. While it is not yet clear how strong such a new force might become,
such development in the local level political dynamics appears to be consistent with the
emerging consensus among economists, as we saw above, advocating land reform programs
with emphasis on beneficiary initiatives and administrative decentralization.
Finally, our survey has revealed that, despite the relatively large literature on land
reform in the Philippines which we have reviewed in this paper, little has yet been known
about the consequences of CARP implementation at the micro level. There has been few
systematic studies on the impact of CARP implementation (including redistribution of rice
and corn lands after the 1980s) on the economic welfare and economic viability of reform
beneficiaries, on the differences in the reform impact on the beneficiaries among alternative
modes of land redistribution (such as compulsory acquisition, voluntary transfer, voluntary
offer to sell) and on the impact of CARP implementation on the extent of poverty and
inequality in local communities. Attempts toward designing alternative land distribution
schemes suitable in the Philippine context would benefit from research efforts synthesizing
past experiences in the Philippines as well as from the recent experiments in alternative land
reform schemes from other countries.

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Table 1. Evolution of Recent Land Re-distribution Legislation in the Philippines

Legislation

Retention limits

1955
300 contiguous ha.
(Magsaysay) (private rice land);
600 ha (corporate
farms);
1024 ha (private fams
other than rice)
1963
75 ha
(Macapagal)

Type of lands
covered by reform
Sugar and coconut
lands excluded
(by tacit
agreement)

Prospective
beneficiaries
Tenants
only??

Rice & corn

(in declared
agrarian reform
municipalities
only)

Tenant only

1971
(Marcos)

24 ha

Rice & corn only

(entire country)

Tenant only

1972
(Marcos)

7 ha
5 ha (non-irrigated)/ 3ha
(irrigated) for reform
beneficiaries

Rice & corn only

(entire country)

Tenant only

1988
(Aquino)

5 ha with 3ha for each

heir for landowners (7
ha for PD27 covered
lands)
24 ha for homesteaders

All crops

Tenant and
regular farm
workers

Land valuation and

payment
Landowners: cash only
Land valuation: just
compensation ?
Beneficiaries: 25 year
amortization (6% P.A.
interest).
Landowners: 10% cash,
Land Bank bonds rest
Land valuation: just
compensation based on
capitalized annual rent
with 6% interest rate.
Beneficiaries: 25 year
amortization
Landowners: 20% cash,
Land Bank bonds rest;
Land valuation: no
change?
Beneficiaries: 25 year
amortization?
Landowners: 10% cash,
90% Land Bank bonds
Land valuation: 2.5 times
the value of average
annual production in past
3 years.
Beneficiaries: 15 year
amortization.
Landowners: 24~35%
cash depending on size
Land valuation: fair
market value with a
complex formula

84

Major limitations/
loopholes
Only upon majority
tenants petition

Implementation schedule
& budget
P300,000 (land
acquisition)

Implementation only in
pilot areas.
Rice & corn only
Tenants only

2 step procedure:
(1)operation leasehold
(2) operation land
transfer

Rice & corn only

Tenants only

DAR created
2 step procedure:
(1)operation leasehold
(automatic
conversion) (2)
operation land transfer
Same as above

Rice & corn only

Tenants only

1. public lands and

Many alternatives to
PD27 lands
re-distributions offered
(voluntary land sharing, 2. private lands over 50
ha
corporate stock
3. private lands 24-50 ha
sharing,)

 3 ha for reform
beneficiaries

Beneficiaries: 30 year
amortization

Commercial estate
exempted

4. private lands 5-24 ha

Sources: Hayami, et. al. (1990), Putzel (1992), Riedinger (1995), Takigawa (1976).

Table 3. Political Forces behind Recent Land Re-distribution Legislation in the Philippines
Legislation

an opposition
candidate?

1955
yes
(Magsaysay)
1963
No
(Macapagal)

Campaign
issue during
the
Presidential
election
electing
him?
Yes

Presidents Coalition
included:

Rural unrest
present?

Major
opposition/enemy?

External
influence?

Huk rebellion

Quirino/Liberal
(Incumbent
President)
?

Yes, strong US
backing

No (but, pre- Tenants support in the

campaign for coming re-election campaign
re-election
attempted;
bid??)
New middle class
(industrialists, professionals)

Not much at the

moment (Huk had
been defeated in
the 1950s)

CPP formed;
pesant
demonstration
CPP

1971
(Marcos)

No

n.a.

(President not directly

involved)

1972
(Marcos)
1988
(Aquino)

No

Matial law

No coalition.

Yes.

Yes

Peasants, business, military

(RAM), urban middle class?

85

NPA

Traditional
oligarchy
Marcos (Incumbent
President)

Makapagals
perception of
communist
threats in
Southeast Asia.
(e.g., Vietnam)
US?

US?
Relatively weak,
and no strong
interest in
reform by
outsiders.

Table 4. Major Rural Unrest Episodes in the Philippines

Name

period

Size at peak

origin

Main aim/ideology

Hukblahap

1942-45

10,000
(1943 ca)

Against Japanese and

its collaborators

Huks Rebel (HMB)

1946-54

5,00010,000

Early remnants of
peasant rebellion
against patron-client
(PKP, AMT, KPMP)
Remnants of earlier
Hukblahap; HMB,
PKP

CPP/NPA

1968- present

8,000? (as of
1972)
25,200
(1987: 12%
of barangay
infiltrated)
=> 10,600
(1993)

Remnants of Huk
guerrila

86

Geographical
strong holds
Bulacan, Nueva
Ecija, Pampanga,
Tarlac

How did it end?

Right to retain arms,

repression, social
welfare and agrarian
reforms

Central Luzon,
Southern Luzon

CPP ideology (US

imperialism; feudalism;
fascism; two-stage
revolution;

Nationwide:
Central Luzon
Isabela (early 70s)
Eastern and
Northern
Mindanao, Samar,
Bicol, Cordillera
(in the 80s??)

battle fatigue;
community development;
more disciplined military
propaganda; unti-Huk
propaganda; 1952
renouncing by PKP of
armed struggle; 1954
surrender of Huk
commander
CPP/NPA losing political
ground by boycotting
1986 election

GOP-US military crack

down and arrest of leaders

Table 2. Land Re-distribution Implementation in the Philippines

Table 2-1. Landed Estates Programs (1940-1998)
President

Period

Quezon
Roxas
Quirino
Magsaysay
Garcia
Macapagal
Marcos

1935-41
1946-48
1949-53
1954-56
1957-61
1962-65
1966-85
(1966-69)
(1970-72)
(1972-86)
1987-Jun.92
Jul.1992-Jun.98

Aquino
Ramos

Landed estates
acquired (ha): series 11
Total
Annual
average
5,825
832
9,395
3,132
33,723
6,745
1,194
398
15,147
3,029
3,342
836
1,603
32,054
(682)
(2,727)
(4,528)
(12,453)
(16,874)
(1,205)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.

Landed estates acquired

(ha): series 22
Total
Annual
average
N.A.3
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
(789)
(11,041)
25,781
4,297
41,201
6,867

Sources:
1
. Department of Agrarian Reform as quoted in Balisacan (1990: 88) and Putzel (1992: 115).
2
. Department of Agrarian Reform as provided to the author as of June 1999.
3
. Not available in the series.

Table 2-2. Operation Land Transfer under PD271: CLTs2 and EPs3 Printed (1972-1985)
Year
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985

CLTs printed
Beneficiaries
Area (ha)
295
682
144245
258666
44645
77790
19513
29875
21882
33642
27500
44241
28146
46812
46561
53520
34187
26556
50361
74907
42524
54544
34768
55717
12277
19765
4038
11458

Sources:
1
. Department of Agrarian Reform as quoted in Putzel (1988:139).
2
. Certificate of Land Transfer.
3
. Emancipation Patent.

87

EPs printed
Beneficiaries
Area (ha)
97
52
534
604
600
465
287
263
82
51
84
83
115
107
34913
45592
62782
71131
21208
44770
17229
20453

Table 2-3. Operation Land Transfer after PD27: Lands Transfer Completed (1972-1998)
President

Period

Marcos

1972-86
(1972-85)
1987-Jun.92
(1987-Dec.92)
Jul.1992-Jun.98
(Jan.92-Dec.93)

Aquino
Ramos

Land transfer completed

(ha): series 11
Total
Annual
average
N.A.3
N.A.
(11,197)
(861)
N.A.
N.A.3
(386,890)
(64,482)
N.A.
N.A.
(65,705)
(32,853)

Land transfer completed

(ha): series 22
Total
Annual
average
15,061
1,076
N.A.
N.A.
340,045
61,826
(356,484)
(59,414)
154,974
25,829
(57,450)
(28,725)

Sources:
1
. Department of Agrarian Reform as quoted in Riedinger (1995: 92, 196-197).
2
. Department of Agrarian Reform as provided to the author as of June 1999.
3
. Not available in the series.

Table 2-4. Land Re-distribution Under CARP (except OLT and DENR) (1987-1998)
President

Aquino
Ramos

Period

Jan.1987-Jun.92
(Jan.87-Dec.92)
Jul.92-Jun.98
(Jan.92-Dec.93)

Total (CA+VOS+VLT)
series 11
88,230
(129,095)
704,823
(186,837)

Series 22
N.A.
(122,544)
N.A.
(194,814)

Compulsory
Acquisition (CA)
series 11 series 22
13,482
N.A.3
4
(10,904)4
(9,698)
120,828
N.A.
(34,423)
N.A.

Sources:
1
. Department of Agrarian Reform as provided to the author as of June 1999.
2
. Department of Agrarian Reform as quoted in Riedinger (1995: 92, 196-197).
3
. Not available in the series.
4
. 1991 only.

88

Voluntary Offer to
Sell (VOS)
series 11 series 22
54,011
N.A.
(83,397) (76,599)
255,341
N.A.
(97,191)
N.A.

Voluntary Land
Transfer (VLT)
series 11 series 22
20,737
N.A.
(36,000) (35,041)
328,654
N.A.
(55,223)
N.A.

Table 2-5. Agrarian Reform Accomplishments under Marcos, Aquino and Ramos
Administrations1
Reform
Program
Component

working
scope
(ha)2

Marcos
area

OLT

579,520

15,061

Non-rice/corn
private lands
(CA+VOS+V
LT)
CA

2,186,789

not
applicable.

not
applicable
.

1,505,363

not
applicable.

VOS

396,684

not
applicable.

VLT

284,742

not
applicable.

LES

70,173

11,041??
32,054

not
applicable
.
not
applicable
.
not
applicable
.
15.73/
45.68

Accompli
shment
(%)
2.60

Aquino
Area

Ramos
Accomplish area
ment (%)

340,045

154,974

88,230

58.68
(61.28) 3
4.03

13,482

0.90

120,828

8.03 (8.93)

54,011

13.62

255,341

64.37
(77.99)

20,737

7.28

328,654

115.42
(122.70)

41,201

58.71
(111.18/
141.13)
62.24
(102.02/
139.84)

36.74
(52.47/
82.42)
RESETTLE
566,322
32,054
5.66/
193,207
34.12
246,237??
43.48
(39.78
/77.60)
1. Department of Agrarian Reform as provided to the author as of June 1999.
2
. As of June 1999.
3
. Cumulative accomplishment in parentheses.

89

25,781

704,823

352,497

Accomplish
ment (%)
26.74
(88.02)
32.23
(36.27)

2-6. Leasehold Operation (OLH) Accomplishment Areas and Beneficiaries

Year

Area (ha) converted to

leasehold

Number of farmerbeneficiaries

(cumulative total
since 1963??)

572,999

546,520

1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998

3,459
6,018
22,328
72,165
267,160
189,091
123,270
89,522
42,841
27,527
27,830
13,450

4,846
3,848
16,326
43,109
170,904
113,747
75,277
50,742
25,952
12,852
13,129
7,271

As of 1986

(source: Department of Agrarian Reform)

90

Table 5. Major Events related to Agrarian Reform (AR)between Feb. 1986 and June
1988
Year

Government action

1986

2:Marcos fleds, Aquino

assumes Presidency
3: 1973 Constitution
suspended
4: Alvarez named MAR
5: Con-Comm3 appointed

6: PCGR10 task force

10: Constitution voted by

Con-Com
11: cabinet shake up (a few
liberal members ousted)

1987

1: CAC17 appointed to draft

an EO (1/28)

2: Constitutional plebiscite
approves Constitution
5: Congressional election
5~6: public consultation by
CAC

7: EO22920 issued (7/22)

Congress meets (7/27)

8(?): cabinet shake up

removing Ongpin and
Arroyo
1988

1: provincial/municipal
elections
4: House and Senate bills
passed
5: Joint House-Senate
Conference meets

Demand for AR
Pro-reform action/event

Supply of AR
Anti-reform action/event

3: NCARRD1 I, NGOs start

consultation
4: KMPs 6 point proposal2
5: BISIG4 founded; FFF5s 10
priorities
NEDA6/UP7s liberal draft
policy agenda
6: (PCGR task forces liberal
AR11 draft)
7~10: peasant demonstrations
8: NCARRD II
9~: KPMs organized land
occupation
10: AMA13, KASAMA14,
PAKISAMA15 join land
occupation campaign
KPM led demonstration to
mark PD27 anniversary
(10/21)
12: ITFAR16 formed

3: Ongpin8 advocates
corporate stock sharing
instead of re-distributive
AR

1:peasant demonstration in
Manila and Mendiola
massacre18 (1/22)
ITFAR proposes reform
program

5: liberal EO draft by ITFAR

CPAR12 launched, 8 point
authentic AR

7: series of CPAR led mass

demonstrations
8: relatively liberal House bill
(HB400) proposed

10: relatively liberal Senate bill

proposed

4:CPAR led Agrarian Reform

Express21
Church involvement in
support of AR intensifies

91

NEDA/UP policy agenda

rejected by Ongpin/Mitra9

7: Manila Hotel coup

attempt (failed)
(No action was necessary to
influence Con-Com since
anti-distributive land
reform commissioners held
overwhelming majority?)
11: coup plot found (mainly
in response to
governments negotiation
with NPA)
1: military revolt by Marcos
loyalists failed.(1/27)
2: Total War on NPA
resumed.
5~: ITFAR draft rejected by
Ongpin19 et al., alternative
drafts prepared
anti-reform lobby intensifies
after Congressional
election
6~7: anti-reform campaign by
landowners
Bankers opposition to
liberal reform
8: Col. Honasans coup
attempt

3: series of amendments
watering down HB400

6: Aquino signs RA6657

Peasants denounce RA6657,

PARCODE22 proposed as an
alternative
1. NCARRD: the National Consultation on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development
2. KMP: Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (Peasant Movement of the Philippines) led by Jaime Tadeo.
3. Constitutional Commission
4. BISIGBUkluran sa Ikauunlad ng Sosyalistang Isip at Gawa (Union for the Advancement of Socialist Thought
and Action)
5. FFF: Federation of Free Farmers (center-right)
6. NEDA: National Economic Development Authority
7. UP: University of the Philippines
8. Ongpin, Jaime: Finance Minister
9. Mitra, : Agricultural Minister
10.
PCGR: Presidential Commission on Government Reorganization
11.
AR: agrarian reform
12.
CPAR: Congress for Peoples Agrarian Reform
13.
AMA: Aniban ng mga Manggagawa sa Agrikultura (Union of Agricultural Workers)
14.
KASAMA: Katipunan ng mga Samahan ng Mamamayan ()
15.
PAKISAMA: Pambansang Kilusan ng mga Samahang Magsasaka (National Movement of Peasant
Organization)
16.
ITFAR: Inter-Agency Task Force on Agrarian Reform
17.
CAC: Cabinet Action Commettee
18.
Mendiola Massacre:
19.
Onping, et al: Jaime Ongpin (Finance Secretary), Deogracias Vistan (Land Bank President), Jose
Concepcion, Jr. (Trade and Industry Secretary)
20.
EO: executive order .
21.
Agrarian Reform Express: a week long caravans from across Luzon with 20,000 peasants and
advocates converging in Manila.
22.
PARCODE: Peoples Agrarian Reform Code.

92