A Holistic Approach To Phrasal Verbs PDF

Andreea-Rosalia
Olteanu
A HOLISTIC
APPROACH TO
PHRASAL VERBS
ISBN 978-606-577-927-3
Editura Sfntul Ierarh Nicolae

2012
Contents
Introduction
Chapter I
1.3
An Overview of Phrasal Verbs
1.1
A Chronological Survey
1.2
The Historical Rise of the English Phrasal Verbs
The Ancestors of Phrasal Verbs in Old English

1.4
Phrasal Verbs in Middle English
1.5
Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English
1.6
Phrasal verbs in present- day English
1.7
Definition of Phrasal Verbs
1.8
Role of Phrasal Verbs in English language
1.9
Classification of English Verbs
1.10
Types of Phrasal Verbs
Chapter II The grammar of Phrasal Verbs

2.1
2.2
Particle verbs and Morphology

2.1.1
Derivation
2.1.2
Inflection
Syntax of Phrasal Verbs
2.2.1 Differences between Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional

Verbs
2.2.2 Syntactic Patterns
2.3
2.4
2.2.3
Word classes of Particles
2.2.4
Positioning of Particles
2.2.5
Phrasal- prepositional Verbs
2.2.6
Syntactic tests for Phrasal Verbs
2.2.7
The Function of Particles
Semantics of Phrasal Verbs

2.3.1
Spatial particles
2.3.2
Aspectual and related particle
2.3.3
Compositional vs. Non- compositional Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs and Pragmatics

2.4.1 Pragmatics and Discourse
2.5
The metaphorical extension of phrasal verbs

2.5.1
Phrasal Verbs as Idioms
2.5.2
Variations of meaning
2.5.3
Idiomatic or literal verb particle construction?
2.5.4
The metaphoric in recent cognitive approaches to
Phrasal Verbs
Chapter III Practical Aspects of Phrasal Verbs
3.1 Difficulties with phrasal verbs
3.2 A query on the verb listen to as a Phrasal Verb
3.3 Slang equivalents for the verb to die
3.4The analysis of the phrasal verbs used in lyrics
General conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The present study suggests a revision of all the theses concerning the
domain of complex verbs. The practical aim of the study is to offer a
synthesizing model of the conveyed theories that have been put forward in
the specialized literature of complex verbs.
Being structured into three chapters, this paper is a study on phrasal
verbs whose particular aim is that of producing an accurate description of
phrasal verbs seen through their complex perspective of the morphological,
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features.
Therefore, Chapter One deals with aspects related to a chronological
survey, to a historical rise of the English phrasal verbs and has in view
definitions and classifications of phrasal verbs.
Further on, Chapter Two points out a complete approach from a
morphological, syntactical, semantic,pragmatic and metaphorical point of
view.
And finally, Chapter Three offers a new perspective on the matter of
phrasal verbs dealing with issues like: the description of listen to as a phrasal
verb, slang equivalents for the verb to die and the analysis of phrasal verbs
that occurin some lyrics.
In the study there are some methods used in order to highlight matters
like the description of listen to as a phrasal verb, such as the method of query
that helps in demonstrating that listen to is a phrasal verb, or the method of
approaching grammatical judgements through the theories of some authors
on the same subject. (Driven, Rene's study on metaphorical extension is a
case in point)
The Bibliography that supports the theoretical affirmations is classified
into General Bibliography and Special Bibliography. The latter comes up
with examples meant to illustrate that phrasal verbs are used in many
domains, even in the lyrics of the Magical world of Disney, issue encountered
in the last part of Chapter One. This paper was fulfilled in accordance with
the scientific writing techniques described by Gherasim, Alexandra and
Turcan, Nelly (2006)1
Gherasim,Alexandra,TurcanNelly.GhidMetodologicpentruElaborareaTezelordeLicentasiMasterat.Chisinau:Universitatea deStatdinMoldova,2005-P.23
Chapter 1 . An Overview of Phrasal Verbs

The verb-particle construction in Modern English is extremely
complex to analyse and describe coherently in synchronic terms, but its origin
and diachronic development is even more problematic.
To get deeper into the issue, this chapter will deal with aspects related
to an evolution of specialized literature, with a historical rise of the English
phrasal verb (from the Old English to the present day English), and will also
have in view definitions and classifications of phrasal verbs.
1.1 A chronological survey
Along the years, phrasal verbs have been much studied. Thus a
chronological
Survey helps in covering all the research conducted so far on the matter.
Therefore, the earliest study that has been written about phrasal verbs
dates from the 16th century, when in 1586 William Bullokar wrote The Brief
Grammar for English by J R Turner, The works of William Bullokar, vol. II.
Starting with the 17th century, 2 studies have been written, that of Walker Leeds
who in 1655 wrote A Treatise of the English Particles. The Scholar Press,
London, and that of Guy Miege (1688). The English Grammar,London.
In the 18th century, only one study is recorded, that of Michael
Mattaire who in 1712 wrote The English Grammar. London.
Further on, in the 19th century, Henry Sweet (1892) entitled his study
on phrasal verbs A New English Grammar. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Nevertheless, in the 20th century, more and more studies were to be written. Thus,
in 1906 A. Western published his work Some Remarks on English Adverbs.
Englische Studieni 36, 75-99, Whitehall. In 1919. Harold Dongen W. A. wrote He
put on his hat and he put his hat on. A number of other works written in this century
were: AG Kennedy (1920), The Modern English Verb Adverb Combination.
Stanford University Press, California; Bogholm, Niels (1920) English Prepositions.
Copenhagen, Fowler, H.W. (1923) Preposition at end. Society for Pure English
Tracts 14, 18-21 ; Smith, Logan P(1925), Words and Idioms: Studies in the English
Language, London ; Poutsma, Hendrik (1926), A Grammar of Late Modem
English, Part II: The Parts of Speech, Section II: The Verb and the Particles,
Groningen ; P. Noordhoff Volbeda, R (1926), On the place of prepositions ;
English Studies 8, 143 - 152,169 -181 ; Roberts, M.H. (1936), The antiquity of the
Germanic Verb- adverb locution, JEGP 35, 466 -481 ; Charnley, M.B. (1949),
The syntax of deferred prepositions. American Speech 24; Pence, R.W. (1949),
Up with which we can no longer put Quarterly Journal 35; Mackin, Ronald
(1950). The Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. Oxford
University Press; Stevie, F. W. (1950). The deferred preposition. American
Speech, 25, 211 - 214; Brondal, V. (1950) Theorie des prepositions. Copenhagen;
Jowett W. P. (1951) On phrasal verbs. ELT 6; Prins, Anton A. (1952) French
Influence in English Phrasing. Leiden, Universitaire Press Leiden; Anthony, M.
M. jr. (1954) Test Frames for structures with "up" in Modem American
Speech. University of Michigan Dissertation; Mechner, M. (1956) Some
Problems of Collocations of Verb and Particle in the Teaching of English as a
Foreign Language. MA. Thesis University of London; Hornby A. S. (1957), A
guide to patterns and usage in English. 2nd ed. London, Oxford University Press;
Mitchell, T.F (1958) Syntagmatic relations in linguistic analysis. Transactions of
the Philological Society, 101 - 118; Potter, S (1965), English Phrasal Verbs.
Philologica Pragensia 8, 285 - 289; Kiffer. T E. (1965), A Diachronic and
Synchronic Analysis and Description of English Phrasal Verbs. University of
Pennsylvania; Hughes, M. N. (1966) Phrasal and prepositional verbs. English
Language Teaching Institute, London, Typescript; Legum, St. E verbparticle constructions in English. Papers from the Foui Meeting of the
Chicago Linguistic Society, 50-62, Chicago ; Nickel, Gerhard (1968), Complex
verbal structures in English. International Review of Applied Linguistics 6: 1 2; Zamudio, M (1969), On defining the phrasal verb: its grammatical structure
and its recognition.
Revista de Linguistica Apicada, Chile, Universidad de Concepcion ; Bolinger
Dwight (1971) The Phrasal Verb in English. Cambridge, Harvard University
Press; Lipka, L (1972) Semantic Structure and Word - Formation. VerbParticle Constructions in Contemporary English, Munchen; Fink Sroka,
Kazimiers (1972), The Syntax of English Phrasal Verbs. The Hague, Mouton;
Quirk et al (1972), A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman ;
Parisi, D. & A. Puglielli (1974), Hopping adverbs, Atti del XI Congresso
Internazionale di Linguistica ; Cowie, A.P& R. Mackin (1975), Oxford
Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, vol 1, Verbs with prepositions and
particles. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Swan, Michael (1980), Practical
English Usage. Oxford, Oxford University Press; Hook, J. N. (1981), Two- word
Verbs in English. New York Harcourt; Aarts, J. F. (1982), English Syntactic
Structure, The Pergamon Press; Dalle, T. S. (1983), The Effectiveness of

Current Grammatical Theory in Applied ESL and Some Pedagogical
Implications. The University of Arizona; Murphy, M.J. (1983), Understanding
Phrasal Verbs, Hulton Educational Supplement ; Shovel, M. (1985), Making
Sense of Phrasal Verbs. Eastbourne, Cassell ; Bacchieli, Rolando (1986),
Termini frasali inglesi, Urbino, Quatro Venti ; Brinton, Laurel J. (1988), The
Development of English Aspectual Systems. Aspectualizers and Post- Verbal
Particles. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press; McArthur, Tom (1989), The
long- neglected phrasal verb. English Today 18; Bari. Schena Dikken, Marcel
den (1992), Particles : on the Syntax of Verb- Particle, Triadic, and Causative
Constructions. Oxford, Oxford University Press; Woolard, George (1992),
Phrasal Verbs through jokes. Modern English Teacher, vol 1, p 12; Cowie, A.
(1993), Getting to grips with phrasal verbs. English Today 36, 38 - 41; Watson,
George G. (1994), Place and movement. An approach to phrasal verbs. LEND
- Lingua Didattica, pp 21-38; Pye, Glennis et al. (1997), Cambridge
international Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press R E. (1998), Fine but not definitive (a review of Glennis Pye et al,
C U P ) , English Today 55, 57-59; Brinton, Laurel J. & Minoji Akimoto, eds.
(1999), Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects of Composite Predicates in
the History of English. Amsterdam; Benjamins Hiltuten, Risto (1999), Verbal
Phrases and Phrasal Verbs in Early Modem English. Amsterdam,
Benjamins, pp.133 -165.
This chronological survey meant to highlight the studies that have been
written since the 16th century to the 20,h century, constitute a premise for the next
section that is, The Historical Rise of the English Phrasal Verb.
1.2 The Historical Rise of the English Phrasal Verb.

The presentation starts with the description given in A Biography of the
English Language by Millward, C. M. 2
1.3 The Ancestors of Phrasal Verbs in Old English

Millward, C. M. (1996) pointed out that the range and importance of verb
particle- constructions in the spoken language of the early stages of development is
hard to be dealt with. Still, studies like: Baugh Albert C. (1993)3, or Traugott,
Elizabeth C. (1972)4 have shown that the Old English ancestors of modem phrasal
verbs were generally inseparable prefix verbs, although some separable forms did
exist.
Millward states that the inseparable- prefix verb was a form in which the
particle was attached to the beginning of the verb. These Old English prefixed verbs
are comparable to current phrasal forms. For example, in present day English, there
is the monotransitive verb to burn and then the phrasal monotransitive to burn up.
Old English had baernan (to bum) and fbrbaernan (to burn up). The prefix for
remained affixed to the verb and could not move as modern particle can.
2
Millward, CM A Biography of the English Language. 2nd edition Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1996.
Baugh Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language..4th edition Eaglewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1993.
4
Traugott, Elizabeth C. The History of English Syntax. New York: Holt Rinehard and Winston, 1972.
3
Such Old English compound verbs were also highly idiomatic, in that the
meaning of the compound form did not necessarily reflect the meaning of the root.
Denison (1993) 5 provides beraedan as an example because it meant to
dispossess, while its root verb raedan meant to advise.
Akimoto (1999)6 suggests that Old English prefixes often remained before
the verb because Old English had strong object- before- verb tendencies, whereas
present day English is largely a VO (verb+ object) language, which has made it
possible for particles to travel to post verbal positions.
Some Old English verbs did function as modern phrasal verbs do.
Referring to the post- verbal particles in this period was still often very directional,
in close relationship with a prepositional meaning.
Therefore, applications of the particle up in Old English conveyed a sense
of direction upward, as in to grow up (ward), rather than the completive sense, as
in to break up (completely), that would become more common in Middle English
and beyond.
1.4 Phrasal Verbs in Middle English
This section will deal with those forms of phrasal verbs that occur in Middle
English. Thus, the formation of prefixes verbs in Old English was no longer
productive in Middle English, and the loss of productivity was already evident in
Old English, in which certain authors added a post- verbal particle to prefixed verbs,
possibly because the prefix was losing meaning (Denison, 1986:47)7
5
Denison, David. English Historical Syntax: Verbal Constructions: London and New York, Longman, 1986
Akimoto, Minoji. Collocations and Idioms in Late Modern English. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999
7
Denison, David. The Origins of Completive up in English Ncuphilologische Mitteilungen , 1986-P. 47.
6
The rapid borrowings of French verbs into Middle English likely showed the
development of phrasal verbs (Baugh and Cable 3408, Fischer 3869) because of
competition in semantic fields of the Old English prefixed verbs. For example, the
French borrowing destroy could accommodate the meaning of the Old English
forbrecan break up (Smith, 1996:140)10
French forms also likely hindered phrasal verbs because of lexical register.
French was the language of status in England after the Norman Conquest, and
phrasal verbs were considered informal (Tanabe, 1999:123)11, Fischer 39812).
Nonetheless, phrasal verbs regained strong productivity by the 15th century
(Fischer, 1992:386)13 Middle English underwent a shift in syntax from many
instances of SOV to SVO as it lost many synthetic inflections from Old English,
becoming a much more analytic, or word- order based language. The new VO
word order, as Akimoto claims, likely enabled adverbial particles.
In other words, Old English forbrecan became to break up. By late
Middle English, phrasal verbs could be divided into three categories: a). Old
English style inseparable particle+ verb (understand, overtake); b). phrasal verbs
including verbs+ separable particle (take up, write up); and c). nominal compounds
derived from the first two (outcry, write- off). (Fischer, 1992: 386)14
Baugh and Cable. Op. cit. - P. 340.

Fischer, Olga. Syntax. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2, Ed. Norman Blake, Cambridge UP, 1992, P.110
10
Smith, Jeremy. A Historical Study of English. London and New York: Routledge, 1996.-P. 63
11
'Tanabe, Harumi Composite Predicates and Phrasal Verbs in the Paston Letters, Amsterda tnd Philadelphia, 1999. - P. 123.
12
Fischer, Olga. Op. cit - P. 398.
13
Idem - P. 386
14
Fischer, Olga. Op. cit - P. 386.
9
1.5 Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English

The incidence of phrasal verbs exploded in Early Modem English.
Shakespeare himself applied the form widely through the plays. Hiltuten (1999)15
explains that phrasal verbs were used extensively in Early Modern English dramatic
texts because of their variable shades of meaning and productive capacity " to be
expanded to form new idioms"16.
Akimoto notes also that "phrasal verbs occur more frequently in letters and
dramas than in essays or academic writing17 in the 18th and 19th centuries. This
confirms that phrasal verbs occupied a lower social position in Early Modern
English than, perhaps, single Latinate verbs that could fill their semantic fields,
which gives rise, incidentally, to a syntactic test for phrasal verbs.
Phrasal verbs in Early Modern English could be formed with a noun+
particle, such as to louse up (Millward 319)18
It was also in this period that pronominal objects were firmly established
before particles {She put it on not *She put on it) as a standard practice, while
nominal objects retained movement before and after the particle (She put the dress
on / She put on the dress).
1.6 Phrasal Verbs in present-day English
In present-day English, phrasal verbs are identifiable by particle movement

(when transitive), stressed particles, incapacity for adverb intervention in the verb
15
16
Hilluten, Risio Verbal Phrases and Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999- P. 95
Idem. -P. 161.

Akimoto, Minoji Op. cit - P. 14S.
18
Millward, CM. Op. cit. - P. 319.
17
phrase, by translation and passivization. A phrasal verb in present day English is a

verb that takes a complementary particle which is an adverb resembling a
preposition, necessary to complete sentence. (E.g. He fixed up the car.).
This short presentation of the origin and development of English phrasal verbs from
Old English to Modem English was a premise for approaching another aspect of
the present study, that is: Various definitions of phrasal verbs.
1.7 Definitions of Phrasal Verbs

The expression phrasal verb refers, in English Grammar, to a combination
of a verb and a prepositional or adverbial particle, in which the combination often
takes on a meaning which is apparently not the simple sum of its parts, for example
turn up meaning appear.
Longman Dictionary of phrasal verbs19 defines phrasals as "idiomatic
combination of a verb and adverb, or a verb and preposition (or verb with both
adverb and preposition)"20.
A grammarian such as Eduard, Vlad (1998:93)21 describes phrasal verbs as
"combinations of a lexical verb and adverbial particle". Verbs as give up, fall out,
take in are considered by him to be multi- words verbs that are equivalent to one
lexical item.
19 Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs: Longman, Longman Publishing House 1991-P. xv

20 Longman Dictionary. Op. cit. - P. xv.
21 Vlad, Eduard English Group Grammar. Constanta: Tipografia Universitatii Ovidius. 1998- P. 145
Heaton (1985:103)22 considers that "phrasal verbs are compound verbs that
result from combining a verb with an adverb or a preposition, the resulting
compound verb being idiomatic."
All these definitions lead to another aspect proposed for discussion, that is,
the role of phrasal verbs in the English language.
1.8 The role of Phrasal Verbs in the English language
Phrasal verbs are considered to be a very important and frequently
occurring feature of the English language.
First of all, they are so common in everyday conversation, and non-native
speakers who wish to sound natural when speaking this language need to learn their
grammar in order to know how to produce them correctly.
Secondly, the habit of inventing phrasal verbs has been the source of great
enrichment of the language. By means of phrasal verbs it is described the greatest
variety of human actions and relations. .E.g. People can be taken up, taken down,
taken off, taken in or one can keep in with people, one can set people up or down,
or hit people off. So there is hardly any action or attitude of one human being to
another which cannot be expressed by means of these phrasal verbs.
The last part of this chapter will deal with classifications of English verbs and
with types of phrasal verbs.
22 Heaton, J. B. Prepositions and Adverbial Particles. Hong Kong: Peninsula Press, 1985- P. 155
1.9 Classification of English Verbs

This classification is necessary to see where are phrasal verbs included in
English Grammar and what status do they take.
The verb is considered to be the heart of a sentence "is a part of speech
denoting actions, to work, to go, to sing, processes in the form of actions to stand,
to lie, the appearance of a characteristic to bud, the modification of a characteristic
to harden, an attitude to be glad"23
English Verbs are classified in accordance with: a). Composition; b).
Derivation; c). Basic forms; d). Content. In accordance with Composition, verbs are
a). Simple; b). Compound; c). Complex; d). Verbal Phrases (Levitchi,1970: 60).
The term 'compound verb' is often used in place of 'complex verb', a type of
complex phrase. But this usage is not accepted in linguistics, because 'compound'
and 'complex' are not synonymous.
Complex verbs are a variety of verbal compounds made up of a principal
verb and an adverbial particle (up, in out) which usually a), modifies and b).
sometimes only determines the meaning of the former.
23
Levitchi,D.Leon,Limba Engleza Contemporana- Lexicologie Editura DidacticasiPedagogica,Bucuresti,1970-P.83
E.g. a). to bring about 'to determine, to cause', to bring up 'to

educate', to fall out 'to argue'.
b).to shut up, to cut up
As it has been demonstrated in the first part of the chapter, since Renaissance
Period, complex verbs have gone a long way developing steadily and giving rise to
ever newer forms as a rule, on the basis of Old English one-syllabled verbs. Many
of these complex forms have developed an astonishing polysemy: E.g. the verb to
break
Break I trans, to break awav a zmulge, a rupe'; to ~ down a), 'a
darama', 'a dobori' ; b). a sfarama, a distruge, a nimici'; c). 'a stoarce, a slei';
to ~ in a), 'a deschide cu putere' ; b). 'a domestici, a dresa'; to ~ off a), 'a
frange'; b). a intrerupe brusc'; c). 'a rupe, a desface'.
Break II intrans. to ~ awav a).' a se desface, a se zmulge' ; b). 'a se
ripisi' ; c). 'a pomi inainte de darea semnalului1 ; to ~ down a), a se ruina, a
se darama'; b). 'a se subrezi, a slabi'; c). 'a cadea , a se prabusi' ; to ~ in a), 'a
navali, a da buzna'; b). 'a capata acces, a fi primit'; to ~ out a), 'a izbucni'; b).
'a erupe'. ( Levitchi, 65).
A complex verb of the type to give up, to take in, to take off, to bring
out, though a variety of compound verbs proper ('broadcast', 'to whitewash'), differs
from the latter in that it behaves differently in a sentenced the verb may be separated
from its adverbial particle by a direct object.
Complex verbs such as to break loose, to leave alone behave like 'to give
up', but they differ from them in that loose, home, alone are not adverbial particles
but adverbs and adjectives, bearers of a far greater semantic weight than adverbial
particles, although as indissolubly linked with the verb proper. (Levintchi, 1970:67).
An aspect related to compound verbs is that compounds, as hold off are not
to be confused with combinations as to come in or to go out or to look up, in
which in, out, up are adverbs forming answers to such questions as: 'where?',
'where to?', 'in what directions?'
E.g. (1) The boy went in (Where did the boy go?)
(2) The rain held off (No such question is possible: What is
said about the rain or What did the rain do?).
These exemplifications support the fact that complex verbs is a special
category of compounds. (Levitchi, 1970:69).
So far, all these classifications and comments have shown that phrasal
verbs are considered and called 'complex verbs' in accordance with Leon Levitchi,
but there are also called 'multiword verbs' and' phrasalprepositional verbs' by
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990)24
1.10 Types of Phrasal Verbs.
After classifying English verbs, a classification of phrasal verbs is required.

Thus, on one hand, in point of origin of the particle that follows the main verb,
Rosemary Courtney (1983)25 distinguishes three types of phrasal verbs:
1). Verb+ adverb as in:
The old lady was taken in ('deceived') by the salesman.
24 Greenbaum,Sidney,QuirkRandolph,AUniversityGrammarofEnglish.BurntMill,Essex:LongmanHouse,1973.-P.121
25 Courtney,Rosemary.Longman Dictionary of Phrasal verbs. England:LongmanHouse,193-P.85
2). Verb+ preposition as in: She

set about ('started') making a new dress.
3). Verb+ adverb+ preposition as in: / cannot put up with ('bear')
him because he is always complaining.
On the other hand, in point of transitivity, The Oxford English
Grammar (1983: 145)26 distinguishes seve.n types of phrasal verbs in English:
Intransitive phrasal verbs ( give in)
Transitive phrasal verbs (find out)
Monotransitive prepositional verbs {look after)
Doubly transitive prepositional verbs(6/ame something or
someone)
Copular prepositional verbs ( serve as)
Monotransitive phrasalprepositional verbs (look up to
respect)
Doubly transitive phrasal prepositional verbs (put something
down to someone 'attribute to').
So far, this classification is the most comprehensive because other
grammarians, like Quirk, R., or Veres, Grigore (1998) or Vlad, Eduard (1998)
divide phrasal verbs into transitive and intransitive.
In traditional grammars, an intransitive verb is an action verb that takes no object.
One common type of multiword verb is the intransitive phrasal verb consisting of
a verb plus a particle as exemplified in: E.g. (3) The children were sitting down.
26 Oxford English Grammar, London:OxfordUniversityPress,1983.P.145
(4) Drink up quickly!

(5) The plane has now taken off.
(6) The prisoner finally broke down.
(7) When will they give in?
(8) He is playing round.
(9) Get up at once.
(10) Did he catch on?
(11) He turned up unexpectedly. (Heaton, 1985:105).
Most of the particles are place adjuncts or can function as such. Heaton claims
that normally, the particle cannot be separated from its verb (Drink quickly upi),
though particles used as intensifiers or perfectives or referring to direction can be
modified by intensifiers (Go right on).
A subtype of intransitive phrasal verbs has a prepositional adverb as its
particle, the particle behaving as a preposition with some generalized ellipsis of its
complement:
E.g. (12) He walked past, (the object/ place).
(13) They ran across (the intervening space). (Heaton, 106).
In some instances, the particles form the first element in a complex
preposition:
E.g. (14) Come along (with us/ me).
(15) They moved out (of the house) (Heaton, 1985:106).
A transitive verb is a verb that takes both a subject and an object. Therefore,
phrasal verbs are transitive when they take a direct object:
(16) We will set up a new unit.
(17) Find out whether they are coming.

(18) Drink up your milk
quickly! (19)They turned
on the light.
(20) He can't live down
his past.
(21 )They are bringing over the whole
family.
(22) She is bringing up her brother's
children.
(23)They called off the strike.
(24) He looked up his former friends. (Heaton, 1985:107).
As obvious from these examples, some combinations {drink up, give in) can
be either transitive or intransitive, with or without a difference in meaning. With
most transitive phrasal verbs, the particle can either precede or follow the DO:
E.g. (25) They turned on the light / They turned the light on. It cannot
precede personal pronouns:
E.g. (26) They turned it on and not *They turned on it.
The particle tends to precede the object if the object is long or if the intention is
that the object should receive end- focus. (Heaton, 1985:109). Many transitive
phrasal verbs have prepositional adverbs:
E.g. (27) They dragged the case along (the road).
(28) They moved the furniture out (of the house).
In these examples the particles have literal meanings. One can contrast
E.g. (29) She took in the box ('brought inside') with
(30) She took in her parents ('to deceive') (Heaton, 1985:109).

As there are always exceptions from the rules, Veres Grigore (1998)27 states
that "one and the same phrasal verb may be both transitive and intransitive:
(31) The battery has run down; it needs recharging.
(32) If you leave the lights on, you'll soon run down the battery.
(33) The traffic policeman pulled him up for speeding.
(34) He pulled up at the traffic light.
According to Heaton (1985:110), phrasal verbs offer convenient means of
making intransitive use of transitive verbs by the addition of a particle. "A verb may
be transitive by itself and yet produces with a particle an intransitive phrasal verb."
Give is normally transitive but give up is intransitive in the following sentence:
E.g. (35) Unsuccessful attempt to scale the north face of the mountain, the
climbers gave up and went home. (Heaton, 1985:110).
Intransitive phrasal verbs are an example of the fact that English phrasal verbs
do not fit into Latin construction:
E.g. (36) No one would ever say Up speak!" instead of "Speak up!"
This chapter focused on introducing the aim of the present study that is to
produce a unified presentation of phrasal verbs. Issues such as the chronological
survey of phrasal verbs, their evolution, classifications and definitions have been
discussed, all of them playing an important role in materializing the next chapter.
27 Veres, Grigore, Andriescu, luliana, Cehan, Anca. A Dictionary of English Grammar: lasi: Uniiversitatea Al. I. Cuza, 1998. P.67
Chapter 2. The Grammar of Phrasal Verbs.
In the previous chapter, the notion 'phrasal verb' was treated as a whole unit
and there was little reference made to its morphology, syntax or semantics.
As the title of this study suggests, a holistic approach on phrasal verbs is
necessary for accomplishing the purpose of a unified presentation on the matter.
The Longman Dictionary (2008)28 defines the term 'holistic' as being
"based on the principle that a person or thing is more than just their many small
parts added together. (Longman, 205)29. In other words, a holistic approach in this
paper refers to a complete approach from morphologically, syntactically,
semantically, pragmatically and metaphorically points of view.
2.1 Particle Verbs and Morphology
Morphology is the study of the way words are formed from smaller units
called morphemes.
So, the study of morphemes and of the way in which they are organised in
order to form words is the object of morphology.
From a morphologically point of view phrasal verbs are multiword verbs
consisting of a lexical invariant+ variant morpheme+ an adverbial particle (Horia
Hulban,1983: 251 )30
Hulban explains that the lexical invariant is usually a verb of Germanic origin: E.g.
28
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, 200- P.87.
29
Idem. - P. 205.
30
Hulban, Horia., Synthesis in English Morphology. Iasi: Al. 1. Cuza-P.91.
'add', 'answer, 'break', 'bring', 'carry', 'check', 'laugh', 'hit', 'strike', 'turn', 'walk', and the
variant morpheme is of the type , -s, -ed. E.g. He picked up a coin, (pick- INV.
LEX.; ed- VAR.; up- Adverbial Particle)
According to Bolinger Dwight (1971)31 phrasal verbs are the most
productive source of new lexical items in the English language and of crucial
interest linguists and language teachers.
The major types of morphological processes are: Derivation, Inflection and
Compounding. What are of great importance here are the processes of derivation
and inflection.
2.1.1 Derivation
Related to derivation, Mclntyre Andrew (2001)32 thinks of the verbs in
English as being restricted except with Particle gerundive nominalisations (the
taking out of rubbish, his working a solution out) and past participle adjectivals
(fallen- over trees, an unwritten- up paper, an under- worked out- plan).
Otherwise, suffixing English particle verbs yields an intruding range of possibilities
which attempted.
E.g. a), a washer up, it's foldable up, passer(s) by(s);
b). use- up- able, pick- upable, unmake- upable;
c). a filler- inner of forms;
d). the present giver- out er- er
e). picker- up- er. (Mclntyre, 2001:82)33.
31 Bolinger,Dwight.The Phrasal Verbin English. Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1 9 7 1 . P . 8 5

32 Mclntyre, A. Preverbs, argument linking and verb semantics. Ms.Leipzig,2001. P.71
33
Idem-P.82
It is difficult to find nouns of the type: offcut, outtalk, outbreak, overpass,

outflow, outcry, which are plausibly semantically related to particle verbs; most
admit of an alternative analysis as andocentric compounds with a prepositional
noun head (E.g. updraft) (Stiebels, 1994: 913)34. So, another aspect of phrasal verbs
is the number of new nouns derived from them.
According to Bolinger (1971) the phrasal verb is "next to the noun+ noun
combinations, probably the most prolific source of new nouns in English."
(Bolinger, 42)35
E.g. runaway from run away
makeup from make up
breakout or outbreak from break out
break- up from break up
get- together from get together
upkeep from keep
blow- up from blow up.
2.1.2 Inflection
In some environments, particle verbs display 'internal' infection where
inflection exponents separate verbs from particles. (McIntyre, 88)36. In English, this
is always the case: E.g. walked out, * walk out- ed.
34 Stiebels, B. and Wunderlich, D.Morphology feeds Syntax: the Case of Particle Verbs. Linguistics 32,1994. P..913
35
36
Bolinger,Dwight.Op.cit.P.42
McIntyre, Andrew. Op. cit. P.88
26
Accounts assume that the inflection operates over the whole structure but is
subject to morphological or phonological constraint, positioning it on the verb stem.
(McIntyre, 2001: 89).37 Yet, the truth of this affirmation depends on ones' theory of
morphological leadership.
Some syntactic research such as Bennis, H, Jordens, M., Powers, P.
(1995)38 see the left headedness of English particle verbs as proof that particles
cannot enter the syntax as Vs. , but an invariant right hand headed English
morphology is not universally accepted.
All in all, the studies mentioned so far consider particle verbs as being in
some sense between morphology and syntax.
2.2. Syntax of Phrasal Verbs
English Syntax distinguishes between verbs followed by prepositions and
verbs followed by adverbs.
2.2.1 Differences between Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional Verbs.
Because the forms of the particle and the preposition are identical it is easy
to confuse phrasal verbs with prepositional verbs. That is why a distinction between
preposition and adverbial particles appears as necessary.
37
38
Idem P.89
Bennis, H. Jordens, M., Powers, P. Picking up Particles. In: Mc Laughlin, 1995 P.103
27
Over the centuries, the combinations of verbs with short adverbs and
preposition increased .Eventually, they came to be the most productive means for
the creation of new verbs that exists in Modern English.
Quirk Randolph (1973)39 illustrates five major differences between
prepositions and adverb particles:
a).A preposition cannot be placed after the object, while the
adverbial particles of phrasal verbs can generally precede or follow the object.
E.g. (37) He disagreed with his interlocutor.
(38)*He disagreed his interlocutors with.
(39) She turned off the stove.
(40) She turned the stove off.
b). A pronoun always precedes the adverbial particle of a phrasal
verb and always follows a preposition.
E.g. (41) She turned it off.
(42)* She turned off it.
(43) He disagreed with her.
(44)* He disagreed her with,
c). An adverb can be placed between a verb and is following
preposition, but its not the verb of the phrasal verb construction and its adverbial
particle
39
Quirk, Randolph. Op. cit. P.93
E.g. (45) He broke completely with his girl

friend.
(46)* He broke completely up the party
d). A W.H. - interrogative or relative can sometimes be preceded by
the preposition of a prepositional verb, never be the particle of a phrasal
verb.
E.g. (47) With whom did he disagree?
(48) The person with whom he disagreed.
(49)* In whom did he take?
(50)* The person in whom he take
e). The particle of a phrasal verb is stressed and receives the nuclear
stress when it is in final position. The preposition of a prepositional
verb is typically unstressed and receives the tail of a nuclear stress in
final position. Compare:
E.g. (51) Who (m) did he disagree with?
(52) Who (m) did he take in?
Some verb+particle combinations can function as both phrasal and
prepositional verbs, although the meanings are different in the two cases.
E.g. (53) His former friends turned on him. (prepositional verb).
(54) They turned on the right (phrasal verb).
(55) I came across these letters by chance, (prepositional
verb).
(56) Her voice comes across very well, (phrasal verb).

(Quirk, 1973:122).40
In addition, the ability to distinguish between a particle and a
preposition in a collocation often helps to throw light on the difficult problem
of word order.
2.2.2 Syntactic patterns
This section in relation with the previous one debates upon issues like:
Transitivity, word-classes of particles and positioning of particles, the role of
the syntactic patterns being that of giving information on these issues.
Verb transitivity
Related to verb transitivity, it has already been discusses, that phrasal

verbs can be transitive or intransitive and sometimes ditransitive.
According to Veres, Grigore (1998) 41 the pattern of transitive phrasal
verbs is: verb+ adverbial particle+object (VAO).
E.g. (57) Turn down the radio! Its too loud! (reduce the
volume)/
(58) How shall I not back up my best friend?
(support).
VAO order is used:
40
41

Veres, Grigore, Op. cit. P.87
1. when the object is long.

E.g. (59) You have to put off your plan of removing her
to another hospital.
2. when the object is an ing clause
E.g. (60) H e went on speaking.
3. in fixed phrases
E.g (61) keep up appearances.
4. when the verb phrase is strongly idiomatic.
E.g (62) We made out a sturdy man.
(63) * We made a sturdy man out.
(64) The nurse called in Dr Jones.
(65) * The nurse called Dr Jones in. (ask for
services).
But VAO order is also possible:
with many phrasal verbs.
E.g. (66) Turn the radio down!
(67) The wind blew his hat off.
when the direct object is a pronoun or a proper name (the
pronominal direct object always precede the adverbial particle.)
E.g. (68) They brought him up with much care and
love.('educate').
(69) She is remarkable at putting herself across.
('communicate ideas successfully'.)
(70) Mary gave Jane away!
in some fixed phrases.
E.g. (70) 'to put heads together, 'to keep one's hair / shirt on.
(Veres, 90-91 )42
If the phrasal verb is transitive, the pattern will include N, PRON, or REFL.
(Collins Dictionary, V)43. The Dictionary gives as examples the phrasal verbs('pay
out'), which includes the pattern V+ N+ ADV or 'add up', which includes the
pattern V+ ADV+N; 'call in' which includes the pattern V+ PRON.+ ADV and
shut away which is labelled V+REFL+ADV.
V+ N+ ADV means that the verb has an object (N) and that the
object must come in front of the adverb (ADV): E.g. They pay
out half of their income in rent.
V+ ADV+ N means that the verb has an object (N), and that
the objects come after the adverb (ADV): E.g. First, add up all
your regular payments.
V+ PRON+ ADV means that the verb must have an object
which can be a personal pronoun (PRON), and that the object
comes in front of the adverb (ADV): E.g. They called me in for
questioning.
V+ REFL+ ADV means that the verb has an object which must
be a reflexive pronoun (REFL) and that the object must come in
front of the adverb (ADV): E.g. I shut myself away in a library
that night and wrote a letter. (Collins, VI)44.
42
Veres, Grigore. Op. cit. P. 90 - 91
43 Collins Cobuild, Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, William Collins Sons& CO Ltd: Glasgow, Great Britain, 1991-P.45
44
Idem. P. - VI
A few phrasal verbs are ditransitive, meaning that they are used with two
objects, a DO and an 10. The patterns of ditransitive phrasal verbs include both
objects. For example, hand back includes the pattern V+ PRON+ AW+ N. This
means that the adverb comes between the 10, which must be a pronoun, and the
DO, which must be a full noun group: E.g. The girl handed him (10) back his card
(DO). (Collins, VI).45
2.2.3 Word classes of particles

Due to the double nature of phrasal verbs, that is sometimes adverbial and
sometimes prepositional, this section proposes an overview on the matter of word
classes of particles.
If the particle is a preposition, a noun group follows it. This noun group is
called a prepositional object.
If the particle is an adverb the pattern will include ADV but if the particle is
a preposition the particle will include PREP.
E.g. move of is labelled V+ ADV: The fleet of cars prepared to
move off. ; rely on is labelled V+ PREP : She is forced to rely on her mother's
money.
There are cases in which the particle can be used either as an adverb or as a
preposition.
E.g. come in is labelled V+ ADV, V+ PREP, (this means that the particle 'in' can
be used as an adverb: Jeremy came in looking worried; or as a preposition: Come in
the house, she said.).(Collins, VII)46
45
46
Idem. P. - VI
Collins, Op. cit. P. VII
2.2.4. Positioning of Particles

When the phrasal verb is transitive, it is important to know where to put the
particle in relation to the object: does the particle come between the verb or does it
follow the verb?
The patterns for transitive phrasal verbs indicate the order of elements. For
example, the pattern V+ ADV-*- N shows that the particle is situated between the
verb and its object: E.g. clean out I was cleaning out my desk at the office.
If the pattern is V+ N+ ADV, the particle is positioned after the object. E.g.:
I spent three days cleaning our flat out. Clean out is a phrasal verb in which an
adverb can come in front or after the object, but there are some phrasal verbs that
have only one pattern. For example put up, which is labelled V+ ADV+ N: We
had put up a fierce struggle.
If the object is a pronoun, then the adverb is always positioned after the
object. (V+ PRON+ ADV). An example is set down: The colonel lifted his cup,
glared at it, and set it down again. (Collins, VII.).
All these examples were chosen to illustrate the most common grammatical
patterns of phrasal verbs that will make connection with the next point of
discussion: the phrasal prepositional- verb.
2.2.5. Phrasal Prepositional Verbs

Veres Grigore (1998) notes that "phrasal prepositional verbs are multiword
verbs consisting of verb plus adverbial particle plus prepositional particle plus its
complement: e.g. put up with, look down on"(Veres, 1998:92)47
As it has been mentioned in Chapter I, in present day English, verb
developed to a more complex form (the three part phrasalprepositional verb which
includes a verb, a post- positioned particle and a complementary prepositional
phrase) (Denison, David, 1987:62)48.
In his study, Denison analysed syntactically the following sentence: 'She
puts up with her brother'. According to D., David, the components of the sentence
are:
a). Subject ('the agent or doer of the action: She'). b). Lexical verb
('the verb- word that carries the meaning of the action': puts).
c). Post positioned particle ('an adverb that looks like a
preposition, and follows the lexical verb, called post- positioned':
u p ) . This particle isn't movable: * She puts with her brother up. Its
inability to move is the result of a lack of an explicit DO. Quirk
R.(1990) calls this a "Type I phrasalprepositional verb."49
d). Complementary prepositional phrase (prepositional phrase
necessary to complete the basic sense of her brother. 'With' is a
47
Veres Grigore. Op. cit. - P. 92.
48
Denison, David . Op. cit P.62
49
preposition because it definitely cannot move behind the object of the

preposition. (brother): She puts up her brother with.
e). Translation: using another single- word to replace a compound
structure like this one. The sentence can be translated from with her
brother' to 'She tolerates her brother`. Through translation is eliminated
both up and the preposition with, suggesting that the phrasalprepositional verb to put up with is considered a single lexical unit, a
transitive verb structure.
f). Prepositional object: nouns that follow prepositions are generally
considered objects of prepositions, not direct objects. However,
because of the ability to translate to put up with as to tolerate, is
suggested that brother is really the semantic DO of the verb, even
though syntactically it appears to be the object of a preposition. In such
a case, nouns such as brother can be named prepositional objects
Denison continues his argumentation presenting the second variation of
phrasalprepositional verbs (type II according to Quirk).
This second variation takes a movable particle around a nounphrase DO as well as a complementary prepositional phrase as in 'She fixed her
friend up with her cousin.'
The notable distinctions from type I are:
1). that the particle can move
because
2). there is an explicit DO.
The use of the various types of phrasal verbs is alleged to be more
productive in North America than in Britain.
Traugott (1972:173)50 asserts that "the use of phrasal verbs is a

distinguishing feature between British and American English"
The introduction to British English of what Traugott calls 'Americanisms' is
restoring the powerful productivity of phrasal verbs across the regions, in support of
this, Baugh and Cable (1993)51 cite an interesting fact from Kennedy's 192052 study
that twenty common English verbs had at that time entered into 155 combinations
with particles, yielding 600 distinct meanings.
All in all, the two variations of phrasalprepositional verbs seen by
Erades (1961) as "an embodiment of the genius of the English language"53 are
nevertheless a very important feature of the English language.
Smith Jeremy (1996:140)54 lumps together the following verbs as phrasals:
bum down, come across, and talk [someone] into. However, this sample from
Smith's list contains not only a phrasal verb, but also a prepositional verb and a
phrasalprepositional verb as well.
Therefore, in these contexts, syntactic tests are seen as a solution
for such confusions. The knowledge of the tests is in the same time indispensable
for anyone studying phrasal verbs.
2.2.6. Syntactic tests for phrasal verbs
In order to elucidate the confusions that may appear when trying to
differentiate between particles and prepositions within contexts, syntactic tests offer
50
51
52
53
54
Traugott, Elizabeth, C. Op. cit - P. 173.

Baugh and Cable. Op. cit. P. 350.
Kennedy, Arthur G. The Modern English Verb- Adverb Combination. Stanford: Stanford University Publication, 1920-P.204
Erades, Peter. A. Points of modern English Syntax, English studies 42, 1961. P. 95
Smith Jeremy. Op cit - P 140.
appropriate solutions.(Particle movement, Adverb intervention, Stress with phrasal

verbs and Translation.)
A. Particle movement.
The aim here is to provide an account of one instance of
grammatical or configurational variation, namely 'particle movement'. This
variation has attracted a lot of attention in the linguistic literature so that a variety of
factors governing this alternation have been proposed so far.
Gries, Stefan T. (1997) briefly reviewed these factors which are 9
in number and which will be presented in what follows:
a). Factor 1: Word class of the direct object.
The most obvious factor governing particle placement is the
influence that personal pronouns as direct objects have on the acceptability of
construction:
E.g. (71) a' John picked up the book.
b' John picked the book up.
(72) *a" John picked up it.
b" John picked it up.
If the direct object is a full lexical noun both constructions
are, in general, acceptable; with pronominal direct objects, on the other hand,
construction 72a" is unacceptable.
This can be taken to be representative of the way this factor is
put forward in all of the works primarily dealing with particle placement.
However, some approaches differ with respect to the number of categories

available for the classification of the direct object: some grammarians only
distinguish pronouns from full lexical nouns, while others propose a threefold
distinction (pronouns vs. referentially vague or semi- pronominal nouns vs. full
lexical nouns) in order to account for the observation that the preferred word order
with fairly unspecific nouns such as "matters' or "things" as direct object, is
construction 72b" (Erades, 1961: 71-78).55
b). Factor 2: Stress of the direct object
Example (73) shows that construction 73a is obligatory with strongly or
contrastively stressed direct objects.
E.g (73) a. He brought back the book.
b.He brought the book back.
The factor of stress is even strong enough to override the otherwise obligatory
rule of personal pronouns requiring construction 74b that has just been discussed:
E.g. (74) a. *He brought back him.
b. He brought him back
c. He brought back him (not her).
c).Factor 3: Length/ Complexity of the direct object (Kennedy,
1920: 3056, Chen, 1986: 42257, Hawkins, 1994: 8058).
This factor contributes to the choice of one construction over the other.
55
56
Erades, Peter. A. Op. cit. P. 77 - 78

Kennedy, Arthur. Op. cit. P. 30
57 Chen, Ping. Discourse and Particle Movement in English. Studies in Language, 1986-.P..422
58 Hawkins,J.A.A Performance Theory of Order and Constituency. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,U.K.,1994--.P.80
E.g. (75) a. He brought back the books that he had left at

home for so long.
b.?? He brought the books that he had left at home
for so long back.
If the direct object is long or syntactically complex, then the construction 75 a
is strongly preferred, whereas short direct object, more readily. Allow both
constructions.
However, as Fraser (1996: 59)59 has argued the length of the DO
cannot be considered a criterion in its own right:
E.g. (76) a. The student worked more than seven of the
difficult examples out.
b * The student worked the example which
he recognised out.
The factor of length also figures in several recent transformational
generative (Aarts, 198960, Kayne 198561) and processing approaches (Hawkins
1994), where it is addressed under the notion syntactic weight and is argued to have
the same influence as demonstrated in (75).
d). Factor 4: Presence of a directional adverbial after the
construction (Fraser, 1966).
59
60
61
Fraser, B. The Verb- Particle Combination in English. The Hague: Mouton, 1976.- P. 125
Bas,Aarrts.Verb- Preposition Construction and Small Clauses in English. JournalofLinguistics,1989.P.100
Kayne,Richard.Principles of Particle Constructions. InGueron,J;H-G.ObenauerandJ-YPollock(eds),1985.P.148
Apart from factors directly concerned with either the transitive

phrasal verb or its DO, the structures following the VP under investigation
also seem to exert influence on particle movement.
E.g. (77) a. He put the junk down onto the floor.
b.?? He put down the junk onto the floor.
If the VP is followed by a directional adverbial (PP that is),
construction 77b is more frequent.
e). Factor 5: Modification of the noun or of the verb
(Bolinger, 197162 and Yeagle, 1983) argue for another factor
contributing to particle placement: the particles of transitive phrasal verbs are said to
modify both the DO and the verb. Both construction 163 and construction 2 denote the
same objective situation but the position of the particle tends to make one or the other
paramount.
According to this factor, both of the constructions have a different
meaning in that they highlight different aspects of the same objective situation. Both
sentences impose a different construal on the same objective scene. Construction l
highlights the adverbial value (since the particle is further away from the verb and
62
63
Bolinger,Dwight.Op.cit.P.87
Construction 1 names the number of constituents intervening between verb and particle.
stands closer to and modifies the DO), so that the resultant state of the DO is
concentrated upon.
f). Factor 6: Idiomaticity of the construction (Fraser, 1976)
The more literal the phrasal combination, the higher the probability of
construction2:
E.g. (78) a. He has tried to eke out a profitable living.
b. He has tried to eke a profitable living out.
f). Factor 6: Idiomaticity of the construction (Fraser, 1976)64
The more literal the phrasal combination, the higher the probability of
construction2:
E.g. (78) a. He has tried to take out a profitable living.
b. He has tried to take a profitable living out.
g). Factor 7: News value of the direct object (Erades 1961.7865,
Chen 1986: 425)66
Another factor that is related to particle placement and that is connected to
the notion of stress as discussed above is the news value of the DO:
E.g. (79) a. We'll make up a parcel for them... On the
morning of Christmas Eve together we made up the parcel.
64
65
66
Fraser, B. The Verb- Particle Combination in English. The Hague: Mouton, 1976. P. 131
Erades, Peter A Op. cit. P. 78
Chen, Ping. Op. cit. P. 425
b. We'll make up a parcel for them... On the

morning of Christmas Eve together we made the parcel up.
In (79), where the DO is introduced in the first sentence, it is not
news worthy in the second sentence where the transitive phrasal verb is
used. Thus it is the construction 79a that is preferred, while construction
79b sounds rather odd.
In functionalist accounts, this factor is often treated under the
notion of topicality or givenness of the DO.
This criterion appears to be a very useful one in that it alone can
account for several distinct observations. It explains why pronouns and
referentially vague nouns normally require construction 79b, whereas
heavily modified nouns most frequently occur in construction 79a: the head
nominal is modified by many other constituents whereby the noun phrase is
enriched informationally. Besides, it also handles instances in which an
existential phrasal verb introduces something new to the discourse setting:
E.g. (80) a. It opens up unlimited possibilities.
b ? It opens unlimited possibilities up.
c. It lets in a certain doubt.
d ? It lets a certain doubt in.
The notion of news value even accounts for instances much more subtle than
those just mentioned:
E.g. (81) a.? Where's Joe? - He's sailing in his boat.
b. Where's Joe? - He's sailing his boat in.
c. Where's Joe? - He's hauling in his boat.
d. Where's Joe? - He's hauling his boat in.

The verb in 81a entails its DO which can thus be said to have little news
value, yielding a preference for construction 61b.
This is not the case in 81c and 81 d where the action denoted by the verb
may apply to a less constrained variety of DO, so that both sentences are acceptable.
Likewise, the same explanation can be extended to explain the preference
for construction 2 in (82) since the mention of the time already foreshadows the
nightie:
E.g. (82) It's almost ten o'clock. Put your nightie on, and run
up to bed.
h). Factor 8: Times of subsequent mention (Chen, 1986:42s)67.
So far there have been considered factors concerned with either the parts of
the transitive phrasal verb construction or with the preceding discourse text.
One factor proposed by Chen is connected to the discourse following the
utterance in question, and it is measured of how often the referent of the DO in the
utterance under investigation is mentioned in the discourse following this utterance.
The more often the referent is mentioned, the higher the probability of the
construction.
67
Chen, Ping. Op. cit.- P. 426
i).Factor 9: Distance to next mention (Chen, 1986:426)

The last factor to be considered is also connected to the discourse following an
utterance, and it is measured in the number of clauses until the referent of the DO is
mentioned again. The earlier the referent of the DO is mentioned in the discourse,
the higher the probability of construction^ in the utterance.
In sum, all of the preceding factors seem to somehow contribute to
particle placement: each word (be it verb, the particle, or the DO) in the verb phrase,
are intended to have an effect on the choice of word- order. Particle movement is an
important syntactic test as it helps to determine whether the word in question is a
particle or a preposition.
As a side note, particle movement is generally not possible with gerunds
(e.g. / gave up trying but not * / gave trying up.) and is unhelpful in analysing
intransitive phrasal verbs as there is no complementary noun phrase to facilitate
movement.
B. Adverb Intervention.
Another syntactic test that helps differentiating between particles and

prepositions is adverb intervention'.
Adverbs cannot be placed within the verb phrase, including verb particle
and object, but must be placed before the verb or at the end. e.g. I help out Sheila
often/ I help Sheila out often, but not * I help often out Sheila, * I help out often
Sheila, * I help often Sheila out.
Adverbs can, however be placed between verbs and prepositional phrases:

e.g. I went quickly [PP into the room].
C. Stress with Phrasal Verbs.
Due to the fact that particles are stressed in phrasal verbs, and prepositions
are unstressed (unless stressed emphatically in speech), the stress might constitute
another syntactic test.
Therefore, one says 'I gave up the keys' (up is stressed particle, transitive
phrasal verb), or 'The plane touched down' (down is stressed particle, intransitive
phrasal verb). A true preposition is unstressed: e.g. I walked up the stairs, (up is an
unstressed preposition, prepositional verb.).
D. Translation/Synonymy
Phrasal verbs can be translated with a single- unit verb of the same
illocutionary force. Therefore 'to give up' can be translated as 'to surrender' while 'to
touch down' can be translated by the intransitive 'to land'.
Translation, however, is not reliable as a method of syntactic testing. Quirk
R. (1973: 98)68 discusses the possibilities translating certain prepositional verbs with
single- unit transitive verbs. For example, the sentence 'She looked after her son'
could be translated 'She tended her son'. Obviously, after is not a particle, as it lacks
stress and movement, but this style of analysis still unresolved in descriptive
grammar, confirms the wisdom of using other tests when checking for phrasal
verbs.
68
QuirkRandolph.Op.cit.P.98
Phrasal- prepositional verbs are also difficult to analyse by this means

alone because of the possibility to translate them with single- unit transitive verbs.
E. Passivization
The last syntactic test of checking for phrasal verbs is passivization.
Transitive phrasal verbs can be rendered in the passive for two reasons:
because they are transitive and have the capacity for the inversion of logical
subjects and objects, and because doing so does not violate the syntactic frame of
a prepositional phrase.
Therefore, the sentence 'I gave up the keys' can be rendered in the passive:
The keys were given up by me.' But a prepositional verb resists rendering in the
passive: e.g. 'I walked up the stairs' would not traditionally be rendered thus in the
passive: "The stairs were walked up by me', even though to walk up could be
translated with the transitive verb 'to ascend', which could easily be rendered in the
passive.
However, as Denison (1986)69 discusses at length and as Quirk R (1973)
points out, prepositional verbs have been rendered increasingly in the passive.
Therefore, passivization is also by no means a stand- alone syntactic test verb.
As an overall conclusion, syntactic tests are recommended to those learners
of the English language who might see the distinction between prepositions and
particles as a difficult problem to deal with
69
Denison, David. Op. cit. P.92
Summarising, phrasal verbs are identifiable by particle movement, stressed

particles, incapacity for adverb intervention in the verb phrase, translation and not in
the least passivization.
2.2.7. The function of particles

This section, related to particles only, supports the fact that particles
function as adverbs, modifying the verbs with which they are associated.
In consequence, Heaton J. B (1985) notes that "Although most adverbial particles
have the same form as their corresponding prepositions they do not denote a
relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word, functioning as adverbs."
(Heaton, 112)70. To support this statement he considers the following
a). In the first of the sentences below, down functions as an adverbial
particle, while in the second sentence down is a preposition.
E.g. (83) Peter ran down as he saw me waiting.
(84) Peter ran down the stairs as soon as he saw me
waiting
b). In the next two sentences, off functions first as an adverbial particle and
then as a prepositions:
E.g. (85) She took off her coat.
70
Heaton, J. B, Op. cit. P 112
(86) She took her coat off the hook. In the first
sentence, off shows the direction in which she moved the coat, while off in the
second sentence indicates the relationship between coat and hook.
The function of on is also taken into consideration by Heaton (e.g. Peter
turned on the boastful youth and struck him.). In this sentence, on is a preposition
and shows the relation between the boastful youth and the verb turn (= become
hostile). The boastful youth is the object of the preposition on, not of the verb
turned.
c). ln spite of its different positions on functions as an adverbial
particle in both sentences below. On modifies the verb turn, tap being the object of
the verb turn in both cases.
E.g. (87) John turned the tap on.
(88) John turned on the hot- water tap.
d). The following example illustrates how slight the difference
frequently is between prepositions and adverbial particles. In both sentences,
through functions as an adverbial particle modifying the verb read. In the second
sentence, however, through could easily be confused in function with a
preposition.
E.g. (89) I have read your essay through and think ii is
good.
(90) I have read through your essay and think that it
is good.
Heaton (1985: 114)71 considers that adverbial particles differ from other
adverbs in certain ways. Most of them are best regarded as helping to form a new
verb, for they change or add to the meaning of the verb, however slightly.
Thus, "the particle is really an integral part of the phrasal verb, separable
often in word- order but nevertheless constituting a single unit" (Heaton, 114).
Going further into discussion, Heaton proposes five ways in which most
particles function:
1). Many cause a verb to assume a new or subsidiary meaning.
E.g. (91) The widow carried on as if nothing had
happened.
(92) Let's take a rest.
(93) I'm done for ('warned out').
(94) Long dresses have gone out these years
('ceased to be fashionable').
2). Some particles assume a new or special meaning with a verb
but do not change the normal meaning of that verb.
E.g. (95) He talked down to his pupils.
(96) Speak out ('loudly')
As the verb retains its usual meaning in such cases it is often possible to
deduce the meaning of the whole collocation. (E.g. look over = 'inspect'; switch =
'connect'.)
3). Other particles provide stress emphasis or a sense of completion.
E.g. (97) Let me finish this off before.
71
(98) Hurry up or we shall be late

4). Others function in a similar way to ordinary adverbs, helping to
form a collocation which maintains a literal meaning.
E.g. (99) She got in her car and drove away without
speaking.
(100) She decided to go out and see her.
(101) He jumped up as soon as I entered
5). A number are similar in function to prepositions. Although they
are linked to the verb and conform to the same rules of word order as other
adverbial noun, a noun equivalent following them is often understood, (though not
expressed).
E.g. (102) Take your hat off. (your head)
(103) She came down (the stairs) to greet the guests.
Consequently, "the phrasal verb must be taken as a unit because its
meaning can rarely be inferred from the knowledge of the verb and the particle
separately." (Heaton, 1985:116.)72
72
2.3. Semantics of Phrasal Verbs
This section is an introduction to the issues and phenomena involving the

semantics of particle verbs.
McIntyre (2001 )73 offers a treatment of particles, rearranging them
according to the type of particle.
The threefold classification into spatial, aspectual and residual cases is
guided by the expository, not theoretical considerations of Dixon, R. (1982)74, of
Fraser, B. (1976)75
2.3.1. Spatial particles

The first type of particle verb that is discussed involves a particle expressing
spatial information. Often, the particle expresses a direction (walk through, pull a
thread out) or sporadically a location (eat in, keep one's coat 76). In these cases,
the particle can be replaced by any appropriate spatial prepositional phrase, (walk
through/out vs. walk out of/through the tunnel).
Spatial particles satisfy the requirements of a verb for a prepositional
projection expressing a path or a place (go out/ keep someone in), but in some
cases such particles are not subcategorised by the verb or are only subcategorised by
an extended use of the verb (vote the government out, edit a passage out).
Interpreting
73
spatial
particles
involves
identifying
syntactically
McIntyre, Andrew. Op. cit. P. 90
74 Dixon, Robert. The Grammar of English Phrasal Verbs. Australian Journal of Linguistic, 1982.;P.104
75
Fraser, B. Op. cit P. 126.
76
It is debatable whether these are true specimens of the verb-particle construction given the inability of the particle to precede the object:*leave on ones coat
unexpressed reference object of the prepositional element.

Interpreting She went to the shelf and put the record on involves
knowing that the 'record' ends up on a record player, and not the shelf.
Alongside such functional interpretations, reference objects can receive
contextual interpretations. Thus, in She went to the wall and pulled the sticker
off is interpreted such that the reference object of 'off is 'the wall'.
2.3.2. Aspectual and related particles
A second main type of particle, the so- called 'aspectual particle' conveys
information about the lexical aspect or of the verbal event. Some examples are:
a). Perfective particles.
This subclass of aspectual particles has the effect of perfectivising the event.
English 'up' is a typical case of this:
E.g. (104) I chewed the meat {for/ *in} a minute.
I chewed the meat up {in/ *for} a minute.
Lidner, S (1983)77 describes a network of perfective uses of the particle 'up':
drink up , dry up, take up (time/ space), burn up, smoke up, and a use signifying
that the DO reaches a state considered sufficient for a particular purpose (heat up,
fix up, roll up a cigarette).
Another perfective particle is 'through' in uses like read/ perform the play
through; play the sonata through or work one's way through a text.
77 Lidner,S.A Lexico- Semantic Analysis of Verb-Particle Constructions with up and out. Indiana University Press,1963. P. 24
McIntyre (2001) suggests that "the aspectual use of the particle is related ti its
meaning and is an overt expression of the abstract path of a verbal
event. "(Mclntyre,2001:118)78
b). Non- perfective 'aspectual particles'.
Another type of particle which tells something about the course of a
verbal event is seen in the data in (1), from Mclntyre (2001)
(105) a* fight (^battles/ enemies) on; eat (*salad) on.
b' sing (*songs) along, read (*the text) around.
c' play (*a silly game) around, hammer (*the metal)
around.
d' type away *(at) the essay, eat away *(at) the
leftovers.
e' kick/ hit off *(with) a new type of football.
These particles uses have received little attention. Remarks on their
semantics can be found in Jackendoff, R. (1997)79 and Mclntyre (2001).
The latter author argues that the particles describe the abstract path
followed to verbal event. Thus 'around' in we drove around denotes a goalless
path.
In the 'aspectual' use of the particle, an event instead of an entity is the
theme, and hammer around indicates a hammering activity characterised as
metaphorically 'goalless', as aimless, futile, as getting nowhere.
78
79 Jackendoff,R.Twistin' the Night Away. Journalof Linguistics,1997-P.110
c). Non- spatial 'result particles' and residual cases.

A major subclass of particles is what is called 'residual particles', where
the particle signals a result (other than change in the spatial domain) to the
verbal event. The result expressed in (106) is a decremental effect on the DO.
E.g. (106) a. dance/ sleep/ read the night away (Jackendoff, 1997:534) 80
b. work off a debt, sleep off a hangover.
Examples of other result states expressible by off include nonpossession (sell/ auction/ hive/ flog off) and 'sleep' (dose/ nod/ drift off).
Another example is furnished by some verbs with 'up' and 'out' where the result
could be called 'cognitive availability', (search/ seek someone out, look an
address up, dream/think up an idea).
In the verb in (107), 'in' indicates that the DO enters a state of readiness
for the activity expressed by the verb.
E.g. (107) a. in- play, get warned up, in- work, work one's way
into something, get wormed up in singing, shoes- in- walk, wear shoes in, a
horse in- ride, break in a horse.
Having seen a few possible types of result particles, some general points
are required.
Firstly, result particles often introduce objects not selected by the Simplex
(work off a debt, drink the hours away, seek someone out)
Secondly, clear semantic and argument- structural parallels exist between
spatial- directional particles, result particles, perfective particles, and the
construction (sing babies to sleep), and it is open to debate whether this expository
taxonomy should be upheld at a theoretical level (McIntyre, 120)81
80
Idem P.534
81
2.3.3. Compositional vs. Non- compositional Phrasal Verbs.

This section looks into the representation of phrasal verbs in the semantic
lexicon model and proposes a classification of phrasal verbs into compositional and
non-compositional. (Talmy, L.:1985)82
Making use of Talmy's terminology, one of the fundamental assumptions
behind the semantic model is that word senses differ in terms of their internal
complexity can be described on the basis of the ontology established along different
dimensions.
When looking deeper into the category of phrasal verbs, a blurred picture
emerges between those phrasal verbs that are compositional in meaning and those
that are noncompositional.
According to Talmy, compositionality refers to the fact that both the host
verb and the particle retain their core meaning as is normally the case when
directional particles are combined with motion verbs as in: 'she ran out' or 'he
walked up'.
Compositional phrasal verbs are predictable in meaning and often
productive to the directional particle to be connected with. (Talmy, 1985:221).83
Non- compositional phrasal verbs are the only ones which can find their
way into a traditional lexicon model as in the case of 'wash up': he washed up the
dishes 'he did the dishes). (Talmy, 1985:221).
82 Talmy, L. Lexicalisation Patterns: Semantic Structures and the Lexicon, Vol. 3,Chicago: Press Syndicate of the University of Chicago, 1985.P.124
83
Idem P.221
To solve the apparent contradiction between compositional and noncompositional phrasal verbs, Talmy considers that motion verbs constitute a very
special semantic class. Motion verbs occurring as phrasal verbs are mostly
productive in meaning since the directional particle is usually to be understood in its
core sense. Thus, motion verbs constitute a unique class by admitting the directional
marker to be understood as incorporated in the verb. This opens the possibility of
viewing the expression of direction as a regular syntactic pattern which alternates
with directional phrase:
E.g. (108) He limped home on his battered leg.
(109) He rattled down the road in his old car.
Talmy also states that it is a well- known characteristic of the part les to act
as aspectual markers, changing a process verb into a transition verb as in
E.g. He ran out and He walked up where process motion
verbs are change into becoming change of location verbs.
In some cases, the aspectual marking is the only function of the particle as in
the examples (He ate up; He drank up), where process verbs like eat' and
drink' are changed into transition verbs.
There also exist directional particles that are not transitional; in the
following examples the meaning is that of a process even if a direction
particle is added: E . g . He walked homewards; He sauntered about)
(Talmy, 1985: 224).84
84
Idem P.224
All in all, in the preceding sections there have been identified two kinds
of constructions involving directional particles:
Phrasal verbs which are compositional.
Phrasal verbs which are noncompositional.
It has also been shown that the second group of verbs is constituted
by motion verbs, a unique semantic class in the sense that it admits the
directional marker to be understood as incorporated in the verb itself
contributes to the meaning of the expression.
The section entitled Semantics of Phrasal Verbs has dealt with issues
concerning types of particles, and compositionality vs. compositionality, in
the manner that a new perspective on phrasal verbs was offered.
2.4. Phrasal Verbs and Pragmatics
In this section, a distinction between pragmatics and semantics

appears as necessary, because some scholars find it difficult to distinguish the
field of pragmatics from that of semantics.
It is believed that pragmatics should focus on implicature, involving
the way in which meaning is read into utterances.
Semantics distinguishes from pragmatics in the way that the latter is
described as 'intended meaning' and the former as 'sentence meaning. Thus,
pragmatics centers on the disparity between what is intended to communicate and
what is actually said.
In order to see why conversational English is more difficult sometimes for

English learners than the academic English, the passage below is taken as an
example:
E.g. Pete got out his rifle, jumped on his horse and took off.
We just knew he would never give up.
Got out, take off, and give up are phrasal verbs and are seen as a
characteristic of spoken English. The same two- word combination can have a
variety of meanings depending on the context.
E.g. get out= leave (Get out of here'); = show or display
('Get your gun out'); = stop joking (Oh, get out of here'); = appear
(Get out on the stage'); = party (Do you get out much?').
take off= leave in a hurry ('He took off down the
road'); = remove (Take off your hat'); = parody
(That's a take
off from Star Wars'); = successful (My career took off.'); = use as a
starting point (Let's take off the discussion from where we
stopped.'); = launch (The rockets took off at noon.')
give up= surrender ('He wouldn't give up to the
sheriff.'); quit ('He wouldn't give up smoking'); = pass something
upward ('Give the plates up to John').
In these cases, knowing the meaning of the individual words or
morphemes is of little help. Morgan, S., Pamela's opinion is that "since phrasal
verbs are common in conversation, they are the subject to the process of
metaphorical extension." (1997: 83)85
As a result of these metaphorical extensions, three types of phrasal verbs
have developed: literal, aspectual and figurative.
Literal phrasal verbs
The meaning of a literal phrasal verb is based on the meaning of the two
morphemes. Some examples of sentences with literal phrasal verbs would be:
E.g. (110) Pick up your clothes.
(111) Get down the box.
(112) Take out the trash.
Aspectual phrasal verbs

The meaning of an aspectual phrasal verb is based on the meaning of the
verb. The adverbial particle is added to emphasize that the action should start, and
continue until the action is completed For example:
E.g. (113) We took off. (take has the sense of 'start a trip or
journey')
(114) He fixed up the toys. (He fixed them
until they were completely fixed.)
(115) They walked on. (They continued walking.)
85 Morgan,PamelaS.Figuring out Figure out: Metaphor and the Semantics of the English Verb- Particle Construction. CognitiveLinguistics,1997.P.83
Figurative phrasal verbs.

The meaning is based on a metaphorical extension of either the literal or
aspectual phrasal verb, if the learner can visual the original metaphor, the
figurative meaning is often apparent.
E.g. (116)He hung up the phone. (Originally phones were on the
wall and one
hangs up when finished.
Another problem is that the two morphemes of phrasal do not have to say
together as they do with Latin, French or Greek words
The following pairs of sentences mean the same thing.
E . g . (117) Pick up your clothes or Pick your
clothes up
(118) He fixed up the toys or He fixed the toys
up
Either way is fine unless the object is a pronoun. In that case, the shift of
particle movement is obligatory.
E.g. (119)* Pick up them vs. Pick them up.
(120) *He fixed up them vs. He
fixed them up. (Biber, D.,
1998:158)86
86 Biber,D.Variations across Speech and Writing. CambridgeCambridgeUniversityPress,1988.P.158
2.4.1. Pragmatics and Discourse

It is important to know that certain vocabulary is more appropriate in
different contexts.
For example, although conversational vocabulary is increasingly being
used in academic contexts, there are still social restrictions on vocabulary. (In
church, in order to show the approval it is used 'Amen' as an appropriate response,
than Touche'.)
However, the meaning of words in academic discourse may not match the
meaning in interpersonal relations. For example, a teacher might create the
following 'word problem" to bring 'reality' into the classroom.
E.g. John can type one page in 20 minutes. How long
will it take him to type two pages?
It seems straight forward enough. The words are all easy. But the 'reality' is
missing. What happens, if the phone rings while John is typing? Perhaps the
computer crashes. What if John decides to edit some of the sentences while typing?
How much of a delay will there be if the cat comes in and jumps on his lap?
Academic reality doesn't always match the reality of everyday life. Building
vocabulary for communication is more complicated than it seems.
In these contexts, phrasal verb is an important concept for teachers or
learners of English. With get for example, which is one of the most common
verbs in English language can be created phrasal verbs by combining the verb
with up, down, over, back, in, on, off, and others.
In these ways are created many different meanings that constitute a

problem for learners due to the high frequency words of conversational English.
Veres, Grigore considers that "phrasal verbs are present in all forms of
written and spoken modem English, making the ability to understand, and
produce them a requisite for an adequate command of the English language."
(1998: 98)87.
Therefore, phrasal verbs are more common in informal than in formal
English. Even so, they have the characteristic of being verbs replaced by one word,
more formal:
E.g. (121) Shall we carry on? ('continue')
(122) He made up a wonderful story
('invent').
(123) Her new novel is coming out next
week, ('to be published')
But this rule of replacing the phrasal verb with an accurate synonym is not
always functioning. Sometimes, is extremely difficult to provide words or phrases
as equivalents for certain phrasal verbs. For example, is hard to think of a better way
to say 'I had to look up the word in the dictionary.' And if "one happens to write a
dialogue, the informality of phrasal verbs may be more authentic than stuffier
language." (Heaton, 1985:115).88
On the same topic, Bolinger notes that "phrasal verbs are more used
informally than their Latinate synonyms (e.g. use up vs. 'consume'; gather
87
Veres, Grigore, Op. cit. P. - 98
88
together vs. 'assembly', put on vs. 'extinguish') and in most cases the phrasal verbs
is less formal, more colloquial and more image- laden than the single word."
(Bolinger, 1971:62).89
All in all, "phrasal verbs and their noun derivatives account for a significant
number of new words now being coined in the English language. (Bolinger,
1971:63)90
This section has dealt with literal, aspectual, and figurative
meanings of phrasal verbs, but also with their formal and informal aspects. In
relation to this, the next topic to be discussed is the metaphorical extension of
phrasal verbs
2.5. Metaphorical Extension of Phrasal Verbs
Of great importance for the present study, this point of discussion
determines the real status of the English phrasal verb that is the characteristic of
possessing some degree of idiomaticity.
As a preliminary definition, phrasal verbs possess a degree of idiomaticity
in the assembly of the verb plus preposition (cry over something), or verb plus
separable particle (run up the flag or run the flag up), verb plus inseparable
particle (run up a debt), or the doubly assembly of verb plus particle and
preposition (face up to problems).
89
Bolinger, Dwight. Op. cit. P. 62
90
Bolinger, Dwight. Op. cit. P. 63
2.5.1. Phrasal Verbs as Idioms
Originally, all the idiomatic phrasal verbs started out as a verb and a
prepositional particle in literal usage. Just as a picture hangs on the wall, or we
cross over the other side of the road, so a mother may have taken a last look
at her child going off to school, or may have looked after the child, a usage
whose meaning has changed in that it describes an entirely different activity in the
modern context, to look after someone meaning 'to care for someone'.
However, in everyday life, an idiomatic phrasal verb too, like any other
grammatical constructs becomes fixed and authentic enough in time by being used
frequently.
2.5.2. Variations of meaning.
According to Biber, D (1998)91, phrasals and their meanings may vary
depending on where the speaker lives. Speakers of British English, or even
speakers from other regions of the U.S. might understand some of the
expressions differently.
For example, while an American might call you up on your cell
phone, a Brit would ring you up to tell you he needed to kip down (to stay
temporarily, the American equivalent of crash) in your apartment.
In the Southern U.S.A., one might scoot down the car while in
California one would hose it down with water.
91
Biber,D.Op.cit.P.133
Another case in point is that even though they are idiomatic, many phrasals
do make a certain amount of sense, depending on how one might understand the
particle, or preposition- like attachment.
A single preposition or particle can carry any of a multitude of meanings,
and the meaning of a phrasal verb like blow up depends a lot on which meaning of
up is chosen. For example, up can refer to increase ('freshen up' = increasing
freshness); to movement ('boil up' = move about in a chaotic way); or not to be in
bed asleep ('stay up' = remain awake and out of bed).
In the case of blow up, 'up' can be understood as relating either to increase
(as a fireball increases), or to movement (for chaotic movement of air). 'Up' in blow
up, on the other hand has nothing whatever to do with staying awake and out of
bed. (Denison, 1986: 37)92
It is the particle that changes the meaning of a phrasal verb. For example,
the word break usually means a sudden stopping, bursting, or loss of function. But
the phrasal verb break up means to end a personal relationship (up-completion),
while break up means to happen suddenly (out= appearance). (Denison, 45)93
All in all, emphasis in idiomatic phrasal verbs is on the analysis to
ascertain whether either verb or particle have a meaning.
If neither component has a meaning of its own within the context of the
sentence, it confirms the idiomaticalness of the whole and all that needs to be
noted is whether the idiom is valid and recognised as such.
92
93
Idem P.45
Referring to metaphors only, in order to describe non- physical, nonspecial events and relationships (time, emotions) all languages use metaphors
taken from the physical world. And this is particular true in the case of phrasal
verbs which often have both a physical and a metaphorical or derived meaning,
sometimes even several metaphorical meanings, depending on the context in
which they are used. (E.g. She made up a story; She made up her face.)
In nearly all cases, being able to evoke the physical image helps to find the
metaphorical or derived meaning. But this fact makes things even more
complicated, because certain prepositions or adverbial particles such as over, at,
about evoke images for English learners that are not the same they evoke for native
speakers.
Fortunately, unlike verbs, they are limited in number and those frequently
used to form phrasal verbs even fewer.
As it was seen in the previous section, phrasal verbs have a figurative
meaning. There is often an underlying metaphor that helps in understanding their
meaning.
In the case of blow up, the metaphor compares the movement of air created
by a bomb to the movement of boiling water in a kettle. In addition, blow up is
frequently used in a figurative sense, as in 'The issue of the councilman's
overspending blew up once the newspapers ran the story.' "Here the sudden
public revelation and subsequent discussion of the councilman's overspending is
compared to an explosion. (Denison, 52.)94
94
2.5.3. Idiomatic or literal Verb- Particle Constructions

There have been claims that only the figurative, idiomatic or
metaphorical usage of the combination should be called a phrasal verb and
that the literal use, where both the verb and the preposition are analysed, and
both are found to have a literal meaning in a phrasal context, should be called
verb and particle or verb- particle construction. However, Dixon (1982) and
Greenbaum Sidney (1985) are of the opinion that all the verb particle
constructions in both literal, as well as figurative use should be called phrasal
verbs, irrespectively whether they have an individual meaning or not.
Another important aspect relates to the fact that literal verb- particle
constructions are of a much more open type than idiomatic constructions.
On one hand, Richard exemplifies that "every time a situation is
described with a literal verb- particle phrase, a new form is grammatically
created. (1990:61)
The phrase to go to alone will form as many literal verb versions as there are
geographical entities globally, as in: to go to New York, to go to England, to
go to Canada.
On the other hand, idiomatic phrases are certainly finite in number.
Idioms tend to be well- established in the English language having been
created probably as a metaphor, and now being used as a standby, when
required. However, they have to be recognized as being valid as idioms.
But this doesn't mean that new idiomatic verb phrases may not be
created. One recent example has been to chill out. It is a metaphor, and
because it is used so often these days, it has become an idiom, and a clich.
Dirven Rene's study (2001) is a case in point because her paper
highlights the main gains made by the approaches of Tyler and Evans (In
prep), Morgan (1997) , Hampe (2000) and Gries (1997 , 1999
2.5.4 The Metaphoric in Recent cognitive approaches to Phrasal Verbs
Tyler and Evans' theory does not specifically concentrate on phrasal verbs
but their indirect contribution to the field of phrasal verbs deserves attention.
The authors deal with the most valuable insights of cognitive linguistics,
combining them also with insights from pragmatics.
In their view of the relation between the mind and the world, they accept
the existence of a real world, which is however accessible to man by perception so
that one can only deal with a 'represented' real world.
In the understanding of a sentence, such as The cat jumped over the
wall, the preposition over does not describe the whole trajectory of the cat's motion,
but of all the possible elements of the reality, it only encodes the vertically notion of
'higher than and proximate to some point'. Thus the cat's jump is seen as a scene,
consisting of a point A, where the cat is at the lowest point, a point B, where the cat
arrives at the top of the arc, and finally a point C, where the cat lands at the other
lowest level.
This information is not expressed in the sentence as such, but thanks to the
integration of one's knowledge of linguistic forms and one's general background
knowledge of the world, it can be constructed the interpretations needed in

interaction.
Since the particle over does not represent the whole arc ABC, but only the
point B, it merely has the basic meaning of 'higher than and proximate to'. In this
basic meaning, over is only static, not dynamic.
In the authors' view, dynamic interpretations of the prepositions rather
result from the contextual information provided by dynamic verbs like jump.
(Dirven, Rene 2001: 78)95
Further on, Tyler and Evans also develop an experientially- based
explanation for the phenomena of meaning extension and polysemy. This
experientially basis is what they call 'perceptual correlation'. Its meaning is that two
different events or states are seen to co- occur so often that their cooccurrence can
be taken for granted focusing on the whole complex scene or on any part of the
scene.
Thus, in the case of jump over, one can focus on the whole trajectory, or
on the second part of the trajectory, while describing the first. That is, when moving
over point B, one can focus on the whole trajectory ABC or on any point in this
trajectory: either point B itself, or a point beyond B; or on the motion towards C,
which yields the 'transfer' sense of (hand something) over.
Tyler and Evans' observations are summarised in the following semantic
network, where the senses of over are illustrated in a set of sentences:
E.g. (124) He jumped over the wall.
(125) a). The film is over.
95
Dirven, Rene, Op. cit. P. 78
b). Sally turned the keys of the office over to

John.
(126) The tablecloth is over the table.
(127) a). Mary looked over the manuscript quite
carefully.
b). The little boy cried over his broken toy
(128) a) John found over forty kinds of shells on
the beach.
a') The heavy rain caused the river to flow
over its
banks.
b). She has a strange power
over me. c). I would prefer tea
over coffee.
(129) a). The fence fell over.
a'). After the false- start, they started the race over.
Thus, the authors managed to account for the fact that over, as a case in
point, has different clusters of senses such as (125) the ABC trajectory cluster,
(126) the Coverage schema, (127) the Verticality cluster, (128) the Up cluster,
and(102) the Reflexive cluster.
By doing all these, the authors have shown the usefulness of the very
notion of semantic network itself. By introducing the notion of 'perceptual
correlation' "the authors managed to reduce the traditionally reliance on metaphor as

an explanatory principle for meaning extension". (Dirven, 2001: 79.)96
However, the authors do not reject the reality of conceptual metaphors.
They combine it with the notion of 'perceptual correlation' and thus it helps
clarifying the boundaries of metaphor and adds more balance to the all explanatory
force attributed to metaphor.
In contrast with this approach which reduces the impact of metaphor and
tries to exploit the potential of 'perceptual correlation', the following approaches try
to fully explore the metaphorical potential of language and thought.
Morgan's study (1997) is conceived as a tribute to the first cognitive
analysis of particle verbs by Lidner (1983)97. Morgan uses Lidner's examples and
considers her non- metaphorical analyses, supplementing them with deeper
metaphorical interpretations.
Morgan (1997: 355)98 sees four possibilities for metaphorical extensions
with a verb- particle construction (E.g. take out, whereby the particle out
presupposes the prior existence of a container, either literally, metaphorically, or
otherwise.
96
97 Lidner,S.A Lexico- Semantic Analysis of Verb-Particle Constructions with up and out. Indiana University Press,1963. P. 211
98 Morgan, Pamela. S. Op. cit. P. 355
(130) Extension possibilities for verbs

a. I took the mug out of the box:
b. We fished out the ring
Verb
literal
metaphorical
Container
literal
literal
(from the bowl):

c. We handed out the brochures:
literal
d. We picked out a name for the baby: metaphorical
metaphorical
metaphorical
Only in the literal sense of (130a) is there a common literal source domain
for verb and preposition. In all the other cases there isn't a common source domain,
bit two different ones. Thus, in (130c) the verb hand denotes the literal
manipulation of an object, but there is no 'literal' container. Here any set of similar
things, is seen as a container. Many domains can be metaphorically seen as
containers. Thus, a source/ origin/ centre, a set, a field, a previous boundary,
possession, and inaccessibility are all seen as possible effects of a state of
containment. The conceptualisation of these abstract categories as containers also
offers an explanation for the many different meanings of out in particle verbs as
exemplified in:
Metaphorisations of the container notion:
a) SOURCES ARE CONTAINERS:
cry out, sing out, beach out
b) SETS ARE CONTAINERS:

c) BOUNDARIES ARE CONTAINERS:
d) d)INNACCESSIBILITY IS A CONTAINER
roll out, fill out, lay out, line out

make out, work out, figure out
The full conceptual richness of a particle verb also involves several other
metaphorical processes. Thus, the verb to figure out in the title of Driven's study is
analysed as containing four steps:
1). The noun derived verb to figure means to manipulate
numbers' and is a metonymy based on the notion of 'number'; to figure is
metaphorised into the most abstract meaning of 'reaching a solution by thinking1.
2). The literal use of out meaning 'not within the boundaries of a
container is "extended to other kinds of accessibility, such as when a
problem is conceptualised as a (blocked) container."(Morgan, 1997:
343)99
3). From these two source domains, i.e. from the verb to figure
via the conceptual metaphor thinking is calculated and from the particle
out via a conceptual metaphor a problem is a (locked) container, the new
compound verb to figure out has developed one target domain, meaning '
to make a solution cognitive accessible by thinking'. Thus the particle verb
to figure out becomes an integrated construction, both semantically and
syntactically.
99
Idem P.343
4). Finally, according to Morgan, on the basis of the metaphor

accessible is out, visible is out, the conceptual metaphor knowing is seeing
is also involved, so that full conceptual content of to figure out a solution
means "causing something to be known by thinking about if. (Morgan,
1997: 345.)100
Morgan's study thus shows that a highly analysis of the various classes of
particle verbs is possible.
But as with Tyler and Evans, Morgan's paper does not discuss the syntactic
status of the items such as out. In fact, its real form as a preposition is the
compound item out of as in (130a). The alternation between preposition
and non- preposition status is real.
Another important fact is that in addition to "the input of purely literal
meanings, the input of a particle verb may also be a metonymic/ metaphoricalverb"
(Dirven, 2001:82)101 as the following cited paper by Hampe (2000)102 showed.
Hampe deals with a fifth case in addition to Morgan's cases of
metaphorisation in the formation of a verb- particle construction. When the verbparticle construction to face up to is formed, the verb to face is already a
figurative verb, me race metonymically standing for the whole person. Moreover,
there is a double extension from to face into face up to.
Hampe's analysis shows that to face problems is not simply synonymous
with to face up to problems.
100
Idem P.345
101
102
Hampe,Beate.Op.cit.P.109
With the simple verb one can have human and non- human subject (134 a,
b).But the compositional meaning of to face up to only allows an agent- driven.
(135a).
E.g. (134) a) We faced serious problems.
b). Serious problems faced us.
(135) a) We are facing up to a huge problem.
b).* A huge problem is facing up to us.
Just as Morgan deals with out in to figure out, Hampe claims that the
particle up in to race up to is motivated by conceptual metaphors in many ways and
she makes an important generalisation "This simultaneous motivation by more than
one conceptual metaphor is a very common property of particles in a verb- particle
construction."(2000:92). The element face in to face up to has just like the simple
verb to face the sense of being situated in front of, or opposite some entity.
This location sense also explains why the simple verb to face in (134) allows
both human and non- human subjects. The domain of event structure is a cover
term for a whole chain of events and states subsuming not only locations, states, and
events or changes, but also causes, actions, purposes (of actions),means (for
realising actions), difficulties encountered when acting and its sub- metaphor
PROBLEMS ARE OBSTACLES. By mapping this event structure onto the
location sense of the particle- verb, its component to face now means 'to confront
something'. The two components up and to add very rich extension possibilities,
too. The particle up evokes the vertically or up- down orientation and of this source
domain it is the upper limit of the vertically orientation that is added to the event
structure of to face. (Dirven, 2001:85)103
This physical space domain is the source domain for many different
metaphorisations, all suggesting positive values, such as CLOSE is UP,
ACTIVITY is UP, CONTROL is UP, COMPETITION is UP,
Thus, the face up to construction incorporates the notion of ACTIVITY,
CONTROL and COMPLETION Finally the preposition to denotes a physical
goal in space. As a conceptual metaphor, to implies motion towards an 'abstract
entity' such as a problem, a difficulty.
Each of these three metaphor systems contributes to the compositional
global meaning of to face up to as "to actively confront an entity that possesses a
problem, a difficulty for one's further actions." (Dirven, 2001: 86.). However, the
schematic meaning of to face up to transcend this compositional structure since it
also encompasses the motion of 'an energetic human agent' and that of
'emotionality'.
In this sense the construction is strongly idiomatic. Thus, the particle- verb
to face up to instantiates the construction schema 'verb+ up to) which contains the
additional sense of 'energetic agent' and of 'emotionality'.
Whereas Hampe thus makes a first inroad into a syntactic aspect of
particleverbs [the opposition between (104) and (105)], this avenue is not further
explored in the rest of his study.
Here, Gries has made important progress. The deeper principle which
Gries proposes as the underlying principle is the consciousness principle,
103
manifesting itself in the degree of attention needed to set up mental contact with the
NP's referent.
He formulates his consciousness hypothesis as follows, "construction 1
will be preferred with objects requiring a high amount of consciousness and
construction 2 will be preferred with objects requiring none or only a limited
amount of consciousness for their processing." (Gries, 1997. 64).104
The degree of consciousness is in its turn determined by two conditions: the
discourse context and the entrenchment of the linguistic form denoting a referent.
Objects that are new in the discourse context like a pencil in E.g. He picked up a
pencil, prefer construction 1, whereas objects that are accessible or active via
the discourse context co- occur in construction 2 as in the example: He picked
the pencil up.
Similarly, according to Gries (1997:64), the degree of entrenchment
is partly equated with the reverse of the Silverstein Hierarchy(SH) such that
nouns/ referents at level 1 in Table 1 are least entrenched and forms/
referents at level 1 in Table 1 are most entrenched.
104
Gries, Stefan T. Op. cit. P. 64
Table 1. The Silverstein Hierarchy
1. Abstract entities.
2. Sensual entities
3. Locations
4. Containers
5. Concrete objects
6. Animate beings (other than humans)
7. Kin terms
8. Proper names
9. 3rd person singular pronoun
10. 2nd person
singular pronoun
1 1 1st person
singular pronoun
The Silverstein Hierarchy offers a plausible explanation for the fact
that with pronouns referring to an abstract referent such as malaria one can
use only (136a). When the same anaphoric reference is made by means of
super ordinate abstract nouns like disease, (level 1 in SH),one tends to find in
the large majority of cases, construction 1 as in (136b) which is in clear
contrast with the use of construction 2 with concrete objects as in (135b) He

picked the pencil up.
E.g. (136) a) He has got malaria. He picked it up
(Kenya.)
b).He has got malaria. He picked up that
disease in Kenya.
c). He has got malaria. He picked THAT
disease in Kenya.
Even if the situation is still more complex, than Gries supposes, his merit is
that he has come up with a semantic principle.
As an overall conclusion, it is important for a clear discussion to be
made between fully idiomatic, less idiomatic and newly metaphorised particleverbs.
Dirvens study is an approach to grammatically judgements and available
search and tool for the further understandings of grammatical constructions.
The aim of Chapter 2 was to convey different views on phrasal verbs in
trying to reveal a new facette of the issue, through the studies of authors such as.
Hulban Horia (2001), Bolinger, Dwight (1971), McIntyre, Andrew (2001), Quirk,
Randolph, Greenbaum Sidney (1973), Veres, Grigore(1998), Denison, David

(1986), Talmy L. (1985) and not in the least Dirven, Rene(2001), Tyler and Evans
(In prep), Morgan(1997), Hampe (2000) and Gries (1997, 1999).
Chapter 3. Practical Aspects of Phrasal Verbs

Mastering the use of phrasal verbs is a difficult challenge and very
overwhelming. Thus, in its starting point the chapter throws light upon the difficulty
of using phrasal verbs.
Further on there are discussed there are discussed issues like: difficulty
with phrasal verbs, description of listen to as phrasal verb, slang equivalents for the
verb to die and not in the least the analysis of phrasal verbs that occur in some given
lyrics.
The aim of the chapter is to show that phrasal verbs are more and more
used in the everyday speaking and that they have been a source for the enrichment
of the language.
3.1 Difficulty with Phrasal Verbs
This section is concerned with establishing why phrasal verbs cause

problems to most non- native speakers and what are the best solutions for learning
to understand and use particle verbs.
Therefore, among the first words encountered by non- natives learners of

English are one- syllable verbs like make, get, take, get, put and prepositions and
adverbs such as in , on, up, down, for, out, over. These words are very easy to
understand when used in isolation, sentences such as: E.g. He made a cake or She
climbed up the tree cause no difficulties at all.
The great problem for a learner is when they occur in fixed combinations
called phrasal verbs. A beginning learner of English hearing the sentence He took
off his hat should have little difficulty understanding what it means; but one may
have problems with the sentence The plane took off (The plane rose into the air),
and one is unlikely to have an idea of the meaning of He took off his teacher[He
imitated his teacher).
The fact that many phrasal verbs have more than one meaning E.g. take off
makes life more complicated for the learner of English. For example, the further
phrasal verb put down has many uses and different meanings.
E.g. (137) a. He finished the book and put it down on
the table.
b. You are always putting me down
('criticise'
'humiliate').
c. The police quickly put down the fights
('stop'
'crush').
d. I had to have my dog put down ('kill').
Apart from this, very many phrasal verbs have not just two but three
components. Such verbs are difficult to understand because the learner hears a
string of words, each of which he knows very well, but which in combination do
not make any sense. Here are such verbs:
get up to ('to do') - What have you been getting
up to lately?
put up with ('to tolerate') - I can't put up with
his rudeness anymore.
go in for (We') -1 don't go in for team sports. It
is not enough however to simply understand phrasal verbs. Using a

phrasal verb correctly is not a matter of knowing its meaning, the learner
also has to learn its grammar.
Courtney, Rosemary (1983: 10)105 claims that phrasal verbs cause
problems for an English learner not only because of their meaning, but also because
of their grammar. Sometimes the parts of the phrasal verbs can be separated. One
can say for example:
E.g. (138) a). The soldiers blew up the bridge.
b). The soldiers blew the bridge up.
Some phrasal verbs are always used as in a) such as leave off working'. Others must
always be used as in b) as with keep open in She kept the door open.' Blow up is an
example of a phrasal verb where one can use either a) or b). Many expressions are
used either with or without an object.
105
Courtney, Rosemary. Op. cit. P. 10
E.g. (139) The soldiers blew up the enemy bridge. (transitive).

(140) A chemical factory blew up in the North of
England. (intransitive).
When the expressions have a pronoun object, the pronoun comes directly
after the verb as in The soldiers reached the bridge and blew it up.
All in all, the difficulty in learning phrasal verbs is seen as being two- fold:
on one hand the unpredictability of their idiomatic meaning, and on the other hand
the rules describing how they may enter into the rest of the sentence.
An important aspect of the subject is illustrated by the fact that themeaning
of some phrasal verbs is at first obscure. For instance, to make out can mean 'to
perceive or to see something', to turn up means 'to appear'.
Further on, the verb and the word or phrase it connects to, are not always
contiguous: Fill this out, one would say, but then he would say Fill out this form.
Native speakers in comparison with non- native speakers almost never have
problems in understanding phrasal verbs because they possess an internal
mechanism which enables them to discover the meaning autonomously. The new
meaning does not come from nowhere; it is closely related to the old meaning in
each part of the phrasal verb.
Non- native speakers can learn how to choose a preposition or particle
following a certain verb or can come to understand its meaning only after constant
practice.
On this matter, English teachers think that there are a number of ways of
learning phrasal verbs. For example, different meanings can be learnt according to
the main verb (look up, look up to, look down, look down on, look into),
different meanings can also be learnt according to the preposition or adverb (let
down, sit down, turn down, put down, write down).
Other ways are learning different verbs used for a particular subject or
situation, for instance 'telephoning': put through, hold on, hang up, get through
cur off, speak up. The recommendations to best learn phrasal verbs are to use
them in different situations, to treat them as one treats any new vocabulary.
3.2 A Query on the Verb to Listen to as a Phrasal Verb.

The aim here is the examination of an ostensibly simple verb, listen.
This verb is similar to other common English verbs as illustrated in sentences
(141) and (142):
E.g. (141) She looked up the information.
(142) People listen to music for various
reasons.
The verb in sentence (141) yields easily to semantic and grammatical
analysis for native English speakers, for they know that looked up means
'researched' as in (143b) below, and that up can be moved to the syntactic
position after the information without changing the meaning of the sentence, as in
(143c) below:
E.g. (143) b. She researched the
information
c.
She
looked
information up.
the
Since the information is neither a direction, nor a location in the context of

this sentence and a preposition does not occur after its object, up is a part of the verb
looked and contributes to its meaning.
Therefore, looked up is idiomatic. Sentence (142), apparently as simple
as sentence (141) has a similar structure but generates a problematic analysis when
subjected to an analytical procedure.
In some American English, listen at means the same as listen to, as in the
expression 'Listen at that bird sing!' a variation of 'Listen to that bird sing!'.
With a sentence such as 'People listen to music for various reasons', is hard
to establish whether the verb of the predicate is listen (V) with the modifiers to
music and for various reasons (ADVP), or whether the verb is listen to (V) with
the complement music (NP2) and modifier for various reasons (ADVP)
In order to determine the syntactic analysis, a query on the listen/ listen to
problem is established. This query is intended to come to a verifiable conclusion.
The methods of inquiry used in this approach on listen to as phrasal
verb, involve three levels of investigation, the first- order level uses the speakers
operational knowledge of the language linguistic questions, the second- order
level uses general reference knowledge to resolve problems (dictionaries,
pedagogical grammars). And the third- order level uses specialised resources for
an extended analysis (specialised dictionaries, theoretical texts).
First-Order Level of the Query: Operational Knowledge.

The preliminary examination of sentence (2) People listen to music for
various reasons describes the nature of the predicate and demonstrates its possible
analysis.
In a syntactic analysis of the predicate, the phrase for various reasons can
be eliminated as a non-obligatory adverbial modifier. Thus, the predicate is reduced
to listen to music. If to music is considered a phrase, then its structure fits the
syntactic rule for the prepositional phrase. In this predicate, if to music modifies the
verb, then it must be considered an adverbial modifier. Therefore, to music must
give information that indicates direction as indicated by the meaning of the word to.
But this semantic application does not pass the test for adverbs of direction,
since music is not a place one would go to and the verb listen does not imply a
physical action.
So, the analysis of the predicate's syntactic pattern listen to - intransitive
verb and ADVP to music = a prepositional phrase modifier, is suspended here for
the alternative predicate analysis: listen to = a transitive verb unit, with an NP2 (0),
music = a direct object
While student inquires may think intuitively that listen to is a verbal unit,
his former practices of sentence analysis make it problematic to select verbal
structure such as listen to for the verb of a Standard English sentence.
The listen to type of verbal structure is identified as a multiword verb
consisting of lexical verb and an attached particle which looks like a preposition.
The particle has the appearance of a preposition or an adverb but does not
function as either and effects a change in the meaning of the verb.
Usually, the verb-particle combination has the meaning of a single verb,
as with to look up meaning 'to research', to hand in meaning 'to submit' or to
turn into meaning 'to become'.
This test of substituting a synonym does not apply easily to listen to. A
single- word definition is not easy to find, not even for the verb listen.
In addition, the meaning of listen to does not seem to be idiomatic. Its
meaning is neither different, nor altered from that of listen. But the semantic
context of the sentence does point to an object rather than an adverb, music, as
the object- recipient of the act of listening. It is the 'what' receiver and not the
'where' adverb of the verb's action. As in the sentence He turned into a monkey,
whose predicate contains a multiword linking verb with a predicate noun, the
verb function in the following sentences substantiates another point against
particle transformation as a sure test for phrasal verbs.
E.g. (144) a. They came in.
b.
They entered.
c.
They came in the house.
d.
They entered the house
e.
*They came the house in.
Sentence (144a) has a phrasal verb with an intransitive verb function and
is semantically equivalent to sentence (144b). Sentence (144c), using the same
multiword verb, but with a transitive verb function, corresponds to (144d).
However, unlike the prototype sentences, such as sentence (141), in which the
particle can be moved to a position after the direct object NP, sentence (144c)
cannot be rendered as (144e). The verbal extension in cannot be separated from a
verb by a noun phrase. So, in this instance of the verb- particle combination with a
direct object (V+ part+ NP), the transformation rule which moves the verb-particle
cannot be applied.
As shown in the examination of transitive phrasal verbs operational
knowledge
dealing
with
Substitution
and
Synonymy,
Verb-
ParticleTransformation does not always prove conclusive. Therefore, is

appropriate to proceed to the next level of query.
The Second -Order Level: General References
There have been consulted five dictionaries and their entries proved
inconclusive or contradictory. Of the five dictionaries examined, Webster's
Third International106, Oxford English Dictionary107, The American
Heritage Dictionary108, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary109 and
Webster's New World Dictionary110, none contained entries for listen to,
even though the phrase is used in illustrating sentences. Nor is there an entry
for listen at, an alternative expression with apparently the same meaning.
106 Babcock,Philip,Gove.Webster'sThird International. RogetInternationalThesaurusEdition,1999.P.22

107
Oxford English Dictionary. OxfordUniversityPress,1 9 9 1 P . 1 8 2
108 The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.P.164
109 Webster, Merriam. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Plebius Press, 2003. P. 67
110 Charleton, Laird. Webster's New World Dictionary. Random House, 1999.P.178
No dictionary entry included single- word synonyms that could be

used in the sense of the modified sentence (142) People listen to music for
various reasons. Ail dictionaries labelled listen as intransitive with two
denotations.
a).to make a conscious effort to hear; to attend closely so as to hear.
b). to give heed, take advice.
The second denotation is not applicable to the meaning in sentence
(142).
The definitions of the intransitive function often contradict. The
intransitive sense (a) uses the key word (added) in the phrase (added closely
so as to hear). As used here it is a pseudo- intransitive, since one must attend
someone or something. Attend, therefore it's a transitive verb, defining an
intransitive usage, if, in the query sentence, we apply sense (a) in the
substantial rule, the sentence becomes:
E.g. 145. People attend music closely so as to hear or
146. People make a conscious effort to hear
music.
While the substitution functions transitively, Webster's New World
labels the transitive usage archaic and gives the definition to pay attention
to by listening. 'hear* Since attend to means pay attention to, dictionary has
rewritten its intransitive sense (a), 'attend closely so as to hear'. And has used the
same word to define itself: to listen means 'to pay attention to by listening'
In the final analysis of grammatical references, it is Elbaum N Sandra (1986)

111
s study which provides definite answers.

Important to the query is the fact that Elbaum (1986 289) includes
listen
to as investigated in this query. Within the list of common inseparable verb

combinations, Elbaum differentiates between the meanings of listen to: (sense 1)
'hear a sound' and (sense 2) 'obey':
E.g. (147) Teenagers listen to popular music, (sense
1). (148) Don't listen to bad advice, (sense 2)
The absence of the term particle and the use of prepositions in all instances
where particle has been used previously in other texts indicate a synonymy between
preposition and particle.
Thus, it may be concluded from the evidence at this point of the query that
listen to may be considered a type of multiword verb called by either of two
names: a prepositional verb or an inseparable two- word verb.
Based upon the evidence provided so far, the query provided that listen to
is indeed a phrasal verb.
The Third Order Level of Query: Specialized Resources
The query can end with the findings of the second level of inquiry, but
since no synonym was produced for listen to as illustrated in sentence (142),
111 Elbaum, Sandra N. Grammar in Context. Book Two. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1986.P.101
People listen to music for various reasons, the query continues with an
examination of specialized resources such as verb dictionaries.
The Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (1992)112 contains the
entry listen to in which it confirms its categorization as a phrasal verb. The entry
supplies no single- word synonym even though similar periphrastic definitions
occur, 'to hear (something or someone) intentionally',
obviously a transitive usage. And syntactically, Longman labels listen to a 'verb
prep.', meaning prepositional verb.
In addition to Longman Dictionary, the foundation studies of Bolinger
(1971), of Fraser (1976), of Palmer (1968,1974) prove useful.
Of these sources, Bolinger (1971) notes differences in stress between
particles and prepositions. Accordingly, the particle receives more stress as a
primary influence to meaning than does a preposition which acts as a connector.
Finally, there are studies that analyse closely the single verbal elements
to and at as particles. The inclusion of at in The Dictionary of American
Regional English and its discussion by Virginia McDavid (1963)113 are
especially significant. McDavid notes that at often alternates with to and that at
and to are not always indicators of place or location. This alternation is
considered dialectal in the United States.
The prevalence of the form listen to among a large body of speakers
attests to as functioning as an attachment to listen and not as a locative preposition
for the noun which follows it.
112
Courtney, Rosemary. Op. cit. P. 218
113 McDavid,M.The Dictionary of American Regional English. Cambridge: Belknap Press/ Harvard University Press 1991 P.141
The results of the query
Among the grammars consulted, Elbaum (1986), Greenbaum (1989)

and Quirk and Greenbaum's Concise Grammar (1972) provide the most succinct
examination of the phrasal verb as a typical term for multiword verbs, which
includes the subtype prepositional phrasal verb.
Firstly, a prepositional phrasal verb must precede its complement as in
listen to, listen to or call on. And secondly, a prepositional verb allows a verb
inserted before the preposition, as in the sentences.
E.g. (149) a. They called quietly on
the man.
(150) a. People listen quietly to
music.
The prepositional verb also permits a relative pronoun after the
preposition to construct a relative clause transformation, illustrated in sentences.
E.g. (151) b. The man on whom they called
(152) b. The music to which they listened.
The research for potential solutions to the question of listen to as a phrasal
verb has reached the following conclusions:
The English alternation usages, such as listen at, can be used as semantic
tests to explain listen to and other such occurring English verbs.
*For the query sentence People listen to music for various reasons, the
Synonymy and Substitutability rule is applied for the dictionary's meaning
'attend'. Another definition of listen to to pay attention to' contains the
nominalized verb 'attend'.
*The Particle Transformation rule cannot be applied.
*The Substitutability rule generates a prepositional verb when it is applied to
the definition 'to pay attention to' which is an idiomatic combination that
nominalizes the verb attend and uses 'pay' than 'give' with the structure word
to.
*Listen to cannot move the to particle to a position after its object. The
*Noun Phrase which follows this kind of verb is not the adverbial modifier of
place or direction.
*Ultimately, listen to is a type of transitive phrasal verb, a prepositional
phrasal verb with syntactic rules which restrict its particle movement.
3.3 Slang Equivalents for the verb to die.
This section is meant to emphasize that the use of phrasal v tbs in

conversation helped in replacing awkward words such as to die, English language
developing in this way a variety of expressions which in standard language are
seen as irreverent.
If one thinks of death as one of the rare things nobody has so far been
able to avoid, one might wonder why the subject has become something of a
taboo in almost all cultures. The idea of death is pushed somewhere toward the
back of our minds, and it's rather uncomfortable to be forced to confront it even in
conversation
In many situations, the verb die seems to blunt, or perhaps too serious.
Therefore the English language developed some expressions in order to replace
this word, ranging from religious euphemisms to slang words.
Green, Jonathon (1986)114 states that many of the slang idioms are results
of a kind of semantic shift. They have existed in the language for a long time but
have had a quite different meaning. The semantic shift has in some cases been so
complete that the original sense has to be dug up in etymological dictionaries. But
more often, the old concrete meaning and the new figurative one coexist in the
language and it is the context that determines the interpretation.
Phrasal verbs make up a large proportion of the slang vocabulary in
general, and the matter of death is no exception.
114 Green, Jonathon.TheSlangThesaurus.London:ElmStreetBooks,1986.P.144
Jonathon lists the common combinations of the verb followed by the

adverb of or out. Both of these include the idea of leaving' or 'ending'. So they go
well with the connotations the verb die rouses in people. Examples of the verb +
off group are: kick off, cool off, kiss of, pop off, slam off, drop off, pipe off,
shove off, step off, conk off, and with the verb + out group are: check out, peg
out, pass out, strike out, chalk out, flake out, flack out, conk out, bow out,
weigh out
Most of these phrasal verbs have a double meaning: as well as being
synonymous for 'dying', they can mean the same as to fall asleep, to faint, or to
stop functioning. Usually, these idioms are the results of the already mentioned
semantic shift where the connection between the original meaning and the new
slang meaning has remained relatively clear. Other phrasal expressions include
check in, kick in, shove over and keel over.
In general, the abundance of these idioms concerning 'dying' and 'death'
proves that the subject is one which necessarily comes up in conversation quite
often, but which always has to be formulated according to the context.
3.4 The analysis of the Phrasal Verbs used in lyrics.
So far, there has been established that phrasal verbs are an occurring feature
of the English language and that they open the way to a number of lexical and
grammatical features. These features will be explored in the next analyses in which
lyricists have made good use of phrasal verbs in order to obtain a greater variety of
meanings.
The phrasal verbs in the lyrics to follow are analysed for the above reasons:
for their emphatic role;
for their pragmatic function providing exact

movement description;
for their characteristic and particular idioms;
in order to illustrate 'the reason why' an advancing
analysis of some lines is given.
1). For the purpose of giving emphasis. In Be our guest from Beauty
and the Beast115: "Clean it up., we want the company impressed" it is verb of
change + emphatism 'clean it completely.'
2). For the purpose of conveying accurate information of the path of
movement and directionality by means of one or more "satellites", how
Talmy (1985: 486)116 calls the adverbs or prepositions. These can enrich the
songs, and make the audience infer the exact type of motion, as illustrated in
the songs from Snow White117 in Some Day My Prince Will Come. "And
away to his castle well go." (direction | goal + verb of motion), or in the
verses: "It's home from work we go." (goal + source + verb of motion); "It's
off to work we go. (locative + goal + verb of motion).
3). For the purpose of interpreting idiomatic verbs, collocations whose
meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements or
from the grammatical rules of English, they will be explored by focusing on their
meaning in these songs, and by pointing out their relevance as idiomatic
expressions both of colloquial and poetical significance, as shown in the following
115
Hearne, Betsy. Beauty and the Beast: Visions and Revisions of an Old Tale. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. P.17
116
Talmy, L.Op. Cit. P. 486
117
Ison, S. Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. New York: A Welcome Book Hyperion, 1995 P. 17
illustrations: In the song Looking for Romance, from Bambi118 "I want you to
know that I'm looking for romance", (colloquial idiomatic verb: 'seek'. It is also
shown in the song When you Wish Upon a Star, from Pinocchio119, where the
phrasal verb acquires a poetical meaning for the euphonic use of the preposition
upon and the word star, a celestial body which conveys the additional meaning of
being a magic object: "When you wish upon star", (poetical idiomatic verb: 'make a
wish using a magic talisman'.)
In Looking for Romance from Bambi, the alternation of verbs that map
the core information into themselves- framing verbs- or into the particle -framing
"satellite verbs"- reinforces the idea of 'search' in the discourse and avoids verbal
repetition by expressing this intention with different linguistic elements: "I'm
looking for romance (framing satellite verb) or "I'm seeking romance (framing
verb).
This research aims to offer the analysis of the constructions associated with
emphasis, motion and idiomatic expressions as supporting evidence for the
pragmatic functions of grammar.
The effects of the phrasal verbs in these songs have "consequences for
rhetorical discussions, and that they are significant enough to influence the
audience's attention to particular constructional domains- a realm of fantasy, a field
of action, or magic influence."120
118
Burbank, C. A. Bambi. Walt Disney Company, 1990 -P. 21
119 Talklen, J. R. R. On Fairy Tales. In Tree and Leaf: George Allen and Unwin, 1964- P. 15
120
Rierola, Ana. M. A Linguistic Study of the Magic in Disney. Faculty of English and German Philology of Barcelona , 2001-P.112
In the lyric Mr. Stork from Dumbo121 six phrasal verbs have been used:
"He'll get through." (change + medium, meaning 'pass'.)
"Look out for Mr. Stork." (perception + locative + goal, meaning
'beware of.
"He'll come along." (motion + medium, meaning 'approach'.)
"Don't try to get away." (change + direction, meaning 'escape'.)
"He'll spot you out in China." (change + locative, meaning
'locate'.)
"When he comes around." (motion + locative, meaning 'visit'.)
(1990:23- 25). 122
In the song Little April Shower from Bambi (1990: 32)123, the phrasal
verbs in: "Beating a tune as you fall all around." and in You'll come along with your
pretty little song." Contribute to the staging of the metaphorical actions:
fall around (motion + locative, meaning 'descend
everywhere')
come along with (motion + medium + instrument,
meaning 'approach with'.
All in all, all the lyricists have made good use of the phrasal verbs in their
lyrics. Therefore, the study and usage of these grammatical constructions provide a
collection of many verbs with a great deal of particles or "satellites".
Although verbs plus satellite constructions should be considered as a
whole, there have been explored the syntax and the semantics of these
combinations and the distinctions of the different types (motion, stative, action or
event, emphatic or idiomatic verbs) in each of the example given during the
linguistic analysis. The main objective of the lyricists has been to obtain a variety of
meanings.
Thus, the phrasal verbs with up conveys emphasis. The stress, importance
or significance is laid on the particle by means of the forceful indicative that the
three actions must be complete.
121 Dumbo. Look out for Mr. Stork. The Walt Disney Company, 1990. P. 27
122
Idem P.23 - 25
E.g. "Clean it up. we want the company impressed.' (Be Our guest)
"Bit for now let's eat UP."(id.)
On the other hand, "idiomatic phrasal verbs have idiosyncratic characteristics
for having distinct style or character and lacking predictable meanings."124
However, these grammatical constructions or expressions contribute to enrich the
language of these songs with traits of peculiarity:
E.g. "A cat's the only cat who knows where it's at." (The
Aristocrats125)
"When all longing is through.'' (Looking for
Romance)
Although, there are more nouns than verbs in these lyrics, phrasal verbs play
an important role, and they are the most complex lexical category, for being more
polysemous than nouns.
As an overall conclusion, Chapter 3 offers a new perspective on the
matter of phrasal verbs proving that it is essential to know and understand multiword verbs as these are nearly always the chosen forms for a native speaker. The
importance of using phrasal verbs resides in the fact that they usually begin in
casual speech where they become part of the everyday vocabulary and eventually
become recognized as acceptable standard usage. The analysed lyrics, from the last
part of the Chapter were meant to prove that literature is in search of a deeper
understanding of this ubiquitous construction called 'verb-particle construction'.
123
Burbank, C. A. Op. cit. P. 12
124 Townsend, J. R. Written for Children: An Outline of English Language. Children's Literature (5th edition). London: Badley Head, 1990. P. 134
125 Finch, C. Walt Disney's The Aristocrats. New York: A Welcome Book Hyperion, 1995. P. 101
General Conclusions
The study on multiword verbs set out to produce a unified description of
phrasal verbs. The research reached the following conclusion: the available corpora,
the larger studies and the theoretical approaches to the issue made it possible for the
production of a study meant to highlight and to clarify some problems with which
students and teachers of English may confront: the problem of word- order in the
verb- particle construction, the problem of idiomaticity with phrasal verbs, the
difficulty of understanding phrasal verbs.
Thus, this study may be used as a guide for the non- native speakers of
English, for it can offer at any time answers to whatever questions may arise.
This paper has discussed minutely the classifications and definitions of
phrasal verbs (Chapter I), problems such as transitivity, word classes of particles,
types of particles, aspectual and figurative meanings (Chapter II), issues such as
description of listen to as phrasal verb, slang equivalents for the verb to die and not
in the least an analysis of phrasal verbs that occur in some given lyrics (Chapter III).
As an overall conclusion, the studies support the theories advanced by
Levitchi. Leon (1970) on the matter of complex verbs, by Greenbaum, Sidney and
Quirk, R. (1973) on the issue of transitivity, by Hulban, Horia (1991) and by
Bolinger, Dwight on the issue of morphology, by McIntyre, Andrew (2001) on the
matter of semantics, by Gries, Stefan (1997. 1999) on the matter of particle
movement., by Talmy, L. (1985) on the issue of the representation of phrasal verbs
in the semantic lexicon model, by Veres, Grigore (1998) on the matter of formality
and informality, by Dirven, Rene on her contribution to the metaphorical approach
on phrasal verbs, and not in the least by Green, Jonathon (1986) on the matter of
slang equivalents of the verb to die.
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Andreea-Rosalia

Editura Sfntul Ierarh Nicolae

An Overview of Phrasal Verbs

The Historical Rise of the English Phrasal Verbs

The Ancestors of Phrasal Verbs in Old English

Phrasal Verbs in Middle English

Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English

Phrasal verbs in present- day English

Definition of Phrasal Verbs

Role of Phrasal Verbs in English language

Classification of English Verbs

Types of Phrasal Verbs

Chapter II The grammar of Phrasal Verbs

Particle verbs and Morphology

Syntax of Phrasal Verbs

2.2.1 Differences between Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional

Word classes of Particles

Phrasal- prepositional Verbs

Syntactic tests for Phrasal Verbs

The Function of Particles

Semantics of Phrasal Verbs

Aspectual and related particle

Compositional vs. Non- compositional Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs and Pragmatics

The metaphorical extension of phrasal verbs

Phrasal Verbs as Idioms

Idiomatic or literal verb particle construction?

The metaphoric in recent cognitive approaches to

Chapter 1 . An Overview of Phrasal Verbs

Structure, The Pergamon Press; Dalle, T. S. (1983), The Effectiveness of

1.2 The Historical Rise of the English Phrasal Verb.

1.3 The Ancestors of Phrasal Verbs in Old English

Baugh and Cable. Op. cit. - P. 340.

1.5 Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English

1.6 Phrasal Verbs in present-day English

In present-day English, phrasal verbs are identifiable by particle movement

Idem. -P. 161.

phrase, by translation and passivization. A phrasal verb in present day English is a

1.7 Definitions of Phrasal Verbs

19 Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs: Longman, Longman Publishing House 1991-P. xv

1.9 Classification of English Verbs

Levitchi,D.Leon,Limba Engleza Contemporana- Lexicologie Editura DidacticasiPedagogica,Bucuresti,1970-P.83

E.g. a). to bring about 'to determine, to cause', to bring up 'to

1.10 Types of Phrasal Verbs.

After classifying English verbs, a classification of phrasal verbs is required.

2). Verb+ preposition as in: She

26 Oxford English Grammar, London:OxfordUniversityPress,1983.P.145

(4) Drink up quickly!

(17) Find out whether they are coming.

(30) She took in her parents ('to deceive') (Heaton, 1985:109).

Chapter 2. The Grammar of Phrasal Verbs.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, 200- P.87.

Hulban, Horia., Synthesis in English Morphology. Iasi: Al. 1. Cuza-P.91.

31 Bolinger,Dwight.The Phrasal Verbin English. Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1 9 7 1 . P . 8 5

It is difficult to find nouns of the type: offcut, outtalk, outbreak, overpass,

Quirk, Randolph. Op. cit. P.93

E.g. (45) He broke completely with his girl

(56) Her voice comes across very well, (phrasal verb).

2.2.2 Syntactic patterns