Dehydration: Isonatremic, Hyponatremic, and

Hypernatremic Recognition and Management

Karen S. Powers, MD, FCCM*
*Pediatric Critical Care, Golisano Childrens Hospital, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, NY.

Educational Gap
Clinicians need to recognize the signs and symptoms of dehydration to
safely restore uid and electrolytes.

Objectives

After completing this article, readers should be able to:

1. Understand that the signs and symptoms of dehydration are related to

changes in extracellular uid volume.
2. Recognize the different clinical and laboratory abnormalities in
isonatremic, hyponatremic, and hypernatremic dehydration.
3. Know how to manage isonatremic dehydration.
4. Know how to manage hyponatremic dehydration.
5. Know how to manage hypernatremic dehydration.
6. Recognize how to avoid as well as treat complications of uid and
sodium repletion.
7. Understand which patients are candidates for oral rehydration.
8. Know the proper uids and methods for oral rehydration.

INTRODUCTION
Dehydration is one of the leading causes of pediatric morbidity and mortality
throughout the world. Diarrheal disease and dehydration account for 14% to 30%
of worldwide deaths among infants and toddlers. (1) In the United States, as
recently as 2003, gastroenteritis was the source for more than 1.5 million ofce
visits, 200,000 hospitalizations, and 300 deaths per year. The rotavirus vaccine
has signicantly decreased the incidence of rotaviral gastroenteritis, and now
norovirus is the leading cause in the United States.
Water, which is essential for cellular homeostasis, comprises about 75% of
body weight in infants and up to 60% in adolescents and adults. Without water
intake, humans would die within a few days. (2) The human body has an efcient
mechanism of physiologic controls to maintain uid and electrolyte balance,
including thirst. These mechanisms can be overwhelmed in disease states such as
gastroenteritis because of rapid uid and electrolyte losses, leading to dysnatremia,
which is the most common electrolyte abnormality in hospitalized patients. (3)

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AUTHOR DISCLOSURE Dr Powers has

disclosed no nancial relationships relevant to
this article. This commentary does not contain
a discussion of an unapproved/investigative
use of a commercial product/device.

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Infants and young children are especially vulnerable because

they lack the ability to relate their thirst to caregivers or to
access uids on their own. They also have increased insensible losses due to a higher body surface area.
Hypovolemia occurs when uid is lost from the extracellular space at a rate exceeding replacement. The typical
sites for these losses are the gastrointestinal tract (diarrhea
and vomiting), the skin (fever, sweat, burns), and urine
(glycosuria, diuretic therapy, obstructive uropathies, interstitial disease, neurogenic and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus). The body tries to maintain water and mineral balance
by shifting uid from the intracellular compartment into
the extracellular space and promotes urinary retention of
water via secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). In
response to losses, receptor cells in the hypothalamus
shrink, causing the release of a hormonal message to drink
and enhance the appetite for salt. If salt and water are not
adequately replenished, the effective circulating volume is
diminished, compromising organ and tissue perfusion
(Fig 1).

SIGNS OF DEHYDRATION
Assessing the extent of volume depletion can be difcult.
Ideally, the clinician would have a baseline weight for
comparison; each gram of weight loss corresponds to one
milliliter of water loss. Unfortunately, such baseline weight
rarely exists. Therefore, the clinician should use clinical
signs and symptoms as well as laboratory data to assess the
degree of dehydration. Dehydration is generally classied
as mild (3%5% volume loss), moderate (6%9% volume
loss), or severe (10% volume loss) (Table 1).
Infants and children with mild dehydration often have
minimal or no clinical changes other than a decrease in urine
output. Along with decreased urine output and tearing,
children with moderate dehydration often have dried mucous
membranes, decreased skin turgor, irritability, tachycardia
with decreased capillary rell, and deep respirations. A
systematic review of the accuracy of clinically predicting at
least 5% dehydration in children found prolonged capillary
rell, abnormal skin turgor, and abnormal respiratory pattern
to be the best predictors. (4) Children with severe dehydration
present in near-shock to shock with lethargy, tachycardia,
hypotension, hyperpnea, prolonged capillary rell, and cool
and mottled extremities. They require immediate aggressive
isotonic uid resuscitation. Hypotension is a very late sign of
dehydration, occurring when all compensatory mechanisms
to maintain organ perfusion are overwhelmed.
The clinical assessment of dehydration is only an estimate.
Therefore, the child must be continually reevaluated during

therapy to ensure that appropriate replacement volumes are

being administered. Children with hyponatremic dehydration
have hypotonic body uids with serum osmolarity less than
270 mOsm/kg (270 mmol/kg) that can lead to uid shifts
from the extracellular to the intracellular space. The degree of
dehydration may be overestimated because these patients have
diminished intravascular volume that is manifested by more
severe clinical symptoms. They are very likely to require
immediate circulatory support. On the other hand, children
with hypernatremic dehydration have hypertonic body uids
with serum osmolarity, often in excess of 300 mOsm/kg
(300 mmol/kg). Fluid shifts from the intracellular to the
extracellular space to maintain intravascular volume. The
degree of dehydration in these children is often underestimated, contributing to late presentation for medical
care.

LABORATORY TESTS
Results of laboratory tests, including measurements of
serum electrolytes and acid/base balance, are typically normal in infants and children with mild dehydration. Therefore, laboratory testing is generally indicated only for
children requiring intravenous uid repletion, typically
with greater than 10% dehydration. Assessment of serum
bicarbonate is one of the most sensitive tests to help
determine the degree of dehydration. A value of less than
17 mEq/L (17 mmol/L) on presentation to the emergency
department was shown in one study to differentiate
moderate-to-severe dehydration from mild dehydration.
(5) Although the blood urea nitrogen rises with increasing
severity of dehydration, it also can be increased by other
factors, such as excessive protein catabolism, increased
protein in the diet, and gastrointestinal bleeding, Accordingly, this value may not be clinically relevant. It is important
to measure the serum sodium in moderate-to-severe
dehydration because it determines the type and speed of
repletion.
Potassium values can be low or high. Typically, potassium
measurements are low because of losses in the stool.
However, with worsening degrees of hypovolemia and an
increase in metabolic acidosis, they can be elevated following a net shift from the intracellular to the extracellular
space. The values generally normalize and even become low
with the correction of acidosis. Potassium concentrations
should be followed and the mineral replenished to avoid
cardiac arrhythmias as well as a functional ileus.
Children who are dehydrated often present with metabolic acidosis. This is typical in those who have gastroenteritis and bicarbonate losses in the stool. In more severe

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Figure 1. Hormonal effects of dehydration.

ADHantidiuretic hormone; H2Owater;
Nasodium.

cases, lactic acidosis can develop from poor tissue perfusion

and ketosis. If renal perfusion is decreased, acid excretion by
the kidneys can be compromised. Metabolic alkalosis can
develop in children with signicant losses from vomiting
due to hydrochloric acid losses.
In response to hypovolemia, the kidneys conserve water
and sodium. Urine sodium concentrations are low, generally less than 20 mEq/L (20 mmol/L). Urine osmolality
and specic gravity are typically elevated. Urine osmolality
is often greater than 400 mOsm/kg (400 mmol/kg) in the
absence of diuretics, diabetes insipidus, or an osmotic
diuresis. A specic gravity of greater than 1.015 is suggestive of concentrated urine, but this is a less accurate
predictor because it depends on the number of solute
particles in the urine. Because most dehydrated patients
have elevated creatinine, calculating the fractional excretion

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of sodium (FENa) can help determine the source of the

elevated level:

FENa Urinary sodium  Plasma creatinine

=Urinary creatinine  Plasma sodium  100
An FENa of less than 1% suggests a prerenal or hypovolemic
state that should respond to volume replacement. (6)

TYPE OF DEHYDRATION
In dehydration, serum sodium values vary, depending on the
relative loss of solute to water. Isonatremic dehydration is
dened by sodium of 130 to 150 mEq/L (130 to 150 mmol/L).
This reects an equal proportion of solute and water loss.
Isonatremic dehydration typically occurs in patients with

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TABLE 1.

Clinical Signs and Symptoms of Dehydration*

CLINICAL SIGNS

MILD (3%5%)

MODERATE (6%9%)

SEVERE (10%)

Systemic Signs

Increased thirst

Irritable

Lethargic

Urine Output

Decreased

Decreased (<1 mL/kg/hr)

Decreased (oliguria/anuria)

Mucous Membranes

Tacky

Dry

Parched

Normal

Reduced

Tenting

Normal

Mildly delayed

Markedly delayed

Skin Temperature

Normal

Cool

Cool, mottled

Anterior Fontanelle

Normal

Sunken

Markedly sunken

Heart Rate

Normal

Increased

Markedly increased or ominously low

Normal

Normal to low

Low

Normal

Deep, may be increased

Deep and increased or decreased to absent

Skin Turgor

Capillary Rell

Blood Pressure

Respirations

*These ndings for isonatremic dehydration overestimate the degree of dehydration with hyponatremia and underestimate the degree of dehydration
with hypernatremia.

Best predictors of dehydration.

secretory diarrhea where the solute concentration of the

diarrhea is the same as the plasma solute concentration.
Hyponatremic dehydration with a sodium concentration of
less than 130 mEq/L (130 mmol/L) occurs when diarrheal
losses are replaced with hypotonic uids. With solute and
water loss, ADH is secreted, triggering the body to enhance
water absorption. As the patient drinks uids that are relatively hypotonic to the stool losses, the serum sodium concentration falls. Hypernatremic dehydration, with serum
sodium greater than 150 mEq/L (150 mmol/L), reects water
loss in excess of solute loss. This is common with viral
gastroenteritis, such as that caused by rotavirus, and in neonates with inadequate breastfeeding in whom diarrheal and
insensible water losses are inadequately replaced.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT

The goal of therapy is to recognize the degree and type of
dehydration and to restore any water and electrolyte decits
while meeting maintenance needs and replacing ongoing
losses. The degree of dehydration is clinically determined
from a change in weight or estimated from signs and symptoms,
as described previously. In moderate or severe dehydration,
a serum sodium value can help to determine the appropriate
uids to use and the suitable time course of replacement. In
developed countries, this is generally achieved with intravenous
uids, but oral rehydration for mild-to-moderate isonatremic
dehydration can be successful.
On presentation, the clinician needs to determine if the
child has signs and symptoms of intravascular compromise

that necessitate emergent intravenous therapy. If so, vascular

access must be secured. Fluids can be administered effectively via an intraosseous route in hemodynamically unstable
children in whom peripheral access cannot immediately be
obtained. (7)

REPLACING ONGOING FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE

LOSSES
Most children presenting with dehydration due to diarrhea
or emesis have ongoing losses until the gastroenteritis
resolves. Therefore, in addition to providing uids and
electrolytes to meet maintenance and decit needs, ongoing
losses must be replaced to achieve normovolemia. The
ongoing losses generally should be replaced milliliter-formilliliter with uids that have the same electrolyte composition. Losses from emesis or nasogastric drainage typically
are replaced with 0.45% normal saline (NS) plus 10 to
15 mEq/L of potassium chloride (KCl). Diarrheal losses also
contain bicarbonate, and replacement may be benecial for
severe acidosis. (8)

CALCULATING FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE LOSSES

The uid decit can be determined either from a change in
baseline weight or estimated from the clinical signs and
symptoms. The decit volume should be replaced in addition
to the patients maintenance uid and electrolyte requirements and ongoing uid and electrolyte losses. Approximately 60% of acute uid and electrolyte losses come from

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the extracellular space, with about 40% of uid and electrolyte

shifts coming from the intracellular space. Sodium in the
extracellular space (content of about 140 mEq/L [140 mmol/L])
and potassium in the intracellular space (content of 150 mEq/L
[150 mmol/L]) are the major electrolyte components that are
lost. For every 100 mL of water lost, 8.4 mEq (8.4 mmol) of
sodium {(140 mEq/L [140 mmol/L]  0.60) O 10} and 6 mEq
(6 mmol) of potassium {(150 mEq/L [150 mmol/L]  0.40) O
10} are lost. Hyperacute losses over a few hours are nearly
100% from the extracellular space because not enough time
has elapsed to allow for uid shifts. For chronic losses over
weeks, such as with pyloric stenosis, uid losses are about
50% from the intracellular space, with relatively more potassium losses.

ISONATREMIC DEHYDRATION
Isonatremic dehydration occurs as a result of equal solute
and water losses, thus maintaining a normal sodium concentration of 130 to 150 mEq/L (130 to 150 mmol/L). This is
the most common presentation of dehydration and has the
best prognosis. In general, oral rehydration can safely and
effectively restore intravascular volume in children with
mild-to-moderate isonatremic dehydration. Oral rehydration is commonly used for children treated at home but
is often underused in the hospital or emergency department. Even with ongoing diarrhea, water can be absorbed
across the intestinal lumen by the cotransport of sodium
and glucose via the SGLT1 protein and by active transport via
the sodium-potassium ATPase pump. This discovery, which
led to the development of oral rehydration solutions by the
World Health Organization (WHO), has been described as
potentially the most important medical advancements this
century. (9) The use of these solutions in the early 1970s
decreased the mortality rate associated with cholera from
30% to 50% to less than 3%. (10) A systematic review and
meta-analysis found no clinical difference in rehydration
among children with oral versus intravenous uids and
concluded that oral rehydration should be the rst-line
therapy for mild-to-moderate dehydration, with intravenous
therapy used only if oral therapy fails. (11)
In children with mild-to-moderate dehydration from
acute gastroenteritis, gut rest is not indicated. Breastfeeding
should be continued. The diet should be normalized as soon
as tolerated to avoid low calorie intake in older toddlers and
children. Lactose restriction and formula changes or dilution are not necessary.

Composition of Oral Rehydration Solutions

Following the discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport
mechanism in the early 1960s by Crane (12), oral rehydration

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solutions containing both sodium and glucose were developed. The original solutions prescribed by the WHO and
United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund
(UNICEF) had both higher osmolarity and sodium contents
than those currently used. Although these solutions saved
many lives of cholera sufferers, the 2002 updated recommendations have a lower sodium and osmolarity, decreasing
the frequency of stools and the incidence of hypernatremia.
In developed nations, where secretory diarrhea from cholera
is rare, oral rehydration solutions have lower sodium contents
while maintaining a low osmolarity (Table 2). Commonly
used beverages, such as apple juice, tea, ginger ale, colas, and
chicken broth, are inappropriate to use for rehydration
because they do not contain the correct sodium and glucose
ratio to promote salt and water reabsorption across the
intestinal lumen. Sports drinks, designed to maintain
adequate hydration from uid and electrolyte losses
caused by sweating with prolonged exercise, also do not
have the appropriate glucose and sodium ratio to be used
as rehydration uids, especially because losses are from
the gastrointestinal tract.

General Principles of Oral Rehydration

Regular feedings and nutrition should be continued to meet
the infants or childs maintenance needs. For ongoing losses,
replace one milliliter of uid for every gram of output, stool,
emesis, or urine. In the hospital, diapers can be weighed. If
measurements are not available, then the guidelines of
replacing 10 mL/kg body weight for each watery stool or
2 mL/kg body weight for each episode of emesis can be
used (Table 3).

Oral Rehydration for Mild and Moderate Isonatremic

Dehydration
The amount of uid decit should be calculated based on
change in weight or clinical signs. This typically calculates as
50 to 100 mL/kg body weight replaced over 2 to 4 hours.
Using a teaspoon, syringe, or dropper, 5 mL should be
administered every few minutes, with the volume increased
as tolerated (Table 4). Nasogastric tubes can be used to
administer continuous volume replacement in patients
with severe vomiting or oral ulcers. Of note, only about
4% of patients fail oral rehydration therapy and require
intravenous repletion. (13) Such children usually have
a paralytic ileus or intractable vomiting. Ondansetron
administration to children with severe vomiting can
reduce the need for intravenous therapy and hospital
admission. (14) Oral rehydration is contraindicated for
infants and children who have circulatory instability or
shock, altered mental status, intractable vomiting, bloody

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TABLE 2.

Composition of Oral Rehydration Solutions and Commonly

Used Beverages

SOLUTION/BEVERAGE

CARBOHYDRATE SODIUM (mEq/L

(g/L)
[mmol/L])

POTASSIUM (mEq/L
[mmol/L])

BASE (mEq/L
[mmol/L])

OSMOLARITY (mOsm/kg
[mmol/kg])

Pedialyte

Dextrose

25

45

20

30

250

Enfalyte

Corn Syrup

30

50

25

30

200

CeraLyte

Rice

40

70

20

10

235

World Health
Organization (2002)

Glucose

13.5

75

20

30

245

Not Appropriate for Rehydration

Gatorade

45

20

280360

POWERADE

58

10

403

Apple Juice

100150

20

700

Tea

Ginger Ale

90

3.5

0.1

3.6

565

Cola

100150

0.1

13

550

Chicken Broth

250

450

diarrhea or ileus, abnormal serum sodium values, or

glucose malabsorption.

Intravenous Rehydration for Moderate or Severe

Isonatremic Dehydration
Maintenance uid and electrolyte needs should be based on
the childs normovolemic weight, either obtained from
a prior weight or calculated based on estimated percentage
of dehydration. Children who are clinically unstable should
receive repeated single uid bolus(es) of 20 mL/kg with
0.9% NS to attain adequate tissue perfusion. More judicious
volumes may be considered in children with congestive
heart failure or cerebral edema. Lactated Ringer solution
should not be used routinely because it is relatively hypotonic (130 mEq/L [130 mmol/L]) of sodium and could
adversely lower the patients serum sodium. In addition,
it contains 4 mEq/L (4 mmol/L) of potassium that could
contribute to hyperkalemia. Finally, children with signicant emesis may have a contraction alkalosis (increase in

TABLE 3.

blood pH) as a result of uid losses that could be worsened

by the lactate content of the uid being converted to bicarbonate. Many recommend initial replacement of 50% of
decit uids over 8 hours followed by replacement of the
remaining 50% decit over the subsequent 16 hours. However, this can be clinically impractical and may be associated
with an increased risk of too-rapid replacement if the uid
rate is not adjusted at the correct time. If the child received
adequate initial resuscitation, replacing the total decit over
24 hours is generally acceptable.
Ideally, maintenance and decit uid and electrolytes
should be combined into one solution that is infused over
24 hours. Regardless of the percentage of dehydration,
this calculates as 5% dextrose (D5) 1/3 NS 40 mEq/L
(40 mmol/L) of KCl (Fig 2). However, because this is not
a standard uid available in most hospitals, D5 NS
40 mEq/L (40 mmol/L) KCl can be safely substituted. If
there are concerns about renal insufciency, potassium
should not be added to the uids until the patient has

Oral Replacement of Ongoing Losses

LOOSE STOOL REPLACEMENT

EMESIS REPLACEMENT

mL/mL if measured

mL/mL if measured

Or about 10 mL/kg per stool

Or about 2 mL/kg per episode

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TABLE 4.

Guidelines for Administration of Oral Solutions to Replace

Decit over 4 Hours
MILD DEHYDRATION
(3%5%)
TOTAL VOLUME
VOLUME PER
OVER 4 HOURS
ADMINISTRATION

MODERATE DEHYDRATION
(6%9%)
TOTAL VOLUME
VOLUME PER
OVER 4 HOURS
ADMINISTRATION

150250 mL

5 mL every 58 min

300450 mL

69 mL every 5 min

10

300500 mL

610 mL every 5 min

600900 mL

1218 mL every 5 min

15

450750 mL

1015 mL every 5 min

9001,350 mL

1828 mL every 5 min

20

6001,000 mL

1220 mL every 5 min

1,2001,800 mL

2537 mL every 5 min

25

7501,250 mL

1525 mL every 5 min

1,5002,250 mL

3045 mL every 5 min

30

9001,500 mL

1830 mL every 5 min

1,8002,700 mL

3755 mL every 5 min

40

1,2002,000 mL

2540 mL every 5 min

2,4003,600 mL

5075 mL every 5 min

WEIGHT (kg)

voided. Ongoing uid and electrolyte losses also should be

replaced. Gastric losses should be replaced with 0.45% NS
plus 10 to 15 mEq/L (10 to 15 mmol/L) of KCl. For diarrheal
losses, bicarbonate substitution for chloride should be
considered. (15)

HYPONATREMIC DEHYDRATION
Hyponatremic dehydration most typically occurs in older
infants and children with gastrointestinal infections. These
children are often given uids with low sodium content
such as water, juice, ginger ale, sodas, or tea. In addition,
ADH is often released, further diluting the intravascular
solute with the reabsorption of water. (17) As serum osmolality falls, uid is shifted from the extracellular to

the intracellular space, causing earlier and more severe

intravascular compromise. Affected children are most likely
to require immediate volume resuscitation. Normal saline
should be rapidly infused in 20-mL/kg aliquots to restore
intravascular volume. Lactated Ringer solution should be
avoided because its lower sodium content may worsen the
hyponatremia and the potassium content may contribute to
hyperkalemia.
Cerebral salt wasting can lead to hyponatremic dehydration. This poorly understood, rare condition occurs in patients
with central nervous system disorders, most commonly associated with intracranial surgery, meningoencephalitis, and
head injury. (18) It typically occurs in the rst 10 days of
the illness or injury and resolves in 3 to 4 weeks. Cerebral salt
wasting is characterized by hyponatremia and intravascular

Figure 2. Sample calculation of intravenous

rehydration for isonatremic dehydration.

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uid depletion related to inappropriate renal sodium wasting.

Affected children can have very high-volume urine outputs
containing up to 300 mEq/L (300 mmol/L) of sodium and
often require replacement with hypertonic saline solutions.
Administration of salt tablets and the mineralocorticoid
udrocortisone has been used to help abate sodium and
uid losses.

Intravenous Rehydration for Hyponatremic Dehydration

Oral rehydration solutions are inappropriate to treat hyponatremic dehydration. As with other forms of dehydration,
the degree of dehydration should be estimated from a
change in weight or from clinical signs. As noted before,
the degree of dehydration may be overestimated in hyponatremic dehydration due to the osmotic shift of uid out of
the intravascular space into the tissues. Affected infants and
children are most likely to need uid boluses of 20 mL/kg
of 0.9% NS administered rapidly and repeated as needed
to improve tissue perfusion. In addition to uid decits,
sodium and potassium decits should be calculated. However, sodium losses generally exceed the usual 8 mEq/L
(8 mmol/L) of sodium loss per 100 mL of water loss.
Additional sodium decit should be calculated using the
formula:

mEq Na deficit desired Na  measured Na

 0:6volume of distribution of Na
 weight in kg
Using the childs baseline weight, maintenance and
decit uid and electrolytes are calculated and generally
replaced over 24 hours. Regardless of the presenting
serum sodium value, when combining maintenance
and decit water and electrolytes into one solution,

this generally calculates to be D5 NS 40 mEq/L

(40 mmol/L) KCl (Fig 3).
The serum sodium should not rise more than 12 to
15 mEq/L (12 to 15 mmol/L) over the 24-hour period, so
frequent monitoring is recommended, generally every 4 to
6 hours. Very rarely, precipitous correction of the sodium
can result in central pontine myelinolysis (19).
Occasionally, infants and children can present with seizures related to a rapid drop in the serum sodium concentration. This rapid decrease, generally to less than 120
mEq/L (120 mmol/L), overwhelms the cerebral osmoregulatory mechanisms, resulting in cerebral edema. The
seizures can be difcult to abate without partial correction of the serum sodium, usually to 120 mEq/L
(120 mmol/L). Using the previously cited formula to calculate the sodium replacement, either 0.9% NS or hypertonic
3% saline is given. The choice of solution is generally
determined by the volume of saline correction. The correction with 0.9% NS, containing 154 mEq/L (154 mmol/L) of
sodium, usually equates to about 30 to 40 mL/kg, which
generally can be well tolerated in a dehydrated patient.
Administration of hypertonic saline, with a sodium
content of 513 mEq/L (513 mmol/L) (w0.5 mEq/mL
[0.5 mmol/mL]), requires approximately one-third of
the volume of isotonic saline. However, hypertonic saline
may necessitate central access because peripheral administration can be painful and lead to cutaneous tissue
necrosis with any extravasation.

HYPERNATREMIC DEHYDRATION
Hypernatremic dehydration is dened as serum sodium
greater than 150 mEq/L (150 mmol/L). Despite elevated

Figure 3. Sample calculation of intravenous

rehydration for hyponatremic dehydration.

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Figure 4. Sample calculation of intravenous

rehydration for hypernatremic dehydration.

sodium concentrations, the child actually has total body

sodium deciency, but the water loss exceeds the sodium
loss. Hypernatremic dehydration is most commonly seen
in young infants receiving inadequate water replacement, typically associated with diarrheal illnesses or poor
breastfeeding.
Because the intravascular contents are hypertonic, uid
shifts from the cells into the intravascular space. Thus, the
children may be less hemodynamically compromised, resulting in underestimation of the degree of dehydration. In
general, an additional 3% to 5% degree of dehydration
should be added to the clinical estimate from Table 1.
Because intravascular volume is relatively preserved, affected infants often present late for medical care. They
are usually somnolent but become hyperirritable when
stimulated, often with a high-pitched cry. Their skin feels
doughy or velvety. The major concern is cerebral cellular
dehydration in the presence of hypertonicity. Resulting
brain shrinkage can cause rupture of bridging veins, leading
to subdural, subarachnoid, and intraparenchymal hemorrhage. In addition, thrombosis of the small veins or dural
sinuses can occur. (20) Mortality can be high, ranging from
3% to 20%. Up to 40% to 50% of infants can have neurologic
sequelae, and in 5% to 10%, the sequelae are severe. Infants
with presenting serum sodium values of 150 to 160 mEq/L
(150 to 160 mmol/L) and with sodium correction of
0.5 mEq/L (0.5 mmol/L) per hour or less over 48 hours
fare the best. Infants with presenting serum sodium
values greater than 160 mEq/L (160 mmol/L) and
sodium correction greater than 0.5 mEq/L (0.5 mmol/L)
per hour over 48 hours have signicantly higher morbidity
and mortality. (21)

282

Therefore, these infants need to be monitored intensively

and receive meticulous care while slowly correcting the
serum sodium and uid decit over 48 hours. As with
other forms of dehydration, uid bolus(es) of 20 mL/kg
with 0.9% sodium chloride should be administered rapidly if there are any signs of vascular compromise. Water
and electrolyte maintenance and decit needs should be
calculated as before. Additional free water decit can be
calculated by:

Naactual  Nadesired
 1000 ml=L  0:6 L=kg
Naactual
Alternatively, 4 mL/kg of free water can be administered for every milliequivalent (millimole) of sodium
greater than 145 mEq/L (145 mmol/L) or 3 mL/kg
of free water administered for every milliequivalent
(millimole) of sodium greater than 145 mEq/L
(145 mmol/L) if the sodium value is greater than
170 mEq/L (170 mmol/L).
The calculation ordinarily equates to 0.2% NS. Potassium should be added once the infant is voiding and is
clearly without intrinsic renal disease. Thus, D5 or D10
0.2% NS 20 to 40 mEq/L (20 to 40 mmol/L) KCl is
usually appropriate for replacement over 48 hours (Fig 4).
Frequent monitoring, generally every 4 to 6 hours, for the
change in serum sodium is paramount to a good clinical
outcome. Overall, the rate of uid replacement should be
adjusted rather than the composition of the uid to ensure the
appropriate rate of correction because brain cells generate
idiogenic osmols in response to hyperosmolality to maintain
intracellular tonicity and size. These substances are not
diffusible or transportable out of the brain cells. Therefore,

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too rapid correction of the sodium can result in too much

water acutely entering the cells, causing cerebral edema and
seizures. If seizures do occur, the serum sodium should be
acutely increased. An infusion with 3% saline can raise the
serum sodium most efciently while providing the least
amount of free water. In general, 1 mL/kg of 3% saline
increases the serum sodium concentration by about 1 mEq/L
(1 mmol/L). Most seizures abate following administration of
4 mL/kg of 3% saline. (15)
Infants and children with diabetes insipidus can also
develop hypernatremic dehydration. Central diabetes insipidus is caused by a lack of ADH related to damage to the
hypothalamus or pituitary gland. Nephrogenic diabetes
insipidus results from ADH unresponsiveness of the kidney. The most common causes of central diabetes insipidus
are idiopathic, possibly due to autoimmune injury to the
ADH-producing cells, brain tumors, pituitary surgery, or
brain trauma. There are rare familial cases. With the loss of
ADH, the child is unable to reabsorb water, consequently
voiding large amounts of unconcentrated urine. The resultant water loss leads to hyperosmolarity and hypernatremia.
Treatment is exogenous vasopressin and replacement of the
free water losses.

CONCLUSION
Dehydration is common in infants and children, especially
following gastrointestinal illnesses. Oral rehydration can
be safely and effectively accomplished in children with
mild-to-moderate dehydration and normal serum sodium
values. Children with more severe dehydration or with
abnormal serum sodium values should be treated with
intravenous infusions. It is important for the clinician to
understand how to determine the correct uid and electrolyte solutions to meet the childs maintenance, decit,
and ongoing losses. In addition, the clinician must recognize how to monitor patients safely while controlling the
rate of rehydration.

Summary
Maintenance, decit, and ongoing uid and electrolyte losses
need to be calculated.
Based on strong research evidence, mild-to-moderate
isonatremic dehydration can be treated effectively with oral
rehydration solutions. (10)
Based on expert opinion, children with moderate-to-severe
dehydration should have electrolytes measured to determine
content and rate of uid replacement.
Based on expert consensus opinion, children with altered
perfusion should receive immediate uid bolus(es) with normal
saline.
Based on expert opinion and reasoning from rst principles, in
children with moderate-to-severe isonatremic dehydration,
maintenance plus decit uid and electrolyte needs generally
calculate to be 5% dextrose (D5) 1/3 normal saline (NS) 40
mEq/L (40 mmol/L) potassium chloride (KCl). Because this is not
a readily available uid, D5 NS 40 mEq/L (40 mmol/L) KCl
can generally be safely substituted. Maintenance plus decit
volumes can be infused over 24 hours.
Based on expert opinion and reasoning from rst principles,
children with moderate-to-severe hyponatremic dehydration are
most likely to need immediate circulatory support. Fluid and
electrolyte maintenance and decit needs usually calculate to be
D5 NS 40 mEq/L (40 mmol/L) KCl. Maintenance plus decit
volumes can be infused over 24 hours, with goal correction of
sodium not to exceed 12 to 15 mEq/L (12 to 15 mmol/L) over the
24 hours.
Infants with moderate-to-severe hypernatremic dehydration are
at highest risk for morbidity and mortality, including risk for
cerebral hemorrhage, thrombus, or edema. Their intravascular
volume is generally spared. Based on expert opinion and
reasoning from rst principles, uid and electrolyte maintenance
and decit needs usually calculate to be D5 NS 20 to
40 mEq/L (20 to 40 mmol/L) KCl. Decit replacement should occur
over 48 hours, with goal correction of sodium not to exceed
0.5 mEq/L (0.5 mmol/L) per hour. (15)

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283

PIR Quiz
1. You are on call on the pediatric ward one weekend and a group of medical students is
discussing pediatric dehydration. They are confused about the pathophysiology on
a cellular level. Which of the following statements regarding dehydration is correct?
A. Children have hypertonic body uids and are very likely to require immediate
circulatory support.
B. Children have hypertonic body uids, resulting in uid shifts from the extracellular
to the intracellular space.
C. Children have hyponatremic body uids, resulting in uid shifts from the extracellular to the intracellular space.
D. Children typically do not require circulatory support as uid shifts to the intracellular space.
E. Serum osmolality in children typically is 300 to 330 mOsm.
2. An 8-month-old infant is brought to the emergency department because he has been
vomiting for 36 hours. He has had 1-oz of formula in the previous 12 hours. You estimate
that he is 11% dehydrated. As you order intravenous uid repletion, you consider which
laboratory tests to order. Which of the following statements regarding laboratory values is
correct?
A. Metabolic acidosis ensues in a child with persistent vomiting, requiring immediate
therapy.
B. Serum bicarbonate values less than 20 mEq/L (20 mmol/L) measured in children in
the emergency department successfully differentiated mild from moderate
dehydration.
C. Blood urea nitrogen is increased only in dehydration, making it the only clinically
relevant laboratory test for dehydration.
D. The serum bicarbonate is very sensitive in determining the degree of dehydration.
E. With worsening degrees of dehydration and acidosis, potassium levels become
dangerously low.
3. You are attending in the emergency department when a 4-month-old infant presents with
emesis for the past 36 hours. Her weight is 4.5 kg. She is sleeping in her car seat and difcult
to arouse. She has had no urine output in the previous 12 hours. Her blood pressure is
68/35 mm Hg and heart rate is 166 beats/min. She appears to be approximately 10%
dehydrated. Her serum sodium measures 140 mEq/L (140 mmol/L). You diagnose
isonatremic dehydration and administer a 20-mL/kg (100 mL) infusion of normal saline.
Which of the following are the correct calculations for this childs maintenance, decit,
and total uid requirements to be administered within 24 hours?
MAINTENANCE

DEFICIT

TOTAL

A.

450 mL

450 mL

800 mL

B.

450 mL

450 mL

900 mL

C.

500 mL

450 mL

850 mL

D.

500 mL

500 mL

900 mL

E.

500 mL

500 mL

1,000 mL

REQUIREMENTS: Learners
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This journal-based CME
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however, credit will be
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.
4. A 6-month-old
infant presents to your ofce with diarrhea for 1 week. He weighs 8 kg.
He initially maintained an appetite but has not had intake over the past 24 hours.
He is lethargic and sleepy. His blood pressure is 60/40 mm Hg and his heart rate is
140 beats/min. He has delayed capillary rell. His serum sodium is 122 mEq/L (122 mmol/L).
You place an intravenous catheter. You desire a sodium concentration of 130 mEq/L
(130 mmol/L). What is the childs calculated sodium decit?

284

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A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

3.8 mEq (3.8 mmol).

4.8 mEq (4.8 mmol).
38 mEq (38 mmol).
46 mEq (46 mmol).
64 mEq (64 mmol).

5. A 3-month-old infant presents to your ofce with watery stools for the past 5 days. He has
little energy but has a shrill, high-pitched cry when stimulated. He has had little liquid
intake or urine output in the past day. He appears to be 10% dehydrated. Which of the
following statements regarding hypernatremic dehydration is correct?
A. Central nervous system morbidity can be high (40%50%), resulting in intracranial
hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis.
B. Hypernatremic dehydration is dened as serum sodium greater than 145 mEq/L
(145 mmol/L).
C. Infants whose serum sodium is 150 to 160 mEq/L (150 to 160 mmol/L) should have
their sodium corrected at less than 0.5 mEq/L (0.5 mmol/L) per hour over 24 hours.
D. Infants with hypernatremic dehydration may be less hemodynamically
compromised, causing overestimation of the degree of dehydration.
E. In hypernatremic dehydration, intravascular volume is not preserved, which results
in elevated serum sodium.

Parent Resources from the AAP at HealthyChildren.org

https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/injuries-emergencies/Pages/Dehydration.aspx
Spanish: https://www.healthychildren.org/Spanish/health-issues/injuries-emergencies/Paginas/Dehydration.aspx

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JULY 2015

285

Dehydration: Isonatremic, Hyponatremic, and Hypernatremic Recognition and

Management
Karen S. Powers
Pediatrics in Review 2015;36;274
DOI: 10.1542/pir.36-7-274

Updated Information &

Services

including high resolution figures, can be found at:

http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/36/7/274

References

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of differentiation that cannot be further classied based on

histologic features. Malignant undifferentiated tumors
exhibit unpredictable clinical behavior. These may be
present at birth or develop over time. Size may remain
stable or tumors may undergo rapid proliferation beyond
the period of growth anticipated for IHs, which may serve
as a diagnostic clue. Atypical clinical characteristics or
growth patterns of a presumed IH may warrant further
investigation.
Similar cases of soft-tissue tumors mimicking IHs have
been reported. In 2006, three cases of congenital vascularappearing tumors diagnosed as ulcerated IH and treated
with systemic corticosteroids were described. After reevaluation of unusual characteristics, including congenital presence and ulceration present at birth, tissue was obtained for
pathology, leading to the diagnosis of a congenital infantile
brosarcoma in each instance. A recently reported case of
congenital infantile brosarcoma of the lip that underwent
rapid proliferation was treated as a presumed IH. Because
of the refractory response to therapy, biopsy was performed, conrming the diagnosis. To our knowledge, no
case has been reported describing a malignant undifferentiated soft-tissue tumor misdiagnosed as IH of the eyelid in
a neonate.

Management
Malignant undifferentiated tumors often require full excision and possibly chemotherapy and radiation. Treatment is
multidisciplinary and may include ophthalmology, dermatology, oncology, and pathology services to ensure optimal
therapy. The girl in this case underwent evaluation
for metastatic disease, which was negative. Treatment
was initiated with a sarcoma-based chemotherapy protocol
(ifosfamide, etoposide, vincristine, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide) and proton therapy. She had an excellent
clinical response to treatment by 2- months of age (Fig 2B).

Lessons for the Clinician

Cutaneous malignant soft-tissue tumors can clinically
mimic infantile hemangiomas, which poses a diagnostic
dilemma because treatment and prognosis drastically
differ between the two conditions.
Clinicians should consider diagnostic possibilities other
than infantile hemangioma if the clinical history, behavior,
or appearance of the lesion is not typical; atypical growth
pattern or lack of response to treatment should raise
suspicion for a possible malignant soft-tissue tumor.
Suggested Readings for this article are at http://pedsinreview.
aappublications.org/content/36/9/420.full.

Correction
In the July 2015 article Dehydration: Isonatremic, Hyponatremic, and Hypernatremic Recognition and Management
(Powers KS. Pediatrics in Review. 2015;36(7): 274285, doi: 10.1542/pir.36-7-274), key phrases were deleted from the
Question 1 answer options, which should begin as follows:
A. In hypernatremic dehydration
B. In hypernatremic dehydration
C. In hyponatremic dehydration
D. In hyponatremic dehydration
E. In hyponatremic dehydration
The phrases have been restored in the online quizzes, a correction has been attached to the article online. The journal
regrets the copyediting error.

422

Pediatrics in Review

Dehydration: Isonatremic, Hyponatremic, and Hypernatremic Recognition and

Management
Karen S. Powers
Pediatrics in Review 2015;36;274
DOI: 10.1542/pir.36-7-274

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is
located on the World Wide Web at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/36/7/274

An erratum has been published regarding this article. Please see the attached page for:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org//content/36/9/422.full.pdf
Data Supplement at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/suppl/2015/07/17/36.7.274.DC1.html

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