CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
The Phalaborwa Complex is Palaeoproterozoic in age (2 Ma; Ericksson, 1989) and
intrusive into Archean basement at the western edge of the Kaapvaal Craton. It is the
largest known alkaline ring complex with a carbonatite core. In addition to the apatiterich rocks, iron ores, and traces of radioactive minerals that these complexes normally
include. Palabora is unique for containing a major copper sulphide ore body in the
carbonatite, and for a substantial zone of vermiculite-rich rock. It may not be the most
typical carbonatite complex, but it is certainly the most important economically (Dixon,
1979).
The central intrusion of transgressive carbonatite is host to the majority of economic
deposits with copper the major metal being mined from the intrusion. Ore deposits are
crustal concentrations of useful elements that can be exploited at a profit. Like all crustal
rocks, they consist of minerals formed by geological processes. Ore deposits can be
classified based on the form of the deposit (size, shape, orientation and mineral
distribution), associated host rocks or geological structures (ore association) and
interpreted genesis of the deposit (ore forming processes and control). Classification
based on ore forming processes distinguishes ore deposits into four types namely;
Magmatic, hydrothermal, sedimentary and metamorphic ores. Knowledge of ore
genesis is important for developing geo-environmental models for mineral deposits.
Cabri (1988) h have demonstrated the relevant of understanding of the genesis of ore
deposits in providing guidance for mineral processing.
The origin and style of mineralisation of the Palabora copper-sulphide deposit has been
subject of many controversial discussions . Earlier workers and Palabora Mining
Company Staff (1976) suggested hydrothermal events perhaps not related to
magmatism. Sulphur isotopic however, show copper-sulphide liquid was present very
early in crystallization sequence and before olivine crystallization. Erickson (1989)
surmise that sulphide mineralization may be intrinsic part of carbonatite magmatism.The

more recent studies by Foster (2011), however suggested that copper-sulphide

mineralization were formed simultaneously with carbonatite, therefore, a magmatic
origin.

1.2 Problem Statement

Previous literature on the Palabora Igneous Complex covers a wide range of geological
and mineralogical aspects but the origin of the copper-sulphide deposits in Palabora
Igneous Complex have not been established with certainty.

1.3 Justification
The Palabora Igneous complex is the only one known in the world that contains
sufficient copper as sulphides to constitute an economic deposit for that metal. The fact
that the palabora igneous complex is unique ii its copper concentration has attracted
studies on the geology and occurance of the ore minerals making up the deposits.
There is a vast amount of geological literature on palabora and its ore deposits. Recent
summaries of the economic geology are by Wilson (1998) and Verwoerd(1986).Earlier
more detailed accounts are by Lombaard et al. (1987), Hanekom et al.(1965), palabora
mining company staff and fourie (1981).although there are many studies undertaken in
the palabora deposit, the origin of copper sulphide mineralization has been a subject of
controversial discussions.
Earlier workers and Palabora Mining Company Staff (1976) suggested that sulphide
mineralisation was late stage, hydrothermal events perhaps not related to magmatism.
Sulphur isotopic however, show copper-sulphide liquid was present very early in
crystallization sequence and before olivine crystallization. These points led Erickson
(1989) to surmise that sulphide mineralization may be intrinsic part of carbonatite
magmatism and from her studies on the Guide copper mine, 5 km north-west of
Palabora evidence suggest that rich copper carbonatite at Palabora could have arisen
from pyroxenite by liquid immiscibility but not related by any simple petrogenesis
process. The more recent studies by Foster (2011), however suggested that copper-

sulphide mineralization were formed simultaneously with carbonatite, therefore, a

magmatic origin.
Consequently, without adequate data, mineralisation style and mode of formation
remains controversial.The most confusing question is whether copper sulphide
mineralisation had been modified with the formation of carbonatite or is as a result of
hydrothermal fluid events. Such question should be answered through detailed study on
the ore deposits, host rock petrology, whole rock geochemistry and microscopic and
chemical study of ore minerals forming the deposit.

1.4 Research Questions

What is the nature and complex characteristic of the Palabora Igneous Complex?
Which are the main ore minerals in the copper mineralisation and how are these

distributed?
What is the geochemistry of host rocks?
What is the chemical composition of ore minerals?
What were the physical and chemical condition for ore formation?
Was the mineralogy of the copper ore influenced by geological events in

Palabora Igneous Complex?

What is the model of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora
Igneous Complex?

1.5 Objectives
The main objective of the study is to close some gaps with the aim to construct a
feasible models of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora Igneous
Complex and to identify possible geological events that influenced the mineralogy of the
copper ore in Palabora Igneous Complex.
Specific objectives are to:

Review the nature and complex characterisics of the Palabora Igneous Complex;
Determine the mineralogical and ore-microscopic properties of ore minerals;
Determine the geochemistry of the host rocks;
Determine chemical composition of ore minerals;

Undertake the fluid inclusion studies on mineralised samples for determination of

physical and chemical condition of ore formation;

Develop a feasible model of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora
Igneous Complex.

1.6 Expected Outcomes

The study will characterize the nature, origin and mineralisation style of the

Palabora Igneous Complex.

The study will establish:
Geological events associated with copper-suphide mineralisation in carbonatite;;
Mineral assemblages and distribution;
Geochemical signatures associated with copper suphide mineralisation in

carbonatite;
Physical and chemical condition of copper-sulphide ore formation.
A feasible model of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora Igneous
Complex

References
Dixon, J. (1979).The Palabora Complex-South Africa, Springer, Netherlands, pp.114115.
Ericksson, S.C. (1989).Palaborwa: A Saga of Magmatism, Metasomatism and
Miscibility. In Bell, K(Ed), Carbonatites: Genesis and Evolution. Unwin Hyman, London,
pp.221-254.
Lombaard, A.F., Ward-Able, N.M. and Bruce, R.W.(1964).The Exploration and Main
Geological Features of the Copper Deposits in Carbonatite at Loolekop, Palabora
Complex. In: Haughton, S.H (Eds), The Geology of Some Ore Deposits in Southern
Africa.Vol 2.Geological.Society of South.Africa, Johannesburg, pp.315-337.
Palaborwa Mining Company Limited Mine Geological and Mineralogical Staff
(1976).The Geology and Economic Deposits of Copper, Iron and Vermiculite in The
Palaborwa Igneous Complex. A Brief Review. Economic Geol, 71, pp.177-192.

Research questions

What is the nature and complex characteristic of the Palabora Igneous Complex?

Which are the main ore minerals in the copper mineralisation and how are these
distributed?

What is the geochemistry of host rocks?

What is the chemical composition of ore minerals?
What were the physical and chemical condition for ore formation?
Was the mineralogy of the copper ore influenced by geological events in

Palabora Igneous Complex?

What is the model of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora
Igneous Complex?

Objectives
The main objective of the study is to close some gaps with the aim to construct a
feasible models of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora Igneous
Complex and to identify possible geological events that influenced the mineralogy of the
copper ore in Palabora Igneous Complex.
Specific objectives are to:

Review the nature and complex characterisics of the Palabora Igneous Complex;

Determine the mineralogical and ore-microscopic properties of ore minerals;

Determine the geochemistry of the host rocks;

Determine chemical composition of ore minerals;

Undertake the fluid inclusion studies on mineralised samples for determination of

physical and chemical condition of ore formation;

Develop a feasible model of origin of the copper-sulphide deposit of the Palabora
Igneous Complex.

Research activities/ plan which include research approach and methods

Research will be supervised by Professor J.S. Ogola and co-supervised by Ms. H.R.
Mundalamo of the Department of Mining and Environmental Geology at the University
of Venda.
Research methodology
Various methods and procedures will be followed during the process of data collection
and laboratory work are outlined below. These include: Preliminary work which involve
desktop study and reconnaissance survey, fieldwork which involve rock and ore
sampling and laboratory work which involve sample preparation and sample analysis.
The methods will be precisely followed so that expected outcomes can be met.

Desktop Study

At this stage, preparatory work will be undertaken in order to gather materials and
information which is relevent to this work. This will include reference books, technical
reports, and journals.

Reconnaissance Survey

This will be conducted prior undertaking actual work in the study area. It is necessary to
conduct reconnaissance survey in order to get an overview and to familiarise oneself
with the study area. Reconnaissance survey is also important so as to seek permission
from a number of stake-holders before carrying out actual work, thus the mine
managers and local communities will be consulted. During this period, the geological
setting, mine layout and physiography, topography, drainage, soil type and land-use will
be investigated.

Petrographic Studies

For petrographic studies, rock specimens will be collected from different lithology for
whole rock geochemical analysis. This will also be done in order to ascertain rock types
and investigate the extent of alteration that may be attributed to mineral solutions and
ore formations. The occurrence of trace elements will, thus be good indicator of such
ore mineralisation process.

Geochemical Survey

Geochemical survey for mineral exploration involves generation of several data that
helps in unveiling the buried deposits. It involves collection of rocks and ore specimens
for chemical analysis. Ore samples will be drilled from mineralised host rocks at the
Palabora mining company as well as in the waste dumps around the mine. Each drill
core will be described accordingly, taking tone of its mineralisation, texture, structure
and zonation. Chemical composition of drill cores will also be studied in order to
compare with chemical composition of the hanging and footwall.

Ore Mineralogy and Ore-microscopy

Ore mineralogy identifies the ore minerals that form the ore body and investigates the
nature and mode of ore formation and establish the economic value of the deposit as
well as the methods for its exploitation. While ore microscopy is the study of polished
surfaces of ores by means of polarizing reflected microscope. It is used for identification
of ore minerals by means of their optical properties such as colour, bireflectence,
anisostophy and pleochroism .It also involves the investigation of the interrelationships
of minerals , for examples their associations, paragenesis, zoation and replacement.
Polished surfaces will be prepared by cutting drill core sample into slab using a diamond
wire saw, mounting it in a cold-setting resign using epoxy mixture, grinding, using fie grit
on the precision lapping machine, polishing using MD-MOL cloth together with diaduo
diamond solution struers rtopol-35 lapping machine and etching will be done to remove
the thin deformed layer introduced during gring and polishing so as to reveal the
microstructures of the minerals.
Ore-microscopy will be used frequently during the study. It is an important method in the
study of ore mineralization and differs from petrographic microscopy by the use of a
reflected light source. Ore minerals are mostly opaque and are more or less impossible
to identify under the transmitted light microscope. In reflected light the optical properties,
such as colour, reflectivity and anisotropy of the opaque minerals can be distinguished,
and the minerals can thereby be identified.

Fluid inclusions studies

The study of fluid inclusions although commonly carried out on non-opaque minerals
using a transmitted-light microscope has become a major and important field of
investigation that is commonly carried out simultaneously with conventional ore
microscopy to provide vital information about the fluids associated with ore formation. In
particular, it provides valuable data on the temperatures and pressures of ore formation
or subsequent metamorphism and on the chemistry of the ore fluids. Due to the fact that
the research main aim is to construct a feasible model of origin, fluid inclusion will be a
vital technique to be used to achieve such purposes. For reliability and quality
assurance Baro-acoustic DE

crepitation technique will be used for fluid inclusion

studies

The above mentioned techniques were selected amongst others due to their quality and
reliability. Some of them are expensive and not available in South Africa, as a result I
would be thrilled if I can be awarded a scholarship because with the used of above
methods and techniques I strongly believe that this research will be a success in a
stipulated timeframe.

Details of the research including timeframes, availability of specialized

equipment, infrastructure and resource
The research will be undertaken through the school of environmental science,
department of mining and environmental geology, University of Venda. For desktop
study, library and internet from the cad lab will be used every day. Lecturers, doctors
and professor are available for questions and I believe they will be of good help during
the execution of the research project. Below is the timeframe of the research.

Task
Research Proposal
Desktop study

Activities
Proposal presentation

Literature

review,

gathering of materials
such

as

books,
reports etc

reference
journals,

Period (No. of weeks)

August 2016

12

Reconnaissance

survey

Mine

visit

familiarize

to

oneself

with the study area.

Meeting with relevant
stakeholders

and

community
authorities.
Detailed work

Field work

Observation of mining
at

palabora

company,

mining

host

rock

observation,
identification
structures

Laboratory work

of

and

wall

rock alteration.
Rock/ ore sampling
within

and

palabora

12

around
mining

company.

Data analysis

Rock/ore

preparation
Petrographic analysis

Ore

microscopic

analysis
Fluid

inclusions

analysis
ERDAS
and

statistical

sample

analysis
THESIS COMPILATION

1 st draft

Write up

12

2 nd draft
3 rd draft

Final submission

Write up
Write up
Write up

4
4
February 2018

The research is aligned with the energy security and the Geoscience sector. The reason for the
alignment with the energy security is due to the fact that the research main aim is to determine
the source of mineral deposits which is important in mineral exploration. Because the research
will provide data which can be used during mineral exploration, successful mineral exploration
leads to the discovery and delineation of economic mineral deposits. Consequently,
geochemical signatures which will be delineated after execution of the research project will also
help in determining buried deposits such petroleum and oil, which are the main source of
energy. This will benefit the energy sector. Geoscience has been also mentioned as a subnational research strategy. This is strictly aligned with my research as the research fall under the
primary field of earth sciences. One of the research outcomes is to characterize the nature of
copper-sulphide mineralisation in rare igneous rock, carbonatite. Consequently, knowledge on
the occurrences of copper-sulphides in carbonatite is important when searching for copper
deposits. This do not only benefit the mining industry but it again benefit the energy sector as
metal such as copper when processed can be used for electrical wires, thus indirectly securing
the energy sector. The proposed research does not only align with national research priorities, it
also has potential for socio and/or economic impact. This is because copper-sulphide
mineralisation will be studied in detail and at the end geological signatures for copper-sulphide
occurance will be known and this knowledge can be used for successful mineral processing of
similar mineral resources in future. Thus, this will help in securing the mining industry which is
among the key sectors that contribute to the gross domestic product and keep the economic
engine running. This will have positive impacts both socially and economically because
successful discovery of economic deposits result in more mining industries and drop in the rate
of unemployment.the research will also be used as basis of knowledge of mineral deposit
originin rare terrains such as the carbonatite terrains similar to the palaborwa igneous
complex.this research will of good help in students who have passion in economic geology as it
will precisely delineate mineral deposits, formation and occurance.