MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Pressure (P):

If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid, then
pressure exerted by liquid on this surface is: P F / A

Units : N / m 2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)

Dimension : [P ]

Atmospheric pressure: Its value on the surface of the earth at sea level is nearly
1 .013 10 5 N / m 2 or Pascal in S.I. other practical units of pressure are atmosphere,
bar and torr (mm of Hg)

[F] [ MLT 2 ]

[ML1 T 2 ]
2
[ A]
[L ]

1atm 1 . 01 10 5 Pa 1 .01 bar 760 torr

Fluid Pressure at a Point:

dF
dA

Density ( ):
m dm

V dV

In a fluid, at a point, density is defined as: lim

In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional properties, so is a

scalar.

It has dimensions [ML3 ] and S.I. unit kg/m3 while C.G.S. unit g/cc with

V 0

1 g / cc 10 3 kg / m 3

Density of body = Density of substance

Relative density or specific gravity which is defined as : RD

If m 1 mass of liquid of density 1 and m 2 mass of density 2 are mixed, then as

m m 1 m 2 and V (m 1 / 1 ) (m 2 / 2 )

[As V m / ]

m
m1 m 2
mi

V (m1 / 1 ) (m 2 / 2 ) (m i / pi )

If m1 m 2 ,

Density of body
Density of water

2 1 2
Harmonic mean
1 2

If V1 volume of liquid of density 1 and V2 volume of liquid of density 2 are

mixed, then as: m 1 V1 2 V2 and V V1 V2
[As m / V ]
If V1 V2 V (1 2 ) / 2 = Arithmetic Mean

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

With rise in temperature due to thermal expansion of a given body, volume will
increase while mass will remain unchanged, so density will decrease, i.e.,

(m / V ) V0
V0

0 (m / V0 ) V V0 (1 )

[As V V0 (1 ) ]

or

0 ~
0 (1 )
(1 )

With increase in pressure due to decrease in volume, density will increase, i.e.,

(m / V ) V0

0 (m / V0 ) V

[As

By definition of bulk-modulus: B V0

0 1

m
]
V

p
p
i.e., V V0 1
V
B

~ 0 1 p
B

Specific Weight ( w ):

It is defined as the weight per unit volume.

Specific weight

Weight
m.g

.g
Volume Volume

Specific Gravity or Relative Density (s):

It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific weight of a standard fluid.
Standard fluid is water in case of liquid and H2 or air in case of gas.

.g

w w. g w
Where, w Specific weight of water, and w Density of water specific.

Specific Volume ( v ):

Specific volume of liquid is defined as volume per unit mass. It is also defined as the
reciprocal of specific density.

Specific volume

V 1

Inertial force per unit area =

dp / dt v(dm / dt )
v Av

=
= v2
A
A
A

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Viscous force per unit area:
Reynolds number:

NR

F/A

v
r

v2
v r
Inertial force per unit area

Viscous force per unit area

v / r

Pascals Law: px p y p z ; where, px , p y and pz are the pressure at point x,y,z respectively.
Hydrostatic Law:

p
pg or dp pg dz
z
p

p pgh and h

dp pg dz
o

p
; where, h is known as pressure head.
pg

Pressure Energy

Potential energy

Kinetic energy

It is the energy possessed by a

liquid by virtue of its pressure. It
is the measure of work done in
pushing the liquid against
pressure without imparting any
velocity to it.

It is the energy possessed by It is the energy possessed by a

liquid by virtue of its height or liquid by virtue of its motion or
position above the surface of velocity.
earth or any reference level
taken as zero level.

Pressure energy of the liquid PV

Potential energy of the liquid Kinetic energy of the liquid

mgh
mv2/2

Pressure energy per unit mass of Potential energy per unit mass of Kinetic energy per unit mass of
the liquid gh
the liquid v2/2
the liquid P/
Pressure energy per unit volume Potential energy per unit volume Kinetic energy per unit volume
of the liquid P
of the liquid gh
of the liquid v2/2

Quantities that Satisfy a Balance Equation

Quantit mass x momentum y momentum
z
Energy
Species
y
momentum
m
mu
mv
mw
E + mV2/2
m(K)

1
u
v
w
e + V2/2
W(K)

In this table, u, v, and w are the x, y and z velocity components, E is the total
thermodynamic internal energy, e is the thermodynamic internal energy per unit mass,
and m(K) is the mass of a chemical species, K, W(K) is the mass fraction of species K.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

The other energy term, mV2/2, is the kinetic energy.

(m ) ( xyz ) ( )

xyz
t
t
t
t
Inflow u x y z v y x z w z y x

Outflow u x x y z v y y x z w z z y x

Source S x y z

u v w

S*
t
x
y
z

S*

Storage

x x

Lim
xyz 0

y y

z z

The Mass Balance Equations:

u i

0
t
xi

u v w

0
t
x
y
z

ui
i 0
t
xi
xi

u v w

u
v
w
0

t
x
y
z
x y z

u
v
w
Dt
t
x
y
z

u v w
D

0
Dt
x y z

u v w

0
x y z

or

or

ui
Dt
t
xi

u
D
i 0
Dt
xi

ui
0
xi

D
0
Dt

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

u i

S
ui
t
xi
xi
t

ui
S
t
xi

Momentum Balance Equation:

Net j direction source term

u j
t

u i u j
xi

ij
xi

1 j
x1

B j

x 2

3 j
x3

B j

ij
xi

B j

For a Newtonian fluid, the stress, ij, is given by the following equation:
ui
x j

2 j

j 1, 3

ij P ij

u j
t
u j
t

u i u j
xi
ui u j
xi

xi

uj
2
( ) ij
xi
3

u uj
P ij i

x j xi

( 2 ) ij B j

P
ui u j

x j xi x j xi x j

u uu vu wu

Bx
t
x
y
z

( 3 ) B j

j 1,3

j 1,3

P
u v u w u
2

( )
x
x x y x y z x z x
3

Energy Balance Equation:

This directional heat flux is given the symbol qi: q i k

qx
qx x
qx
Net xDirection heat
xx
yz
Unit Volume
xyz

Limit Net xDirection heat source

q
x
x 0
Unit Volume
x

x x

T
x i

qx

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

q x q y q x
q

i
x
y
x
xi

Heat Rate

Body-force work rate = (uBx + vBy + wBz) =uiBi

The work term on each face is given by the following equation:

y-face surface force work = (uyx + vyy + wyz)x z =uiiy x z

Net yFace Surface Force Work

Net Surface Force Work

Energy balance equation:

(u yx v yy w yz )
y

ui yi
y

ui xi ui yi ui zi ui ji

x
y
z
x j

q ui ji
(e V 2 / 2) ui (e V 2 / 2)

i
ui Bi
t
xi
xi
x j

Substitutions for Stresses and Heat Flux:

Using only the Fourier Law heat transfer, the source term involving the heat flux in the energy
balance equation:
qi

T T
T T T
k

k
k
k
k
xi
xi
xi xi xi x x y y z z

u u j
e u i e
T

k
P ij i
x
t
xi
xi xi
j xi

ij

u uj
e u i e
T

k
P i
x
t
xi
xi xi
j xi

( 2 ) ij ui

x j

u i u j

x j x j
u i
2

( )2
x
3
j

Dissipation to avoid confusion with the general quantity in a balance equation:

u u j
D i
x
j xi

u i
2

( )2
x
3
j

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

e u i e
T

k
P D
t
xi
xi xi

The temperature gradient in the Fourier law conduction term may also be written as a gradient
of enthalpy or internal energy:

1
T
1 e 1 T P

P 2
xi cv xi cv T
xi

T
1 h 1 T P P

xi c p xi
c p xi

1
e u i e
k e
1 T P

P D
P 2

t
xi
xi cv xi
xi cv T
xi

h u i h
k h
1 T P P DP

t
xi
xi c p xi
xi c p xi Dt

T u i T
T
DP
cp

k
D P T

xi xi xi
Dt
t

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

1
u = ux = u1

c
1
1

v = uy = u2

w = uz = u3

k/cv

k/cP

cP

cv

W(K)

General Balance Equations

()

S()
0
P u v w
2

( ) Bx

x x x y x z x x
3

P u v w
2

( ) B y
y x y y y z y y
3

P u v w
2

( ) Bz
z x z y z z z z
3

P D

xi

1
1 T P
P 2

xi cv T
xi

1 T P P DP

c p xi Dt

D P T

DP
Dt

T P

r(K)

DK,Mix

Momentum equation:

u j
t

ui u j
xi

u j
P u j

S ( j)

S *( j )
xi xi
xi xi xi

General Momentum Equations

()

1
u = ux = u1

c
1
1

v = uy = u2

w = uz = u3

S*()
0
u v w
2

( ) Bx
x x y x z x x
3

u v w
2

( ) B y
x y y y z y y
3

u v w
2

( ) Bz
x z y z z z z
3

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Bernoullis Equation:
This equation has four variables: velocity ( ), elevation ( ), pressure ( ), and density ( ). It also
has a constant ( ), which is the acceleration due to gravity. Here is Bernoullis equation:

1 2
v constant
2

P gh

P
v2
P
h
= constant;
is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and
g
2g
g

v2
is called velocity head.
2g

Factors that influence head loss due to friction are:

Length of the pipe ( )

Effective diameter of the pipe ( )
Velocity of the water in the pipe ( )
Acceleration of gravity ( )
Friction from the surface roughness of the pipe ( )

The head loss due to the pipe is estimated by the following equation:

To estimate the total head loss in a piping system, one adds the head loss from the fittings
and the pipe:

Note that the summation symbol ( ) means to add up the losses from all the different
sources. A less compact-way to write this equation is:

Combining Bernoullis Equation With Head Loss:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Relation between coefficient of viscosity and temperature:
Andrade formula =

A e C / T

1 / 3

Stoke's Law: F = 6rv

Terminal Velocity:

Weight of the body (W) = mg = (volume density) g

Upward thrust (T) = weight of the fluid displaced

4 3
r g
3

= (volume density) of the fluid g =

4 3
r g
3

Viscous force (F) = 6rv

When the body attains terminal velocity the net force acting on the body is zero.

WTF =0 or F= W T

6rv

4
4
4
r 3 g r 3 g r 3 ( ) g
3
3
3

2 r 2 ( ) g
9

Terminal velocity v

Terminal velocity depend on the radius of the sphere so if radius is made n - fold,
terminal velocity will become n2 times.

Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity

Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.

If > then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will attain
constant velocity in downward direction.

If < then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the spherical body will attain
constant velocity in upward direction.

Poiseuilles Formula:

KP r 4
P r4
or V
l
l

P r 4

; where K is the constant of proportionality.

8
8l

Buoyant Force:

Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced by body

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Buoyant force on cylinder =Weight of fluid displaced by cylinder

Vs Value of immersed part of solid

FB = pwater g Volume of fluid displaced

FB= pwater g Volume of cylinder immersed inside the water

FB mg

FB = pw g

in

d2
4
Vsin plg Vs ps g

pw g

d 2 x pcylinder g

4
pw x pcylinder h

( w mg pVg )

d 2h

Relation between B, G and M:

l
BG ; where l = Least moment of inertia of plane of body at water surface, G =
V
Centre of gravity, B = Centre of buoyancy, and M = Metacentre.

GM

l min(lxx,l yy ), lxx

V bdx

bd 3
bd 3
, l yy
12
12

Energy Equations:

Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fc + Ft ; where Gravity force Fg, Pressure force Fp, Viscous force Fv ,
Compressibility force Fc , and Turbulent force Ft.
If fluid is incompressible, then Fc = 0
Fnet Fg Fp Fv Ft ; This is known as Reynolds equation of motion.
If fluid is incompressible and turbulence is negligible, then
Fc 0, Ft 0 Fnet Fg Fp Fv ; This equation is called as Navier-Stokes equation.

If fluid flow is considered ideal then, viscous effect will also be negligible. Then
Fnet Fg Fp ; This equation is known as Eulers equation.

Eulers equation can be written as:

dp

gdz vdv 0

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Dimensional analysis:
Quantity

Symbol

Dimensions

Mass

Length

Time

Temperature

Velocity

LT -1

Acceleration

LT -2

mv

MLT -1

Force

MLT -2

Energy - Work

ML 2T -2

Power

ML 2T -3

Moment of Force

ML 2T -2

Angular momentum

ML 2T -1

Angle

M 0L 0T 0

Angular Velocity

T -1

Angular acceleration

T -2

Area

L2

Volume

L3

First Moment of Area

Ar

L3

Second Moment of Area

L4

Density

ML -3

Cp

L 2 T -2 -1

Elastic Modulus

ML -1T -2

Flexural Rigidity

EI

ML 3T -2

Shear Modulus

ML -1T -2

Torsional rigidity

GJ

ML 3T -2

MT -2

Momentum/Impulse

Specific heatConstant Pressure

Stiffness

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Angular stiffness

T/

ML 2T -2

Flexibiity

1/k

M -1T 2

Vorticity

T -1

Circulation

L 2T -1

Viscosity

ML -1T -1

Kinematic Viscosity

L 2T -1

Diffusivity

L 2T -1

f /

M 0L 0T 0

Friction coefficient

M 0L 0T 0

Restitution coefficient

L 2 T -2 -1

Cv

Specific heatConstant volume

Boundary layer:
v x
vx
(Re) x

Reynolds number

u
Displacement Thickness ( *): * 1 dy
U
0

Momentum Thickness ():

Energy Thickness ( **): **

u
U

1
U

dy

u2
1 2 dy
0
U
Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profile: Boundary conditions are as
du
du
o
(a) At y 0, u 0,
0 ; (b) At y , u U ,
0
dy
dy

u
U

Turbulent flow:
du
du

dy
dy

Shear stress in turbulent flow: v t

Turbulent shear stress by Reynold:

du
Shear stress in turbulent flow due to Prndtle : l 2
dy

u 'v '
2

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS