Traditional Teaching

Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the learning environment. Power
and responsibility are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor (in the form of lectures) and
decision maker (in regards to cirriculum content and specific outcomes). They regard students as having
'knowledge holes' that need to be filled with information. In short, the traditional teacher views that it is the
teacher that causes learning to occur (Novak, 1998)
Learning is cheifly associated within the classroom and is often competitive. The lesson's content and delivery
are considered to be most important and students master knowledge through drill and practice (such as rote
learning). Content need not be learned in context.(Theroux 2002, Johnson &Johnson 1991)
The most common seating arrangement used by the traditionalists is rows.
Student-centered teaching
Student-Centred Teaching
The teaching role in a student-centred learning environment is, at most, one of facilitator and guide. The
students are in control of their own learning and the power and responsibility are the students concern. Learning
may be independant, collaborative, cooperative andcompetitive. The utilisation and processing of information is
more important than the basic content. Learning takes place in relative contexts and students are engaged in
constructing their own knowledge (Theroux,2002).
The teacher that utilises this method effectively is constantly on the move. They may be engaged with the
students as a classroom collective, individually or in groups. Their involvement would include questioning,
disciplining, guiding, validating, monitoring, motivating, encouraging, suggesting, modelling and clarifying
(McKenzie,2002) . The teacher must make the appropriate decision when deciding how instruction should take
place. Some questions that may be considered are - How much time do we have?
- Do all of the students need this information?
- What method would maximise efficiency?
Due to the nature of this method, the most appropriate physical set up for student-centred learning
environment would be groups.
Traditional education
Traditional education, is also known as back-to-basics, conventional education or customary education,
refers to long-established customs found in schools that society traditionally used. Some forms of education
reform promote the adoption of progressive education practices, a more holistic approach which focuses on
individual students' needs and self-expression. In the eyes of reformers, traditional teacher-centered methods
focused on rote learning and memorization must be abandoned in favor of student-centered and task-based
approaches to learning. However, many parents and conservative citizens are concerned with the maintenance
of objective educational standards based on testing, which favors a more traditional approach.
Depending on the context, the opposite of traditional education may be progressive education, modern
education (the education approaches based on developmental psychology), oralternative education.[1]
Definition[edit]
The definition of traditional education varies greatly with geography and by historical period.
The chief business of traditional education is to transmit to a next generation those skills, facts, and standards of
moral and social conduct that adults consider to be necessary for the next generation's material and social
success.[2] As beneficiaries of this scheme, which educational progressivist John Dewey described as being
"imposed from above and from outside", the students are expected to docilely and obediently receive and
believe these fixed answers. Teachers are the instruments by which this knowledge is communicated and these
standards of behavior are enforced.[2]

Historically, the primary educational technique of traditional education was simple oral recitation:[1] In a typical
approach, students sat quietly at their places and listened to one student after another recite his or her lesson,
until each had been called upon. The teacher's primary activity was assigning and listening to these recitations;
students studied and memorized the assignments at home. A test or oral examination might be given at the end
of a unit, and the process, which was called "assignment-study-recitation-test", was repeated. In addition to its
overemphasis on verbal answers, reliance on rote memorization (memorization with no effort at understanding
the meaning), and disconnected, unrelated assignments, it was also an extremely inefficient use of students' and
teachers' time. This traditional approach also insisted that all students be taught the same materials at the same
point; students that did not learn quickly enough failed, rather than being allowed to succeed at their natural
speeds. This approach, which had been imported from Europe, dominated American education until the end of
the 19th century, when the education reform movement imported progressive education techniques from
Europe.[1]
Traditional education is associated with much stronger elements of coercion than seems acceptable now in most
cultures.[citation needed] It has sometimes included: the use of corporal punishment to maintain classroom discipline
or punish errors; inculcating the dominant religion and language; separating students according to gender, race,
and social class[citation needed], as well as teaching different subjects to girls and boys. In terms of curriculum there
was and still is a high level of attention paid to time-honoured academic knowledge.
In the present it varies enormously from culture to culture, but still tends to be characterised by a much higher
level of coercion than alternative education. Traditional schooling in Britain and its possessions and former
colonies tends to follow the English Public School style of strictly enforced uniforms and a militaristic style of
discipline. This can be contrasted with South African, USA and Australian schools, which can have a much
higher tolerance for spontaneous student-to-teacher communication.[citation needed]
Instruction centre[edit]
Topic

Traditional approach

Teacher-centred instruction:
Person

Educational essentialism

Educational perennialism

Alternate approaches

Student-centred instruction:

Educational progressivism

Main
Objective

High test scores, grades, graduation

Classroom

Students dynamically grouped by interest or

Students matched by age, and possibly
ability for each project or subject, with the
also by ability. All students in a classroom
possibility of different groups each hour of the
are taught the same material.
day. Multi-age classrooms or open classrooms.[3]
Traditional education emphasizes:

Teaching
methods

Learning, retention, accumulation of valuable

knowledge & skills

Progressive education emphasizes:

Direct instruction and lectures

Hands-on activities

Seatwork

Student-led discovery

Group activities

Students learn through listening

and observation[4]

Materials

Instruction based on textbooks, lectures,

and individual written assignments

Project-based instruction using any available

resource including Internet, library and outside
experts

Subjects

Individual, independent subjects.

Integrated, interdisciplinary subjects or theme-

Content

Little connection between topics[3]

based units, such as reading a story about cooking

a meal and calculating the cost of the food.

Memorization of facts, objective

information; Correct knowledge is
paramount

Understanding the facts, Application of facts,

Analysis, Evaluation, Innovation; Critical
thinking is paramount

Little or no attention to social

development.[3]
Social
aspects

Significant attention to social development,

Focus on independent learning.
including teamwork, interpersonal relationships,
Socializing largely discouraged except for and self-awareness.
extracurricular activities and teamworkbased projects.

Multiple
tracks

Equity

Student and
teacher
relationship

A single, unified curriculum for all

students, regardless of ability or
interest.

Students choose (or are steered towards) different

kinds of classes according to their perceived
Diverse class offerings without
abilities or career plans. Decisions made early in
tracking, so that students receive a
education may preclude changes later, as a
custom-tailored education.
student on a vo-tech track may not have
With School to work,
completed necessary prerequisite classes to
academically weak students must take switch to a university-preparation program.
some advanced classes, while the
college bound may have to spend
half-days job shadowing at local
businesses.
Present and test methods favor
students who have prior exposure to
the material or exposure in multiple
contexts.
Requirements to study or
memorize outside school
inadvertently tests homes not
students.
Students from homes where tested
subjects are used in common
conversation, or homes where
students are routinely given
individual help to gain context
beyond memorization, score on tests
at significantly higher levels.

Context learning integrates personal

knowledge within the school environment.

Individualized expectations simplifies

individual supports and keeps focus student
based.

Community study settings include

multiple cultures and expose all students to
diversity.

Students often address teachers formally

by their last names. The teacher is
considered a respected role model in the
In alternative schools, students may be allowed to
community. Students should obey the
call teachers by their first names. Students and
teacher. Proper behavior for the university teachers may work together as collaborators.
or professional work community is
emphasized.

Marking[edit]
Topic

Traditional approach

Alternate approaches

A few numbers, letters, or words are used to

summarize overall achievement in each class.
Marks may be assigned according to
objective individual performance (usually the
number of correct answers) orcompared to other
students (best students get the best grades, worst
students get poor grades).

Many possible forms of

communicating achievements:

Teachers may be required to

write personalized narrative
evaluations about student
achievement and abilities.

A passing grade may or may not signify mastery:

a failing student may know the material but not
complete homework assignments, and a passing
student may turn in all homework but still not
understand the material.

Under standards-based
education, a government agency
may require all students to pass
a test; students who fail to
perform adequately on the test
may not be promoted.

Expectations

Students will graduate with different grades.

Some students will fail due to poor performance
based on a lack of understanding or incomplete
assignments.

All students need to achieve a basic

level of education, even if this
means spending extra years in
school.

Grade
inflation/deflation

Achievement based on performance compared to

a reasonably stable, probably informal standard
which is highly similar to what previous students
experienced.

The value of any given mark is often

hard to standardize in alternative
grading schemes. Comparison of
students in different classes may be
difficult or impossible.

Communicating
with parents

Subject areas[edit]
Topic

Traditional approach

Mathematics Traditional mathematics:

Emphasis is on memorization of basic

facts such as the multiplication table and
mastering step-by-step
arithmetic algorithms by studying examples
and much practice.

Alternate approaches

Curriculum de-emphasizes
procedural knowledge drills in favor of
technology (calculators, computers)
and an emphasis on conceptual
understanding.

Lessons may include more

exploratory material supportive of
conceptual understanding, rather than
direct presentation of facts and
methods.

One correct answer is sought, using one

"standard" method.

Mathematics after elementary grades is

tracked with different students covering
different levels of material.

Mathematics is taught as its own

discipline without emphasis on social,
political or global issues. There may be some
emphasis on practical applications in science
and technology.

Emphasis may be on practical

applications and greater issues such as
the environment, gender and racial
diversity, and social justice.

Mathematics lessons may include

writing, drawing, games, and
instruction with manipulatives rather
than filling out worksheets.[5]

Lessons may include exploration of

concepts allowing students to invent

their own procedures before teaching
standard algorithms.

Science

Language
learning

Grading may be based on

demonstration of conceptual
understanding rather than entirely on
whether the final answer is correct.

In some countries (e.g. the United

States), there may be expectations of
high achievement and mastering
algebra for all students rather than
tracking some students into business
math and others into mathematics for
math and science careers.

Fact-based science: Science class is an

opportunity to transmit concrete knowledge and
specific vocabulary from the teacher (or
textbook) to the students. Students focus on
memorizing what they are told. "Experiments"
follow cookbook-style procedures to produce the
expected results.

With Inquiry-based Science a student

might be asked to devise an experiment to
demonstrate that the earth orbits the sun.
The emphasis changes from memorizing
information that was learned through a
scientific method to actually using the
scientific method of discovery.

Phonics: The focus is on explicit training in

sound to letter correspondence rules and the
mechanics of decoding individual words.
Students initially focus on phonics subskills and
reading simplified decodable texts. When they
have mastered a sufficient number of rules, they
are allowed to read freely and extensively. (In
many languages, such as French, Spanish and
Greek, phonics is taught in the context of reading
simple open syllables.)

With whole language the child is exposed

to rich, relevant language that can heighten
motivation to read. Learning to read is
assumed to be as natural as learning to
speak, so students are not formally taught
sound to letter correspondences, but
assumed to infer them on their own. (Note
that this issue is limited to languages such
as English and French with complex
phonetics and spelling rules. Instruction in
countries with languages such as Spanish
and Greek, which have relatively simple
phonetic spelling, still depends mainly on
phonics.)

Non-traditional
Roles of Teachers in the 21st Century
By:Ingrid Veira
Defining a Role
According to a dictionary, a role can be an actors part, ones function, what a
person is appointed or expected to do. In our daily lives we fulfill roles that have
features of all these defining characteristics. Some roles are hard to avoid (e.g. father,
mother); some roles may be thrust upon us by circumstances (e.g. student); on the
other hand, we choose for ourselves many of the roles we fulfill (e.g. teacher).
Teachers perform different roles when making decisions about the planning and
teaching of lessons. It is often helpful to use metaphors to describe what teachers do.
For example, some teachers say that they are like actors because they feel they are
always on stage. Others see themselves as orchestral conductors because they direct
conversations and set the tone and pace of the class.

How do students and other people see teachers? Some say we are:
administrators, social workers,
coat finders, arbitrators,
pencil sharpeners, language specialists,
a walking encyclopaedia,
surrogate parents, form fillers,
fundraisers, nose wipers,
examiners, scapegoats,
relations officers, accountants,
musicians, artistic directors,
petty cash clerks, report writers
but they can just call us teachers!

Roles of the Interactive Teacher.

An interactive teacher is by definition one that is fully aware of the group dynamics
of a classroom. As Drnyei and Murphey (2003) explained, the success of classroom
learning is very much dependent on how students relate to each other, what the
classroom environment is, how effectively students cooperate and communicate with
each other, and what roles the teacher and learners play.
"Brown, H. Douglas (2007) mentions that teachers can play many
roles in the course of teaching and this might facilitate the learning.
Their ability to carry these out effectively will depend on a large
extend on the rapport they establish with their students, and on
their own level of knowledge and skills. "
According to Harmer, J. (2007), the term facilitator is used by many authors to
describe a particular kind of teacher, one who is democratic (where the teacher shares
some of the leadership with the students) rather than autocratic (where the teacher is in
control of everything that goes on in the classroom), and one who fosters learner
autonomy (where students not only learn on their own, but also take responsibility for
that learning) through the use of group work and pair work and by acting as more of a
resource than a transmitter of knowledge. Harmer, J. also states that it makes more
sense to describe different teacher roles in more detail and say what they are useful for,
rather than make value judgments about their effectiveness in terms of their
facilitator credentials. Some of the most common teachers roles are the following:

Controller: The teacher is in complete

charge of the class, what students do, what
they say and how they say it. The teacher
assumes this role when new language is
being introduced and accurate
reproduction and drilling techniques are
needed.
Prompter: The teacher encourages
students to participate and makes
suggestions about how students may
proceed in an activity. The teacher should
be helping students only when necessary.

Resource: The teacher is a kind of walking resource centre (monitor) ready to offer
help if needed or providing students with whatever language they lack when
performing communicative activities. The teacher must make her/himself available so
that students can consult her/him when (and only when) they wish.
Assessor: The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or
how well they performed. Feedback and correction is organized and carried out.
Organizer: Perhaps the most difficult and important role the teacher has to play. The
success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing
exactly what they are to do. Giving instructions is vital in this role as well as setting up
activities.
Participant: This role improves the atmosphere in the class when the teacher takes
part in an activity. However, the teacher takes a risk of dominating the activity when
performing it.
Tutor: the teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in project work or selfstudy. The teacher provides advice and guidance and helps students clarify ideas and
limit tasks.
Characteristics of a 21st Century Classroom.
As we move further into the new millennium, it becomes clear that the 21st Century
classroom needs are very different from the ones in the 20th Century. In the 21st
Century classroom, teachers are facilitators of student learning and creators of
productive classroom environments in which students can develop the skills they will
need in the workplace. The focus of the 21st Century classroom is on students
experiencing the environment they will enter as 21st Century workers. The
collaborative project-based curriculum used in this classroom develops higher order
thinking skills, effective communication skills, and knowledge of technology that
students will need in the 21st Century workplace. The interdisciplinary nature of the
21st Century classroom sets it apart from the 20th Century classroom. Lectures on a
single subject at a time where the norm in the past and today collaboration is the thread
for all students learning.
20th Century teaching strategies are no longer effective. Teachers must embrace new
teaching strategies that are radically different from those employed in the 20th Century
classroom. The curriculum must become more relevant to what students will
experience in the 21st Century workplace.
Role of Teachers in the 21st Century.
In the information technology age, it can be hard to get a grip on the evolving roles of
teachers. On one hand, it can seem as if the role of teachers has grown immensely; they
are now expected to be tech-savvy, computer literate and at the cutting edge of
education. On the other hand, it can seem as if technology makes the traditional role of
the teacher largely obsolete. This, however, is not quite true; rather, teachers must keep
their traditional devotion to students and hands-on interaction while teaching students
how to navigate their 21st century world (Lee Flamand, eHow Contributor).
Technology.
In the information technology age, it can be hard to get a grip on the evolving roles of
teachers. On one hand, it can seem as if the role of teachers has grown immensely; they
are now expected to be tech-savvy, computer literate and at the cutting edge of
education. On the other hand, it can seem as if technology makes the traditional role of
the teacher largely obsolete. This, however, is not quite true; rather, teachers must keep
their traditional devotion to students and hands-on interaction while teaching students

how to navigate their 21st century world (Lee Flamand, eHow Contributor).
Traditional Goals with New Resources.
The traditional goals of education remain the same. Teachers will help form their
students into effective critical thinkers and life-long learners with a strong sense of
their social responsibilities. While information technology can sometimes seem like a
disadvantage rather than an advantage in reaching these goals, they can also be
effectively employed to help facilitate rather than disrupt the learning process; for
example, students can use Internet search engines to carry out research.
Techniques.
Teachers in the 21st century have access to a wide array of information about the latest
research on how students learn. They should be knowledgeable and willing to apply
such research to their classroom. They should understand different learning styles and
be able to identify the learning styles of their students.
Teachers.
Students always need teachers, both inside and outside of the classroom. Arguably, this
is true today more than ever before, as school violence, drug abuse and other dangers
have been becoming more and more common. Teachers need to take their role as both
a resource for students and as a guide through the difficulties of life seriously, and
should make a huge effort to foster healthy relationships with their students.
Action.
Teachers in the 21st century confront the challenges opened up by globalization.
Teachers should introduce students to their world, and moreover inculcate in them a
sense of their own power to create change in the world. Teachers should not just
transmit knowledge to students; they should instill in them a sense of their place in the
larger world, and urge them to be active participants in it.
Conclusion.
Times have changed, has your classroom changed? The new role of the teacher in the
21st Century classroom requires changes in teachers knowledge and classroom
behaviors. If students are to be productive members of the 21st Century workplace,
they must move beyond the skills of the 20th Century and master those of the 21st
Century. Teachers are entrusted with mastering these skills as well and with modeling
these skills in the classroom. The characteristics of the 21st Century classroom will be
very different from those in the classrooms of the past because the focus is on
producing students who are highly productive, effective communicators, inventive
thinkers, and masters of technology.
Non-Traditional Teaching & Learning Strategies
What are Non-traditional Teaching & Learning Techniques and Why Use Them?
Pamela Harris, Retired Nutrition Faculty & Ralph Johnson, Architecture Professor
Montana State University
Since fall semester 2001 Harris and Johnson have provided faculty development
workshops at Montana State University entitled "Developing a Mentorship Program
for Non-Traditional Teaching and Learning Techniques." Forty MSU faculty
representing all seven colleges have completed 15-20 hours of continuing education to
assist them in understanding and implementing a broad variety of non-traditional
teaching and learning techniques. In 2002 Harris and Johnson presented a workshop on

this model at the International Conference on Problem-Based Learning in Higher

Education in Baltimore, Maryland. In addition they have received national and
international recognition for their insightful teaching strategies and methodologies that
provide and support an enhanced teaching and learning environment in higher
education.
Introduction
The traditional teaching approaches are generally teacher-directed and follow
cookbook steps of activities and demonstrations. This approach may not provide
students with valuable skills or even with a body of knowledge that lasts much beyond
the end of the term (Udovic, Morris, Dickman, Postlethwait and Wetherwax, 2002). To
enhance the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom non-traditional strategies
such as active, cooperative, collaborative and problem-based learning can be utilized.
We must, however, begin with a disclaimer in regards to the utilization of nontraditional teaching and learning strategies. According to Herreid (1998) and the
experiences of Harris and Johnson, faculty not trained in establishing non-traditional
goals and objectives, implementation methodologies, and assessment techniques are
not effective in utilizing these new strategies in the classroom. Traditional university
expectations and department philosophies as well as the historical experiences by
which faculty have traditionally learned to teach have driven the continuation of the
lecture-based model. Under these circumstances it is very challenging for faculty to
successfully initiate and sustain non-traditional teaching and learning techniques. It is
imperative that faculty utilize specialized training workshops, newsletters, websites,
and centers for teaching excellence to obtain the necessary knowledge, training, and
support required to successfully adopt these strategies in the classroom.
Before faculty can consider non-traditional teaching and learning (NTTL) strategies
the first step in developing an active learning environment is to determine where you
want your classroom and students to be. Instructors must reflect on their personal
goals, their goals for the students, students' needs, and the level and purpose of the
course. Next, the instructor must consider the specific knowledge, skills and attitudes
each student should acquire during the course (Tanenbaum, Cross, Tilsons, and Rogers,
1998).
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
The faculty members' objectives must be integrated with those of their academic
program, department, college and university. It is only from the awareness of these
goals and objectives that appropriate non-traditional teaching and learning (NTTL)
strategies may be selected. The link between strategies and learning objectives resides
in an understanding of Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives (Bloom 1956). This
will assist the professor in developing and directing students in logical steps of
learning. Bloom's taxonomy of learning objectives identifies, within the cognitive
domain, a hierarchy of six categories (Bloom 1956).
Cognitive Domain

Behaviors or Outcomes

1. Knowledge

Recall of specific facts

2. Comprehension

Grasping or understanding meaning of informational materials

3. Application

Make use of the knowledge

4. Analysis

Taking apart the known & identifying relationships among them

5. Synthesis

Putting things together in creative manner

6. Evaluation

Makes judgments about the value of materials or methods

The first two categories of Bloom's Taxonomy, knowledgeand comprehension focus

on a recall of facts that students can attain by reading the material or attending lectures.
Typically students are assessed by true/false and multiple choice questions
forknowledge and short essays for comprehension. In the application category
students' use previously learned information in new and concrete situations to solve
problems that have single or best answers. In general introductory college courses
emphasize teaching and learning by focusing on knowledge,
comprehension and application. This most often places students in a passive role
regarding their learning.
Upper division courses hopefully strive to build on the analysis,
synthesis and evaluation levels of learning. These are the characteristics of teaching
and learning that most engage the students and faculty because they are "ACTIVE".
These are the categories that deal with the issues that inspire us to learn and reveal the
creative potential within each faculty member and student. It has been Harris and
Johnson's experiences that when introductory courses begin with issues
of analysis andsynthesis students become engaged in their own learning. During this
process students assume responsibility for acquiring theknowledge necessary to
respond creatively and evaluate outcomes. This is the basis for non-traditional teaching
and learning strategies regardless of the academic course level. Less emphasis is
placed on information transmission and greater emphasis placed on developing skills,
attitudes and values. This will lead students to engage in higher order of thinking such
as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Educators need to decide if their courses are intended to require the regurgitation of
facts and figures or assist students into developing critical thinking skills with regard to
the subject at hand. A lecture format may be entertaining and efficient delivery of
information, but does it facilitate the best way to learn! Do you want to be "The sage
on the stage or the guide by the side"(Bosworth and Hamilton, 1994)?
You must decide nowif education is about your teaching or student learning!
If you are ready to challenge students with the issues and concepts that inspire you and
you are willing to share the stage with students then you are ready to pursue nontraditional teaching and learning strategies. The following strategies are examples of
NTTL techniques that have been included in the MSU NTTL workshops since 2000.

They are presented in alphabetical, non-hierarchical order and serve as an introduction.

We strongly suggest you utilize the websites and references we have identified to assist
you with the specific procedural steps of implementation and assessment. Remember
what works for one educator may not work for you but through discipline, dedication,
preparation, analysis, perfection and self-evaluation you can develop the nontraditional teaching and learning strategies that work for you.
STRATEGIES
I. Case-Based Learning or Case Method Teaching
The case-based approach to teaching and learning utilizes real or imagined scenarios to
teach students about their field of study. Barnes (1994) describes the case as "an
account of events that seem to include enough intriguing decision points and
provocative undercurrents to make a discussion group want to think and argue about
them." According to Harris and Johnson the key in utilizing this technique is to capture
the imagination of the students. In this manner students are challenged to learn by
doing, develop analytical and decision making skills, internalize learning, learn how to
grapple with real life problems, develop skills in oral communication and team work.
As Herreid (1998) states, "It's a rehearsal for life!
The significance of case-based learning is that it links theory and application to real or
possible circumstances. Students must acquire knowledge and understanding from
required readings before attending class in order to apply the information in small
discussion groups. Cases prepared by the instructor from textbooks, professional
experience, websites, current issues, etc. are then presented to the students with
specific questions or issues to be resolved. These questions are designed to reveal a
required answer or may be open to a creative response for which there is no right or
wrong. In all cases the intention is to create questions that guide the students through
appropriate analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In this manner the students are aided in
exploring possible solutions and recognizing the consequences of their answers by the
instructor. Additional websites to support case-based learning can be found at the A
Case for Case-Based Learning and National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science
(NSF).
II. Concept Mapping
A concept map is a graphic representation for organizing and representing the pieces
and parts of knowledge. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of
some type, and relationships between concepts or propositions, indicated by a
connecting line between two concepts (Novak). The principle goal of concept mapping
is to have your students discover, define and develop an understanding of the
interrelated parts of a complex set of ideas. Cognitive psychologists postulate that
learning is a process that new knowledge is added to an existing knowledge
web/network by creating associations to existing knowledge (Anderson 1992).
III. Discussion Questions
Discussion questions engage students by challenging them to think
by analyzing,synthesizing and evaluating the subject matter. These are critical
questions conceived to utilize group discussions in a manner that will move the student
fromknowledge of facts to the evaluation of outcomes. When designing class
discussion questions we recommend utilizing Bloom's cognitive levels by beginning
with a comprehension question (what) followed by an analysis question (why) and

end with asynthesis question (how). This methodology develops the skills necessary to
be a critical thinker and assesses the student's learning based on the six different levels
specified in Bloom's Taxonomy. One of the great benefits of this method is that
students must come to class prepared because class time is devoted to upper level
learning.
You can develop your own discussion questions or save time by utilizing previous
exam questions or questions at the end of the textbook chapters. Encourage your
students to review the questions at the end of the textbook chapters in preparation for
class. Remember this assignment is about learning!
According to Harris and Johnson the time designated to discussion questions ranges
from 10 to 30 minutes in a 50 minute class and up to 75 minutes in a two hour class.
Generally the class begins with the distribution of clearly worded questions, relevant to
the topic, to a small group (3-4 students) of their choosing or yours. Each group
discusses their critical questions, using their required readings and notes. A reporter or
scribe must be selected to document the group's discussion and specific responses to
the questions. It is imperative that at the conclusion of the group process that the
faculty member solicits responses and offers accurate analysis, commentary, and
insight. It is possible that a group will agree on an inappropriate response and this
closing discussion allows the faculty member to further assist in their learning and
supplement the discussion questions with a brief (10 minute) lecture. An additional
annotated bibliography of resources on effective questioning for teachers is available
at Edvantia.
IV. Debate
Classroom debate is a form of empowered learning in which students become involved
in researching, teaching, and recognizing alternative points of view. The benefits of a
formal classroom debate include: 1) reducing the biases of both students and the
instructor; 2) enhancing student research and analysis skills; 3) promoting logical and
critical thinking; 4) increasing oral communication skills; 5) motivating students; and
6) building effective team work skills. Most significantly, to be successful, the students
involved in debate must master all six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956).
Debate revolves around the debate proposition, which should be a carefully worded
one-sentence statement, calling for some new position or change in the present.
Although the proposition should be worded to avoid excessive ambiguity, they are
often normative in style and offer the opportunity to argue both issues of fact and
belief. This allows debaters, considerable flexibility in building arguments. The
affirmative team argues in favor of the proposition while the negative team tries to
refute the arguments of the affirmative team and in essence argues to maintain the
status quo (Payne).
Debates should focus on topics for which there is no "right answer" or too which a
marginal view is valuable. Recreating historic debates is also an excellent learning
model. Websites that could assist you in organizing, executing and assessing a debate
as one of your active learning strategies are as follows: Basic Debating
Skills and Using Debate to Develop Empowered Learning In the Classroom.
V. Quizzes & Exams
Typically educators have utilized quizzes and exams as assessment tools. Harris and
Johnson have found that collaborative learning can occur through preparation,

execution, discussion and review of examination questions. The authors have utilized a
variety of testing strategies that emphasize teaching and learning such as: individual
and group quizzes, multiple test opportunities, and first day final exams. The principle
behind these strategies is to move beyond regurgitation of facts to Bloom's higher
levels of learning such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
A. Group Quizzes and Exams
Tanenbaum et.al. (1998) described a process by which group quizzes were utilized to
increase learning during the test-taking experience. Harris and Johnson have utilized
this process and extended it to include examinations. It is a efficient way to get
students to read the textbook before class and to learn basic course content according
to Herreid (1998).
First, tests are taken individually. After the students have finished the test and marked
their individual answers they are put into small groups to take the test again. In the
small groups the students must interact collaboratively to justify their answers and
complete the exam a second time. Who would expect that the noise level during an
examination would far exceed any other sounds in the classroom? The individual and
group scores for the test are then averaged either as equal scores or with individual
score carrying two-thirds of the weight (Tanenbaum and Tilson, 1998). The quiz
process becomes less a means of assessment and more of an integrated part of the
learning process.
B. Multiple Test Opportunities
When it is essential that students master a subject matter one of the most effective tools
in achieving a high degree of mastery is multiple tests. This testing method allows the
educator to cover a great deal of breadth with minimum lecture time. If your class
demands the mastery of facts, figures, formulas, dates, names, etc. and typically
utilizes multiple choice or short essays examinations consider multiple testing.
The process by which multiple exams are given is to establish a period of time such as
a week and specific proctored hours for testing. No class time is used for testing.
Johnson allows his students to take the exam a maximum of three times, however a
minimum score is required on the first exam. This prevents students from merely using
the first exam as a study guide. The exams are not returned to students, but their scores
are posted on a daily basis. The exam should be inclusive and if so your students will
demonstrate the commitment to acquiring all of the knowledge necessary to be
successful on the examination. If it is not mastery of the subject matter, but a bell curve
you are seeking, then your aspirations are for testing not learning and this method is
not for you.
C. First Day Final Examinations
Johnson has utilized the first day final examination in honors courses, and an
architectural history course. This is intended for classes in which the faculty
seeks comprehensive, synthesis and evaluation the highest level of cognitive domain.
Numerous final essay examination questions and sources for answering the questions
are given to the student on the first day of class. Throughout the semester these
questions serve as the benchmarks and reference points for guiding student learning.
Prior to the final examination date Johnson reiterates that the final examination is, in
fact, selected questions from those given on the first day of class. He recommends that

the students get together in study groups to do further research and preparation for the
exam. Students are encouraged to write their answers and assist each other
in synthesizing and evaluation the course content. On the final examination day,
students are given blank blue books and each student is required to address a different
set of questions.
VI. Jig Saw
The jigsaw learning technique is drawn directly from a jigsaw puzzle. The faculty
member's goal is for the students to see and understand the big picture, problem or
issue. As in a jigsaw that picture consists of numerous interrelated parts. First students
are asked to become masters of specific parts of the big picture. After developing this
mastery they are required to work as a team to integrate and link their
specific knowledge and understanding in a manner that promotes
an analysis and synthesis of the big picture. Students learn a subject best when they
have to explain it and the jigsaw structure creates a setting in which students will
become teachers who explain concepts and procedures to one another (Colosi and
Zales, 1998). For additional information and steps in creating and utilizing jigsaw
methods see the following website by Aronson at www.jigsaw.org.
VII. Peer Instruction
Harris and Johnson, according to their review of literature and experiences have
identified three principle types of peer instruction. These include concept testing, peer
teaching and student critiques all of which place the student in the position of engaging
higher levels of cognitive domain by taking on the role of teaching. Peer instruction
offers the faculty member timely feedback during classroom sessions in regard to the
students understanding and the faculty's expectations.
A. ConcepTests
In 1991 Eric Mazur, Harvard University, developed the peer instruction model
utilizing ConcepTests. In this 90 minute model Mazur assigns students pre-class
readings for each lecture and begins each lecture with a short multiple choice quiz over
the required readings. Then the remaining class time is divided into fifteen minute time
periods, each devoted to one of the main points of the reading. Each of these is
followed by a conceptual question, ConcepTests, which tests the students'
understanding of the idea or point presented. These questions are multiple-choice and
are taken individually. Each student is given one minute to select an answer. This is
followed by group discussions in which students are peer pressured to think through
their responses and defend their answers. Then the students are asked to respond to the
question a second time individually. Mazur has found the proportion of students who
chose the correct answer always increases after the discussion, suggesting that students
are successfully explaining their reasoning, and in the process are teaching each other.
The following websites will provide additional material on peer instruction:

Peer Instruction in Physics & Astronomy

B. Peer Teaching
This collaborative learning and peer teaching model is student-centered by
encouraging student involvement, discovery, manipulation, and personalization of
research based information (Rubin and Hebert, 1998). Student presentations can be
done by groups of three to five students or individually based on the size of the course.

Harris has utilized peer teaching in a senior seminar course where each student is
responsible for an entire 50-minute class. The student is required to research a current
topic or issue with the approval of the instructor. Generally the class is divided up to
include an oral PowerPoint Slide presentation usually 20-25 minutes on the cutting
edge research followed by small groups of two to three students discussing critical
questions on this topic. If the audience has little prior knowledge about the topic
beginning presented, the peer student teacher will have difficulties engaging the class
in discussions. Consequently, each student is required to read, prior to the class, and
bring, at least, two current research articles on the topic. This encourages all students to
be engaged in researching the topic and prepared for class. The peer student teacher is
responsible for developing three discussion questions for the class. Refer to the section
on discussion questions for assistance on how to develop engaging questions that
support higher level learning. Students are teaching students with the teacher in the
background, as a member of the student audience.
Since Harris has utilized a variety of non-traditional teaching and learning strategies in
all of her food and nutrition courses, her students have experienced these models
numerous times in the classroom. It is critical that if an educator believes in utilizing
non-traditional teaching and learning strategies in the classroom then it only seems
logical that we offer students the same format when peer teaching. Students have rated
the experience of peer teaching as one of their most educational experiences during
their college careers.
C. Peer Critiques
Peer critiques are a common methodology utilized in studio and lab based courses, as
well as courses emphasizing writing and language development. Johnson has found
that it is possible to utilize the principles of peer critiques in practically any course
because peer critiques promote understanding and analysis by placing one student in
the position of critiquing the work of another student. Determining whether the work is
"good or bad", "right or wrong" is not the purpose of the critique. Analysis of the peer's
work and a demonstrated understanding of the subject matter are the focus of this
teaching strategy. As faculty we realize that we often clarify our own learning of a
given subject by trying to understand and express the qualities and characteristics of
our students work. This methodology is intended to transfer this learning experience to
the student.
The faculty member's responsibility is to evaluate the critique, clarify, and perhaps
expand and on the critiquing student's analysis. As a by-product of this teaching and
learning strategy students learn to trust and seek collaborative learning opportunities,
challenge the mythical authority of faculty, and become better able to analyze their
own work.
VIII. Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning links theory and practice by engaging students in real life
problems. Higher order skills such asapplication, analysis and evaluation can only be
achieved through a more active approach to learning. The purpose of the problem is to
motivate students to learn by providing a real-world context for examining the issues
involved. PBL is thought of as a high risk educational strategy because of its lack of
structure. This lack of structure is a by-product of open ended problems which have
many ways of resolving or answering the problem at hand. When learning is in context
rather than as a series of isolated facts and theories, the concepts are better retained.
The underlying belief of PBL is that learning is more meaningful and enjoyable when

it occurs in small active groups which are self-directed. This process encourages
students to take responsibility for their own learning and that of their learning group
(Lieux and Luoto, 2000).
PBL is a time hungry method of learning. Class time, once reserved for lectures, must
be exchanged for group, problem-solving activities according to Wu and Fournier
(2000). The faculty member must be actively engaged in coaching and critiquing the
problem solving process that students are utilizing. It is important to find to a balance
between the breath of material covered in the course and learning effectiveness as
neither learning effectiveness nor teaching quality can be equated with the sheer
volume of information delivered (Wu and Fournier, 2000).
According to Savoie and Hughes (1994), the following six steps can be utilized to
organize the PBL experience in the classroom: 1) begin with a problem; 2) ensure that
the problem connects with the students' world; 3) organize the subject matter around
the problem, not the disciplines; 4) give students the major responsibility for shaping
and directing their own learning; 5) use small teams as the context for most learning;
and 6) require students to demonstrate what they have learned through a product or a
performance. Students construct knowledge; they do not take it in as it is disseminated,
but rather they build on knowledge they have gained previously (Cross, 1998). When
students are addressing the problem it is recommended that the three-step problemsolving process suggested by Stephien, Gallagher and Worksman (1993) be utilized.
What do we know? What do we need to know? What are we going to do?
For a list of discipline specific example problems in undergraduate courses refer to
Edens (2000). The University of Delaware (PBL Clearinghouse) and Samford
University have been instrumental in providing leadership and workshops on PBL.
Their websites are very helpful with suggested techniques and articles to support
faculty in this endeavor.
What are Non-traditional Teaching & Learning Techniques and Why Use Them?
Non-Traditional Teaching & Learning Strategies
Related Links
Download This Document
Pamela Harris, Retired Nutrition Faculty,
Ralph Johnson, Architecture Professor,
Montana State University-Bozeman
Since fall semester 2001 Harris and Johnson have provided faculty development
workshops at Montana State University entitled "Developing a Mentorship Program
for Non-traditional Teaching and Learning Techniques." Forty MSU faculty
representing all seven colleges have completed 15-20 hours of continuing education to
assist them in understanding and implementing a broad variety of non-traditional
teaching and learning techniques. In 2002 Harris and Johnson presented a workshop on
this model at the International Conference on Problem-Based Learning in Higher
Education in Baltimore, Maryland. In addition they have received national and
international recognition for their insightful teaching strategies and methodologies
which provide and support an enhanced teaching and learning environment in higher
education.
In the late 1980s national attention began to focus on the quality and outcomes of
university classroom teaching. Paralleling this emphasis has been a growing body of
pedagogy centered on non-traditional teaching and learning techniques. These include
"Active Learning" (Ebert-May et al. 1997, Tanenbaum et al. 1998), "Collaborative
Learning" (Tanenbaum et al. 1998), "Cooperative Learning" (Johnson and Johnson
www.clcrc.com, Herried 1998, Lancaster and Strand 2001), Problem-Based Learning"
(Edens 2000, Major and Palmer 2001), and "Small Group Teaching" (Rubin and

Herbert 1998, Potthast 1999). Collectively these teaching techniques emphasize:

1. Self-directed student learning,
2. Cooperative learning in small student groups,
3. Teachers as facilitators or guides,
4. Problems, critical questions, and case studies as the organizing focus and
stimulus for learning,
5. Problems, critical questions and case studies forming the basis for a
comprehensive understanding of the subject matter,
6. Acquisition of critical thinking, speaking and writing skills.
It is Harris and Johnsons thesis that no single technique is universally applicable in the
classroom. First, faculty must identify their teaching and learning goals and objectives
for each course. Then the appropriate non-traditional strategies may be selected,
developed and implemented. Included in implementation must be carefully selected or
designed assessment tools linked to the specific goals and objectives of the course.
The body of research and evaluation investigating these teaching methods has revealed
higher achievement and productivity (Potthast 1999, Alexander 2000, Herreid 1998,
Lake 2001) relative to traditional teaching models of lecture-based individualistic
learning. According to the literature and Harris and Johnsons experiences students can
be expected to:
1. Acquire enhanced problem-solving skills,
2. Develop self-directed learning skills,
3. Develop the ability to find and use appropriate resources,
4. Develop critical thinking skills,
5. Develop a measurable knowledge base,
6. Demonstrate increased performance,
7. Enhance social and ethical skills through team work,
8. Achieve greater psychological health and higher self-esteem,
9. Become more self-motivated,
10. Develop oral and written communication skills,
11. Develop proactive thinking,
12. Develop academic skills in congruence with workplace skills.
TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING &
LEARNING:
TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING &
LEARNING
I. Traditional Teaching strategies Lecturing Discussion Questioning Using audiovisuals
II. Activity based strategies Cooperative learning Simulations Problem based learning
Self-learning modules
III. Computer teaching strategies Computer-assisted instructions Internet Virtual reality

IV. Distance learning Interactive television Classes via internet

V. Teaching psychomotor skills Approaches Assessment of pscyhomotor skills learning
VI. Clinical Teaching Purpose of clinical laboratory Models of clinical teaching
Preparation of clinical instruction Conducting a clinical laboratory research
I. TRADITIONAL:
I. TRADITIONAL 1 Lecturing 2. Discussion 3. Questioning 4. Using Audio-visual
1. LECTURING:
1. LECTURING
TYPES OF LECTURES:
TYPES OF LECTURES 1. TRADITIONAL ORAL ESSAY The teacher is the orator
and ONLY speaker Expositions done on topic inspirational or information 2.
PARTICIPATORY LECTURE > Begins w/ brainstorming from what students read

3. LECTURE W/ UNCOMPLETED HANDOUTS Resembles traditional oral essay

but w/ handouts (blank spaces)
4. FEEDBACK LECTURE > Consists of mini-lectures interspaced w/ 10 minute small
group discussions
5. MEDIATED LECTURE uses media such as films, slides or Web based images +
traditional lecture
PURPOSES OF LECTURES
Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic and sets the stage of learning
Stimulates learners interest Helps to integrate and synthesize a large body of
knowledge For clarification of difficult parts (arrythmia, acid-base balances) To
advance knowledge when textbooks are not available
ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING:
students see a creative mind at work Helps students develop their listening abilities
theater Teacher serves as model ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING It is economical
. Great deal of information shared. Supplies and textbooks become true to life
DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING:
results in SURFACE learning Does not meet students individual learning needs
Students have little attention time span (15 minutes)DISADVANTAGES OF
LECTURING Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge Focuses on the
TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus on PS, DM, analytical thinking or transfer of
learning
ORGANIZING LECTURES:
HEIRARCHICAL/CLASSICAL LECTURE Ex. Research DesignORGANIZING
LECTURES Take time to plan for the objective of a lecture Make an outline
Ex.:
Ex. Research Design I. Why we need different research design II. Research Design: A.
Research (clinical trials) > Quasi-experimental > Pre-experimental B. Correlation >
Ex-post facto > Restrospective III. Validity and Reliability of Design
DELIVERING THE LECTURE:
to maximize effectivenessDELIVERING THE LECTURE Plan your delivery
Rehearse Consciously think of the delivery
2. DISCUSSIONS
TYPES OF DISCUSSIONS 1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS Announced topic Reading,
watching movie done in advance 2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS Spontaneous
PURPOSES & ADVANTAGES Learns problem solving method (groups) Opportunity

to apply principles, concepts & theories Clarifies information & concepts Assists to
evaluate beliefs/positions (professional, societal or ethical issues) > change in attitudes
& values
DISADVANTAGES Takes a lot of time One person/few participants (monopolies)
Gathering of uninformed opinions
DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES Make expectations clear. Students know exactly what
they have to do for discussion Ex. Chapter to read, watch a video 2. Set ground rules.
> Limitations (e.g. time, no. of speakers, interruptions during speech)3 . Arrange
physical space. Circle sitting arrangement 4. Plan a discussion starter. Ask participants
to come up with opening questions Study questions handed out prior to meeting

5. Facilitate, do not discuss. Refrain from talking. Watch group progress. Keep
everyone engage in discussions. 6. Encourage quiet members to participate. Make eye
contact and smile. Give direct, simple questions: Mary, what do you think?7. Dont
allow monopolies. Eye contact. Be blunt when needed.. Weve been hearing a lot fro
Sarah. Now, let us hear of the rest of you think. 8. Direct the discussion among group
members. > Leaders facilitate.9. Keep the discussion on track. We seem to have
strayed a little fro our topic. Lets pick up on the last topic that Lot was talking about.
10. Clarify when confusion reigns. > Recording may help the group. Let them learn the
act of clear self-expression.11. Tolerate some silence. Silence gives everyone a chance
to think. 12. Summarize when appropriate.
3. QUESTIONING:
higher order thinking3. QUESTIONING Can be a teaching strategy Ask questions
FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS:
retentionFUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS Places the learners in an active role Simple
recall Helps students analyze concepts Evaluate worth of ideas Speculate if 2.
Assesses baseline knowledge
3. Helps review content enlightens gray areas 4. Motivates students Stimulates
thinking & curiosity 5. Guides learners thought process
LEVELS OF QUESTIONS:
LEVELS OF QUESTIONS According to WINK classification CONVERGENT Qs
specific, usually short & unexpected answers PURPOSE -- recall and integrate
information Ex. What happens to the bronchioles when a client has pneumonia versus
an asthma attack?
B. DIVERGENT Qs Generates new ideas, draws implications, formulates a new
perspective Ex. What might happen if you relocate an elderly person with dementia to
another type of residence where he or she is presently living?
2. According to BARDEN A. LOWER-ORDER QUESTIONS Recall information,
read or memorize B. HIGHER-ORDER QUESTIONS > Requires comprehension and
critical thinking
TYPES OF QUESTIONS 1. FACTUAL QUESTIONS Requires simple recall
questions Assess learners understanding To check if students are listening 2.
PROBING QUESTIONS Seeks further explanation Ex. Can you explain that?
3. MCQs Tests recall or used to begin a discussion 4. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
All questions that request learners to construct an answer Ex. When shall you use
clean versus sterile dressing technique?
5. DISCUSSION-STIMULATING Qs Uses various questions to promote the topic Ex.
Do you agree with Johns position? 6. QUESTIONS THAT GUIDE PS Guides
learners through problem solving thinking Ex. What information do you need to have
before we can solve this problem?
7. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS Stimulates thinking Guides learners into asking some

of their own questions

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES:
promote questioning 1. Prepare some questions ahead of time Match with objectives
2. State questions clearly and specificallyQUESTIONING TECHNIQUES Supportive
teachers > Ex. Can you give me an example of how respnodeat superior can be
practiced?
3. Tolerate some silence. 4. Listen carefully to responses. Dont interrupt. 5. Use the
beam, force, build technique. BEAM send Q to the class FORCE call one student
at a time BUILD redirect the question to other students

6. Provide feedback. Allow a few seconds of silence and ask, Can anyone add to the
answer? 7. Handle wrong answers carefully. I am sorry Edward but its not quite it.
Yvette, you are correct in saying that ____, but that is not the best way to go.
STIMULATING LEARNERS TO ASK QUESTIONS Learners should be rewarded for
asking good questions. Thinking is driven not by answers by good questioning .
HOW TO ENGAGE? Thank or praise the student for asking questions. Talk to the
whole class not only the questioner. This keeps the whole class / group involved.
4. USING VISUAL AIDS Can enhance teaching Can add interest to the classroom
ISSUES Correct choice? Available? Effective?
FACTORS TO CONSIDER: SELECTING MEDIA 1. Learning objectives Opt for
variety 2. Availability of materials / technical assistance 3. Level, ability & number of
students
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUALS HANDOUTS Printed materials
communicate facts, figures, concepts Saves a lot of time for information 2.
CHALKBOARDS/ WHITEBOARDS Useful for mathematical problems
3. OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHP) Saves time, helps organize and
illustrates content Costly 4. SLIDES > Used to show pictures, project diagrams, charts
and word concepts
ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Affordable Easy to store Easy to update/ recognize
DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Costly projector bulbs dont last long
5. VIDEO TAPES In-house filming, video-clips Used during: 1) role playing; 2)
communication; 3) counseling skills ADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES: Provides
personal touch Standardized exposure in spite of distance Used at learners own
pacing
DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES Costly Communication is one way learners
become passive
SUMMARY: INTERACTIVE LEARNING Combine variety of techniques Change
tactics every 15 to 20 minutes to recapture students interest
II. ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES Cooperative learning Simulations
Problem based learning Self-learning modules
STRENGTH: Students are involved in creating and storing up knowledge for
themselves
1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
work together toward achieving shared learning goal Learners are aware that they are
responsible not only for their own learning but also for that of the others in the
group.1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING Small groups of learners
TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS A. FORMAL COOPERATIVE
LEARNING GROUP Done in traditional class / distance learning groups Individual or

group accountability Most useful in group setting

B. INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP Can be used in any setting
Helps the members to understand and clarify misconceptions as well as to share
experiences
C. BASE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP surveys/focus groups Applied easily
to new staff orientation or preceptor programs

ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

discussions --? Enhances social skill. Helps address learning needsADVANTAGES
OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING Promotes critical thinking varied positions &
learning styles Members learn to function as a team.
DISADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING > Does not cover all content/
topics in syllabus
2. SIMULATIONS Controlled representations of reality Exercises that learners engage
in to learn in the real world
PURPOSES & USES OF SIMULATIONS Enhances DM & PS skills Enhances
interaction abilities Helps student learn psychomotor skills in a safe and controlled
setting Chance to apply theories & principles in practice Achieves learning objectives
communication skills
6. Ensures attitudinal change Helps discover factors affecting people & situations
(exercise, game, role-playing) 7 . Helps in mastery of skills 8. Helps evaluate learning
(simulation tests)
ROLE OF EDUCATOR IN SIMULATION LEARNING Planner read carefully,
assign reading Facilitator introduce activity, moderator Debriefer summarize what
happened, let learners explain what they did and why, point out principles and theories
applied
TYPES OF SIMULATIONS 1. SIMULATION EXERCISE Focuses on process
learning Ex. Earthquake drills, fire drills 2. SIMULATION GAMES > Focuses on
CONTENT / PROCESS learning
TYPES -- SIMULATION GAMES A. CONTENT LEARNING Focuses on teaching /
reinforcing factual information (ex. Crosswords, word games, bingo gaes) B.
PROCESS LEARNING > Emphasizes problem solving & application of information
(ex. Sim City)
ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES Teaches facts & application of
information Stimulates learning makes learning fun Helps to evaluate learning
Increases interaction among learners
DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES Waste of time Unprofessional
Teachers dislike competition which games promote
3. ROLE PLAYING Form of drama spontaneous acting out of roles (interaction)
Lasts for 3 to 5 minutes (illustrates one aspect of human relationship) Expression of
non-verbal and verbal behavior, response patterns and implementation of principles
4. CASE STUDIES > An analysis of an incident or situation on which characteristics
and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems
need to resolved or solved
Steps to follow in case studies: Develop objectives What do you want learners to
learn? Select a situation Choose a topic & a scenario that fits the objectives &
concept you want to apply. Develop the characters. Develop the discussion questions.
Lead the group discussion.
Note: There is NO ONE RIGHT ANSWER to a case. Many problems are so complex

that they have a variety of resolutions rather than a solution.

3. PROBLEM BASED LEARNING Involves confronting students w/ real life
situations enhances CT & DM
POINTS IN PBL!:
SOLVE PROBLEMS. OUTPUT Students will become GOOD PROBLEM SOLVERS
in their future work Students become LIFE LONG LEARNERS IDENTIFY THEIR
OWN NEEDS FOR INFORMATION ANALYZE THE CASE POINTS IN PBL!
SMALL GROUPS
DIFFERENCES:
DIFFERENCES PBL CASE STUDIES > CONDUCTED IN SMALL GROUPS >
USED BY INDIVIDUALS/GROUPS > STUDENTS HAVE LITTLE
BACKGROUNDS KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER > STUDENTS HVE
MOST OF THE BACKGROUND LEARNING THEORY TO APPLY TO THE CASE
> CASES ARE USUALLY BRIEF & PRESENTING PROBLEMS ARE ILLSTRUCTURES > CASES ARE OFTEN LONG & DETAILED, AND THEIR
PROBLEMS ARE WELL-DEFINED
Example of PBL:
Example of PBL A small community hospital is confronted with a severe nursing
shortage. They are considering a change in the nursing delivery system to a model that
involves cross training of personnel and increased use of assistive personnel. Rumors
about a change began to circulate around the hospital and many staff seem unhappy.
Identified issues by the group:
Identified issues by the group NURSING SHORTAGES How often do they occur?
How severe do they get? What causes them? What past solutions have been tried and
do they work?
II. NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM What is this one called? Is it being used
anywhere? How would it work? What might cross-training involve? Are there
published job descriptions for assistive personnel?
4. SELF-LEARNING MODULES Also known as SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
MODULES SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULES SELF-LEARNING PACKETS
INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES
DEFINITION OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES A self-contained unit or package of
study materials for use by an individual Audience where this WORKS BEST: Adult
learners
Principles in handling adult learners: Adults are self-motivated to learn (relevant)
Adults prior experience is a resource for further learning. Adults are problem focused
and readily learn material they can use to solve problems.
COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES Introduction and instructions
Behavioral objectives Pretest Learning activity Self-evaluation Pretest
TIPS 1. INTRODUCTION & INSTRUCTIONS Topic for module single topic Ex.
Problem of elimination divide this into urinary elimination and intestinal elimination
2. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES Expected of the learner Objectives over-all
objectives / specific
3. PRETEST Optional Pretest diagnostic test / assesses prerequisite knowledge helps
evaluate which sections of the module to skip and which ones need to be studied in
depth
4. LEARNING ACTIVITIES Most creative portion Designed to help meet objectives
Must appeal to people diff. learning styles Ex. Attending short lectures, speeches,
demo Watching a video or slide Using a computer program
4. SELF-EVALUATION TOOLS Assesses how the students are achieving the
objectives 5. POSTTEST A self quiz (MCQ or short answer questions) Retake is okay

Determines mastery
DEVELOPING A MODULE Takes time (weeks/months) Begin with the body
(behavioral objectives, pretest, learning activity, self-evaluation, posttest) Last to write
introduction & instructions PILOT TESTING have one or two people work at the
module for feedback (e.g. unclear objectives etc)
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES Very flexible do it at your own
pacing, done independently Individualized approach helps students Sparks interest in
teaching creativity Standardized Reduces travel time Reduces costs
DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES Miss interactions with people
May lead to further procastination lack of structures and deadlines Promotes
dishonesty Takes many hours to design and test
IV. COMPUTER TEACHING STRATEGIES Computer Aided Instruction Computer
Managed Instruction Internet
1. COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION
LEVELS OF Computer Aided Instruction 1. Drill and Practice Recognition and
application of information Ex. Drugs names and actions 2. Tutorials Useful teaching
material at the rule/concept level Forces teachers from learning some basic material
3. Games Game mode can teach 4. Simulation Provides off real world experiences
Provides chances to learn how to solve clinical problems
5. Multimedia presentations Also called hypermedia Older form: Interactive videodisc
(IVD) program
EVALUATING SOFTWARE: CRITERIA Accuracy Up to date? Easy to use
computer friendly? Design Interactive? Appearance Graphics? Animation & sound?
Feedback rationale? Cost-effectiveness price? Discounts?
2. COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION
Any system of record keeping Use of authoring systems pre-developed software
packages that guide the educator t process of development of CAI
3. THE INTERNET > A mammoth complex of computer connections across
continents, connecting many millions of computers
EMAIL (electronic) Greater collaboration between teachers vs. students and between
students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation
and for post-discharge follow-up EX. LIST SERVS a group of people who have
similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest
in a type of discussion groups
2. NEWS GROUPS Discussions groups of people with same interest Messages appear
in general mailbox Ex. Sci.med.nursing group discussing all kinds of nursing issues
(needs a news render softward) Also used for online support groups Ex. Groups for
caregivers of Alzheimers disease
3. World Wide Web A collection of documents found on Web pages A place to find
specialized knowledge and multimedia presentations Ex. MEDLINE for National
Library of Medicine Criteria to choose WWW site Purpose audience? Currency
Credibility Content accuracy Design
ADVANTAGES IN HOSPITAL USE Provides home-based care support for the
chronically ill Tool for patient care management part of hospital information system
Provides patient teaching Supports mastery learning
> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses
becomes automatic) > Provides instant feedback > skills in managing
information)Develops cognitive residues (skills in researching > Promotes
interactivity, institutional consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and

cost-effectiveness (savings)
personal and professional communication initial outlay for hardware and software
Negative effect DISADVANTAGES High-cost