MilMn

XV 51 AS

Date Due

<-hrjr

Bureau Cai. no.

II

37

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2009

with funding from

Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries

http://www.archive.org/details/essayonconstructOObh

THEOBALD BOHM, AGED

60.

AN ESSAY
OV THE

CONSTRUCTION OF FLUTES,
GIVING A HISTOBY AND DEBOEIPTION OF

C|c most 'ttmt ^mfakmtnis,

WITH

AN EXPLANATION OF THE PEINCIPLES OF ACOUSTICS

APPLICABLE TO THE MANUFACTURE OF
WIND INSTRUMENTS.
OBIGINALLT WBITTEN HT 1847 BY

THEOBALD BOHM,
0/ Munich.

AND NOW FIRST PUBLISHED.

EDITED,

WITH THE ADDITION OF CORRESPONDENCE AND OTHER

DOCUltfENTS,

W.

S.

BY

BROADWOOD.

CO., 23, BERNERS STREET,

OXFORD STREET, LONDON, W.

RUDALL, CARTE &

1882.
Printed by

Oppi?nfieiri|i;r

LONDON.

Bros., Leipzig.

SlASio

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page
Phbfa.ce...

...

Pamphlet

...

containing

OF HIS System

...

Bohm's
...

...

...

...

...

Account of the Intention

...

...

...

...

...

11

Extracts from Bohm's Litters on Subjects connected with

PlCTE -MAKING

...

...

...

...

...

..

47

Bohm's " Diagram " (Schema), Translated from " Das Kunst-

Gewerbeblatt," Mtjnich, Octobee, 1868

TJND

Reply

to

G2

an Attack on Bohm, Published in the "London

PiGARO," 1881

Letter

...

on

toe

...

Authenticity

Professor Schafhautl

..

of

Bohm's
...

...

Intention,
...

70

by
...

73

PEEFACE.
The pamphlet

now published

and giving an

for the first time,

account of the various alterations and improvements

Bohm

in

the

flute

Rudall, in 1847

was

made by

written by him, in English, for Mr.

probably with a view to explain the principles

on which the Bohm Flute was constructed, and,

also,

to

set

forth the advantages of the particular (cylindro-conical) form of

&

which Messrs. Eudall

for

it,

Rose were then taking out a

patent.

Mr. Rudall, however, did not care

It

was

aside,

laid

to

publish the

and forgotten until quite

lately

Bohm's death, certain public attacks upon

after

treatise*

when, soon

his

character,

coupled with a denial of the originality of his invention, drew

me

from

sentative

a reply.
of

the

This reminded Mr. Carte, the present reprefirm

Bohm's own account

of

of

Rudall

all

he was good enough to send

is

of its

that

he possessed

it

The pamphlet, which

me.

to

interest

own, wholly distinct from the facts relating to Bohm's

connection with
pleasure

Gordon.

by most

amateur, giving us, as

imagine
players,

flute
it

does,

of those principles of acoustics

struction of all
I

Rose,

Bohm's own hand-writing, as I can vouch, has an

in

little

&

the circumstances in dispute, and

it

will

be

whether

a clear

with no

professional

or

and succinct summary

which are applicable to the con-

wind instruments.

should suppose that the

Bohm

versus

Gordon much-debated

controversy would now, by impartial persons, be

settled all

read

considered

as

the more that our much-injured "countryman" turns

1
out

PREFACE.

easily

Tet determined partisans are not

have been a Swiss.

fco

we know

daunted, and

that,

though we

"Convince a man against his will,

He's of the same opinion still."

when

I had not seen Bohm's pamphlet

by

tion, that

confidence,

man

he had driven that

suicide, while acquiring for liimself

glad to see that

my

has anticipated

Bohm

Bo-called

Eohm, both

I replied to the accusa-

man*s invention, shown him in

stealing another

to

in this pamphlet

and in

He

defence almost literally.

fingering

was invented by himself

and

insanity,

despair,

unmerited distinction.

am

his letters,

says that the

and Gordon's

acknowledgment, printed with his table of fingering, goes far to

And Bohm

prove the assertion.

much

attached very
really

goes on to say that he never

value to the fingering alone, but that his

important achievement was the successful substitution of

acoustic theory for

mere empirical experiment

wind instruments.

of several varieties of

in the construction

" For

this,*^

he says,

"is th^ chief foundation of the higher or lower degree of perfection in all instruments, their

importance.
notes."

It is also

much

mechanism being but

originally, i^aost courteously, published in the

World

well as in the Musical

to

improve

my own

article,,

easier to construct Tceys

I propose to reprint in an appendix

of secondary

than

London Figaro as

also the^, much

more important

paper written about the sama time by Dr. ScHAyHAEUTL, of Munich.

These, with Bohm's

own

account, give at all events his side of the^

question as to the authenticity of the invention, which, however,

in no degree affects the inherent interest of his English pamphlet.

In going through

this latter, I

have been careful to avoid

necessary interference with the original text.

spoke English very fluently

and

pressed himself very correctly.

acquire a

more than merely

languages will

know

that

general and indiiferent

to attain such a

All

it is
;

who have taken

one thing to

all

un-

wrote and

conversation exthe trouble

superficial acquaintance

snbj^s

command

in ordinary

Bohm

coiiverse

fx)

with foreign

and write on

another, and a very diflPerent things

of accurate

and technical terms as may

PREFACE.

Til

be necessary for even a popiilar expiaRation of scientific subjects.

Yoar German,

parentheses

also, revois in

together like old bills on a

file,

he loves to string them

having made up a

until,

sufiicienfe

bundle, he clinches the whole with the long suspended verb, and so
finally reveals his

meaning.

To some

not only irritating, but even confusing

of

and

possibly, the delay is

iis

for this reason I

German than

to

and

to English,

compromise between the two languages,

my

have

much

ventured to unravel certain phrases of Bohm'Sj which were

more akin

we

"We Britons cannot wait so long ;

love to get direct to our object.

in the nature

of a

always being to

effort

express what I took to be his meaning, in the fewest and most

direct words.

much

After

all,

these alterations do not

amount

and may almost be classed with the correction

to very

of " clerical

errors."

I will include in the Appendis, extracts from Bohm's letters,

which

of
is

much

have kept a considerable number

them

in

of general interest

show that Bohm was not the

him

called

already

Bohm

because there

ignorant impostor'' I once heard

by a gentleman whose claim

invention of a key, which

answers

*'

and a good deal which goes to

to celebrity rest^ed

(a plagiarist

on the

by anticipation) had

The

used for his oboe fingering some years before.

to various questions as to pitch, bore, position of holes, &c.,

which I have quoted, show beyond doubt, that Bohm understood

subject thoroughly

they also aiiord practical, and often very useful

hints for the

management

theory, as laid

down

Bohm*a

fiute

tone, that

it

of fiutes,

and the application to them

it

of

in the pamphlet,

was not only an improvement on the "

but di^erod from

his

so materially in character

old flute,"

and colouring

of

has on this account heen excluded from some of the

Continental orchestras.

In France

German conductors appear

does not take

its

it is

generally used, but certain

to have considered that the

Bohm

proper place in that giadation of

flute

"wood'*

instniments, which, commencing with the bassoon, culminates in

the piccolo.
quality,
of tiOne,

it

In power and breadth

of

tone, sometimes also in

approaches too near the clarinet to give the balance

which writerslike,

for instance,

Mozart (whose minute

PUEFACE.

VIU
appreciation
striking)

the characteristics of each instrument

of

^would

seem

have aimed

to

depends on the individual

power

increased

used (as

now

is

artist,

who may

of his instrument.

The

may abuse, the

Bohm flute, when

use, or

silver

case) in the

rarely the

not blend.

I have heard

accompaniment

them

before

management.
certainly his

as

Its

all.

is

artist,

bat the silver

flute.

In his pamphlet,

Bohm

on the old

and in one

was heard

in his letters
all

shriUness

silver flute.

but Mr. Svendsen

his tone is exceptionally

flute

flute

became

and

when

I think the same might formerly be

more generally the case

and

basses

an exwithout

however, requires very peculiar

blowing,

Mr. Svendsen's tone when he used a

said of

trary

violins

double

the

of

phrases,

isolated

Bohm constantly insists on this

own tone was wholly free from

he played on a metal

out
will

from the further extremity

approached,

came the

audible, then

it

apparently playing

building,

stands

The tone

orchestra,

perhaps too distinctly from the other instruments.

hibition

very

is

Of course very much

at.

is

The con-

an admirable

good on the wooden

alludes to the effect produced

flute also.

by players

of his letters he says that, but for

Nicholson, he should never have attempted any radical change of

He

system.

despaired of rivalling Nicholson's great power with

any but an improved instrument, and so

set to

work

to devise

one.

Those who, like myself, remember Ciardi, will admit his performance to have been a rare instance of what could be done on
the old

flut-e.

He

plajed on an old wooden instrument by Koch

(I think) of Vienna, with a crack

as I

down

remember, much exercised the mind

the head joint, which,

of

Mr. Rose

yet I have

heard him sustain a crescendo for four consecutive bars of adagio

after

which I took him (he had only just arrived) to Mr. Rudall,

who, not speaking Italian, begged me to explain that he, Ciardi,

" was fit to play before a chorus of angels."
Ciardi

was encored

House, where
heard

Grisi,

(his entire piece) in

a concert at the Opera

Mario, and Tamburini were waiting to be

and in consequence was engaged to play a solo at the

classically

exclusive

Philharmonic, whose members he shocked

PREFACE.

ix

cm

prodigiously by playing a fantasia on airs fr

colouring,

and

carried all before

it

and when the more

ec lectio

subsequently swallowed a bit of high-dried

Another performer on the old

though

Lucia.

His tone,

facile execution, always faultless in its elegance,

flute

had

felt better.

produced a n equally remarkable,

sensation at the

different,

subscribers

they

)relli,

same

was a gentleman from Holland, noted

society's concerts.

for his

power

This

of sustaining

chords on the flute.

So avStonished was Mr. Clinton (then a director,

and himself unable

to play

flute),

more than one note

at a time

that he introduced the Dutchman, and obtained for

preliminary hearing.

brilliant

and rapid

staccato

with which the special wonder was ushered

;

then,

him a

I was present at that Philharmonic rehearsal,

and well remember the

a pause

on the

amid deep

'silence

articulation

Presently came

in.

and breathless expectation, the

player emitted three several simultaneous sounds (I doubt whether

Bohm

has accounted for more than one of them on his diagram),

which were greeted by the orchestra and

its

conductor (Sterndale

When

Bennett) with one vast, irrepressible shout of laughter.

subsided the

Dutchman had

fled,

this

and Mr. Clinton might be observed

looking doubtfully about him, wondering, perchance, whether he

had been beguiled by that legendary being,

Wagner, and impersonated, though not as a

We

old flute.

Palace

own

need not, however, go beyond our

admirable example of what

Those

who

may be done

since dramatized

by

by Mr, Santley.

flautist,

present day for an

in the orchestra with the

are hi the habit of attending the Crystal

Concerts will doubtless agree with me, that in point of

execution, tone, and intonation, Mr. Alfred Wells leaves

thing, to be desired.

whereas I make bold to assert that the secret

who charms

little, if

any-

This he modestly attributes to his instrument

us in spite

of

lies

the possible defects

with the player

(for I

have not

noticed them) of his flute.

These are perhaps exceptional cases.

blind

shepherd-boy, astonished the

We know

that Picco, the

town a few years

since,

by

playing every sort of brilUant variation on a whistle having four

holes only.

my

And

remember a Styrian peasant learning by ear

presence) from a Viennese musican a

difficult

air

(in

from the

PREPACE.

Zauherflote, involving all sorts of scales

and chromatic

which he produced accurately, and with apparent ease and

on a threepenny keyless

upon me, giving

one note sound.

me

j5fe

I have the

owe

This the player afterwards bestowed

made

fife still.

a debt of gratitude

ber 25th, 1881, aged 86

respect,

certaintyj

great hopes of future celebrity, because I

Nevertheless, I for one consider that flute players

musicians

intervals

X<i

Bohm.

He

not
died

to say

Novem-

my
my old and honoured

and I have endeavoured to show

by rescuing from oblivion

this

work

of

friend.

/.

B.

BEOABWOOD,

A HISTORY
OP THE

INVENTION OF THE BOflM FLUTE.

My

newly constructed

progress,

and the necessity

o fingering, it is

wind

now

My

countries.

at present very

is

Notwithstanding the prejudices which retarded

generally adopted.
its

year 1832

flute of the

of practising

an entirely new system

played by numerous and eminent artists of

many

system has been already applied to

and the authenticity

instrument/s,

all

other

of its invention has even

given rise to public discussions.

The

superiority of

my

invention being thus appreciated,

many and

not appear improper to publish, in answer to

calls

on me, an account of the origin of

my

flute,

and

of

it

may

repeated

my

reasons

for its construction.

Well practised from

my

early youth in

my

father's business, not

only as a goldsmith and jeweller, but also in mechanical works and

constructions, I

was

able easily to

and I began to play upon

make

1810.

it in

a flute for

"With

my

my own

use

progress in music,

the desire for better instruments grew in proportion.

I constantly

attempted improvements, and more than thirty years ago I apphed

my

to

flutes

movable

new

golden

sorts of

springs, linings, cork

embouchurCj

and

many

on the

other

joints,

things

now

generally used.

In the year 1812 I was already

Theatre in Munich
the

king^'s chapel, in

firsfc

flute at the

and after liaving obtained

1819, I

voted myself entirely to music.

left

my

my

second Koyai

appointment iu

business as jeweller, and de-

12

made

Subsequently, having for several years had flutes

to

my

results, I resolved to establish a flute

By

axjcording

designs by other instrument makers, but without satisfactory

October, 1828, I

was

manufactory

work

at

in

my

of

my

own.

well-fitted shop,

began to construct various machines for making with more

and accuracy a better

previously

key mechanism than was in use

soit of

and before the year was over, I had

which met with general approbation

and

tonation, as well as for elegance

On

and

facility

finished a flute

for quality of tone

and

in-

solidity.

a flute thus improved, but constructed on the old system, I

played in 1831,

first

at Paris, and afterwards in

London

where I

was struck with the powerful tone which Charles Nicholson, then
playing with

owing

to the

all

his

was

energy,

uncommon

able

to

This was

produce.

largeness of the holes of his flute, and the

But

development of the notes.

consequent

freer

Nicholson's

extraordinary

it

required

and excellent embouchure

talents

to

conceal the defects of his flute in regard to intonation and equality

of

tone

defects

which were owing

to the incorrect position of the

holes.

At the same time I became acquainted with Mr. Gordon, a

dilletante

on the

flute,

who had

formerly in Paris, and later in

London, tried to make improvements on his instrument.

hole of his flute was bored lower

with a key

He had

also

and

on

to avoid the

his flute a

were ingeniously devised

of no use, as

down than

number

The

and was covered

he made use of a ring-key.

lever
of

usual,

keys and levers, some of which

but they were

muoh

too complicated,

and

the instrument wanted throughout a correct acoustical

basis.

Strengthened by

all this

in

the

conviction that no

improvement could be made without a

total

essential

change in the system

of fingering, I resolved to adopt neither the large-holed ordinary

flute,

nor other mere mechanical changes, but rather to spend

time and trouble upon the construction and practice of a totally

new

flute,

in

which equality

of tone

and pure intonation should

be united with the means for executing every possible combination of notes by a tiew kind of h^t/'mechanism.

13

On my

return to Munich, in 1831, I began immediately the

my

execution of
different

project

and, after having carefully re-examined

and several systems of fingering which I had

bores,

sketched out before, I decided upon that with ring-keys

the whole, the best.

The

my

success answered

had acquired the

orchestra

as,

on

(Fig. 3.)

of

facility

In a few months I

expectations.

playing

concerts and

at

the

in

and in Munich, as well as in London, where I agahi

played in 1833 and 1836, the full and even tone, and the pure
intonation

my

of

were immediately observed and appre-

fiute,

ciated.

Many
most

of

and instrument makers examined

flute players

them

new system

were discouraged by the

Flautists of old standing decided against

not

resolve

upon studying an

saw with

possibly, they sometimes

by adopting
greater

Most

young

and,

artists,

sort of

the instrument

of

because they found

it,

imitate

unprofitable to

instrument

displeasure that

in their performance.

makers were against

because they could

it,

new

an accession of means for producing

acquired

it,

effects

entirely

but

it,

of fingering.

inconvenient or

it

key-mechanism quite new to

them.

In the conviction that what

published nothing but a

scale

is

good works

of

fingering

as I

was from the year 1833, during eight

with

steel

my

my

flute,

Academy

of Sciences

flute

and

more occupied

adopted exclusively

artists in France,

progress

was

for

In the year 1837 I had occasion

advantages^

its

at Paris, and the report given by

De

was very favourable.

Paer, and Auber)

its

with a short explanation of

the committee of examination (Messrs.

was

years,

instrument, and

a long time very insignificant

at the

my

and iron works than with music, there were but few

teachers and pupils for

to exhibit

own way, I

its

for

by many

of

Prony, Dulong, Savart,

Soon

my

after,

flute

the most distinguished

England, Germany, and Italy

such

as Messrs.

Dorus, Camus, Clinton, Carte, M. Fiirstenau, Hcindl, Stettmaier,

Briccialdi,

&c.,

acknowledgment

&c.

and

thus prejudice gave

of its value.

way

to

the full

14
In London there are at

Thi8 caused divers interests to arise.

present

several flutes of different construction,

their comparative excellence

on

and nmch

is

disputed

in Paris the simple open

G $ key

of my flute was exchanged for a very complicated shut G ^ key,

under the pretext of improvement; and some one found it also
convenient to ascribe my invention to the above-named Mr. Gordon,

who

could no more proUist against the compliment, as he had died

before.

I myself had never placed a high value

I was

satisfied

with the approbation of

Ofi this

my

invention.

some impartial and com-

many

petent judges, and with having an instrument free from

defects of the old flute.

But though I
left it free for

show

my

my invention.

relations with

my

for

flute*,

and

not inclined to be deprived

I find myself obliged, therefore,

Mr. Gordon more

clearly.

my new flute was completed and not

was it known in public by my playing upon it, but I had also sold

At the beginning
only

am

imitation, I

use and

of the authenticity of
to

no patents

at that time took

1832

of

already several of these instruments,

letter

from Mr.

when

Gordon, the original of

I received the following

which

is

in

my

hands

"Lausanne, 15 Feb., 1833.

"

Mon

cher Monsieur

" Jc suis depuis quinze jours de retour chez moi

Ik,

Lausanne,

apres un sojour aasez long a Paris, ou je suis venu de Londres peu

apres vous avoir vu, lorsque vous en etes parti ponr Munich.

" Je n'ai

& une

])as

mon

perdu

flute nouvelle,

que

temps, et

j*ai faite

j'ai

travaillc avec perseverance

moi-meme

aussi bien que

j*ai

pu,

et que je viens de terminer.

" Je ne vous ai point oublie, et

j'ai

toujours attendu que vous

m'enverriez une flute perfectione'e que vous proposiez de chercher

k
je

faire a votre retmir

en Allemagne.

veux vous envoyer

* The patent taken out

with Bolim's fingering.

ma

in

W.

flute,

Selon votre offerte a Londres,

en vous priant de m'en faire une

1847 was f or the oombiuation

S.

IJ.

of a cylindro-conical tube

15
belle sur ce

" Je
vos

modeie

vu que

posaede entierement

je

meme temps la
envoyer ma fiute

pas voulu voua

n'a,i

doigte pour

avant d'avoir recu de

Yeuillez done m'eorire a I'adresse ci-apres

nouvelles.

Monsieur Gordon a Lausanne en Suisse, et

vous croyez

le

tablature du doigte.

Je vous enverrai en

la jouer.

de tous

la plus sure

la faire

me

dire la

parvenir sans accident

vous pourriez m'en faire une semblable, vous en occuper

si

tot

Dans I'esperance que

possible.

V envoye a

Municli, je vous

Acceptez

**

1'

I'adresse

ro.a

maniere que

le

et

plu-

lettre vous trouvera

que vous m'aviez donne.

assurance de toute

ma

consideration.

" Votre devoue serviteur,

" GOBDOK.**

Some months
self to

after

my

reply to this letter Mr. Gordon came him-

Munich, and soon became convinced

He

in comparison with mine.

of the effects of his flute

another, for the execution of which I allowed

workshop and

my workmen.

him

make use of my
when he had two

to

After a twelvemonth,

by continual alterations, he

flutes completely destroyed

with the

and began trying

rejected his system,

flute represented in Fig. 1.

He named

left

Munich

his flute quite

erroneously " Flute diatonique,*' as only the old flute with six holes
is diatonic,

but

all

He

those since furnished with keys, are chromatic.

published also in 1834 an engraved scale for his flute, which he gave
to

me

and in the

among other
*'

things

letter-press a3oompan}diig this scale, he observes

:

La suppression des deux

ment par une

clef

de

des grands avantages.

Fa

clefs

de Fa naturel, et leur remplace-

dieze, est

Mr. Th, Boehm de Munich^ a

jpar

une idde dont Tapplication

L'idee de cette clef de

ete,

Fa

dieze

offre

commimiquee

avec son agrement^ ador)te6

j^our la presente flute, doni elle complete les moyens d^execution."

But

so far as I

by any one

else

know, Gordon's
;

he wished to have one

own.

own

of

my

1 heve the proofs of

could

my

eyes

flut

flute

was neither imitated nor played

and afterwards, when I met him again

flutes,

all

was not

these facts in

be an imitation of

more than a year

as he

after

his,

my

in

satisfied

hands.

London,
with his

How

then

which was made under

mine had been completed ?

my

16

my

Mr. Gordon made use of essential parts of

he construoted his

but he, a gentleman in

acknowledged

legally

my

of the authenticity of

my

new

motives for constracting a

invention

he alone

is

It

may not

its

made use

work who

capable of producing a rational

account for every detail, from

conception to

its

may be

and the ex-

flute,

planation of the acoustical and mechanical principles I

for

always

it.

But the surest proof

a statement of

when

instrument

ever}' respect,

is

of

able to

compietion.

be superfluous to answer here a question formerly often

put to me, and appearing perhaps to many, even now, not unfounded,
viz

"

when

artists

throw away the laborious practice of

have been thought excellent

new system

of

"

no doubt, that genius and great talents

times found due appreciation

all

an entirely

long before, and even now, the performances of

It certainly admits of

have at

to

to begin again the study of

fingering,

many

worth while

Is it

and

years,

but no one will dispute

that Mozart, though he was able to chai-m his auditory on a spinet,

would have produced a

stiH greater effect

Ail criticism depends on comparison.

on a

modem

pianoforte.

spinet, or a flute

with

one key, would, without the knowledge of better instruments, pass

for being good, particularly

expose too

But

if

much

the artists were cautious not to

any one should perform at present, on a

key, compositions in
doubtless

be very

what the

voice

is

this

flat,

flute

with one

sharp, &c., &c., the audience

The instrument

dissatisfied.

is

to

would

the artist

to the singer, the organ for the transmission of

and

his sentiments,

The more

if

the defects of their instruments.

organ

for the
is

manifestation of his taste and

perfect, the

more the genius

skill.

of the performer,

as well as of the composer, will be supported.

To show
flute,

as

it

the improvements which I have conferred upon the

I think

it

unnecessary to give a history of that instrument,

will be sufficient, for the sake of comparison, to point out

defects of the

Though the

common

flute in its

some

former state.

correctness of the octaves, and the easy emission of

tone, unqueRtionably gained

much by the
down

the beginning of the middle joint

adoption of the cone from

to the lower end of tbe

became

Ante, the acoustical proportions

at the

same time much more

complicated than in the original old cylindrical flute

known

which the sections

therefore all

modern

theories are of little use, particularly for

of the c-olumns of air occur, for the

from the other, that the

at such distances one

flutes, in

lower notes,

holes,

if

placed

according to rule, could not be covered with the fingers.

The instrument makers

former

of

times,

ignorant of key-

mechanism, could not do otherwise than place the holes

regard to acoustical principles
that the lingers could

reach them.

still

without

at such distances from each other

Afterwards a better chro-

matic scale was obtained by the adoption of keys; but as the position

of the holes of the old diatonic

their incorrect position (by

major scale remained the same,

which the nodes

of vibration

were often

disturbed) and their insufficient size not only diminished the easy

emission and pure intonation of some high notes, but also lessened
the clearness and power of the tone throughout the instrument.

These defects could not be removed without an alteration in the

old

system of fingering; but the greater

of

facility

gained by this alteration has another merit, because

mense gain
full

it

execution
is

an im-

composer when instruments can be used to the

to the

extent of their compass, without regard to key or to difficulty.

In our days, on nearly

all

wind instruments, the

artist

execute passages which were impracticable in former times.

the flute player in particular
absolute

command

of tone

is

required that he shall

articulation.

all sorts of

There

is

hiid.

fortissimo ; and

passages with every possible kind of

no doubt that many

fection to its last limits

have an

and intonation throughout the whole

compass of his instrument, both for pianissimo

he ought to play

can

From

on the old

flute,

artists

have carried per-

but there are also unavoid-

able difficulties, originating in the construction of these flutes, which

can neither be conquered by talent nor by the most persevering

practice.

Thus passages are often met with

touch more

difficult

in music for

the orchestra,

than in any concertos composed by

flute players,

who, acquainted with the defects of their instruments, are generally

prudent enough not to prepare for themselves such stumbling-blocks.

18

Among
with

such defects are to bo reckoned

difficulty or uncertainty

ftll

those notes which sound

those which cannot

and those that require great management of

intonation.

sustained in

]>e

a crescendo or diminiumh without the risk of the tone

**

breaking

lip U) preserve

;'*

a pure

" To what extent, and by what

were obviated
my
as

The question which now

means, these defects

arises

in

flute of 18J32?''

will,

I think, be answered by an exact description of the acoustical pro-

mechanism of that instrument.

portions and

Though I was. even

then, x>retty well acquainted with the general

laws of acoustics, I could i^nd scarcely any guide for their special
the construction of 3ut^s;

and I was therefore

many merely

empirical exiKjrimenta

application

to

obliged to

have recourse io

before I determined

eolumn

of air as

upon iho following proiwrtions

most suitable

for

my

In English

I.HsAB
Length

of the cylinder

of

In SVcuch

'ixetres-

from the coik

,.

0,4593

..

0.1400

0.0604

. .

0.0184

1.1417

0,3480

.,

it

II.MmnLs
Length

faet.

Joist.

to the middle joint

Width

of the tube or

purpose.

Joint,

the coce

of

Width

at the upper

end

,.

..

0.0604

..

0.0184

Width

at the lower

end

0.0393

0.0120

C.2624

0.0800

..

..

0.0420

..

0.0128

0.0361

.e

0.0110

0.1312

0.0400

III,Foot
Length

Jonirr.

of its conical part

Width

at the upper

Width

at the lower

cal part

Length

Width

..

of the

end

end
..

of this coni..

..

lower cylindrical part

0.0361

of it

XV.Whole length of th?. column of air

.9947

0.0110

0.60B0

Tlieso proportions being once Citablished, I prepared several tubes,

all alike in

thicknesa of wood, 0.0146

ft.,

and

in length,

.9947

ft.,

19

The embouchures I made

for producing the fundamental note C.

form

in

them

of

at a distance of 0.0557

embouchure to the cork

till

I obtained

ft.,

first

made

of

one of these

I then marked the point of section

this operation

Then I bored

octave.

at the points of section

from the lower end

off

sharp.

on a second tube, and repeated

notes of the

measured from the centre of the

stopper.

After that, I began to cut

tubes,

and placed

parallelogram with rounded oornera,

till

I had got all the

in the second tube holes

which I had marked before, and these holes

which they could be stopped with the

of the largest size at

fingers.

AH the

notes produced in this

way were

too

flat,

on account

of

the holes being smaller than the tube in diameter, therefore 1

moving the holes towards

corrected the tuning on a third tube by

the embouchure.

Though I obtained

way

in this

the

first

aiid

second octaves in correct tune, with equal-sized holes, the third

octave

was

still

defective

because, to produce the high notes^

it is

necessary to open, together with the hole of the fundamental note,

the

fifth

hole above

it.

as a vent hole

and as the

clearness, free

upon the

emission, and correct tuning of the high notes depend

position of those vent holes, I

was

obliged to

move

again six of the

upper holes, and to correct the intonation, thus disturbed, by

modifying their

At

much

last, I

size.

obtained a tube with fourteen holes, which was very

superior in acoustical proportions to the

as all notes from the fundamental

produced upon

But the

it,

C up

equal, free, certain, jwwerful,

position of the holes being

common

to the highest

now

system of fingering waa wanted, in wliioh

flute tube,

could be

and in good tune.

totally changed, a

all

new

holes could be opened

or closed, not only in an ascending or descending series, but also in

every different combination.

plish, as

This task was not so easy to accom-

nine fingers have to stop fourteen holes

the

thumb

of the

right liaud being indispensable for holding the flute.

The

deficiency

had to be made up by key-mechanism, and I

If

a finger-hole bo surrounded by

may be

pressed without touching the

chose ring-keys for this purpose.

a groove, into which a ring

b2

20
and

sides,

be fastened to the axle of an open key, the

this ring

if

finger necessarily presses

One

finger,

down

the key while stopping the hole.

performing in this manner two functions by a single

movement, does the work

of

two

fingers.

further difficulty,

that of not being able to reach some holes with the fingers, I
obviated by separating the key-handles from the keys, which I could

then bring within reach of the fingers by means of long axles.

With
keys, I

these

two

was enabled

of their natural position

up to the highest B, with the exception

the right hand, to which I left the

much

in order to retain as
is

now no more

and

all

my

mode

(key).

the lowest or

opening the second or

By

opening the third or

It

is

it is all

it

is

sharp key

D key

is

(Fig. 3.)

system, the fingering of the chromatic scale

By

So far

There

being obviated,

holes are closed, the note produced

By opening

of the foot-keys,

as possible Of the old fingering.

formed in the following manner

When

of the little finger of

management

difficulty of the old flute

easy to play in every

According to

from the lower

gliding from one key to another, or to a finger-hole,

immense

this

by which

to establish a system of fingering

move out

the fingers do not

some new combinations of

contrivances, and

is

...

...

...

ifcl-i

...

sharp key

the same as on the

~
i

jfe^-j--

common

flute.

necessar}^ for obtaining a clear and strong tone, that the

holes immediately below the one sounding should remain open, for

the air confined in the lower part of the tube tends to flatten the
notes,

and renders them

remains open for

and thus the

less

free

therefore the

the whole of the scale,

little finger of

sharp key

excepting

'w~^~

the right hand assists at the same time

in holding the flute steadilyc

The next three

holes are encircled by rings, the

are joined to the axle

by the

two

first of

natural key, and the third

is

which

com-

n
bined with two levers by an asle reaching up as far as to the

Thus the

natural key.

(S )

fourth or

TOpr^E

by opening the

which

hole,

produced by opening the

is.

.-

covered by the third finger, and the

is

fifth or

hole, covered

by the second

by the

first finger, is

finger.

When

the sixth or

shai*p hole, covered

opened, the ring-key rises by

we

are opened at once, the note

removed from
seventh or

its

To

natural

own

spring

obtain

and

as thus

two holes

two

half-notes

fj

m- ^

is

obtain the preceding

natural hole must remain

closed

by the pressure

the

of the

second or third finger upon the ring-key; the second finger, however,

being used only in quick passages, on account of the above-mentioned injurious influence of the lower part of the column of air,

which only ceases when two holes at

below the sounding
It

win be seen

fingers

on four

that

it

manner

easy in this

is

with three

to play

and that the ring-key prorides a substitute

come now to the left hand, by which all holes

holes,

We

one finger.

for

upwards from

least are opened immediately

hole.

are closed.

As my system

of fingering is based

throughout on the opening or closing of the holes in regular succession, open keys are, on account of their similarity of motion,

most natural representatives

surely the

of fingers

where the holes

are out of reach.

For

this reason I

except

sharp.

have used open keys for

So, too, the key

remains open, untU

it

which

pressed

is

down and

direct action of the little finger of the left

key

by

rises

obtained

its

own

the

spring,

by raising the

little

-m

finger,

notes of the scale,

all

closes the

hand

aJ
as

the

sharp hole

closed, as
;

is

if

by the

and as

this

most

naturally

g)

is

open

pro-

duced in the same order by raising the third finger from the ninth
or

hole.

And

as these

two

for half-tones, or together for

fingers,

whether raised separately

whole tones, always have a

similar.

never a contrary movement,

much

little practice,

this action will

passage, than that with a shut

The B

flat

which

is

by

own

its

hole following the

fixed to the axle of the

spring,

therefore, the

To

A hole is
E key.

By

hand.

up

for

by the

this contrivance it will be seen

and produces

of the lever reaching

first finger of

the right

one more finger

is

made

by a ring-ke37.

^^^^

The next note

double

which

hole,

is

opening the key of the

From

produced by opening the key of the

closed

^^Em

by the thumb, and

sharp hole, closed by the

repeated, with this difference

is

sharp hole

open for

is

is

^^^zE.

and

S^y^

or fundamental octave must be used

into the oetave.

free in tone

and for

the

z^^jz

fifth

below, and by opening

This

sharp hole

the

is

is

raised

open, for

Hat hole

from the

B
B

fiat hole.

the

^rlr

hole opens of

A hole,

owing to

itself,

For

also

Thus, for

^^:r^

but for

is

the notes

it,

and more correct in intonation.

the contrivance of the keys, the

finj^or
-D'

the lower

of

opening at the same time

for each note the fifth hole above, as a vent hole.

the hole of the perfect

as a vent hole,

For the higher notes which follow, the fingering

"f-^^t^-

finger.

that the

onl}-,

by which we pass with more ease and certainty

become

first

by

the fingering of the lower octave or fmida-

--j:

mental notes

second

ring,

key, this rises

note

preceding

by means

closed

as far as the ring-key that is closed

by a

also encircled

Like the

finger is raised,

the

obtain

must be

hole

of

sharp key.

when the second

fei^^

the note

be found, after a

and more convenient in every kind

easier^

when

^ --J'

the

:^

23
the

C and G sharp
As

the same time.

holes serve in succession as

more

sharp, however, sounding

-^

f~^

from

as

as for

natural place and

its

aU these

On

notes.

holes have to be closed

made

by the

vent hole for

serves

hole

is

the

open at

it

must be removed

smaller, in order better to suit

lower

and

sharp

finger of the right hand,

with

stopped by a closed key,

hole,

worked hy the second

finger of

sharp hols being also open) as

(the

-g

the

vent holes

sharp hole serving at the same time as

of a long asle is

hand,

!"

first

Finally, the last or

vent hole.

the right

rO

this account the

the fingering of A, the

which by means

if

sharp hole has to serve as vent hole for

the

TVeil

freely

By

it

likewise seven

shakes

may

be

conveniently made.

Besides these keys, I also

made a

lever

by which the C key may

be closed by the third finger of the right hand, and thus this finger

may

be

iised for the

To obtain

movement
flute,

which

fiat

with C, and

its

whole weight

B with

restB on the cavity

forefinger of that hand.

arises

pitch, I

C.

the left hand, I applied a movable crutch to the

of

by which

thumb and

shakes

a steady hold of the instrument, and a free and easy

upon lengtheniug the

made use

Lastly, to

fiute in order

of several rings, to be used

sliding tube generally adopted

fill

in.

between the

up the space
to

flatten the

lieu of the

metal

I rejected the latter, on account of

the unequal and disturbed vibration which arises from the close

combination of the metal with the wood, producing, to

a disagreeable hardness of
"With

thitt

my

my

ear,

lx)ne.

labours terminated.

I found further essential

improvemerits impracticable, without the application of very complicated

mechanism

nor did I consider

it

necessary, iuasmach a

24
the tone and intonation of

flute

were greatly improved, while

execution

rendered practicable the

key-mechanism

its

my

every

of.

possible combination of noteSc

are, I trust, sufficient to

These explanations
invention
ripe

of

proofs of

my

persons in

my

not a plagiarism, or

is

meditation and

work

of chance

experience

practical

were wanted, I can

title to it

Germany and

prove that this

elsewhere, to

whom

cite

my

but the result

And
many

if

further

respectable

I had communicated

ideas long before their execution.*

improvements (which I leave others to decide),

alterations, or real

I had no part in
different

manner.

it

having been,

till

1846, occupied in a very

made

Besides, but for the repeated appeals

I should scarcely have considered

authenticity of

mere

after the year 1832, be it for

Whatever has been done

my

to

me,

worth while to claim the

it

invention, for all the discussions on this subject

refer merely to the key-mechanism,

which

is

usually judged of by

individual views, each one thinking that the best which best suits
I only valued

his taste or fingers,

my own

far as I found in its contrivance the

attairjmsnt of

my

object,

of fingering so

which was the improvement

for the

of the fiute

for this is the chief foundation of

in its acoustical proportions;

higher or lower degree

the

system

most simple means

of

their

mechanism being but

much

easier to construct keys

perfection in

aU instruments,

of secondary importance.

than to improve

It

notes.

is

also

By my

former experience in instrument making, I was fully aware of the

causes of the defects of

the most part, on

Nevertheless, I

my

wind instruments, and I obviated them,

flute

was

by

still

connected with acoustics, as

the application of mechanical

in obscurity about

my former

for

means.

many phenomena

labours were not founded on

those special theoretical inquiries which I have lately been enabled

to

make.

making

Last year, however (1846), I recommenced instrument

and I began, for the instruction

of

my

sons,

with a close

inquii-y into the acoustical principles that are involved in the con-

struction of a musical instrument.

* See Dr. ScLifhautl's letter in the

Appendix.W.

S. B.

25

From

any further

this source only couid

the flute proceed

of

science endeavoured to point out

yet

how

essential

improvementB

were made long before

for although flutes

were produced,

their tones

certain that they can never reach their utmost perfection

it is

maker has some knowledge

unless the

of,

and attends

to, nature's

invariaole laws in the matter of proportion and substance.

Wind

instruments, especially those having finger and key-holes,

and depending
exceedingly
perfection

quality

their

for

mainly upon the accuracy of

can only be brought near

complicated proportions,

by a

strict application of

the principles of acoustics in

when

theory and practice go hand in

their construction.

It

is

only

hand, that, by the examination of the causes of the good as well as

bad in existing instruments, the way can be shown

of the

provements which must otherwise be

for

im-

The higher

left to chance.

branches of mathematics have, from time to time, been applied to the

investigation of subjects connected with acoustics, and

learned
of

that

men have endeavoured

and Lambert,
have

D.

science.

columns of

L.

Bernouilli,

and

explained

the

and have given us the

air,

mathematicians

are

much

and many others,

proportions

Tibrating

of

results of various experiments.

Their observations, however, threw but

nature of wind instruments.

little light

upon the true

For the conclusions arrived at by

general

too

give

to

data practically

In such

applicable to the ccnstruction of our musical instruments.

inquiries it is absolutely

most

Lagrange,

Poisson,

Euler,

as well as Biot, Chladni, Savart,

calculated

the

to develop and establish the laws

natural philosopher

necessary that the

should also be both a musician and a mechanist.

This

is

probably

the reason why, as I believe, with the single exception of " The
theoiy of covered conical and cylindrical tubes, and
published in

Germany by Dr.

Peliisov, in Vol. VIII. of the

German

Schafhautl, under the

name

flutes,"

of C. E.

"Annals of Chemistry and Physics," no

essay on the theory of flute-making has been written, in which the

nature, extent,

and combination

our German flute

lineal

is

and vibrational proportion.

fife,

phenomena on which

founded, have been explained in

on the above-mentioned
the

of the special

In this

little

subject, the theory

or the cylindrical Swiss pipe.

what concerns

extract of a lecture

was simply applied

to

26

A conical
laid

down
;

By

security.

by

could not be constructed according to the principles

in this work, unless they were explained in greater

but to an instrument maker already well versed in acoustics,

gives a foundation on which he may pursue his way with

detail
it

flufce

my own

more

continual attention to Schafhautrs observations, and

experiments, I have obtained, of late especially,

satisfactory results

much

so that at length I have very nearly

ascertained the true theory.

As the communication

might be

of these results

less intelligible

without a knowledge of the principles of acoustics upon which they

are founded, a simple explanation of them, as far as necessary,

be welcome to those
proportions of a

In order

who

German

different

flute.

to obtain the

of air within the tube

from those

may

are not acquainted with the accurate

sound of a wind instrument, the column

must be brought

into certain vibrations,

of strings, tuning-forks, or metallic springs.

These vibrations must re-act upon the body that surrounds the
column, and excite

sound can
It

is

its

air-

molecular vibrations, without which ao

arise.

therefore necessary, above all things, to gain

with the proportions of these vibrations.

an acquaintance

The simplest means

of

convincing one's-self by ocular demonstration of the pulsatory motion

of a

column

of air within a tube or apparatus, is Hopkins's appa-

ratus. (Fig. 4.)

This consists of a glass tube about two feet long

and one and a half inches in diameter, which

is

fixed perpendicularly

into a metal ring lined with cloth, in such a

manner that

beneath the tube, a metal plate or tongue, like the

seoline,

close

may be

screwed, and sounded by means of a violin bow.

There must also be a ring of smaller diameter than the glass

tube, covered with a very fine

membrane,

like a

three fine silk threads are fastened, so that

it

drum, to which

may

be held like

scale.

To be

able to

is requisite

make an experiment with

given by the glass tube.

of the

this

apparatus,

it

that the tongue be tuned to the same sound as that

bow, the

If the tongue be then

air contained in the

tube

is

sounded by means

affected

by the motion

27
of the tongue

and

as the

number

not only the

same not

will he produced

of vibrations

by the tube,

necessarily the same,

must be

but the motion of the column of air will be also communicated to

capable of

bodies

all

Thus,

influence.

before, is let

if

down

eimilar

the

as the

fine,

its

dry sand

into the tube while the sound is clear and pure,

the follomng phenomena will result

As soon

and coming within

pulsations,

drum, strewed with

little

drum

is

placed above the border of the sounding

membrane begins to skip, so that part of it is

As the dram is gradually let down into the tube,

tube, the sand on the

thrown down.

the height to which the sand

until at last,

is

thrown becomes gradually

when we have reached

Beneath that

remains almost motionless.

less,

the middle of the tube,

joint the

it

sand begins to

move again more, and this motion increases the more deeply the
drum is inserted, until at the lower end of the tube the sand is
again thrown off the membrane with the same force as when at
the top,

From

(Fig. o.)
this simple experiment it is evident the air has not the

same motion in
are

different parts cf the tube,

strongest at the

but that the vibrations

two ends, and decrease thence gradually,

xmtil in the middle they are almost at rest,

motion the single particles of

towards
This

is

air

move

this pulsatory

one another in the direction of the asi of the tube.

called

longitudinal vibration in contradistinction to the

vibrations of a chord or strkig, which

the right and

The

Irj

longitudinally from and

left,

move

sideways, that

isj

to

called trarutverse vibration.

particles of air

move only through a very small

immediately return to their point of

rapidly, they oseiliate like a

rest.

But

space,

as they

and

move

pendulum, to equal distances on each

Bide of the point of rest, yet always in the direction of the axis.

Now

if

we

represent to ourselves that these pai-ticles of air advance

and recede again a

little

at the

same time from the openings at

where they move in

both ends of the tube,

we

opposite directions, there

must be a part where no movement

lakes place.

If the

shall find that

particles of air

endis at once, they naturally

come

enter the tube

at

all

from both

to a stand in the middle,

and

28
the air at that point
contrary,
arises

an

expansion

such circumstances

and expansion

is

The

condensation.

where the

where the

in the centre

is,

air

under

an alternate condensation

of the air at those points

that

was the

motion of a column of

chief

there

rest,

where before there

air,

on the

If,

from the point of

consists, therefore, in

have the least motion

of the tube,

the

of

greatest condensation.

air

in a state of

is

particles of air recede

fche

particles of

but at both ends

have the greatest motion, there

particles

neither condensation nor expansion.

All those points where the air

rest, are called, in

is

at perfect, or nearly at perfect

the language of acoustics, nodes oi vibration

and

the portion of air vibrating between two nodes or points of rest

termed a

is

wave, in contradistinction to the progressive

settled

undulations which transmit the tone through the air outside of the
tube,

and.

without which the settled wave within could not be

produced.
Further,

we

if

produce the octave of the fundamental note in the

by means of a tongue tuned to the octave, and place the

glass tube

drum strewed with sand about

the mouth of the tube, the sand

will begin to skip as at the first experiment,

thrown down.

But

if

we

motion of the sand will decrease

first

experiment

and will be

and when

it

when

it

still

If

rest.

has arrived at the middle of the tube, where in the

By

we

more, the sand begins to move again, and

experiment the sand was at perfect

motion.

the

the

has reached about the fourth part of

the tube, the sand comes to an almost perfect state of

then sink the drum

partially

drum deeper in the tube,

much more rapidly than in

insert the

rest, it

first

dances with the liveliest

proceeding beyond the middle downwards, the motion

of the sand again decreases, until at the last fourth part of the tube
it

comes

to the

beyond the

same

state of rest as at the first fourth part

last fourth part,

increases again, until at the lower extremity there

violent motion as there
in the second octave

was

while

and towards the lower end, the motion

at the upper.

two points

From

this

is

the same

we

see that

of rest or nodes are formed, each

distant a quarter of the whole length of the tube from one of its ends.

Between these two nodes there

is,

therefore, a second

and

clearly

defined entire settled "wave, which has its centre or point of greatest

at the middle of the tube

vibration

toward?^ both ends of the tube

between, and

is

whilst the

by means

of the

is

first

pressed

new one coming

thus divided into two halves, so that,

in.

the two

if

ends were combined, they would form a settled wave of the same;
length as the middle one.
If

we

(Fig. 6.)

pursue these experiments

still

further (Fig. 7), three nodes

are formed by the fifth of the octave, the extreme

distant

two

second, or super-octave, arise four nodes, the

two

distant | of the whole length from either end

uncovered organ

pipes,

on which, as

formed in the same manner,

still

is

which are

of

length of the tube from either end

of the

with the

farthest being

and upon narrow

well known, the nodes

higher tones

may

are-

be produced,

involving the formation of even 6, 6, 7, and 8 nodes.

Upon

we see
of

a closer view of the numbers of these vibrational nodes,.

(1)

That they appear in the natural arithmetical progression

numbers: and

(2) that this natural progression

numbers

of

expresses the proportions of the vibrations of one note to another

Thus, for instance,

vibrations of the

if

1 represents the

column

fundamental note C, with 260

of air in a second,

2 represents the octave,

the condensations and expansions produced being twice as

viz.,

520 vibrations

in the

same

The

time.

fifth of

many

the octave

requires consequently three times, and the super-octave four times,

as

many

vibrations i^ the

same given time.

We know

also that

the column of air in a sounding tube, according to the laws of

equilibrium, only divides itself into portions of equal length.

If,

for instance, four nodes are formed, the undulations are consequently

but half as long as they would be,

in the same tube.

And from this

if

again

two nodes only were formed

it

follows that the vibrations

are slow or quick in proportion as the undulations are long or short.

An

undulation half the length of another, therefore, vibrates with

exactly twice the rapidity.

The octave

the number of vibrations required for

is
its

thus formed by double

fundamental.

however, obtain this octave in another way.

the column of

air,

half the length,

We

can,

Instead of dividing

by the force of breath oi wind, into two undulations

and vibrating with double

velocity, suppose

we

30
cut th tube into two halves at the middle, one undulation only

then produced, shorter by one

double the

half,

and vibrating

rajjidity of the original air

By

column.

tlierefore

this

means the

octave obtained before by the whole length of the pipe

number

proceeds again the theoretic law, that the

corresponding to the

pitcii of

becomes

And from

the fundamental note of the pipe half as long.

is

with

this

Wbrations

of

a note varies inversely as the length

of tube.

\Ye

may

also obtain the original

octave lower, without joining

cut

This

off.

In

cover.

done by

fundamental

its

which was an

was

extremity with a

blown in at the labium

the lower end, the undulation

ai

not-e,

to the tube again the half that

closing the pipe at

this case, as the air

cannot escape

bottom

is

on

of the pipe

is rellected

from the

and returns to the upper end; audits vibrations

of the pipe,

becoming thus twice as

3orig

and only half as quick as they were

before the tube was closed, the fundamental note an octave lower
is

the result namely, the same note that

the whole length of the unclosed tube.

or as

a covered (stopped) tube,

it is called

pitch, equivalent to

to

was

fit

first

is,

an open tube of double

by a certain immber
the same for the same

note,

by Caignard dc

la

contrivances

or,

more

is

determined

and may be determined exactly by

measurement with the help

;

regard

length.

its

This number always remains

calculations and

Tour

therefore,

Purther, the actual pitch of every musical sound

of vibrations.

obtained from

tube closed at one end,

of tlie Syren, invented

or by Savait's dented wheels, and other

recently, very securately

tuning-forks, in conjunction

by

il.

Bcheibler's

with the metronome.

According to Soheibler, the jfe^afc- of the Conservatory of Paris

had 868.7, that

Yienna 881.74

of

the orchestra in

Berlin 883.25, and that of

oscillations in a second.

lation of this note being determined, the

all

The

rapidity of the oscil-

number

of vibrations of

the other notes are easily calculated, the relative proportions of

the intervals of the other notes having long since been fixed.

As

the length of strings decreases in proportion to the increase of the

number

of vibrations,

|-

of the string requisite for the production of

31

gives D,

^ E, | G, f A,

?^\ B,

and ^ C gives the octave. For wind

and in all keys, the

inBtrumeiits, whicli are used in the orchestra

purely mathematical scale, as

because the notes forming

other.

it

is

well known,

cannot

be

used

have proportions different from each

Consequentlv the octave

is

geometrical proportions, of which

divided into twelve inteimediate

tlie first is

as the second is to the third, &c., &c.

This

to the second exactly

is

called the equally

tempered scale, on account of the conformity of the several parts to

each other.

numbers

for

The following
length of

table shows the absolute and relative

string

and number

of vibrations in

chromatic scale of equal temperament, assuming

produced by 880

Lengths

oeciliations.

tf~z

the

to be

As

in the works of natural philosophy

volume of the column

essential influence

it

assumed that the

is

has in musical wind instruments no

of air

on the pitch, the lengths

of

strings indicated

ought to correspond to the lengths of the columns of

*
to obtain the same notes

From
colnmn

examinations lately

a series of

Schafhiiutl

in

regard to the

of air, it

is

entered

established tliat evei'y pipe

the eifect

From

is

remaining unchanged while

as

if

by

Prof.

which

is

the

shoi-tened

abridgment according

its

to the calculation for strings, but a lower one

of the tube

into

the diameter of

influence of

does not give the sound corresix>nding to

air requisite

because the diameter

length

its

is

diminished,

the diameter of the tube had been increased.

the same experiments

it

appeared that,

if

a tube closed at

one end be used, the divergence from the calculations which hold
true for strings will be

ends were employed

greater than

still

that

is,

if

a tube open at both

the sound obtained will be flatter

in proportion to the diminution of length.

Though the proportionate

vibrations of a

column

of air, partly

or entirely surrounded by a conical tube, are based on the same

principles, the

cone gives

Of these the theory

rise to

some remarkable modifications.

of covered tubes, very. much enriched

by the

investigations of Dr. Schafhautl, gives a full explanation.

It is

known

that a cylindrical tube,

will give a sound lower

when

covered at one end,

by an octave than that given by a

precisely

similar tube open at both ends.

If in the cover of this cylindrical tube a small aperture be made,

and gradually enlarged,

it

will be found that the sound given

by

the tube rises in direct proportion to the enlargement of the aperture

and thus

it

may be shown

from the cover of the cylindrical tube

size

that the reflection or the column of air

of the aperture in the cover.

is

in an inverse ratio to the

The same author has

stated

that a cylindrical tube terminating towards one end by a cone

may

* I conld, however, never persuade myself of the truth of the above-mentioned

all wrnd instrument makers know very well that the pitch of a

statement, since

wind mstmment depends partly upon the diameter of its tube. T. Bohm.
[This ha since been proved and demonstrattjd by A. Cavaill^-Coll, the organ
builder, with regard to organ pipes. See Nature^ Aug. 7, 1879.]

33
be considered as u cylindrical tubo covered at one eud, and having
ill

which bears the same

cover an aperture, the diamet/er of

its

end

]roportion to tliat of the tube as the aperture at the smaller

does

that

to

of

the larger f-nd of

the cylindro-conical tube.

(Fig. 8.)

As

witli conical

columns of

air,

a lesser volume has to be put in

than with cylindrical ones

vibration

of

follows that conical pipes emit the sound

same time that the tone

softr- sounding

It is further, known,

easily,

it

but at the

loses in strength in the proportion in

the dfameter of the pipe diminishes

only ones used for the

the same diameter,

more

which

wherefore conical pipes are the

registers of the organ.

from Dr. Schafhautrs experiments, that the

part of a column of air in a wind instrument below a lateral or

finger-hole exercises

length

an influence only partially proportionate to

and must therefore be considered and calculated

column, and shorter in the

]roiortion

finger-hole bears to that of the tube

which the diameter

and

its

as a shorter
of the

to the length of the air

column.

From

the

same experiments

be considered as

little

it results

tubes of

that the finger-holes

the same length

the wood, and also that the embouchure of a flute

may

as a finger-hole, the quantity of tone remaining the

be considered

same whether

be played at the embouchure or at the finger-hole.*

tlie flute

must

as the thickness of

The

portion of tube from the centre of the embouchure to the cork,

when

rightly pieced,

covered pipe,

must be reckoned double, because

it

forms a

and counteracts the sharpening influence exercised by

the embouchure on the pitch, which thus remains the

obtained by blowing into the orifice

same

as that

of the tubo when without cork

or embouchure.

Thus

far

theories, I

in

supjKirted

by the general acoustic laws and

recommenced the investigation

special

of acoustical proportions

wind instruments, and made a great many experiments, the

results of

which I

will

communicate

concisely, as far as they relate

to the flute.

Buhm's words me here ^iven without

alteration.

34

As the

acoustical proportions of a cylindrical

he the basis of

flute,

all

made a number

first

different lengths

which

and diametersj

from blowing

arise

column

must

of air

the calculations requisit-e for the construction oi

of

wooden tubes

cylindrical

ot'

in order to find out the modifications

laterally into the

embouchure.

But on

account of the instability of wood, I never succeeded in obtaining

reliable results

make

to

trials?

many

wherefore I resolved, after

all

the models necessary for

my

For the investigations of the proportions

metal.

the quality of sound

is

was

proportions

able to perceive the

;

my

hence

of length,

where

not an essential point, thin hard-drawn

tubes of brass of various diameters did

that I

unsatisfactory

experiments of

me

such excellent service,

most minute deviations in

their

experiments attained great exactness.

After I had provided

all

my tubes with embouchures and stoppers,

I sought the lengths corresponding to the diameters, by cutting

off

portions, until the fundamental note sounded with ease, certainty,

And

from 0.0328

ft,

to

(iO to 30 millimetres), and the lengths from 0.82

ft,

to

and clearness.
0.0984
4.92

ft.

ft.

as the diameters increased

(|-1| metre), I found

compass of two octaves,

of

up

an organ pipe 4

^^^

to

vis.,

many fundamental

from

feet long*

notes within the

Sh!^^ down

Ths sound, however,

was weak and hollow

and

all

Droceeding from the aliquot parts of the column of

^^^^

J^F''^'

to

the lower

of these notes

the higher notes

air

were too

fiat,

^^^^^ defects were less perceptible, because the

embouchure, which would have been too large for playing upon

made

of a size corresponding to the diameter of the long tubes,

of the

right

size

for shorter

and narrower

tubes,

so

if

was

that the

vibrations could be completely excited.

Ck)nvinced that tubes entirely cylindrical could not be used for

German fiut^swith the fundamental note ^^^^

b^i^ that, in

order

to obtain a free tone and correctly tuned octaves, the conical form

must be made use

cone.

of,

I began to examine the proportions of the

I changed or lengthened alternately the base or the apex of

the cone, which brought advaistr^es ot disadvantages

but,

upon

the whole the results of these experiments, although highly in-

35
truotive,

were not important enough to be more particularly men-

tioned here.

Now,

was very

as there

little

to be improved in the conical sliape

employed towards the lower end

years, I reversed the projiortions

part of the tube, and executing

of the flute for

more than 100

by putting the cone in the upper

it

in very different dimensions.

had made a few similar experiments thirty years before without sucAfter several fruitless

cess.

trials,

with wooden and then

first

with metal tubes, I thought I should have been obliged to give up,
this

time

also, the realization of

made my

discarded since I

understand
while

ail

at the

why

an idea which I had never entirely

was always

fiute.

first

at a loss to

the flute alone should be played at the wide end,

other wind instruments of conical proportions are played

narrower end, especially as the

latter

method seems more

in accordance with Nature ; for while the sections of the air-column

decrease in length as the pitch rises, so they also

diameter.

The reverse

which the cone

is

of this is the case

now

in

flute, in

continued beyond the lower holes.

Ab the fundamental note of

cone, as

decrease

with the conical

those tubes sounded best in

which the

applied by me, reached from the stopper nearly to the

uppermost hole, and

as,

on the contrary, the highest notes were im-

proved by shortening the cone and lengthening the cylinder, there

was naturally a medium best

And

further,

suited to these opposite requirements.

as according to theory a curbed line

for the gradual contraction or

at the upper end of

my

is

most suitable

enlargement of an instrument, I made

tube shorter or longer contractions, which

in the outline of their form approached the " parabola/' and which

terminated

in,

or converged to, a hemisphereo

At length I obtained a
cylindrical tube 0.0787

ft.

appeared that

all

also be produced

of which,

on a

(24 millimetres) in width, and without

side holes, I could produce the

the stopper was moved a

means

head-piece, by

low

little,

all

of the clarinet,

the

harmonics

and when

whence

it

the natural tones of the horn and trumpet can

on a flute-tube,

if it is

long and narrow enough for

the division of the column of air into the requisite aliquot parts.

Sut

as the

low E, though

easily sounded,

was weak

in

c 2

tone, I

36
shortened the tube until the sound became powerful and perfectlr
clear,

by which I obtained

fundamental note.

as the

After

having applied these proportions to different lengths, always placing

the stopper at about the -^th part of the whole length of the

column

of

air,

-4^-^J-^z:

With
of the

at

the

fundamental

my

investigation of the proportions

air best suited for the

development of the funda-

mental notes ; and from the experiments made thus far

(1.)

notes

^^}i a ygiy perfect tone.

these results I ended

column of

obtained

last

That the strength, as well as the

fundamental notes,

is

full

appeared

it

and clear tone of the

proportional to the volume of air put in

motion.
(2.)

That simple vibrations can be most perfectly excited in large

tubes having a contraction at the embouchure.

(3,)

That every modification in diameter or length

traction has a great influence

of this con-

on the emission and

intonation, of the

must not be made

in straight lines^

aliquot parts.
(4.)

That

this contraction

but in curves.
(5.)

That J moreover, the divisions of the columns of

aliquot parts, or the formation of vibrational nodes

phenomena which appear

in a vibrating

column of

air

is

in short, all

are exhibited

manner

in a cylindrical tube in the most perfect and easy

quently that a cylindrical tube

air into

conse-

that best adapted for the con-

struction of a flute.
(6.)

That

upper end

cylindrical tubes

may

with the cone, as applied by m, at the

be considered as entirely cylindrical

fluence of the cone on the pitch

with the fundamental note C

length of 0.00492

ft.

it

is

since the in-

so insignificant, that in a tube

scarcely occasions a difference in

(1| miUimetres).

As, then, the dimensions that correspond best to the formation of

the fundamental note are also the most nearly in conformity with
theor}% a flute constructed according to such proportions,

and with

a compass of two octaves, woul^ certainly be the most perfect in

regard to fulness, purity, and freedom of tone;

but in order to

37
extend the compass to three octaves, as
day, I

was

use narrower tubes, and thus again to injure, in some

notes, t^

measure, the finest notes of the

me

obstacle which obliged

the embouchure proportional

air,

two

octaves.

from theory was

of the stopper

second
the im-

from the centre of

to the lengths of the several undulations

by mechanism, the making

unless

almost insuperable

first

to deviate

making the distance

possibility of

of

required at the preseiit

is

obliged, for the sake of freedom of tone in the upper

of

which would

j>re8ent

difficulty.

me(3ium place for the stopper must therefore be found, by

means

of

which the vibrational nodes

of the

upper notes

may

be

prevented coming too near the embouchure, so that the development

may

of these notes

liy several trials,

still

be secured.

made

as accurately as possible, I found that the

proportions most suitable for obtaining good and pure tone through-

out the compass of a flute with the fundamental note

were

as follows

(1.)

Length

of the tube

The

Metre.

..

=-

1.984

0.606

0.002

0.019

0.0065

0.002

0.055

0.017

l-'32nd part of this length, as best

suited for a

medium diameter

of the

cylijider

(3.)

Foot.

from the stopper to

the eiid of the flute

(2.)

ffiErEi^

Reduction of
conical

that

contraction,

width

by the

beginning

at

the upper sixth part of the whole

length of the tube, and being at
the middle of the embouchure
(4.)

Medium

distance

of

the middle of

the embouchure from the stopper.

Further, I

form and
air

size

made some experiments

as to the embouchure,

being of the greatest importance.

by which the tone

is

The current

its

of

produced must always be blown at an

angle proportionate to the height of the note towards the uj)per

38
border of the embouchure, which breaks, or rather divides

it,

ao

that part of the current of air passes over the hole ; but the greater

part

produces

the column

tone, exciting

with a good embouchure

especially

and putting

of air enclosed in the tube,

lating vibrations,

much in the same way

it

undu-

into

as the string of the violin

put into transverse vibrations by the passing over it of the bow

By the undulations of air the molecular vibrations
at right angles.

is

surrounding tube are also excited, and the result

of the

which

lasts as

long as the supply of vibrating air

The strength

of the

tone will be proportionate to the quantity of

within the tube

air set in vibration

and as the aperture between

the lips through which the air passes into the embouchure

form

of

slit,

tone,

is

maintained.

is

in the

is

a long-shaped quadrangular embouchure,

with

rounded corners, which presents a wide edge to the broad pencil

must be

of air,

in a large quantity of

to take

better adapted

For the same

breath than an oval or round hole of equal size.

reason a larger embouchure will produce a stionger tone than a

smaller one.

space beneath the

becomes

which

difficult to direct

lips,

is

also their quality

breath

embouchure;

is

requires

unsupported, and

therefore

intonation

downwards

directed

the

greater

leaves a hollow

it

the

of

the tone becomes flatter, more

towards

and more hollow

sharper

directed towards

because

it

the current of air at the proper angle.

this depends not only the

Upon
the

lip,

however,

embouchure,

large

strength in the muscles of the

circumference.

when

centre of the

tlie

when

notes^ but

conjSned,

the

Consequently

breath
the

is

angle

formed by the sides of the embouchure, as well as the height

of these sides, has great influence on the freedom of tone.
In

my

opinion an angle of

7*"

is

that best suited to the whole

compass of notes, the sides having a height of 0.0137 ft. (i*2

and the size of the embouchure l^eing 0.0393 ft.

millimetres),

(12 millimetres) in length to 0.028

ft.

ia breadth.

Theae proportions I think best adapted to most

On

a flute-tube

sounded with the

made

after these designs the

sliglitcFl

was removed from iH

flute players.

fundamental note C

breath, notwithstanding that the stopper

theoretiv-ally cor?-ect place

it

admitted also

39
being very strongly blown without rising in pitch,

of

me

Berved to prove to

tube and

that,

o^ng

the fine tone of

therefore, to

And out the

shortest and moat simple

until the

my

Hence, as wt

friction.

as

11

from

the aliquot parts, I concluded that the tube I

all

had now obtained was the one best adapted

is

This

to the accuratje dimensions of

very smooth inner surface, the undulations of air were

its

formed without any noticeable

octave

and the

was not heard.

hissing noise so perceptible on other flutes

divisions of the

mode of obtaining

for a flute.

coiumn of

all

I began,

The

air.

the notes of the

flrst

naturally thai of cutting from the lower end of the tube,

new fundamental

note produced hy each section answers

and shown by tuning-pipes,

to the pitch of the note sought for

tuning-forks, or a well-tuned piano

then the ear decides as to

tJie

accuracy oi the result.

Theory indicates a much surer, but also more troublesome method.

Schafhautl has shown, the stopper

If J as

is

so placed

fundamental note given by the whole length of the

that

flute

the

appears

perfectly correct, the tubal sections for the remaining notes follow

the same laws as those which determine lengths of strings.

therefore easy to ^iid by ealculation the notes of the
either in their natural or their

first

tempered proportions.

It is

octave,

As the

fluence of the contraction of the upper part of the tube is the

upon

all

in-

same

the notes, and need not therefore be taken into account,

made

this calc^ilation is

in the

most simple manner, and

mth

an

accuracy suSicient for the practical construction of instruments, in

the following

end

lowe^

way

The

constant length of the tube from the

to the centre of the

embouchure being 1.9324

millimetres), and the distance of 0.0771

the stopper (when in

tlic

its

ft, (*^'3.5

ft.

(589

millimetres) from

theoretically correct place) to the centre of

embouchure being counted double (because that part

is

con-

sidered as a covered pipe), the whole length of the assumed column

1.9324

of air is then:

(23.5

The

2) =-

+ (0.0771x2)

=. 2,0866

ft.

= 589

636 miilimetrea.

fieotioiiB of

this assum<.'d

portion to its length as the

column

number

of air bearing the

same pro-

of vibrations bear to the different

lengths of strings, the lengths of the columns of

air,

corresponding

40
to every note,

may

be easily calculated by reference to the table

given above, and to the formula

(1,000,000)

From

the ideal lengths

portion of 0.0771

ft.

sharp

sharp

by

obtained

ft.)
.v

(636m.ra):

(0 943,874)

(1.000,000)

(2,0866

(0.943,874)
i

a?

these

calculations, the

m.m. must be again

(23*5)

deducted, in

order to obtain the real lengths from the stopper to the lower end.
T]iereforo the length of the tube at the second C, or the octave
of the

fundamental note,

1J}JA3

_ 0.0771 - 9662 = m&

is

ft.

as the stopper, to suit the

jBut

must be moved towards the

the tube

for

the octave

is,

ft.

= 294.5 millimetres.

compass of the

entire

centre of

to be at a distance of only 0.0557

of

23-5)

flute,

the embouchure, so

as

(17 m.m.), the real length

after

deduction of

the

this

difference

(2j^

0.0771)

0.0214 == 0.9448

6-5

For an exact examination

in

which

ail

ft.

(-^^

23-5)

of these proportions, I

made a tube

the twelve sections could be successively taken

and put together again,

= 288 millimeti-es.

by soldering

together the

off

calculated

lengths of tube, and covering the joints with metallic rings, so

that each length

was

joined hermetically to the preceding

one.

I also contrived a sliding piece at the upper end of the tube,

by means

of

which any

fault

of intonation

could be accurately

rectified;

The

correctness of the calculations being proved

carof ally

by repeated

trials,

made, 1 afterwards proceeded to the examination of the

proportions of the holes.

As a

flute

cannot be made to consist of separate

sections for the different notes

must be united

x>ieces, all

the

into one continuous

41
tube, and

cut

off

must be

holes bored laterally

The column

disconnection.

by the

of air

holes, ia a degree

is

substituted

for actual

to be considered as divided or

determined by the proportion which

By the fingermuch shortened as that

the diameter of the holes bears to that of the tube.

however, the column of air

hole,

is

not so

the position of the hole corresponds exactly with that of a section

for the holes cannot be

on account

made

of a diameter equal to that of the tube,

of the difhculty of

And even

stopping them.

if

that

could be done, the undulations of the air would not issue so easily
of the tube as

from the hole at right angles to the axis

orifice

the tube in the direction of

of

from the

The undulations

its axis.

encounter the resistance which the column of

air

lower part of the tube opposes to them

this resistance is so

when small

considerable

the theoretically correct

much

too

holes are used,

})Cints

and

contained in the

and are bored exactly at

of section, that

all

the notes somid

Therefore the smaller the holes are, the nearer they

flat.

must be moved

to the

Thus, the pitch of a note does

embouchure.

not depend solely upon the length of the column of

upon the

size of

and distance

the hole from which

next below.

of the holes

it issues,

To

fix

by

which the points

after

for their position

but also
size

the position of the

must be decided

holes for the chromatic scale, a certain size of hole

upon

air,

and upon the

may be

ascertained

calculation.

Although one octave, at

holes

by

least,

may

shifting their position, it

be correctly tuned with small

is

still

desirable to

holes ds large as possible, for the following reasons

(1.)

when

make

the

The notes can only be developed with freedom and power

the holes are large, and bored as near as possible to their

theoretically correct places.

(2.)

When

the holes are small

and considerably out

of

their

proper places, the undulations of air often come too near the nodes
of vibration

and their formation being disturbed or rendered

uncertain, the tone sounds with difficuity, or easily breaks into

notes answering to the aliquot parts (harmonics.)

(3.)

The

smaller the holes are, the

dulations of Bound become

more irregular do the un-

and, as a consequence, the tone loses

power, clearness, and volume.

42
The intonation

(4.)

of

the third ocfave depends chiefly upon

the correct position of the holes.

From

the experiments I

made it follows that

when the size of

these injurious

influences are only imperceptible

the holes

is

at

least I the diameter of the tube.

Kext

to the diameter of

which form, as

it

were,

little

the holes, the height of their sides,

tubes branching from the main tube,

exerts an important influence

upon the intonation and tone

of the

Whilst investigating these various proportions, I have

notes.

on pieces

not only of different

of a tube, holes

of different heights,

sizes,

tried,

but with sides

which I could at pleasure insert between the

On a tube of 0.0623 ft. (19 m.m.) in diameter the lowest or

C sharp hole, 0.0393 ft. (12 m.m.) wide and without border, required,
when coiTecli} tuned, to be moved 0.0147 ft. (4.5 m,m.) above the
sections.

column

section of the

of air calculated for that note.

even border in height of 0,0032

(5.8 m.m.)

was

(1

amounted

With an

m.m.) a removal of 0.0188

and with a border

required,

(3 m.m.) the removal

it

ft.

to 0.0259

ft.

in height of 0.0099

(7.8

ft.
ft.

m.m.) ; from which

appears that the distance of removal increases almost in the same

ratio as the height of the side of the hole,

and

extent depends

its

upon the proportion which the diameter of the finger-hole bears to

the diameter and length of the tube.

The
hole,

flattening influence of the

which causes at the

length a removal of 0.0188

Therefore the

hole

column

of air

last section of
ft, (5.

below the sounding

0,1171

ft.

(35,7 m.m.) in

8 m.m.), increases at each new section.

must be already removed 0.0219

ft.

m.m.)

(6.6

above the theoretical section, and at the octave of the fundamental

note

C the

But

requisite removal

since, as already

amounts

to 0.0410

ft.

(12.5 mum.).

mentioned, the distance of removal increases

in proportion to the length of

the sections,

it is

suflicient,

when

fixing the position of the holes for the chromatic equally-tempered

scale

from the fundamental note C up to

two C holes according

to the given

its

octave, to place these

calculation,

and then,

after

having doubled the length which separates their centres, to calculate

the intervals by the method applicable to strings, as has been
above.

shown

43
If, for

instance, the fundamental note

a tube lengtberxed to the

a distance of 1,9714

is

produced by a hole in

below, the centre of that hole conies to

(601 m.m.) from the stopper; and further, the

ft.

distance of the centre of the octave

hole from the stopper, being

reduced by the necessary deduction of 0,0413

ft.

(12.5 m.m.), on

account of the fiatteniiig influence of the holes, from 0.944S

(288 m.m.) to 0.9035

both centres

is

ft.

1.0679

ft.

ft.

(275.5 m.m,), the length of tube between

(601

275.5 = 325.5 m.m.).

This length taken double, the length of the assumed column of

air is:

1,0679

2.1358

ft,

(325.5

x 2

= 651 m.m.).

This length considered as the length of a string, the

obtained according

is

t^j

(1.000,000)

(0.943,874)
s

(1.000,000)

And by

sharp =^

sharp

(2.1358)

sharp

x.

Is

(0.943,874)
:

all

the above-mentioned formula:

(651)
li

cs.

substituting successively the calculated lengths of strings,

the intervening intervals are obtained.

If, further,

the 0.1630

ft.

(50

jsi,m:)

added to the real length of

the fiute tube for obtaining the assumed length, are again deducted

from the calculated lengths, the remainder gives the exact distance
from the centre of the holes to the stopper.

By

these calculations I obtained all the tonea of the

first

very correctly, and with large holes of uniform diameter.

octave
It \\as

then easy to nx the notes following above and below for the

These notes, however, as well as those of the

second octave.

third octave, require no additional holes.

certain

length,

not only one, but

more vibration nodes are

two,

In every tube
three,

foi-med, whicli give the

four,

and

of a

even

upper octaves in

the same sequence.

This

is

eflrected

opening of the

either

lips,

by blowing harder, or by

i\ari*owing the

and changing the angle at which the broath

is

44
directed, causing in both cases a quicker current of air to pass,

and

consequently producing shorter undulations.

But

as it

notes, to

is

necessary, in order to obtain a greater compass of

make

use of nan-ower tubes than those best suited to the

fundamental note, these latter are too narrow in proportion to

their lengths

up

And

to the section of J) sharp.

notes of the second octave after

the

three

first

C m'^^-^^^f^ have

a different

timbre up to E, where the correct proportions of the tube, and with

these the clearness and power of that and of

following notes, are

all

Therefore a flute ought to have three additional holes,

restored.

corresponding to the others in size and position

not only in order

to retain equality and identity of timbre from the second

second E, but also on account of the higher notes.

holes are designed

by theory

and intonation,

to the

these three

to be vent-holes in octaves

all

quality, freedom,

As

and

fifths

these notes would gain in

the additional holes indicated

if

were used.

But without again changing

so

much

used, I

was unable

holes, as only one finger

for the

sharp hole

periments the

size

compromise.

Eor

my system

of fingering of 1832,

now

to use the calculations for these three

was

and position

of

and that was wanted

available,

still

was obliged

therefore I

to ascertain

by ex-

a hole which should offer the best

this reason the

C sharp

hole, as well as those

above, had to be removed far beyond their correct position, and to

be made smaller in proportion.

Eor an exact examination of

tions in general, I

made

I was able to tune

all

size for the

weU

as the tuning propor-

the notes higher or lower at pleasure.

Although I could in

and

these, as

a model flute with movable holes, by which

this

way

upper three holes,

easily find out the best position

it

was not

possible to obtain the

tuning of the other notes so perfectly by ear as I had done by

calculation

for

in

endeavouring to

entire pure scale, the notes

produce

in

one

key an

were always thrown out of the propor-

tions of the equal temperament, without adhering to

which the

45
best possible tuning proportions cannot be obtained on

wind m-

stniments Tvdth finger-holes.

From

these examinations, followed

model

last obtained a

flute,

on which

up with perseverance, I

only fuller and more powerful than on any other

were

also capable of every modification of tone

but they

flute,

from the loudest

to the softest piano, without losing quality or sinking in pitch

foH&
and

afc

the notes sounded not-

all

as,

moreover, they sounded with the greatest freedom and the

most perfect intonation when they were blown in the most natural
manner, the performance was rendered more easy, more certain,

and more correct than on other

which require

flutes,

every different note a different embouchure.

for nearly

(Fig. 9.)

After the acoustical proportions were thus satisfactorily arranged

and

fixed, I

examined the influence of

gave the

ticity

made

tubes

but

shrill tone,

and

little elas-

but at the same time the weakest

softest,

of very

on the

different metals

The metals which have comparatively

quality of tone.

hard German
silver

silver gave,

\^TiQ

on the contrary, a clear

and brass tubes yielded the best tone in

every respect.

Compared with
sounds

literally

their notes, the tone of

wooden

drawn, by which the

made

made

of

and therefore the capacity

wood

for the

remarkably increased, the tone of the

is

in regard to tone

entirely of silver,

was

every one immediately.

These metal

splitting,

and intonation

of

my

when compared even with my newly

constructed one of 1832,

so striking that it

was remarked by

are

flutes

not subject to

they cannot vary in the bore, and require neither to be

oiled nor to be frequently played, but they

well.

flutes

the tubes are very thin and hard

exceedingly delicate and free, as well as extremely sonorous.

The superior excellence

flute,

if

elasticity,

vibration of the metal,

flute is

and

And

even temperature

affect-s

them

always sound equally

less

than wooden

flutes,

because the metal, being an excellent conductor of heat, reaches

its

highest possible temperature in a few seconds, so that the pitch

cannot rise any higher.

The

acoustical

ascertained,

proportions

and given

in

for

numbers,

a flute
it

is

being

not

now

difficult

exactly
t-o

make

46
perfectly tuned flutes, be
flute of

any given

Messrs. Budaii
3'ears

since,

&

feel

Kose, in London,

my

flutes of

perfection, are the

and I

former

patentees

convinced that

and play upon such

improvement as I

fluta d*ainour, concert flute, or octave

it

pitch.

am

who

all

flutes,

in

who

manufactured,

constructions to

England

for

my

the

many

greatest

metal flutes;

take interest in this invention,

will be as

much

satisfied

with this

myself.

THEOBALD BOHM,
Koniglich

LmdoHy

1847.

mms^^m.

Baieriech

Hofmusiker*

BUHM'S

LETTfiliS.

Sept,

To W.

S.

3(),

1865.

Broadwoob.

I advise you to clean always the tube well after having

played, but not with a usual cleaner, which

You must take an

the interior perfectly dry.

chief of silk,

and push

is

it

never

fit

to

make

old soft handker-

through the tube by means of a thin

Don't forget always

cane stick of the length of the middle piece.

to take the cork out of the head-piece, that the handkerchief can

The water adheres then

pass throughout.

handkerchief, and the following part, being

boring welL

And

if

to the first part of the

still

dry, will cleaii the

you repeat that manipulation once or twice,

the interior of the flute becomes soon to appear like polished,

you look through

it

and the tone will increase in this way in

ness and easy emission,

two

joints of the

white tallow.

Further, take care that the cork on the

middle

i)ieco

always well greased with clean

is

you never

If they go easy,

You may

the mechanism of the keys^

oil (de

Provence) in the head-piece

fiute well, it is better

The middle

piece

without

extensions,
to Bweii

way you

but

if

j^ou

oiight never to he oiled.

is

my

silver tubes, only

at liberty to cat

success with all

them

my

down

to B.

feet,

if

but

you

if

is liable

Mr. Pratten

The tubes

more than long enough,

as long as

heart

If

you one head-piece, two

middle piecoH, and three tubes for making

like

wood

suffers, as all

I have sent

should like to try also a foot

some

always clean your

avoid cracks in the wood, and also

by which often the boring

by the moisture.

an accident with

risk

give in the beginning

oil.

and the foot

treat your flute in this

if

clear-

he pleases,
he changes

are exactly

so that

Mr. P.

I wish him a good

much

in the size or

48
situation of the holes, he will never get out something good.

give

him my

As

to the material of

made a

flute of it

clarinet of

(ebonite), I

made one

fiute,

There was something dead in

tone.

I have

it,

and a

fiute

New

by a man from

cast tubes for

but was not

satisfied

like a flute of ivory

No

the material for the other flute.

still

have already

There was a

about ten yeara ago.

at the Exliibition of 1851, sent

it

fiutes for trying tliem.

its

which you write

The inventor sent me afterwards enough

York.

Pray

best complimente.

Wood

is

two

with
;

and

the best

of all.

As I cannot make a
made the head piece

fluto in

of wood,

wood, because

of

and

my

flute

it

gets too heavy,

gained a great deal in

quality of tone.
It

gave

mentioned

me

our discussions on pianos in 1851.

If I could

lived with him, I think I could have been useful to

Pray give him

things.

an old man,
and

my

still

health

Henry

great pleasure to hear that your brother

is

my

and

respects

him
I

comxiliraents,

capable of thinking, only

my memory

in

many

am now

gets weak,

I had suffered too

not yet quite recovered.

have

much

this 2/ear.

Pratten ha\an^ expressed a wish to try a silver flute,

Bohm, some tubes (those alluded to in Bohm's
letter), and to these Mr. Pratfcen was to get holes and keys made on the
Siccama systerfl, wliich he had adopted, Pratten did eventually try a

Note.

^Mr.

I procured for him, from

silver

Siccama

flute,

but

it

was not a

success.

W.

S. B.

Munich,

To W.

S.

At>i<l 19, 1866.

Broaowood^

I have already said that I prefer the tone of a

as quality, not quantity, is the first consideration for

As long

as I

had the

full

command

I have always played on silver flutos

my

front teeth, I

was no more sure

of
;

my

Lut

wooden

me as

an

flute,

ariist.

very good embouchure,

when

had

lost

Bome

of

of a lound sonorous quality in

the metal flutes, particularly in the third octave, and then I began

49
to play
is

flutes

There

on wood.

is

and

as I had

a player has a

if

is

over his embouchure,

more

who has a
flutesj

a good

tone, I

since 1855, silver flutes

do the same.

It

is

who

Dorus,

it,

his colleagues

28, 1866.

Broadwood.

S,

You

are

much

would have a good

sorts of things I
flute is only

fit

in error,

effect

to

make
flute

dear

these

Sir, all

metal head on a wooden

it

thin and harsh.

can be improved by a wooden head, in order

has more power than necessary

flute.

My

flute.
!

the sonorous tone of

with

to mollify the quality, as I did

wooden

you believe that a metal head

if

on a wooden

have tried years ago

The tone of a metal

of a

and pupils

altogether a matter of taste.

MUNICH; April

To

without a

flutes

played always on wood, plays,

and as he does

or rather

recommend always wooden

which they can play better than metal

very good embouchure^

least

among twenty

embouchure, and also the feeling for

perfect

and

brilliant, clear,

But as long experience, with at

pupils, has proved that there is scarcely one

the patience to study

flutes

wooden

further, than that of

command

full

ten years ago, the tone

till

strong without harshness.

100

no doubt that the tone on metal

more penetrating, or carrying

louderj

Who

my

large flute in G,

but a metal head

which

spoils the

tone

wants a strong, loud, ringing, and clear

tone, should take a silver flute, with an

embouchure

of gold, which,

standing free on the tube of the head, leaves the vibrations most
free,

and you

feel it in

But who has no good

your finger ends.

embouchure or tone on such a

flute,

and

is

content with a round and

sweeter tone, though less loud, should take a wooden

As

to your question about

say there

is

German

not one like Dorus or

De

flute.

flute players, I

Vroye,

if

am

sorry to

I speak of perfection

in every respect.

There

is,

finest tone

at Hanover,

on

his

wooden

Mr
flute,

Ott (a pupil of mine),

and great execution.

who has

the

There

is

Mr.

and

Kriiger at Stuttgart, also a pupil of mine, a very good player

there are at Carlsruhe, Mannheim, and Coburg, also pupils of mine,

60
very good orchestra players, and I think abouf> as good solo players

all

as your

London

like very

much,

one who,

till

But

As

Mr. Wehner

lately,

At

of wood.

played on a silver flute

good player on

Dome

to fine taste, 1 consider

now he

many

we remember

said to

"

flutea,

and De Yroye as

De Vroye

as to tone,

De Yroye had

little

fine

As

promises to get on very well.

now

I have

taste.

to playing in a

a pupil

grand

never more heard anything like Nicholson and Tiilou.

now much

S.

style,

German.

the

S. B.)

JI1

20, 1867.

Broadwood.

wind instruments

It results from the laws of acoustics that all

with a wide bore are

fuller in the

lower notes, while, on the other

those with a narrower bore are freer in the upper notes.

The only

question, therefore, is

wooden

therefore one

flutes

which you

prefer.

I could indeed

millimetre wider than usual

still

were sounded with

I have

the

play up

tx)

difficulty,

C^ ; but from
and

if

my

lip

E*?*'^

first

was not

is

all.

solo playing, is treated

as the next highest instrument after the piccolo

bore of 19 m. m. diameter

so good.

did not happen to be in

whether in the orchestra or in

especially do not hesitate to write for it

and second

upwards, the notes

good order, I could not sound the higher notes, piano^ at

fiute,

made

with a bore 20 millimetres in diameter^

octaves were better, but of course the third octave

The

much
who

I^hry play

May
To Mr. W.

several

but

more, but less in quality.

{From

hand,

and weak in

player has more tone, and as

first fiute

execution, but not the

flutes.

Mr. Kesewitz.

a very fine artist

is

the only

also has a fluto

first

A\Tien

your tone and playing, he seems

Ou?

comparison."

me

is

on the old

still

my

Ott, Krijger, aiid several others are superior.

if

He

at St. Petersburg.

i^

Berlin and Vienna they play

at Frankfort is also a

played here,

whom

players, with the exception of Mr. Pratten,

up

modern composers

to C-% therefore the

certainly the best for general purposes.

Large holes are always better than small ones, for with them the
sections of the air-column are

better and

more

freely.

more perfect,

ai^d the tone is

developed

Probably, no flautist or instrument maker

51

made

ever

many

so

esperiments of

all sorts as

Having

I have.

been a professional musician, I was competent to give an opinion on

what

related to art

and as I was never

satisfied until

I had

myself thoroughly acquainted with the theoretical side

may

question, I think I
of

my

whom

colleagues,

know more than any

venture to say that I

I have

known

made
every

of

either personally, or through

their work.

In

my pamphlet,

"Ueber denFiotenbau und dessenneueste Verbes-

serungen " (Schott, Mayence, 1848), I have stated that even at that time
I had already made experiments of

and narrow, thick and

silver,

brass,

copper,

vibrating tone,

kinds with metal tubes, wide

But

tin.

German

o! silver,

an

to get

easily sounding,

the material of the whole flute

know

in this respect,

recommend thick

and

all

hard or soft-drawn

not enough that the head-joint should be thin

it is

end hard-drawn

thin,

quite well

silver tubes.

It

is

why

must be

similar

the instrument makers

because the difficulty of draw-

ing the tubes increases in proportion to their thinness

Isfeither

the English nor the French makers draw their tubes

they have not the necessary machinery,

themselves;

can procure them ready made cheaper and with

made

everything myself

happened that at the very

it frequently
bui'st,

and

despite all

my

it

many

I must have

best.

For fourteen years I had as assistant a

whom

honest as he

Our fina

skilful.

is

ideas, this,

Your
,vili

will soon be

and no

object

known

watchmaker,

He

is

*'

as

Bohm and Mendler." For if

my death, according to my

after

man.

with two head-joints, one

(^IJameter;

skilled

workshop.

as

be ready in a month at farthest.

19 m.m,

my

quality rather than quantity.

other, is the right

silver flute

If I

for

is

on the business

to carry

making

I never allow him to employ more than

two workmen, because the

any one

my

four years since I gave over

is

a tube would

things pass which were not of the

living,

to

precautions,

oould not be used.

pension, and depended wholly on flute

let

all

moment

last

or became crooked or oval, so that

had not

care and

and they

less trouble.

silver,

the other wood,

I have kept to the bore of

but the holes will be one millimetre wider,

with such an opening as will admit

of the freest

development of
D 2

52

The mechanism

tone.

so arranged that the

is

of the holes also will

is

closes

be the same, as in the

you wished) be

will (as

the same as before, only that the

C key always

with

last fiute,

head out about 2 m.m., and

still

play in tune.

the workmanship

and

solid as possible.

me

tell

is

as good

Bb key
position

but the pitch

This will be effected by the in-

sliarper.

may draw

creased width (1 m.m.) of the holes, so that you

You

The

it.

the

I will take care that

that Mr. P. has two middle joints, one for normal,

the other for sharp pitch, but only one foot-joint, used for both.

But the intonation can only be

correct for one of

whole

The

flute

put together).

is

from

positions of tlie holes

Those who made the

flute

they themselves understood

The

difference

E down

to

is

them (when the

of

the calculated

more than 5 m.m.

ought to have explained

this, if

when

head-joint can only be used for either pitch equally,

has been specially

of this in

made with a view

making the head

of your present flute, so that

pitch,

if,

as

doubtless will

eventually adopted in England.

would be useful

for calculating

you can at
it

at the

be the case, that pitch

In that case

new

my

also

scales for pianos.

it

I took care

to that purpose.

any time have a middle joint and foot-joint made to

normal

indeed

it.

is

diagram

On

it

you

will find all the proportionate lengths given with mathematical

accuracy.

Note. The

fiute

above described, made for

head-joints, was, I believe, the first silver flute

joint.

Bohm was much

at a later date

have

flat silver

pleased with the remilt of the experimeDt, and

flutes very etrorgly,

lately
flute.

flute (alto).

had this wooden head fittedas Bohm foretoldto a

The silver head and middle piece and foot are in the

possession of Mr. T. Jones, of Ludlow.

To W.

S.

In a

with two

a wooden head-

recommended wooden heads for silver

especially for the silver

me by Bohm

made with

W.

S. B.

Broadwoob.
letter dated

Munich, June, 1867, replying to some

questions respecting the origin of certain improved processes in the

manufacture of pianoforte

strings,

and that of the system of

53
diagonal (crossed) stringing, both

Bohm, but
"If

carried out

apparently

and even patented by

suggested by

others, he says

were desirable and possible to analyse

it

first

all

the inventions that

have from time to time been brought forward, we should

scarcely in any instance
single

individual, but

find that

were they the offspring of the brain of a

that

all

progress

gradual only

is

each

worker follows in the track of his predecessor, and eventually

perhaps advances a step beyond him.
for
it

an

depends frequently on some mere

man's mind at the right moment.

Note.

was myself never

Bohm

fertile in expedients,

time he was engaged.

which may not occur

trifle,

in th^

He

steel.

North of England an im-

always showed himself very

whatever might be the pursuit in which for the

\V. S. B.

Teobbnsee,

The
is

S.

Sept. 23, 1868.

Broad WOOD.

difference caused

by embouchure

many

so considerable that in

quarter, in

to a

..."

and sold

also devised

proved method of manufacturing

To W.

at a loss

and have often helped others onwards towards success

idea,

some even

cases

to half a tone

(viz.,

it

method

amounts

therefore, in

me

to

of blowing)

more than a

making a

know

flute

to any given pitch,

it is

not enough

must

also

have some knowledge of the player's em-

vibrations

bouchure.

for

to

For instance, I have never yet met with a

played as sharp as myself on the same

was celebrated

flute,

size of the

tone a large mouth -hole

ftmall oval

flautist

of

who
who

Dorus would have

flute.

mouth-hole, as well as that of the finger-holes,

also materially influences the

with

number

excepting Tulou,

for the largeness of his tone.

played a quarter of a tone flatter on the same

The

the

is

volume

necessary.

mouth-holes.

of the tone.

For a large

full

I could never play properly

54
(From

German.)

the

Munich, Nov. h% 180)8.

To W. S. Broadwood.
Your letter gave me mueii pleasure, for the approTal of one
who understands the subject is always a satisfaction.

You

my

see that, although nearly

endeavours to render

my

75 years

old, I

have not relaxed in

instruments as perfect as possible

and when you read

my

you

have not made, or subsequently

will see that I

treatise

upon the

jSute

and

its

treat-meut,

altered,

any-

thing without good and sufficient reason.

Thank

goodness, I have at length finished

There ought properly to

a publisher.

English translation

You wish
As the
holes

on

and

will see alxjut

both a French and an

but I cannot myself undertake them.*

know

to

bt-

it,

the effect of shortening the head- joint.

proportions which det^ernjine the position of the finger-

anj!-

fiute

can only be quite accurate

when based upon

one

particular measurenieni of distance from the cork,

it

every diminution

must influence

or addition

of,

that the proportions are quite accurate

3 m.m,

much

therefore you

may

distance

to, this

Your new

the intAjnation prejudicially.

follows that

silver flute is so

when

the head

is

arranged

diawn out

also sliorten the air-column

by that

(thus sharpening the pitch), without very perceptibly

aif ecting

the intonation.

The C^

Vvdii

now become

proportion to the A^; and

6 m.m, in

flat.

if

and the C^ sharper, in the same

you puli out 8 m.m. more (therefore

beyond the central

all)

then, conversely, the

too

ilatter,

In the

first

(theoretioallj^ accurate) point,

will be as mucii too sharp at the

two octaves

in the third octave a little different,

for instance,

Ei

is

influenced only by

fluenced in addition

You

will

my

will be

by the opening

on account of the vent-holes

its

special finger-hole,

of the hole of

understand this perfectly

explanation of

C2

this influence will be equal, but

if

diagram attentively. t

A^ the

E^

fifth

is

in-

above.

you read the enclosed

I drew out this diagram

in order that instrument makers might form an accurate idea of the

geometrical progression in which the position of the holes must bo

* Die Flote und daa Fioteuspiel.

AiU, Munich.

f See page

^li.

55
This diagram could only be designed

varied to suit different pitches.

by one who was at once musician, instrument naker, and

At the

acoustics.

skilled in

Paris Exhibition, unfortunately, the jurors, being

unfamiliar with the subject, declined to go into

it

wherefore, at

the request of the Committee of the Bavarian Polytechnic Society,

I had

my

diagram published in their " Kunst-und Gewcrbeblatt,"

much time and

This work cost

penny

of profit

trouble, without bringing

my

nor did I receive anj^^hing for

me

one

pamphlet on

the CoQstniction of the Elute, of which Mr. Carte took possesaion.*

My

treatise will contain chapters as follows

The various kinds

(1) Introduction, (2)

of the Eiute Tube, (4)

The

(G) Description of the

Key-Mechanism,

of the

Material, (5)

of Flutes, (3) Description

The System

of Eingering,

(7) Repairs, (8)

Treatment

Mecbaaism, (9) The Pads, (10) The Spiings, (11) The Cork,

(12) Troai-meut of the Elute, (13)

The

Tone^Seasoninrf of

New

Flutes (das J'^inblasen), (14) Study of Tone (Embouchure), (15)

The

Moveme!it of the Fingers, (16) Exorcises, (17) Style, (18) Table of

Fingering, (19) Prejiminaiy Exercisps,

(2f))

Examples

illustrative of

Style.

If to this

were appended the explanations of theory formerly

given (pamphlet 1847), and also the diagram, the history of

work and

all

my

contained in one
it

out in

experience, during a period of

Perhaps

little ])ook.

two separate

pai-ts

it

60

years,

all

my

would be

would be better to bring

(1) Theory, (2) Practice.

Very few

people understand anything about theory, and might not care to

pay the additional

to

What

pric^.

do you think ?

1 should be glad

know, because I value your opinion highly.

NoTF. Tiie

" pamphlet " alluded to is that now published with these

Mr. Carte tells me that it was given not to him, but to Mr.
Kudall. The " Treatise " is published in German, but has not yet been
printed in Eoglish. Boliui wished me to translate it. W. S. B. (1882.)

letters.

MUiViCH, May, 1S70.

To W. S. Bp-OAiiiwooD.
Aa you have already so many flutes, I should not like to
make one moro for you without being sure of everything. Therefore

you must allow

mo

* This

t^>

ia

be somewhat particular in

the pamphlet

now

published.

my

requeate,

56
and I

will try to be as precise as possible, if

trouble to atten(5 to them.

length of a
millimetre

you will take the

a good ruler of the

is

a compass, and a measure with miilimetres.

flute,

is

All you require

now

universally used, as it

the

is

small parts, and the easiest for calculations in decimals.

do not like such things, I will

The question

way.

trj'

But

if

you

to be as clear as possible in another

hoiv long

is,

The

measuring

fittest for

must be the tube

from

of a flute

the corh in the head to the end of the foot, in order to obtain the

Ci exactly in tune with 529 vibrations?

If the

A^ must make 889.67.

whatever tone you design by the number

C^ makes 529

vibrations per second, the

alike,

all

I find

the rest, and also

all

columns

of air, in

my

all

diagram

measures on the enclosed

You

and

C^

for the

I send you

They

slip of paper.
is

shut

oS.

length, in case the foot

m.m.
is

made

it is

down

these

by the cork in the

The number 593.92

to go

now

are all taken from

A^

will find the length for the

= 598

me,

to

the corresponding lengths of the

directly.

the point where the column of air

head- joint.

As

of vibrations, as

to BiJ.

332.28 m.m.,
indicates the

In that case

the centre of the G^ hole would be bored at the indicated point.

Now

flute

made

to

these

measurements would be

pitch you require with most flute players

as I always played

much

and open embouchure.

Paris,

who

but

it

would not stiit me,

sharper than others, on account of

There was in

my

flutes

my free

time only old Tulou at

must always be longer from the cork

the A^ by about 3 m.m., and

you write to

me

all

is,

Now,

the rest in proportion.

to

as

that you, too, play with an open embouchure, to get

a fuller tone you also will require a longer measurement

question

the

played at as high a pitch as myself on any given flute

my own

therefore

in

and the

how much ?

This must be ascertained precisely, or you will get a

fl.ute

not

perfectly to your wishes.

You

say in your letter, " I have put the head- joint No. 2 into

the lower part of the normal diapason flute," and afterwards,

**

Well, this brings the flute to the pitch I require, or nearly so ; '*

and then you

any other

say, "

flute I

But I

find the C* too sharp, just as

draw out the head-joint a good

when on

deal, I find the

57

lower

My

too sharp."

dear Sir, you 8ay here what

and quite impossible

dictory,

drawing out and drawing in

&a

more than a couple

must become

of millimetres

10

|nii|rnij

If

twice as groat as on the

in proportion to C^,

of

air,

but

C\ which

The natural consequence

instead of 5.

if

Now

10 m.m.).

you puU out the head 5 m.m.

drawing.
the C*

correct

|||

is

mn

the effect on

requires 10 m.m.,

that the

C Ms

and your remark on drawing out

you draw

in,

above where the holes begin,

proportion.

Therefore

it

perfectly

flat in

the

cannot be the fact that the C^ gets

too sharp in proportion to the 0^,

when

a shorter head

is

AU

used.

Therefore you must

must be accurately examined.

take your fiute with the head which you prefer,

and draw in or out

is

putting on a shorter head-

b}^

same

details

too sharp

or shorten the upper part of the column

the effect must be contrary, and the C^ gets too

proceed as follows

look at the

joint,

such

you draw

If

the intonation

defective, because all the holes should be regulated in

geometrical progression

is

contra-

effect to

can only be perfectly in tune

flute

in the diapason corresjwnding to its measurements.

out or in

is

you ascribe the same

till

you get the A^ at the required

you are quite sure that

it is

righttaking

When

pitch.

into account all such

infiuencos, as for instance, the temperature of the room, &c., &c.

then lay your

flute

down, and place

my

drawing over

it,

so that

the rim of the embouchure in the drawing corresponds exactly

with the rim of the embouchure of your

flute

then, by stretching

out the drawing, you will at once see whether there

what

so,

difference in length

centre of the

Mark

A^

is

any, and

hole^

this difference

the end of the flute

you have measui'ed

on the drawing, and

if

you do the same

the

Now

as

you wish

new middle and

what

me

to use the head-joint No.

foot-joints, I

remember) whether there

at

for

much the better. It will show whether

correctly.
You will notice that I have marked
also, so

on the drawing the two measurements which you sent me on

of paper.

if

from the rim of the embouchure to the

is

distance from the

want

to

know

slips

2 with

(for I

and

cannot

on this head-joint a ring

end?

have always

Of

late years I

if

so,

58

made

that ring in two separate pieces

the " box

that

**

on the middle

(Biichse)

when

the flute

one

of

them

soldered to

the other to the head

joint,

so

put together, both parts form the complete

is

ring.

As

the head ought to go into the "

joint) till the

to

know
it

extremity.

its

tiie

Mark

this also

In

way

in your next letter.

meet your wishes

A thread

rely.

box" (upper

reaches the tube of

it

part of middle

middle

this

want

joint, I

nng on

the length of that part which extends from the

head-piece to

return

end of

I hope

I shall

be able to

but I must have measurements on which 1

which will

the

on th drawing, ?nd

cati

stretch will not do.

All the rest I know, and your middle and foot-joint sbail be

made

I wish I could carry out orders more

as well as possible.

quickly

but since

my

former pupil, Heindi, travelled through iho

United States, I have had more orders than I can execute from

America

and though I

offered to procure flutes

Lot, at Paris, people prefer to wait for those

Begging your excuses for

my

from

my

friend

made by myself.
I do what I eaji

bad writing

remain, &c.

Note. The above may interest flute players as showing how minutely
and painstaking Bohm was, and how thoroughly he understood

caref\ii

his business.

W.

S. B.

{Frmn

the

German.)

MiJNCHEN,

To

am

Your notions about tone

glad that you like the flute.

quite agree with mine.

it

AltffUSt^ 1871.

Broadwood.

"W. S.

A silver flute is from

ever will be, whereas a wooden

improving continually.

For

tube quite dry, and to clean

flute, if

that, it is

it

most

each time

it

and a

old

cocoa-nut

silk or linen

flute

handkerchief

which has

ideal of tone, large, sonorous,

an

first

as good as

essential to

wipe the

has been played upon.

when the
drawn through.

This, however, can only be properly done

out,

the

properly treated, goes on

excellent

cork

tone

is

taken

I have an
;

but

mj^

and powerful, admitting of every

59

up

gradation from pianissimo

The

silver flute in G.

playing

it

although I

to fortissimo, is

am now

an old

man

With a

the tone

very brilliant, and no room

is

make

this flute

and a gold emhouchure,

silver head- joint

with a wooden embouchure on the

and use

of 78J,

falae teeth, is such that I only regret that I did not

forty years ago.

my

the tone of

still

I have repeatedly produced, Avhen

effect

too large for

is

it

while

silver head-joint, the tone gains

in richness without losing power.

Compared

to tho

flute, it is like

the voice of a fine powerful

Once when I played

soprano in contrast to that of a child.

church on this

flute j

My

French horn.

I receive proofs for correction every week.

the press.

De Vroye
where

in a

accompanying a soprano, it was mistaken for a.

work, " Die Elote und das Flotenspiel," is in

a first-rate artist, but his tone

is

iS'ichoIson is still

remembered,

is

too small for London,

I did as well as any Conti-

nental flautist in London in 1831, but I could not match l^icholson

in

power

Had

of tone,

wherefore I set to work to remodel

I not heard him, probably the

For

my

flute.

would never have

flute

of all other flautists, not

oven excepting Tulou in

no one could do more than I could, so

far as tone is concerned.

been made.
Paris,

Bohm

Ail Nicholson's immediate successors had, more or

tone, but they

made

a trumpet of the flute.

enough, but loudness alone

is

not what

less,

wanted

is

a powerful

Their tone was loud

for singiw}.

always prefer quality to quantity.

Munich, Nov.

To Mr. W.

made myself an exact drawing

I have

of the position of

the holes, according to the paper slip you hud sent

being correct

8, 1873.

r. Mills.

so there can be

Next week your

flute will

unexpected hindering,

it

be commenced, and

will be finished in

the octave key, which makes

me

back as

no mistake as regards the pitch.

much

less

if

there comes no

December.

I ordered

complication than the

ahake lever, and which will never come out of order, as the
hole, about as large as

f^,

is

shut so very

easily.

I find that

little
little

60
"key very useful,

the player wants to be always perfect in tune in

if

the following notes

.

j^

jt

always a tendency to get a

if

yon open the

rect,

"^

T"

little flat if

These tones have

~F"b

played in pianissimo

easily.

The key can easily be opened with

a very small motion of the thumb, and you will get used to
least trouble.

When not wanted,

in rapid passages, it will not hinder

to execute

^^

without that

^-^J

little

and

octave key, they are not only perfectly cor-

little

but sound also very

and by without the

key.

by

your execution. Thus, if you wish

you

it

as, for instance,

will hardly play

it

perfectly

Now

in regard to a second middle joint,

I advise you not to have one, as the difference in pitch

is

much

was

in

your

greater in comparison with the normal pitch than

You

first flute.

it

will never be able to play in tune

if

the foot

not conformed, in the position of the holes, with the middle

The

Not only the lower

difference is too great.

will be

much

notes,

is

joint.

C\ C^4|,D\D%

too sharp, but also several tones in the third octave

will not be in tune, nor sound easily.

It

is

just

as

half a note higher,

if

you had three

You cannot do without having

of a head

is

very

little in

you will do much better

strings

on

a violin tuned

and leave the lower one half a note too

also another foot,

comparison with the two other

to get

middle joint without foot to

a second

it is

flat

and as the price

flute at the

joints,

normal pitch.

throwing away money

61

Munich,

To Mb. W. p. Mills.
As to the preference
never be solved

have said about

best for
after I

many
had

bouchure.

it

in

wood

of

my

some front

Silver

If

you could read what I

book, you would find that I myself played

years on silver flutes

lost

or silver, tbat question will

a matter of taste.

it is

1878.

teeth,

but took to wooden flutes

my

and with them

sound more readily, and

flutes

adapted for modulating tone

but those

who have

good emare

better

not the right

sense and feeling generally produce a hard tone, and therefore do

better to play
silver

on wooden

I could produce

flutes,

effects

on

my

which I could never afterwards produce on wooden

flute

flutes,

I think Mr. Broadwood,

who always endeavoured

to get the

best tone, will tell you the same.

My

eyes get

now

so

weak

that I must end.

Munich, JWy,

To W. P. Mills.
The head-joints

of

our wooden flutes must be

never the middle or the foot-joint.

best

is

oil

fectly dry,

of Provence)

with a

the evening, that the

the oilbefore the morning.

before playing.
is

If

you

oil

oiled,

You can apply a litble oil

feather, when the head is

and when you have taken out the cork.

is to oil it in

1878.

The

wood may have time

Then you wipe

it

but
(the

per-

best time
to absorb

dry with some linen

the head once a fortnight at

first it

quite enough, and afterwards only every month.

am

quite well in

eyes are very bad.

my

old age of eighty-five years, only

my

62

BOHM'S DIAGKAM
The GermaJi

text of Bohm's description and explanation of his

Diagram was

first

published in a special

number

Tmd Gewerbeblatt," Munich, October, 186S.

sent

o{ the

Bohm had

" Kunst-

previously

with a model of his G fiute to the Paris Exhibition, 1867,

it was " mis hors de co-ucquts " by the musical jury,

it

where, however,

who

were not competent to decide upon the merits

said they

duction which

have

was

scientific rather

said, published it at

than

He

artistic.

Munich, and sent

me

the copy (of which

I have made, I fear, but an indifferent translation), by

He

way

of reply

had asked.

to certain questions I

subsequently published

different

of a pro-

then, as Z

it

in a somewhit, but not materially,

form in his "Die Plote und das Flotenspiei."

I believe the

date of this latter pamphlet vas 1873, and the pablisher, Joseph Aibl,

In

Munich.

of

also

it

he has re-written in German, nearly word

for word, several passages of the earlier English pamphlet,

the

first

now

for

time printed,

Bohm was

very anxious that the German (1873) pamphlet should

be translated and published, with the earlier one, in England.

" Then," he wrote to me, " ail that I have done in 60 years will be

known "
must be
Mayy

On

the

He repeatedly urged me to undertake the task, and this

my excuse for the present imperfect attempt,
W. S. B.

1882.

Method

holes of
BoHiu',

to he

Wind

adoj>ted in determini'nxf the position of the Note-

Instrumrmts for

(Bavarian

The manufacture

of

''^

everi/

given Pitch.

Kun^t-und Gewerbeblatt"

wind instruments having

By TEEOJSiXD

October, 1868.)

note-holes, ajid

their adaptation to the various musical pitohes, necessitates, for the

most

part,

and money.

new

calculations or models,

which cosb time, trouble,

63

To avoid such

inconveniences, I

the basis of calculation

measurement.

Thus,

is

in

drew out a diagram, on which

represented and

the

following

marked out
table,

the

in linear

reciprocal

numerical proportions of vibration to length of string, in the equally

tempered

scale, are

represented by horizontal or by vertical lines

while diagonal lines indicate the geometrical progression in which

the longitudinal measurements

may

be varied without disturbing

the proportion which they bear to the vibrations.

64
I have founded
help,

my

determined

my

wind instruments constructed on

holes on all
;

With

diagram on these considerations.

and without resorting to calculation, the centres

its

of the note-

system

may be

as also the position of the so-called " frets " of guitars,

mandolines, zithers, &c., &c.

To do

this,

of

course, the

numbers must be converted

and

positive longitudinal

assumed

into absolute

numbers

As the French normal

my

of

vibrations

measurements.
pitch

(A^

870 vibrations)

adopted nearly everywhere, I have founded upon

calculations of

or proportional

relative

Diagram; and

is

now

the numerical

it

as unit of calculation for the

longitudinal measurements, I have taken a cylinder open at both

ends, 670
of the

m.m. in length, and giving the note C^ - 517.30 vibrations

French normal

pitch.

Thus we obtain the following proportionate numbers

Absolute number of Vibrations,

C|^

Djf

...

Db 5ia06

632.39

580.65

596.90

E'^ 615.18

563.40

....

...

...

A
Ag

...

The

670.00

517.30

G
G$

Eelative Longitudinal Measurements.

Millimetres.

C^

E
F
Fjf

651.76

531.77

690.51

501.93

Gl> 731.57

473.76

775.08

447,17

A!> 821.11

423.07

870.00

398.38

Bl, 921.73

376.02

976.54

354.91

1034 60

335.00

relative longitudinal proportions of

my

flute,

here expressed

in millimetres, are, of course, merely adopted for the purpose

illustration.

Although the vibration numbers

of the

normal

of

pitch,

asal 80 the longitudinal proportions for all instruments are constant,

yet each wind instrument has

its special

length,

which depends upon

66
M^.
the means by which tone

an

of

oboe,

more

and

The tube

generated.

is

particularly

that

of

must be made very much shorter than

clarinet,

the tube of a flute of like pitch, because of the

influence

flattening

For

only

the reed or mouth-piece.

of

small

portion

corre8}X)nding to that note

or

when blown

reed

really, there.

of

air-column,

m
5^

which the mouth-piece

separately

would

give,

is

Wherefore a wind instrument, when

shortened by one-half
octave

the

of

its

fundamental,

its

length, will not give the

but

considerably

flatter note.

The

length

for

must

the octave

therefore

ascertained

by

the tube.

Then, by doubling the length of the

is

int-o intervals,

i'

obtained, answer-

ing to the string of a monochord, and which

be divided

by shortening

calculation, or simply

shortened tube, an air-column

be

may

so as to coincide with the

numerical and longitudinal proportions given in the

c;

diagram.

Now

the flattening influence of the cork and the

embouchure amounts on

my

flute to

51.5 m.m., and

in calculating the relative longitudinal

of

intervals this

existing length
of the

measurement

has to be taken as an actually

therefore, in the practical application

formula this quantity (51.5 m.m.) has to be

deducted from each relative longitudinal measure-

For instance, 01

ment.

= 670.0 51.5=618.5. <to

B

The perpendicular

line at

the air-column

terminated by the cork;

is

shows the place where

and a

shorter line at J) indicates the centre of the mouthhole.

from

All positive or actual measurements taken

should be shorter by 51.5 m.m. than the

corresponding

relative

given on the diagram.

longitudinal

measurements

"^O

6a
EXPLANATION OF TKE BIASTt^M ON PRECEDING PAGE,

My

diagram consists of three horizontal parallel

lines A, B,

andC,

representing longilndinai measurements, the divisions of which are

shown equally on

The

Kne

central

answering

The

the C^ of the French

is

entire length of this air-eoiuraji,

of the line B, gives the fundamental

millimetres,

ni.m.

and calculated from the actual vibration numbers of

shown by the

vertical lines.

Thus a standard measure, expressed

int-ersections of the line

on the line

and

show the

will

it

measui'ed from tbe cork,

when

The

may

])itch

the

reciprocal

of the relative measurement-s.

on this standard

by means

are

centres

That

C.

disturbing

made
their

marked on the diagram.

extend upwards and downwards, from the

points of intersection with line

and

without

distances

of the diagonal lines

ITiese diagonal lines

(Aj ^= 870 vibrations).

This can be done, without resorting to

proportions.

calculation,

lines

established

correspond with other pitches, provision must be

varying

reciprocal

normal

tJie

is

m.m. before mentioned

positions of the centres of the tono-holee

only tally with

with the

actual dimensions of iny flute

the 51.5

have been deducted from each

shall

in millimetres,

taken from the upper extremity of the diagram,

ajid

for

= Q70

C'

the sectional lengths for the chromatic scale, expressed in

that pitch, are

they

to the

in a cylindrical flute tube, open

and whose fundamental note

at both ends,

pitch (A^ == 870 vibrationa)*

and therefore

vertical sections.

represents an air-column

monochord contained

string of a

And

by

three lines

all

where the

B.,

to the points

reciprocal

on the parallel

distances of

shown, shiirpened (shortened)

above,

the t^mc-hole
or

flattened

(lengthened) below by a half-tone.

The

pitch of a fiat

made

made

to the lengthened

than the normal

Now,

to the shortened

be exactly half-a-tone

will, therefore,

measurements of

measurements

8har|)er.

line

of line

and that of one

half-a-tone Hatter

pit-ch,

as these diagonal lines

series of tone-hole centres,

may

be looked upon as a prolonged

which gradually approach each other above,

or recede from each other below, in the same geometric proportion

it

follows that

the reciprocal longitudinal projwrtions

of

rhese

67
tone-liole centres

remain uuchangod tferougbout, be the point of

section of the diagonal with the additional parallel line

It follows that every additional line

any given distance from,

line

drawn

B e-^tablishes

parallel to,

new

inter-

where it may.

series of

and at

measuie-

ments, in which the distances of the ton(;-hole centres, while retaining the same geometriciil progression, will corres^wnd to a pitch

whose

difference

from

fclie

the distance from line

new
And

parallel line is

move

as it is

normal diapason will be proportionate to

(whether above or below

it)

which the

at

drawn.

shown on the diagram that the tone -hole centres

horizontally also, in the

same geometrical progression, towards

or from the cork, along the parallel lines introduced for the pur-

pose of illustration, tliorefore the difference of pitch for any one

note will be proportionate to the distance of that particular point

of intersection from the upper end of the air-column, or from the
vertical lino of section of the corresponding note.

new

parallel

line should be drawn, so that the tone-hole centres to be

marked

To determine
on

it shall

tlie

point on the diagram where a

corresx)ond to the pitch of a given note, the difference in

pitch of this note from, the normal diapason must be expressed by

longitudinal measurement in millimetres.

much
on

Thus

it

will be seen

by how

the length of the air-coiumn (given in metrical measurement

line

B) must be diminished or increased to make

the pitch of the given

nofce

it

agree with

and the same process defines the

position of the vertical line of section corresponding to the given not^.

If,

however, the difference of pitch

vibrations, its CDnversion into metrical

follows.

The number
Vbr.

860

expressed in number of
is

effected as

of vibrations being inversely as the length

of air-coiumn, the following

(a*)

is

measurement

two geometrical proportions

Vbr.
:

870

870

arise

Relative Length

398.38"'^-

LI

398.38'^'"

=:

==.-

403.01""'-

Vbr. 860
(b*)

800

870

398.38'"-'

870 X SOS-SS"""-

L2
38U.42*"'

Vbr. 890
E

The

vibration

number
is to

If

numbers 880 and 890 are to the normal yibration

870,

as

398.38 m.m.

the normal-pitch-relative-length

the required length.

870 be multiplied by 398.38 m.m., and the

result (346,590.(5)

divided by 860 or by 890, the figures thus obtained

and 389.42)

measurements into

As

converted.
to

(viz.,

403.01

will represent in millimetres the relative longitudinal

"vvbich

number

the

these relative longitudinal measurements correspond

860 and 890, the longitudinal

the given vibration numbers

m.m. and 8.96 m.m.) from the

differences (4.63

measurement

wiU have been

of vibrations

relative longitudinal

diapason must correspond to the

normal

the

of

number of vibrationsviz., to 10 and 20, respectively.

The required point of intersection will be indicated by that of the

difference in

horizontal

line,

with the diagonal leading upwards, when the

measurements are shortened

and conversely, by

intersection

its

with the diagonal leading downwards, when the measurements are

lengthened.

The conversion
expressed

measurement

the difference of pitch into

of

millimetres

in

may be

either

effected

by actual

measurement, or by a simple calculation, according as the pitch to

which the instrument

is

or by a given

of vibrations.

number

vibrations (that
is

is,

to be

made

10 vibrations

is

indicated

by a tuning-fork,

For instance,

flatter

if

A^

= 860

than the normal diapason)

given by a tuning-fork, then the head-joint of a flute at the

normal pitch must be drawn out

the given A^.

till its

A^

is

exactly in tune with

Then, assuming the timing to be absolutely correct

(this of course the ear

must

diawn out

decide), the length

will be

found to be 4.63 millimetres.

If

the given pitch

instance,

A^

pitch flute

is

sharper than the noimal diapason, say for

890 vibrations

must be drawn out

tune with the given A^,

In

then the head- joint of the normal

still

farther,

till its

this case the length

13.40 millimetres, and the column of

air giving

A^^

or B^lJ

drawn out

A^ jj

vibrations,

must be drawn upon

line

-le

in

or B^^; at the

normal pitch will have been lengthened by thus much.

the vertical line of section, to correspond with

is

will be

given

Therefore,

A^

= 890

at a point distant 13.40

m.m.

69

from the centre of tone-hole A^iJ == B^

2,

on the side towards tone-

hole A^.
Therefore^ a line of section
distant 4.63

drawn

m.m. from the centre

at right angles to line B,

of the tone-hole

side towards A|?, will correspond to the

a second such line,

tone-hole

drawn

centre, but

A^

860 vibrations

at a distance o! 8.96

on the

side towards

while

m.m. from the same

Af,

will correspond

A^
890 vibrations.
The diagonals leading upward and downward wiU

to the

and

A^ on the

(as already

mentioned) show the required points of intersection.

The

results thus obtained will be

found to be perfectly accurate.

70

APPENDIX.
THEOBALD BOHM.
(To
Sir,

the Editor

of the

'*

Musical

Wcyrld:'-

notice in your contemporary, the Lotidjon Figaro, charges

brought against the late Theobald Bohm, of Munich, which

I think, both inaccurate

are, as

and misleading.

The Figaro's correspondent seems

to consider that the

ture in Bohm's improvement of flutes

was a system

main

fea-

of fingering

generally, erroneously, he says, attributed to him, but in reality

" annexed " from one Captain

Figaro's correspondent, which

we

This

Gordon.

are told, invented and perfected this fingering

advertising

it

and

Gordon,

after vainly

throughout Great Britain, France, and Germany, he

died of a broken heart, maddened by his failure to

and by Bohm's " annexation

the

was, says the

it

made Bohm's name famous.

" of

it.

We

sell his

are not told

invention,

why, wJiat

in

one case failed so signally, succeeded in the other so com-

pletely.

In

justice to

Theobald Bohm,

whom

knew very

forty years, I venture to suggest an explanation

.'

well for nearly

He was

man

of very considerable scientific, as well as technical attainments.

Originally a gold worker, he subsequently

mines

besides being for

Whether

orchestra of Munich.
if

many

became an inspector

first

flute

the Figaro's correspondent prefers that term) the

what

Sir

H. Bishop

in his

1851 Exhibition report

" for reaching and stopping the

very material.

Bohm

of

in the principal
"
he did or did not borrow (" annex

years

first

notion of

calls

a system

flute holes at great distances," is

not

always claimed the invention of fingering

and I am not aware that

it

has ever been

proved that Gordon's fingering was identical with

it.

The question

known, by his name

which th0 Figaro^ s correspondent begs, and on which he founds very

serious charges has, as he admits, been debated very. " fiercely," but

Be that

not coneiusiYely settled.

as

it

laay,

Bohm

soon perceived

that the really essential points to be determined with a view to the

improvement

his instrument,

of

more

tion of tii3 tube,

head," where ?ouud

portion of the

^'

generated

is

embouchure

BoLm

these problems,

were

"

(2) " a geometrical

(1)

The shape and

known

projxjr-

"the

as

(2) the exact posit: vi and pro-

and finger-holes.

set himself to

well-known Professor Scliafhauti

produced as a result

particularly of that part

and

In order to solve

study acoustics, under the

after several years' lal)0ur
with conical head ; "

(1) " a cylindrical tube

diagram

(I

now

quote from Mr, Pole's report,

1862), with explanations, by which makers of tubular instruments

can with the greatest accuracy construct their instruments according

any

of the recognized pitches,"

It

upon these

to

is

calculations,

that Boom's fame rests.

It is

and upon their praeticai

no exaggeration

application,

say that their

to

publication produced a revolution in the manufacture of

struments.

So

any one system

little

wind

in-

did the merit of Bolim's invention depend on

of fingering, that it

was

applicable not to fiutes only,

but also to oboes, clarinets, and bassoons, which aee fingered quite
differently.

At the Exhibition (1851) competent and

musical judges pronounced

it

to be " an entirely neiv

impartial

and

scientific

system of construction, which has done more than anything

this class of instruments to their present degree

lift

else to

of perfection,

both of int-onation and of iimhreJ^

If Eobm., originaily. like Captain Gordon, a poor

man, had.

like

him, relied solely on a novel system of fingering, he would probably

liave

been as unsuccessful.

own

his

ority,

In our day, nearly every

and which,

at all events, suits

him

Bohm did

not ''annex" his

letters, of

conclusively.
practical

of

has

Several of these have

best.

been adapted to Bclhm's tubes, with more or

His

fiauiist

pet system of fingering, of which he proclaims the superi-

scientific

which I have

The head

knowledge

still

less

knowledge may

success.
easily

That

be provedo

a considerable number, prove

it

whose intimate

of the Pult-eney Street firm

of everything connected

with the manufacture

pianofortes will be contested by no maker, whether English,

French, or German

liae

repeatedly and ungrudgingly acknowledged

the assistance afforded him years ago by

what

termed the

is

scale of

Bohm when

He

grand pianofortes.

calculating

me

told

he found

Bohm

subject.

But, to quote the Figaro correspondent's words,

an old

tale," that of disputed inventions.

man

one

it

that

very well versed in the acoustical bearings of that

A crude

**

it is

idea occurs to

developed and carried out, perhaps, by another.

is

The former may have had

neither the knowledge nor the i)ersever-

ance necessary to mature his notion into practical

utility

yet he

aU the merit

eventually claims, or his friends claim for him,

of the

invention.

The French point triumphantly

to Papin, the inventor of steam-

boats, as they assert, in Louis XV.'s time.

My

Mr. Hipkins,

friend,

in his very able and interesting paper (see " Grove's Musical Dic-

more

tionary "), shows, vnth

Eor the sake

pianofortes.

of

probability, that Cristofori invented

argument,

Gordon, as the alleged inventor of the

if

let

us associate with them

Bohm

fingering

originator,

I rightly understand the Figaro's correspondent, of the

material

modem

improvement

flute

What would any

most

of these, in

their very different degrees of importance, say to their bantlings

now

full

we

are

Would they even

grown ?

to say to those

if

recognize

such, indeed, there be

for the putative progenitors

all

the merit ?

And what

them ?

^who would

am,

sir,

claim

ybtj obe-

Walter Stewart Broabwoob.

diently yours,

Cuhalva, Radnorshire^ Jan., 1882.

(To
Sir,

the

EdUor of the" Mmical World:')

The German manuscript

of the

accompanying paper, with

a translation by himself, which I have since re-cast, was sent

by Mr.

J. P. Triggs,

flautist, of

Glasgow.

He

tells

me

me

that he

received the manuscript, corrected and signed in Dr. Schafhautl's

handwriting, from Mr. Schmidt, the publisher, of Heilbronn.

not

know whether

that

it

it

I do

has been published in Germany, but I believe

contains matter likely to interest English flute players, and

settles authoritatively the

tion of the

Bohm

flute.

much-debated question as to the inven-

I am,

sir,

very faithfully yours,

Cahalva, Radnorshire, Feb. 13th, 1882.

W.

S.

Broabwood.

73

THEOBALD BOHM, AND THE FLUTE CALLED AFTER

HIM.
seems that the old dispute aa to who was the real inventor of

Ifc

the "

Bohm

Flute " has again cropped up.

The celebrated
play the

Bohm

flautist,

V.

J.'

who
and who

flute

into use in France,

B. Ooche,

It originated in Paris.

who was ore of

the

first

contributed more than anyone to bring

explained

its

to
it

merita in a pamphlet of

own composition (Paris, 1839), writes to Bohm, May 25th, 1838

On dit dans le monde artiste, que la flute qui porte voti*e nom a
^te decouverte par un nomme Gordon ancien eleve de Drouet,"
The Gordon in question was a Swiss, who had served as officer
his

"

in the Garde Boyale of Charles X., and had been pensioned after

He

that King's abdication.

heard

Bohm

play upon his ring-keyed

London (1831), made Bohm's acquaintance,

and conceived the idea of himself making a new flute that should be
flute at a concert in

free

from the defects

acquainted with this "

indefatigably with his

In a

Drouet.

flute."

Tulou en

mais

il

We

become better

shall

Gordon worked at

hands, and showed

letter dated Feb. 15, 1833,

vu Drouet k Paris
doigte.

of the old flute.

new
own

recule devant

it

in Paris

it

to his teacher,

he writes to Bohm: "J'ai

un changement dans

lo

est Ik aussi."

That Drouet and Tulou should have remembered Gordon when

Bohm came
for

forward with his

own

principle

structed

on which the
is

flutes

of

were

be accounted

all

of

of

Bohm were

most

artists

reluctant to acknowledge that the

more and more superseding the

over

Gordon and

more than could be expected

which, they

won

flute is easily to

but that they should distinguish what was the fundamental

con-

besides

new was

old flute ; for Coche had already

musicians by his performances on the

new Bohm

flute.

I have frequently written concerning its origin

for instance, in

the Official B^ports oftf^e London Industrial Exhibition, 1851 (Berlin^

1852, pages 882-884)

again, in the Report of the Jurors^ Committee,

Munich Industrial Exhibition, 1854 {Munich, 1S55, pages 444-446);

and, finally, in greater detail, in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung.^
Leipsic, 1870, No. 39, ptujes 643-646.

74

Now

that Gordon and

Bohm

are both dead, the former long since,

the latter only towards the end of last year (Xovember 25), I feel

myself doubly impelled to

Theobald

Bohm

is

make

clear to the musical public, that

it

indeed the inventor of the flute which bears his

name.

The eminent

Theobald Bohm, was gifted not only with

flautist,

musical talent, but possessed also a genius for mechanism.

his appointment to the

After

Royal Bavarian Orchestra in 1816, he made

several cleverly designed flutes, with a special arrarigement of key-

mechanism,
of the
flute

and

for himself

for his master, Kapeller, also a

Eoyai Orchestra; and,

manufactory of his

own

finally, in

in

member

the year 1828, he set up a

Munich.

!From this period dates

the gradual adoption in England and France of the excellent system

of

key-mechanism, depigned and made by Bolim himself.

great success which

Bohm

The

achieved as a flautist in Munich and in

Switzerland induced him at length to visit Paris and LondoU} where

the artistic refinement of his style, the fluency and certainty of his
execution,

commanded general admiration

In London the extra-

ordinarily large tone of the flute player Is'icholson, at that time

so celebrated in England, surprised

his acquaintance,

Nicholson flute lay in the unusual

the capabilities of the

flute

were

ail

of

make
of the

But, even

size of the holeSc

The

in tune.

in better tune than those

at that time manufactured

been thinking

secret of the

instrument were very limited,

was quite

that of P, no scale

to

power

Bohm, who hastened

and soon found that the

scales

flute, as

Bohm. had long

which should combine fulness

flute

so,

except

on the Bohm

upon the Nicholson

by the English makers.

making a

for,

of

but he forese.w that this

(jould

not be accomplished without a change of fingering, and he

knew

tone with accui-acy of intonation

how

difficult it

one system

would be to induce musicians,

all their lives, to

London, however, he

Daring

take to another.

finally resolved to carry

who had practised

this visit to

out his long-cherished

purpose.

In December

was

finished.

of the

He

year 1832, his

succeeding year, 1833, played

great success.

new flute, with its new scale,

new fingering, and in the

soon mastered, the

it

in Paris,

and

also in

London, with

Savartj the professor of acoustics, at first received Bohra very

coldly,

and declared that

keys was impossible

all

to play the scale

but when he heard

astonished that he himself introduced

Bohm

In London,

He

Bohm

on the

flute in

Bohm do
to the

this,

tune in

he was so

Academy.

created quite as great a sensation as in Paris.

Gardo

imrtiouiarly impressed Gordon, a retired officer of the

Koyale of

Cliarles

an enthusiastic
o the

Bohm

X.

renewed his acquaintance with Biihm, and was

initiated into his system

made

for

he

for

him

He

Munich by

at

a pupil of Drouet, and

once comprehended the advantages

flute plnyer, at

flute,

who was

(jrordon,

beli jved that

the

Bohm

To

could be simplified so as

this notion

by constant

to have a flute tube

workman, but without keys

Bohm mechanism

to rerralre eight keys only.

his days, undeterred

induced

his best

he clmig

failure, or

to the

end

of

by Bohm's warning,

that to obtain power, equality, and freedom of tone, together with

fluency of execution

and accuracy

thirteen sound-holes

of intonation, with a flute having

and only eight keys, was an

impossibility.

This notion of Gordon's had already become a sort of monomania.

He

clung to

to the

it

end of his life a very sad end,

as

we

are

told.

Gordon

left

Loiidon "pen de temps apres votre depart pour

Munich,'' as he writes in a letter of the 15th February, 1833.

was then working, as we have

holes of the

Bohm

system, but with only eight keys, which, as he

wrote, he Inmself had made.

This flute was barely playable in

In rapid passages the very unequal tone

slow movements.

recurring difficulties of execution to bad workmanship

looked upon the flutes he had

In a

])y

letter

me

made thus

far as

so that he

mere models.

from Lausanne, dated February, 1833, which

moment, he requests Bohm

at this

to

have a

flute

one of hia very best workmen on his (Gordon's) model.

answered that
Munich.

He

it

lies

made
Bohm.

would be better that Gordon should come to

followed this advice, and arrived in Munich, July,

1833, where he remained

disposition one of his

away

fre-

Gordon, however, ascribed these ever-

quently missed altogetlier.

before

ile

seen, at a flute with the thirteen

in London.

till

most

March, 1834;
skilful

Bohm

placing at his

workmen, but being himself

76
Model

after

myself at

model was made and rejected one

first

well-made

his

new

At length a

witnessed these unsuccessful attempts.

upon Gordon's model was

flute

brought his invention before the public.

flute in Paris,

In

under the name of

finished,
1

La

after another.

and he

at once

834 Gordon advertised

Flute

and

J)iat(yniquey

brought out a lithographed " Table of Fingering " for it

In the introduction appended to

his Table of Fingering for the

Flute Biatonique, "fabriqu^e dans les ateliers de Bohm," he says

**

La

suppression des deux clefs de

Tapplication offre de grands avantages.

dieze,

communiquee par M.

merit adoptee

pour

<l*execution."

of the

(E, F,

Bohm

Fa

dieze est une id^e dont

Videe de

eette defy

de

Fa

de Munich, a ete avec son agre--

la presente Flute, dont elle complete les

moyens

This diatonic flute had, of course, the thirteen holes

Bohm system five of which remained open

F sharp, B, and C sharp),
;

for the fingers

Gordon's eight keys, intended for the other eight holes, were con-

nected with each other by contrivances of

of levers.

Above the

sorts a very puzzle

all

sharp hole were the ends of three keys,

-close together.

Five keys had ends shaped like hackers (like the

crescent of the

moon

five

days before

for the shakes.

They were placed

the holes, so that

when one key was

adjoining holes.

(Bohm
none

new moon), and

these were

in the shape of a sickle

down

pressed

it

round

closed

two

Gordon worked on with Bohm's best workman

himself being again away) with great perseverance, but

him. At length, despairing, he

went back to Switzerland, and we have no reliable account of what
became of him and his flute. It was reported that he threw it into
of his diatonic flutes satisfied

the Lake of Geneva, and died in a mad-house.

His one fixed idea

appears to have completely overmastered the intellect of that gallant

and amiable gentleman.

In that same year (1833)

Bohm went

again to London, and

created so great a sensation that the celebrated Dorus*, then a

young man,

* It was, I
general use

at once laid aside the old flute,

believe,

Dorus who introdnced the closed

among French

flautists.

W.

S. B.

and with his wonted

sharp key, which

is in

Bohm

energy and talent soon mastered the

Bohm

was introduced

flute

In 1837 the

flute.

into the Paris Conservatoire, after a

committee of which Savant, Prony, and Dulong were members

had borne the highest testimony

In 1846

Bohm

to its merits.

crowned his invention by substituting a cylinder

for the old conical bore

the head-joint, which

he also introduced that parabolic curve in

necessary for correctness of intonation in

is

This flute obtained the Gold Medal at the Universal

the high notes.

Exhibition (London, 1851), Berlioz taking an active part in the

Also at the Paris Exhibition, 1855,

decisions of the jurors.

off

the Gold Medal, to which

was added a most

Biihm

flute is

played upon

acknow-

At the present time the

ledgment of the merits of Bohm's system.

all

carried

it

flattering

over the civilized world.

Those who know how great

the distance which separates the

is

conceptions of even the happiest ideas from their realization and

introduction in a practical form will see a proof of the value of

Bohm's system in the

fact that it has at length established its posi-

tion in the musical world, notwithstanding the long-continued opposition of

many

leading artists.

In a

letter to

Bohm, already quoted,

Gordon writes that Drouet and Tulou approved

would not hear

Bohm's
not

its

flute

of a

would have been rejected

superiority been such as to

Thus I have again

old or new.

for the

am

same

had

reason,

throw into the shade

all

othersj

related in its general outlines the

history of the invention and development of the

bably I

of his flute, but

change of fingering.

Bohm

flute.

Pro-

the best witness as to the whole matter, for I lived

over fifty-two years with

my

friend

Bohm

under

my

guidance he

devoted himself most perseveringly to the study of acoustics.

witnessed his innumerable experiments, which embraced

all

wind

instruments, and which could only be carried out by one

who

united in

his

mechanism and

own

person a practical knowledge

of

technical

acoustic sciencCo

That such a man should have borrowed from others the ideas

upon which he founded the construction

no one can
In

of his instruments is

what

seriously believe.

latter years

Bohm

extended the compass of the

flute,

carrying

78
it

down from C

to the

low G, thus adding a new, powerful, and

instrument to the resources of musical art.*

efEective

mechanism, now used upon

keyed wind instruments

all

Bohm

have already secured for

class,

the

a permanent place in the

The keys upon the

history of musical instruments.

His key-

of the better

foot -joint of

formerly supported by " cheeks " cut out of the wood, and

flute,

having a brass pin for axle

were replaced by small

clumsy metal cups

also the equally

pillars

and slender

steel rods

and

axles,

revolving in the ball -shaped extremity of the pillar, and working

The

with the accuracy and precision of a chronometer.

steel springs of the

mechanism furnished the means

delicate

of uniting the

action of keys placed at opposite extremities of the flute tube, and

enabled the performer to cover a distant hole as perfectly, and with

the same certainty, as

if

the key lay beneath the finger.

indispensable for the large holes of the

covered by the unaided finger.

small holes

upon the Bohm

Bohm made, with

holes.
flutes,

and accustomed both

mechanism

finish of

Upon

Bohm

Keys are

they cannot be

the old flute the keys opened

keys hermetically close large

flute the

his

own

his

workmen and

as has seldom

flute

hands, the

first

batch of his

his successorf to such

been equalled and never sur-

passed.

(Signed)

Dr. Carl von Schafhaftl,

Koeniglich Akademiker, Conservator

und Univtrsitdts Professor.

Munich, January 23,

* This

is

Bohm, and

W.

(\n

allusion to the

used, I

am

told, in

882.

(bass) Ante, brought out only a

some German orchestras

few years ago by

to produce special effects.

S. B.

t Mr. Mendler,

of

Munlcb.--W.

S, B.

RUDALL, CARTE &

^^f^^-ji:

Manufacturers of the Boehni, Kockstro, Carte

c^

Co.

Boehm,

Radcliff and other Flutes.

Lists sent free on application

23

nERNERS STREET, LONDON W.

MESSRS.
Beg

CARTE

RUDALL,

&

CO.

to announce that they continue to manufacture

THE CYLINDER FLUTE

described in this Treatise, which

was patented by them

in

England

and France, from a communication made by M. Bohm to them in

the year 1847.

They make

this Flute

with

THE OEDINAKY BOHM FINGERmO,

and with several

OTHEll METHODS OF FINGERING.

They
first

are

made with the Cylinder Bore and

designed by

M. Bohm, and with

Parabolic Head-joint,

the holes placed according to

his theory.

Illustrated descriptive Price Lists

and

Lists of Flttte

Music

tvill

sent on application.

23,

RUDALL, CARTE & CO.,

BERNERS STREET, LONDON, W.

be

Fl C I.H
.

IH r

C.2|

F I G.3,

FIC.Q.

mhml

o
o

\y

O
O
o
o
m.

o
o
o

o
o

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^iMEAOIt.

ric.

8.

FIG.4

TRAN SVERSE
VIBRATIONS.
FIG.

6.

LON CI rUDINAL
VIBRATIONS.

FIC.7

788.5 B63

MUSIC

3 5002 00238 9786

Bohm, Theobald
An essay on the construction

HL ^36

B674 Ea

of flutes.

^5<f;a^li