The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences

Pokhara University, P. O. Box 427, Lekhnath, Kaski, NEPAL

Monographs on Datura
stramonium L

Submitted By
Bhakta Prasad Gaire

Bachelor in Pharmaceutical Sciences

(5th Batch)

Roll No. 29/2005

[2008]

[TYPE

THE COMPANY ADDRESS]

A Plant Monograph
on
Dhaturo
(Datura stramonium L.)

Prepared by
Bhakta Prasad Gaire
Roll No. 29/2005

Submitted to
The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences
Pokhara University,
Dhungepatan-12, Lekhnath, Kaski, NEPAL

2008
ii

PREFACE
Datura was quite abundantly available in my village (Kuwakot-8, Syangja) since the
days of my ancestors. Although it's medicinal uses were not so clear and established at
that time, my uncle had a belief that when given along with Gaja, it'll cure diarrhea in
cattle. But he was very particular of its use in man and was constantly reminding me not
to take it, for it can cause madness. I, on the other hand was very curious and often used
to wonder how it looks and what'll actually happen if I take it. This curiosity was also
fuelled by other rumours floating around in the village, of the cases of mass hysteria
which happened when people took Datura with Panchamrit and Haluwa during
Shivaratri and Swasthani Puja.
It was in 2052 B.S (I was in class 3 at that time) when an incident happened. One day I
came earlier from school (around 2'0 clock), only to find nobody at home. The door was
locked and I frantically searched for my mother and sister, but in vain. I was extremely
hungry after long hours at school but there was nothing I could do rather than sit and wait
for my mother to come. As I sat there, waiting, my eyes fell upon the plants of Datura in
the orchard which bore some ripe fruits as well. Suddenly out of impulsiveness and
hunger, I snatched some of the fruits (which contained thousands of seeds) and started
chewing. I found the taste quite peculiar, sweet at first and later bitter at the time of
swallowing. So there I was, a small boy who had just taken a handful of Datura despite
all the cautionary advice from elders in the past. The result was something I would never
forget. By the time the clock struck four, I had gone mad. I ran everywhere; roads that
were bumpy seemed smooth to me. I even ran headlong to the wall since it seemed non
existent. Later of course, I had numerous scratches and cuts in my body as a reminder.
Terrified of what had happened to me, my mum took me to the local healer (Jhankri). But
I was not the one to be controlled; I sat on his shoulder with each of my leg dangling
down his chest and pretended that I was riding a horse. Now, whenever that scene comes
in front my eyes, I can't help but laugh over the angry face of the Jhankri and the carefree
face of a young child who was determined at riding him despite his will. But at that time
it wasn't funny; it was a sheer madness in my part and a forceful attempt on his, to control.
The healer even tried to scare me by a burning log but I, rather than backing away, caught
it and burned my hand. This incident left in them no doubt that there was nothing else
they could do and so, they tied me up. On the third day, the effect finally left me. When I
woke up, I had a body covered with bruises and cuts and a burnt hand. Needless to say, I
fell sick for one whole week. Later, when everyone asked me, I replied truthfully that I
had taken Datura.
So, after this incident, I was curious to know about the constituent in Datura that had
caused me to go mad and the actual mechanism behind it. I tried searching for the answer
while I was doing my intermediate in Science but wasn't quite able to gain the whole
information. Luckily, when I got the chance to write a monograph on a plant, as a part of
my syllabus here in P.U, I chose Datura. Now I know that the quantity of Datura that I
had taken at that time was 'more than lethal dose. I was lucky that I even lived to see this
day. So, I would like to suggest everyone not to use any toxic substances without their
complete information. For anyone who would like to gain complete information on
Datura, I suggest them to please follow this monograph.
iii

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Purusotam Basnet, the former Dean,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Pokhara University who was the source of
inspiration for me to write this monograph.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Natasa Skalko-Basnet, the former
Program Director, The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Pokhara
University for her frequent enthusiastic suggestion to prepare the monograph.
I would like to express my humble gratitude to Mr. Sushil Pant, Program Co-ordinator,
The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Pokhara University for his
guidance, valuable advice and constant support to complete this monograph.
I would like to express my best regards to Mr. Namraj Dhami, Lecturer, The School of
Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Pokhara University for his proper guidance,
valuable suggestions and corrections which were the keys to bring this monograph at this
final stage.
I am sincerely thankful to my teachers; Mr. Pankaj Ranjan Karn, Mr. Dhakaram Bhandari,
Mr. Hari Prasad Devkota, Mr. Khem Raj Joshi, and Ms. Bindu Thapa for their continuous
encouragement to complete this monograph.
I would thankful my seniors; Mr. Hridaya Shrestha, and Mr. Atisamodavardhana
Kaundinnyayana for their guidance and help to prepare the monograph.
I would like to thank to librarians of Pokhara University, especially Mr. Hemanta Kandel
and computer technicians Mr. Laxuman Bastola for providing me facilities available
there.
I cant stand without giving thanks to my friends; Taraman Kadayat, Ramakanta
Lamichhane and Ganesh Bist for their invaluable help to complete the monograph.
I want to remember my roommate Mr. Chitra Bahadur Sunar for helping and providing
me an appropriate environment to complete the monograph. Also I cant forget my friend
Ms. Angeela Adhikari, and to all my classmates for their constant help and
encouragement.
I have no words to express my gratitude to my respected family members for their moral
support and sacrifice.
And at the last but not the least I am very much thankful to all people who supported me
directly or indirectly to prepare this monograph.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
MONOGRAPHS ON DATURA STRAMONIUM L. ................................. 1
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 2
1.1 Origin: ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 History: ..................................................................................................................... 3

2. NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................. 5
2.1 Scientific name: ........................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Synonyms :................................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Classification: ........................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Local names of D. stramonium in different languages in Nepal: ............................ 6
2.5 Sanskrit names: ......................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Local names in different languages outside Nepal: .................................................. 7
2.7 Medicinally used other species: ................................................................................ 9

3. DISTRIBUTION/HABITAT ................................................................... 9
4. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION ............................................................. 11
4.1 Plants parts: ............................................................................................................. 11
4.1.1 Whole plants: ................................................................................................... 11
4.1.2 Root:................................................................................................................. 12
4.1.3 Stem: ................................................................................................................ 12
4.1.4 Leaves: ............................................................................................................. 12
4.1.5 Inflorescence: ................................................................................................... 13
4.1.6 Flowers:............................................................................................................ 15
4.1.6.1 Calyx: ............................................................................................................ 15
4.1.6.2 Corolla: ......................................................................................................... 16
4.1.6.3 Androcium: ................................................................................................... 16
4.1.6.4 Gynocium:..................................................................................................... 16
4.1.7 Fruits: ............................................................................................................... 17
4.1.8 Seeds: ............................................................................................................... 18

5. PHARMACOGNOSTICAL CHARACTERS AND

PHARMACOPOEAL STANDARDS ....................................................... 19
5.1 Genetic characters: .................................................................................................. 19
5.2 Microscopic characters: .......................................................................................... 20
5.2.1 Histology of D. stramonium leaf: .................................................................... 20
5.2.2 Powder analysis: .............................................................................................. 22
5.2.3 Microscopy of seed: ......................................................................................... 23
5.3 Quality parameters: ................................................................................................. 24
5.4 Gas chromatographic (GC) evaluation of atropine and scopolamine from D.
stramonium ................................................................................................................... 25
5.5 Organoleptic Properties: ......................................................................................... 26
5.5.1 Root .................................................................................................................. 26
5.5.2 Stem ................................................................................................................. 26
5.5.3 Leaf .................................................................................................................. 26
5.5.4 Flower .............................................................................................................. 26

6. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION: ....................................................... 27

v

6.1 Cultivation: ............................................................................................................. 27

6.1.1 Cultivation practices: ....................................................................................... 27
6.1.1.1 Temperature: ................................................................................................. 29
6.1.1.1.1 Untreated Seeds versus Temperature: ....................................................... 29
6.1.1.1.2 Mechanically Scraped Seeds versus Temperature: ................................... 29
6.1.1.2 Light: ............................................................................................................. 31
6.1.1.3 Humidity: ...................................................................................................... 31
6.1.1.4 Requirements for cultivation practices ......................................................... 31
6.1.1.4.1 Climate ....................................................................................................... 31
6.1.1.4.2 Soil ............................................................................................................. 31
6.1.1.4.3 Manures and fertilizer management .......................................................... 31
6.1.1.4.4 Sowing ........................................................................................................ 31
6.1.1.4.5 Weeding and interculture ........................................................................... 32
6.1.1.4.6 Irrigation .................................................................................................... 32
6.1.1.4.7 Improved varieties ..................................................................................... 32
6.1.1.4.8 Yield ........................................................................................................... 32
6.2 Ecology: .................................................................................................................. 32
6.3 Soil and manure: ..................................................................................................... 33
6.3.1 Pot experiment ................................................................................................. 33
6.3.2 Field Experiment .............................................................................................. 34
6.4 Soil pH requirements .............................................................................................. 36
6.5 Training and Pruning: ............................................................................................. 36
6.7 Nutrition: ................................................................................................................. 36
6.8 Pests and Diseases: ................................................................................................. 37
6.8.1 Diseases: .......................................................................................................... 37
6.8.1.1 Leaf spot: ...................................................................................................... 37
6.8.1.2 Carpospora leaf spot ..................................................................................... 37
6.8.1.3. Charcoal rot .................................................................................................. 38
6.8.2 Pests ................................................................................................................. 38
6.9 Varieties: ................................................................................................................. 40
6.10 Propagation: .......................................................................................................... 40
6.11 Tissue culture: ....................................................................................................... 40
6.12 Harvesting: ............................................................................................................ 46
6.13 Commercial value: ................................................................................................ 47

7. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS ........................................................... 48

7.1 Alkaloids: ................................................................................................................ 48
7.2 Variation of Alkaloids in diploid and tetraploid hairy root culture of D. stramonuim
....................................................................................................................................... 49
7.3 Chemical composition: ........................................................................................... 50
7.4 Structures of selected compounds:.......................................................................... 52

8. USES ........................................................................................................ 58
8.1 Mythological importance: ....................................................................................... 58
8.2 Social value: ............................................................................................................ 58
8.3 Traditional uses: ...................................................................................................... 59
8.4 Ethnomedicinal Uses: ............................................................................................. 61
8.5 Medicinal uses: ....................................................................................................... 62
vi

8.5.1 Asthma ............................................................................................................. 62

8.5.2 Epilepsy............................................................................................................ 62
8.5.3 Malaria ............................................................................................................. 63
8.5.4 Heart Disorders ................................................................................................ 63
8.5.5 Earache ............................................................................................................. 63
8.5.6 Impotency ........................................................................................................ 63
8.5.7 Baldness ........................................................................................................... 64
8.5.8 Problem of Breast Milk Secretion.................................................................... 64
8.5.9 Dizziness .......................................................................................................... 64
8.5.10 Parkinsons diseases....................................................................................... 64
8.5.11 Skin Diseases ................................................................................................. 64
8.5.12 Severe organophosphate (OP) poisoning ....................................................... 65
8.5.13 In Bleeding Disorder ...................................................................................... 65
8.5.14 In insanity....................................................................................................... 65
8.6 Medicinal uses of specific parts of D. stramonium................................................. 66
8.6.1 Roots and barks ................................................................................................ 66
8.6.2 Leaves .............................................................................................................. 66
8.6.3 Flower .............................................................................................................. 67
8.6.4 Fruits ................................................................................................................ 67
8.6.5 Seeds ................................................................................................................ 67
8.7 Homoeopathic uses: ................................................................................................ 67
8.8 Ayurvedic properties and uses: ............................................................................... 68
8.9 Other Uses:.............................................................................................................. 69
8.10 Therapeutic Potential of Datura ............................................................................ 70

9. TOXICOLOGY ...................................................................................... 71
9.1 Clinical effects of D. tramonium poisoning:........................................................... 74
9.2 Management of D. stramonium poisoning: ............................................................ 75

10. PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS .................................................. 77

10.1 Antibacterial effect of D. stramonium: ................................................................. 80

11. PREPARATION AND USES .............................................................. 80

11.1 Preparations: ......................................................................................................... 80
11.1.1 Extractum Stramonii. Extract of Stramonium .............................................. 80
11.1.2 Unguentum Stramonii, N.F. ........................................................................... 81
11.1.3. Tinctura Stramonii ........................................................................................ 81
11.1.4. Fluidextractum Stramonii, N.F. .................................................................... 81
11.2 Unofficial preparation: .......................................................................................... 81

12 RESEARCH UPDATE IN D. STRAMONIUM ................................... 81

13. HERBERIUM ....................................................................................... 86
14 GLOSSARIES ........................................................................................ 90
14.1 Glossary of Botanical Terms: ............................................................................... 90
14.2 Glossary of Medical Terms:.................................................................................. 93

15. REFERENCES...................................................................................... 96
15.1 Book References: .................................................................................................. 96
15.2 Journal References: ............................................................................................... 97
15.3 Web References: ................................................................................................... 99
vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Classification of D. stramonium
Table 2 Local names of D. stramonium in different languages in Nepal

6
6

Table 3 Language names of D. stramonium

7
Table 4 Medicinally used other species of Datura
9
Table 5 Quality parameters of D. stramonium
24
Table 6 Results showing the percentage of germination of D. stramonium at different
temperatures
30
Table 7 Results showing the percentage of germination of D. stramonium at different
soil conditions
35
Table 8 Tropane alkaloids in suspension cultures of D. stramonium
41
Table 9 Percentage of major alkaloids in different parts of D. stramonium
48
Table 10 Alkaloids in diploid and tetraploid hairy root culture of D. stramonium
49
Table 11 Chemical constituents of D. stramonium
50
Table 12 Central and peripheral effects induced by D. stramonium intoxication
72
Table 13 Symptoms of D. stramonium intoxication in 212 cases
73
Table 14 Change in clinical indices in horses after intoxication with D. stramonium 77

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 D. stramonium
Figure 2 Distribution D. stramonium
Figure 3 D. stramonium plants
Figure 4 Stem of D. stramonium
Figure 5 Leaves of D. stramonium
Figure 6 Inflorescence of D. stramonium
Figure 7 Flower of D. stramonium
Figure 8 Calyx of D. stramonium
Figure 9 Corolla of D. stramonium
Figure 10 Stamen of D. stramonium
Figure 11 Fruit of D. stramonium
Figure 12 Developmental stage of D. stramonium Fruit
Figure 13 Seeds of D. stramonium
Figure 14 Seeds inside the ripen fruit of D. stramonium
Figure 15 Fruit and Seed of D. straminium.
Figure 16 Histology of D. stramonim leaf
Figure 17 Microscopy of D. stramonium seed
Figure 18 Gas chromatographic standard curve of Atropine and Scopolamine
Figure 19 Growing phase of D. stramonium
Figure 20 Idioblast cells originated from semi-hyaline callus of D. stramonium
Figure 21 Micrograph of idioblast cells in semi-hyaline callus of leaf
Figure 22Nucleotide sequence and predicted amino acid sequence of the Datura.
Figure 23 Structures of selected compounds
Figure 24 Effect of Datura stramonium density on Gossypium hirsutum yield loss
viii

1
10
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
10
17
17
18
18
19
21
23
26
29
43
44
46
58
70

Figure 25 Herbarium sheet of D. stramonium

Figure 26 Herbarium sheet of D. stramonium
Figure 27 Developmental stage of D. stramonium fruit
Figure 28 D. stramonium Fruit maturation
Figure 29 Plant of D. stramonium

ix

87
88
89
89
90

MONOGRAPHS ON DATURA STRAMONIUM L.

Figure-1 Datura stramonium (URL-1)

1. INTRODUCTION
D. stramonium belongs to the Solanaceae family, which includes all the nightshades and
agricultural plants such as eggplant, potatoes tomatoes, coffee and peppers. Solanaceae
family belongs to about 90 genera and three sub-families. There are around 3000-4000
different species in all. They are believed to have evolved primarily in tropical areas,
specifically in Latin America, allowing the family to develop extensive adaptive
variations, even before human exploitation for crops. The particular characteristics of D.
stramonium that are most notable are its poisonous nature and noxious smell, probably
defenses against herbivores and attractive to some pollinators. The seed pods are also
covered with sharp spines, to prevent animal ingestion of the seeds. A notable
comparison can be made to another member of the nightshade family, peppers, which use
spicy chemicals toward off predators.
The genus Datura shows the presence of huge genetic diversity. The classification of
different species has relied heavily on genetic markers, which have lead to the discovery
that this genus and family have immense variation due to mutation. This is probably
linked to the genus' source in the tropics, where biodiversity is highest, even within
species. (URL-2)

1.1 Origin:
It is doubtful to which country this plant originally belonged. Many European botanists
refer it to North America, while there it is looked on as a denizen of the Old World.
Nuttall considers it originated in South America or Asia, and it is probable that its native
country is to be found in the East. Alphonse de Candolle in Geographie Botanique (1855),
gives it as his opinion that D. stramonium is indigenous to the Old World, probably to the
borders of the Caspian Sea or adjacent regions, but certainly not India; it grows wild
abundantly in southern Russia from the borders of the Black Sea eastward to Siberia. Its
seeds are very retentive of life, and being often in the earth put on shipboard for ballast,
from one country to another, the plant is thus propagated in all regions, and it is now
spread throughout the world, except in the colder or Arctic regions. Gypsies are also said
to have had a share in spreading the plant by means of its seeds from western Asia into
Europe. In the United States, it is now a familiar weed, found everywhere in the vicinity
of cultivation, especially about barnyards, timber-yards, docks and waste places,
frequenting dung-heaps, the roadsides and commons, and other places where a rank soil
is created by the deposited refuse of towns and villages. Where the plant grows
abundantly, its vicinity may be detected by the rank odour which it diffuses.
Notwithstanding the abundance of the plant in North America, it is cultivated there in
order to obtain a drug of uniform quality. The Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, has conducted experiments on a large scale: several hundred
pounds of leaf were grown and cured by artificial heat in a tobacco barn, proving of
excellent quality, being marketed at a price in advance of the highest quoted figures. In
Great Britain, it is only occasionally found and can scarcely be considered naturalized
here, though it is sometimes met with in the south of England, generally in rich, waste
ground, chiefly near gardens or dwellings. It is sometimes grown in private gardens in
England as an ornamental plant. It was cultivated in London towards the close of the
2

sixteenth century. The name Stramonium is of uncertain origin: some authorities claim
that it is derived from the Greek name of the mad apple. Stramonia was the name of D.
metel at Venice, in the middle of the sixteenth century, and the plant is figured under that
title in the great Herbals of Tragus and Fuchsius. D. stramonium seems to have been a
later introduction into Europe than D. metel, not becoming general till after the middle of
the sixteenth century, but as it rapidly spread and became a common plant, the name of
the latter was transferred to it. The generic name, Datura, is from the Hindoo Dhatura,
derived from the Sanskrit, Dhustura, applied to the Indian species fastuosa, well known
to the mediaeval Arabian physicians under the name of Tatorea. (URL-3)

1.2 History:
D. stramonium was grown in England by Gerarde towards the end of sixteenth century
from seeds obtained from Constantinopole.The generic name, Datura, is derived from the
name of the poison, dhat, which is prepared from Indian species and was used by the
Thugs. (Evans, 2008)
De Candolle considered D. Tatula to be a native of Central America, then it was imported
into Europe in the sixteenth century, and naturalized first in Italy and then in South-west
Europe, where it is very common. It occurs in England more rarely than D. stramonium,
under similar conditions and seems a more tender plant. It is sometimes cultivated here.
The properties of both species are the same. In early times, the Thorn apple was
considered an aid to the incantation of witches, and during the time of the witch and
wizard mania in England, it was unlucky for anyone to grow it in his garden. (URL-3)
The generic name Datura is taken from the Arabic name for this plant, Dhatura. The
Latin species name stramonium is the old generic name for this genus. The word is
thought to be from struma which means swollen. (URL-4)
D. stramonium is native to either India or Central America. It was used as a mystical
sacrament in both possible places of origin. The Native Americans have used this plant in
sacred ceremonies. In some tribes Datura was involved in the ceremonies of manhood.
The sadhus of Hinduism also used Datura as a spiritual tool, smoking it with cannabis in
their traditional chillums. It was also widely used by the Magyar (Hungarian) spiritual
leaders (the Taltos) since ancient times. In the United States it is called jimson weed,
gypsum weed, angel trumpet, hells bells or more rarely Jamestown weed; it got this name
from the town of Jamestown. (URL-5)
The effects of jimsonweed on the central nervous system have been exploited medicinally,
recreationally and criminally. Long ago in India and Russia, ground-up seeds were mixed
with water and used by thieves to daze victims before robbing them. The herb causes
sedation, lack of will, and amnesia, so that victims were cooperative without being asleep.
The Thugs, who belonged to an ancient Indian religious organization that worshiped Kali,
the goddess of destruction, used the same mixture to rob and murder people. In Europe,
thornapple seeds were well-known during the Renaissance as a poison.

In ancient times, the priests of Apollo at Delphi ingested small doses of jimsomweed
leaves in order to inspire them when making prophecies.
In China, jimsomweed was prescribed for diseases of the feet, and for its sedative
effects. Jimsonweed has also been used in China for flatulence, hyperacidity, and night
sweats caused by tuberculosis. Asians also used the leaves as a painkiller, a decoction for
skin problems, and a powder as an inhalant for respiratory problems. In India, seeds were
prescribed to relieve epilepsy and heart disease. The dried leaves have been used in
cigarettes as a treatment for asthma and bronchial complaints. Datura extracts have also
been added to bronchial medications. In Europe, the dried leaves were as a treatment for
asthma and cough (the anticholinergics in thorn apple would be expected to have a
beneficial effect on asthma) the treatment was occasionally fatal.
Mexican Indians ingested a leaf decoction to relieve childbirth pains (later, scopolamine
was used for this purpose).
In Europe, thorn apple seeds and extracts were used to treat mania, seizures, melancholy,
rheumatism, and madness. Thorn apple was also prescribed as an anodyne (painkiller), an
antispasmodic, and to treat seizures, delirium tremens, neuralgia, and rheumatism.
In Britain, an ointment made of thorn apple juice boiled in lard was used to treat
inflammation and burns. The juice from the fruit has been used in an effort to prevent
hair loss, while the juice from the flowers was used for earache. A leaf poultice of
jimsonweed leaves has been used to treat cancer. (URL-6)
An interesting example of this is happened to British soldiers in 1676 sent to Jamestown,
Virginia to quell Bacon's Rebellion. After including D. stramonium in a salad, the
soldiers were reported to have gone mad for eleven or so days before the effects finally
wore off. This incident is probably the source for Datura's common name jimsonweed, a
shortened version of James Town weed.
From an anthropological perspective, the use of D. stramonium by Algonquin Indians of
Virginia in their huskanawing ceremony provides an excellent example, of the role of
hallucinogens during the liminal period in rites of passage. The concept of liminality was
first discussed by Arnold Van Gennep in his Rites of Passaga (1908) and later elaborated
on by Victor Turner. The liminal period is one part of rites of passage during which
initiates are removed from social space and involved in reflection and learning about their
particular society. Victor Turner has pointed to the importance of studying this
phenomenon in order to understand processes of social change generationally within a
culture. The use of Datura in this rite provides such insight.
Beverly in his History of Virginia (1705) described the rite of huskanawing. The rite was
practiced by Algonquins every fourteen or sixteen years and involved taking the
"choicest and briskest" young men of the society into the woods and ritually
administering an intoxicating medicine (wysoccan), containing Datura, to them. The rite
was necessary if the young men hoped to become great men or officers within their
society. Kept in cages or enclosures for several months, the local medicine men carefully
fed the boys only wysoccan, causing them to become "stark, raving mad" for a period of
eighteen or twenty days so as to "perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things,
even of their parents, their treasure, and their language." When sufficient dosages had
4

been administered, the amount was reduced gradually and the young men slowly returned
to their senses. But before the potion completely wore off, the boys were brought back,
into their village and carefully observed to see if any memories of their former life as
boys were discovered. If one did show signs of remembering, the entire ritual had to be
undergone again, this time greatly endangering the life of the initiate.
While the above descriptions make it appear like Datura is a fairly widely used,
relatively harmless hallucinogenic plant, this is not at all the case. There is adequate
reason for Datura's dark reputation and probably one of the more famous examples has to
do with Abraham Lincoln's mother, Nancy Hanks. She apparently drank milk from a
local cow that had grazed on the plant and consequently developed "milk sickness," a
slow but fatal disease. Her death affected Lincoln tremendously and caused the President
to remain abstinent from alcohol for the remainder of his life. The possibility of
poisoning when taking Datura is fairly high and occurs often with symptoms similar to
belladonna.
With its long history of human usage, one may ask how people learned to use Datura
safely. One possible answer lies in the foraging habits of animals. Tribal peoples, living
in a much closer relationship with nature, probably observed the effects Datura had on
different species of animals and copied their eating strategies when consuming the
hallucinogen themselves. Modern scientists have watched hawk moths feed on the
flowers at night and become disoriented. Nonetheless, the moths continue to attempt to
return to the plant for further feeding. Hummingbirds also favor Datura and after
ingesting the narcotic perch, fluff their feathers, and then freeze stiff like corpses for
several hours. Other research has also demonstrated that animals chose to eat
hallucinogenic plants on an infrequent basis only, seeming to realize that tolerances can
easily develop with regular usage.
Interestingly, some animals are unaffected by Datura. Beetles have developed
biochemical defenses against the plants potent chemicals and ants appear to have done
the same, often being observed carrying away the seeds. Bees are unaffected as well and
various species of birds are known to eat the seeds, thereby acting as a dispersal
mechanism for the plant. Using animals as a model to learn from, ancient hunters and
gatherers probably began using Datura and many incorporated it into shamanistic rituals,
a more controlled environment for ingestion of such a powerful and dangerous
hallucinogen. (URL-7)

2. NOMENCLATURE
2.1 Scientific name:
Datura stramonium L.

2.2 Synonyms :
D. inermis Juss. ex Jacq.
D. chalybea W. D. J. Koch,
D. tatula (L.) Torr.
(URL-5)

2.3 Classification:
Table1:- Classification of D. stramonium (URL-8)
Kingdom
Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom
Tracheobionta Vascular plants
Superdivision
Spermatophyta Seed plants
Division
Magnoliophyta Flowering plants
Class
Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons
Subclass
Asteridae
Order
Solanales
Family
Solanaceae Potato family
Genus
Datura L.
Species
D. stramonium L.

2.4 Local names of D. stramonium in different languages in

Nepal:
Table 2:- Local names of D. stramonium in different languages in Nepal (Manandhar,
2002)
Nepali
Newari
Tamang
Tharu
Tibetan

Dhaturo, Seto dhaturo

Dhaturo
Dhaturo
Dhataur
Madak, Rda-rdu-ra

2.5 Sanskrit names:

wQ"/w"Q{w'Q"/f pGdQ sgsfoM.
b]jtf lstj:t'/L dxfdf]xL lzjlk|oM
dft'nf] dbgIR>fo kmn] dft'n k'qsM
Dhatturdhurtadhustura Unmatta: Kanakahwaya:. Dewatakitawasturi Mahamohi
Shivapriya:.
Matulo Madanashchasya phale Matulaputraka:.
6

(Shastri, 1997)

Devika
Devata
Dhatttira
Dhurta
Dhurtakrit
Dhustura
Dhuttura
Ghantpushpa

Ghantika
Haravallabha
Kahalapushpa
Kalama
Kali
Kanaka
Kanakaohaya
Kantaphala
Khala
Kharadushana
Kharjhugna
Kitava

Krishnadhattura
Madakara
Madana
Madanaka
Mahamohi
Mahashatha
Matula
Matulaka
Matta
Mohana
Purimoha
Savisha

Shaiva
Sama
Shatha
Shivapriya
Shivashekhara
Shyama
Tarala
Turi
Unmatta
Unmattaka

(Kritikar and Basu, 1999; Khare, 2007 and Joshi, 2000)

2.6 Local names in different languages outside Nepal:

Table 3:- Language names of D. stramonium
Country

Common names

Afghanistan

Datura, Kachola

Afrikaans

Olieblaar, Olieneut, Pietjie Laporte, Stjnkblaar

Adkim

Mmofra dhwene Pepediawu

Arabic

Janzelmathil

Ashanti

Pepediawu

Bengal

Sadadhutura

Brazil

Estramonio, Figueira do inferno

Canarese

Bilidattura, Biliyummatta, Dattura, Datturi, Dhattura, Dhustura,

Duttura, Dutturi, Kariyummatta, Maddugunikke, Ummatta

Catalan

Estramoni, Figuera infernal borda, Rerba taupera

Chinese

Chan Kiue Tse, Tou Kiue Eul, Tsoui Sin Hoa

Danish

Pigaeble

Dutch

Doornappel

English

Apple of Peru, Devils Apple, Devils Trumpet, Dewtry, Jamestown,

Weed, Jimson Weed, Mad Apple, Stink Weed, Thorn Apple,
Stramonium

Fingo

UmVumbangwe

French

Chasse-taupe, Endormeuse, Endormie, Estramon, Herbe aux demons,

Herbe des dmoniaques, Herbe du diable, Herbe aux magiciens, Herbe
des magiciens, Herbe aux sorciers, Herbe a Ia taupe, Hirare, Jusquiame
du Prou, Pomette, Pomme du diable, Pomme pineuse, Pomme du
Prou, Pomme de valle, Put-put, Trompette du jugement

Ga

Blorfongrnetsho, Owura kofi

German

Asthmakraut, Botschen, Dollkraut, Dornapfel, Kroetenmelde, Nagwart,

Stechapfel, Taternkraut, Tobkraut, Tollkraut, Zigeunerkraut

Greek

Strychnos manikos

Hungarian

Maszlag, Tsattanto

Italian

Imbutone blanco, Noce spinosa, Porno spinoso, Stramonio

Japanese

Cyosen, Asagavo

Languedoc

Darboussiero

Loraiai

Shiriah azghi

Malayalam

Matulam, Ummam, Ummata

Llexic

Tiaplafi

Norwegian

Piggeple

Persian

Nanulah, Tatulah

Polish

Psinki

Portuguese

Estranionia, Figueira do inferno

Punjab

Dattura, Tattur

Roumanian

Bolandarita, Ciuma fak

Russian

Durman, Durnjshnjk

South Africa
.

Apple of Peru, Devils Apple, Devils Trumpet, Dewtry, Fireweed,

Jamestown Lily, Jamestown Weed, Jimson Weed, Mad Apple,
Stinkweed, Stinkwort, Thornapple, White Stinkweed, White
Stramonium

Spanish

Estramonio, Higuera loca, Trompetilla

Suto

Mphu fi, Lethsowe, Lethsowi

Swedish

Spikkluhha

Tamil

Emanamani, Simaiy iimattaj, Turutturam, Umattai. Vellumattai

Telugu

Duttu ramu, Tellavummetta, Ummetta

Tonga

Zabazaha

Tulu

Umbe
8

Turkis

Tatule

Urdu

Dhatura

Uriya

Dhutura, Sukladhutura

Xosa

UmHlavuthwa

Zulu

iLogi, iYoli
(Kritikar and Basu, 1935 and Joshi, 2000)

2.7 Medicinally used other species:

Table 4:- Medicinally used other species of Datura
Europe
China
Cambodia
Malasiya
Annam
La Reunion
Central
Australia
Chile
Brazil
Guiana
California
Guinea.
Gold Coast
South Africa

D. ferox L., D. metel L., D. stramonium L.

D. alba Nees.
D. metel L.
D. alba Nees., D. fastuosa L., D. metel L.
The Philippine Islands, the Islands of Madagascar, D. alba Nees. D.
fastuosa L.
D. alba Nees.
D. hopwooclii F. v. Muell.
D. arborea L.
D. stramonium L.
D. ceratocaula Jacq., D. stramonium L.
D. meteioides DC.
D. metel L.
D. metel L., D. stramonium L.
D. stramonium L., D. tatula L.

(Kritikar and Basu, 1999)

3. DISTRIBUTION/HABITAT
D. stramonium is naturalized to all four deserts of the American Southwest. Species of
Datura can be found throughout the world, except in the colder or Artic regions. The
plant lives in sandy flats, plains, arroyos up to 2,500 feet above sea level, and amidst
disturbed soils. Jimson weed is commonly seen among roadsides in the Southwest.
(URL-9, URL- 12)

It is mainly found in The Himalaya from Kasmir to Sikkim up to 2700 m, hilly district of
central and south India. (Khare, 2007)

Densely present

Figure-2 Distribution of D. stramonium in the World (URL-11)

Being of tropical origin, D. stramonium is a cosmopolitan weed of the warmer regions of
North, Central and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. It grows nearly throughout
the United States except for the Northwest and northern Great Plains, and as such is
found throughout Pennsylvania. (URL-12)
It is essentially a temperate plant but is found growing in the vicinity of cultivation, on
rank soil, where refuse is deposited, in all parts of world. (Joshi, 2000)
Datura is distributed throughout the world, particularly the warmer regions. D.
stramonium is indigenous to India. Out of 15 species reported from different parts of the
world, only 10 are known to occur in India. They are found commonly in wastelands,
gardens and roadsides. They are distributed in rich localities under semi-arid and arid
regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajastan, and Gujarat; the Central Plateau of Andhra Pradesh
and Maharastra and the southern peninsular region of Tamil Nadu. D. innoxia is
indigenous to Mexico and is distributed in Latin American countries. A wealth of genetic
stock on genotypes and varieties are maintained in several research institutes in Germany,
Bulgaria, USSR and Poland. Geographic distribution of D. stramonium is widely present
across the United States. It has been reported in every state except Alaska and Wyoming.
10

Although most commonly found in agricultural areas, especially where grazing is present,
the plant can thrive in a wide variety of climatic. In non-agricultural areas it can be
located on the side of roads, where the soil has been disturbed. In California, the presence
of Jimson weed has been expertly confirmed in every county along the coast except Del
Norte and Mendocino, and its presence completely encircles the Bay Area. In Southern
California the plant is present in every county along the coast and also inland in San
Bernadino and Kern Counties. Jimson weed can be observed mostly in disturbed areas,
like roadsides, agricultural fields and stream banks. While the plant can survive in
numerous moisture regimes, it is most prevalent in a xeric regime (hot, dry summer, wet,
cool winter). It requires an abundance of sunlight, and is rarely found in heavily wooded
areas. It is not found in mountainous areas above the tree line. Although D. stramonium
has an annual or short perennial life cycle, the seeds can remain viable for long periods of
time, perhaps explaining its wide distribution throughout the United States. (URL-13,
URL-14).

4. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
4.1 Plants parts:

4.1.1 Whole plants:

A glabrous (sometime farinose) annual herb, 50- 200 cm, in height (Joshi, 2000). This
plant is a bushy, smooth, fetid, annual plant, and in rich soil. (URL-9, URL- 15)
The Thorn apple is a large and coarse herb, though an annual, branching somewhat freely,
giving a bushy look to the plant. Its spreading branches covering an area almost as broad.
On rich soil it may attain a height of even 6 feet. The plant is smooth, except for a slight
downiness on the younger parts, which are covered with short, curved hairs, which fall
off as growth proceeds. It exhales a rank, very heavy and somewhat nauseating narcotic
odour. This foetid odour arises from the leaves, especially when they are bruised, but the
flowers are sweet-scented, though producing stupor if their exhalations are breathed for
any length of time. (URL-3)

11

Figure-3 D. stramonium plants (URL-16)

4.1.2 Root:

The root is rather large, of a whitish color, giving off many fibers, very long - thick. Root
system consists of taproot that is shallow for the size of the plant; it branches frequently.
(URL-3, URL-17)
4.1.3 Stem:

The stem is green or purple and largely hairless, although young stems often have
conspicuous hairs, cylindrical, fistular. Stem is stout, erect and leafy, smooth, a pale
yellowish green in color, branching repeatedly in a forked manner, and producing in the
forks of the branches a leaf and a single, erect flower. (URL-3, URL-17)
4.1.4 Leaves:

12

The alternate leaves are up to 8 cm long and 6 cm across (excluding the petioles). They
are ovate or ovate-cordate in outline, but pinnately lobed. These lobes are somewhat
shallow and pointed at their tips; there are usually 2-3 of these lobes on each side of the
leaf blade. The margin of each leaf may have a few secondary lobes or coarse dentate
teeth; otherwise it is smooth or slightly undulate. The leaves may be slightly pubescent
when young, but become hairless with age; the upper surface of each leaf is often dark
green and dull. The foliage of Jimsonweed exudes a bitter rank odor. Leaves are cauline
and ramal, exstipulate; alternate to opposite, petiolate, simple, dissected, acute, glabrous,
unicosted, reticular venation. The leaves are large and angular, uneven at the base, with a
wavy and coarsely-toothed margin, and have the strong, branching veins very plainly
developed. The upper surface is dark and grayish-green, generally smooth, the under
surface paler, and when dry, minutely wrinkled. (Keshari, 2005; URL-3, URL-17)

Figure-4 Stem of D. stramonium

(URL-16)

Figure-5 Leaves of D. stramonium

(URL-16)

4.1.5 Inflorescence:

Solitary, erect axillary (Keshari, 2005; URL-18)

13

Figure-6 Inflorescence of D. stramonium (URL-19)

14

4.1.6 Flowers:

Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, actinomorphic, bisexual, complete, regular,

pentamerous, except fourth whorl, hypogynous. The plant flowers nearly all the summer.
The flowers are large and handsome, about 3 inches in length, growing singly on short
stems springing from the axils of the leaves or at the forking of the branches. The flowers
are succeeded by large, egg shaped seed capsules of a green color, about the size of a
large walnut and covered with numerous sharp spines, hence the name of the plant. When
ripe, this seed-vessel opens at the top, throwing back four valve-like forms, leaving a
long, central structure upon which are numerous rough, dark-brown seeds. The
appearance of the plant when in flower and fruit is so peculiar that it cannot be mistaken
for any other native herb. (Keshari, 2005; URL-3)

4.1.6.1 Calyx:
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, tubular, five toothed, sepaloid, hairy, persistent, valvate
aestivation, inferior. The calyx is long, tubular and somewhat swollen below, and very
sharply five-angled, surmounted by five sharp teeth. (Keshari, 2005; URL-3)

Figure-7 Flower of D. stramonium (URL-16)

15

Figure-8 Calyx of D. stramonium

(URL-16)

4.1.6.2 Corolla:
Petals 5, gamopetalous, petals fused at the base, infundibuliform, surface hairy, white,
twisted aestivation, inferior. The corolla, folded and only half-opened, is funnel-shaped,
of a pure white, with six prominent ribs, which are extended into the same number of
sharp pointed segments. The flowers open in the evening for the attraction of night-flying
moths, and emit a powerful fragrance. The funnel form corolla of each flower is up to 5"
long and 2" across when fully open; its outer rim has 5 shallow lobes. Each of these lobes
forms an acute point in the middle. The corolla is white or pale violet throughout, except
at the throat of the flower, where thick veins of dark violet occur (Keshari; 2005, URL-3,
URL-16)

4.1.6.3 Androcium:
Stamens 5, polyandrous, alternipetalous, epipetalous, filament long and smooth, anthers
dithecous, basifixed, introse, inferior. (Keshari, 2005)

Figure-9 Corolla of D. stramonium

(URL-16)

Figure-10 Stamen of D. stramonium

(URL-16)

4.1.6.4 Gynocium:
Carpels two (bicarpellary), syncarpous, ovary posterior obliquely placed to the right and
anterior to the left, superior, bilocular with many ovules on swollen placentae, axile
placentation, style long, stigma small, bilobed and capitate (Keshari, 2005)
16

4.1.7 Fruits:

Each flower is replaced by a hard fruit that is dry and spiny; it is about 1 " long, 1"
across, and spheroid-ovoid in shape. Underneath each fruit is a truncated remnant of the
calyx that curves sharply downward. These fruits are initially green, but become brown
with maturity; they divide into 4 segments to release the seeds. (URL-17)

Figure-11 Fruit of D. stramonium (URL-16)

Figure-12 Developmental stage of D. stramonium Fruit (URL-20)

17

4.1.8 Seeds:

The large seeds are dull, irregular, and dark-colored; their surface may be pitted or
slightly reticulated. Jimsonweed spreads by reseeding itself. (URL-8)

Figure-13 Seeds of D. stramonium (URL-21, URL-22)

Figure-14 Seeds inside the ripen fruit of D. stramonium (URL-23)

18

Figure15 Fruit and Seed of D. straminium (From Pharmacognosy laboratory of The

School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Pokhara University)

5. PHARMACOGNOSTICAL CHARACTERS AND

PHARMACOPOEAL STANDARDS
5.1 Genetic characters:
Chromosome number-24, 48 (Joshi and Joshi, 2001)
The population of D. stramonium L. var. tatula T Orr and D. wrightii R Egel was
heterogeneous in the numerical and structural composition of karyotypes. Datura wrightii
contained, as well as aneuploid sets, a 35% karyotype with a diploid set of chromosomes
(2n = 24); there were no chromosomes with satellites and there were 1-2
microchromosomes in 29.6% of the metaphases. D. stramonium L. var. tatula included
biotypes with a chromosome number of 21-25; in 88.5% of the metaphases there were
chromosomes with satellites and 60% of the metaphases contained 1-3
microchromosomes. According to the content of the main alkaloids D. stramonium L. var.
tatula can be considered a predominantly hyoscyamine type, D. wrightii also containing
scopolamine (URL-24).

19

5.2 Microscopic characters:

5.2.1 Histology of D. stramonium leaf:

According of British Pharmacopoeia leaf of D. stramonium consists of the dried leaves of

flowering tops of D. stramonium and its varieties. The drug is required to contain not
less than 0.25% of alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine. (Evans; 2008)
The diagnostic characters of leaf microscopy are:
a. The abundant fragments of the leaf lamina in surface view. The upper epidermis is
composed of thin walled cells which are slightly sinuous in outline; the underlying
palisade cells are irregular in size and rather loosely packed. The cells of the lower
epidermis have markedly wavy walls and may occasionally show very slight
thickening at the corners. Anisosytic stomata are present on both surfaces, being
rather more numerous on the lower epidermis. In the regions over the veins, the
epidermal cells are straight-walled and elongated.
b. The covering and glandular trichomes, which are fairly abundant; they are usually
found scattered but may occasionally be found attached to fragments of the epidermis.
The covering trichomes are uniseriate, composed of three to four cells with thin,
conspicuously warty walls; they are markedly conical, being wide at the base and
tapering rapidly to the apex. The glandular trichomes have a short stalk and an ovoid
to pyriform head composed of from four to seven thin walled cells.
c. The cluster crystals of calcium oxalate which occur in a layer of cells in the spongy
mesophylls immediately below the palisade. Fragments of this layer are frequently
seen in surface view, attached to portions of the smaller veins; crystals are absent
from the cells adjacent to the veins but most of the other cells of the layer contain one,
or sometimes two, fairly large cluster crystals. Occasional prisms of calcium oxalate
also occur and some of the fragments of the crystal layer contains somewhat
abnormal crystals composed of a clusters embedded in a prism. All of these crystals
are found scattered in the powdered as well as contained in the cells of the crystal
layer
d. The fragments of the lamina in sectional view showing the tubular epidermal cells
with a smooth cuticle, the single layer of palisade cells with the underlying crystal
layer and the irregular cells forming the remainder of the mesophyll
e. The parenchyma of the mid rib composed of cells which are elongated longitudinally
and have slightly thickened walls. Several of these cells contain cluster crystal similar
to those found in the crystal layer of the lamina.
f. The occasional fairly large pollen grains which are sub-spherical with these pores and
an irregularly warted exine.

20

Figure-16 Histology of D. stramonim leaf

1. Lower epidermis in surface view showing anisocytic stomata.
2. Upper epidermis in surface view showing anisocytic stomata and pat of the
underlying palisade.
3. Calcium oxalate crystals, some contained in the cells of the crystal layer.
4. A fragment of the crystals layer in surface view showing part of a vein and the
absence of crystals from the cells adjacent to the vein.
5. Parenchyma of the midrib in longitudinal view showing prisms and microsphenoidal
crystals of calcium oxalate in some of the cells.

21

6. Part of the lamina in sectional view, including part of a small vein, showing the upper
epidermis with underlying palisade, the spongy mesophyll and the lower epidermis
with a stoma.
7. Glandular trichomes, one attached to part of the epidermis over a vein.
8. Covering trichomes.
9. Part of the lamina in sectional view showing the upper epidermis, palisade and crystal
layer.
10. Pollen grains.
(Jacson et al., 2000)
5.2.2 Powder analysis:

Powdered Stramonium is bright green, or light olive brown to dusky yellowish green;
epidermal cells of lamina with wavy radial walls; stomata elliptical, about 25 microns in
length, usually with 3 neighboring cells, one smaller than the others; calcium oxalate in
rosette aggregates, from 10 to 25 microns in diameter, or in prisms; non-glandular hairs
of leaf few, 2- to 6-celled, attaining a length of about 500 microns, the basal cell being
usually more than 50 microns in length and from 35 to 40 microns in diameter at the base,
some of the cells more or less collapsed, the outer walls with numerous slight centrifugal
projections; glandular hairs few, with 1- to 2-celled, usually curved stalks and 2- to 4celled glandular heads; tracheae annular or spiral. Stem fragments with epidermal hairs
up to 800 mi-crons in length, occasional pericyclic fibers, annular or spiral traches or
tracheae with simple or bordered pores associated with wood parenchyma or woodfibers; midrib fragments with long, narrow, unequally thickened collenchyma-tous cells
associated with parenchyma cells, some of the latter containing sphenoidal microcrystals
and prisms U.S.(URL-25)

22

5.2.3 Microscopy of seed:

Figure-17 Microscopy of D. stramonium seed (URL-26)

23

5.3 Quality parameters:

Table 5:- Quality parameters of D. stramonium
Matter

Quantity

Mineral composition of seeds (mg/100g)

Calcium
231
Chromium
0.22
Cupper
1.64
Iron
130.05
Potassium
654
Magnesium
289
Manganese
13.40
Sodium
17.50
Zinc
5.95
Analysis from unrefined seeds (%)
Moisture content
7.7
Fibre
17.8
Fat
18.1
Nitrogen
3.1
Carbohydrate
31.9
Starch
1.1
Sugar
2.1
Reducing Sugar
0.3
Glucose
0.16
Amino acids content in defatted seeds (g/16g)
Arginene
6.54
Isoleucine
3.22
Leucine
5.31
Lysine
3.19
Methionine
1.38
Phenyl alanine
3.47
Threonine
3.14
Tryptophan
0.51
Valine
3.62
(Anonymous, 2003)
Foreign matter: Not more than 3% of stem having a diameter exceeding 5 mm
Total ash: Not more than 20%
Acid insoluble ash: Not more than 4%
Total alkaloids: Not less than 0.25% calculated as hyoscyamine

24

5.4 Gas chromatographic (GC) evaluation of atropine and

scopolamine from D. stramonium
Column: Dual borosilicate182.9 cm (6 ft) 0.19 cm (0.075 inch) inside diameter
Stationary phase: Chromosorb G, acid washed, DMCS 80/100 with methyl silicone gum
rubber liquid phase (conc. 2.5%)
Carrier gas (Helium): 9905+0.5 ml/min
Oven temperature: Temperature programming from 150-250 C at the rate of 6 C/min
Injection temperature: 315C
The method quantitiates atropine and scopolamine as free bases. Atropine when subjected
to GC produces two peaks, one corresponding to atropine and other to its degradation
product apoatropine. Similarly scopolamine produces peaks of scopolamine and a
product of lower molecular weight. For quantitative estimation the areas of respective
degradation products should be combined with their base area that is
Area corresponding to atropine = atropine peak area + apoatropine peak area
Area corresponding to scopolamine = scopolamine peak area + area of its degradation
product
Then standard curve is drawn for atropine and scopolamine by plotting amount injected
Vs peak area
Linearity range for atropine: 0.5-210 g
Linearity range forscopolamine: 0.5-187 g
Solutions of alkaloidal bases were prepared in the chloroform.
Sample preparation : Moisten 10 g, previously reduced to a moderately coarse powder
and accurately weighed, with a mixture of 8 ml of ammonium hydroxide, 10 ml of
alcohol, and 20 ml of ether and extract the alkaloids by either of the methods given in the
following two paragraphs. If necessary, reduce the volume of the extract to 100 ml by
evaporation on a stem bath.
1. Place the moistened drug in a continues- extraction thimble and allow maceration
to proceed overnight, then extract with either for 3 hours or longer if necessary to
effect complete extraction.
2. Place the moistened drug in a small percolator and allow maceration to proceed
overnight. Percolate slowly with a mixture of 3 volumes of ether and 1 volume of
chloroform. Continue the percolation until the residue from 3-4 ml of percolate
last passed, when dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid (1 in 70) and treated with
mercuric iodide, shows not more than a faint turbidity.
Transfer the extract quantitatively to a separator with the aid of ether. Extract with
successive portions of approximately 0.5 N sulfuric acid, filtering each portion drawn off.
Render the combined acid solutions distinctively alkaline with ammonia and completely
extract the alkaloids at once with successive portions of chloroform. Evaporate the
combined extract on a steam bath to dryness and then heat in a bath of boiling water for
15 minutes. Dissolve the residue in a small volume of chloroform, again evaporate to
dryness and heat on a boiling water bath for 15 minutes. Dissolve the residue in a few ml
25

of chloroform and dilute with chloroform to a known volume so that the peak responses
corresponding to atropine and scopolamine lie within the detector linearity range.
Procedure: inject known volume (0.2 l) of sample preparation into GC and record the
Peak areas corresponding to atropine, scopolamine and their degradation products.
Calculate their percentage using regression equation from standard curve

Figure-18 Gas chromatographic standard curve of Atropine and Scopolamine

(Farooq, 2005)

5.5 Organoleptic Properties:

The plant has strongly narcotic odor

5.5.1 Root

Whitish in colour
5.5.2 Stem

Pale yellowishgreen in colour

5.5.3 Leaf

Upper surface is dark and greyish-green, generally smooth, the under surface paler,
exhales a rank, very heavy and somewhat nauseating narcotic odour. This foetid odour
arises from the leaves, especially when they are bruised
5.5.4 Flower

26

Pure white, attractive, having powerful fragrance, sweet-scented, though producing

stupor if their exhalations are breathed for any length of time. (URL-3)

6. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION:
6.1 Cultivation:

6.1.1 Cultivation practices:

Datura grows well in a wide range of climate from tropical to temperate conditions.
The plant thrives best in areas of low rainfall where winter and monsoon rains are
followed by long dry periods. Areas with annual rainfall below 1000 mm with mean
temperature of 10-15C in winter and 27 28 C in May-June are ideal. The crop cannot
stand frost, high rainfall or high temperature in the plains in May-June. It grows on
majority of soils, however, alkaline or neutral clay, loam soil or those tending to salinealkaline reaction rich in organic matter are ideal for vigorous growth. The clayey, acidic,
water-logged or moisture deficient soils do not suit this crop.
The plant is propagated by seeds but it is characterized by poor and often erratic seed
germination which can be improved either by leaching out the inhibitor from the seeds or
by alternate freezing and thawing of seeds. The seeds can be broadcast - sown or
seedlings can be raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 7-8 kg/ha for
broadcasting and 2-3 kg/ha. for transplanting. The field is ploughed and disced
adequately to produce fine seed bed. In the case of direct seeding, seeds are drilled in
rows taken 45-60 cm apart. The plants are thinned to keep a spacing of 30-45 cm at the
time of first weeding. In the case of transplanting 4-6 weeks old seedlings are planted at
45-60 x 30-45 cm spacing.
The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing or planting if soil moisture is
inadequate. Thereafter 3-4 irrigations may be given if sufficient rainfall is not received.
Application of organic manure at 10-15 t/ha and fertilizers at 60:40:40 kg N, P2O5 and
K2O/ha is recommended for the crop for better growth and yield may be applied in 3-4
equal split doses at planting and after each weeding which is required 2-3 times during
the growing season. Application of micronutrients is reported to improve the alkaloid
contents.
No major insect pest is known to attack this crop. However, leaf spot wilt and mosaic
diseases cause damage to this crop. Leaf spot is caused by Alternaria tennuissima (Nees)
Wiltshire and characterised by brown round to oval spots, becoming necrotic at later
stage which leads to withering and dropping of leaves. Wilt is caused by Sclerotium
rolfsii Sace; it starts with dropping of leaves and finally wilting of the entire plant. Root
and foot wilt, caused by Corticium solani, appears as damping off of seedlings and
mature plants. Datura distortion mosaic is characterized by yellowing of the veins
followed by inward rolling and distortion of leaves with a reduction in plant size. For
27

reducing the impact of these diseases, field sanitation, use of resistant varieties, crop
rotation for 3-4 years and fungicide application should be resorted to. For the purpose of
leaf and top, harvesting is done as soon as flowering starts. Entire top containing leaves
and twigs is cut, dried in shade and stored in gunny bags. For seed and fruit, fully grown
fruits, still green are picked 2-3 times before final harvest when the entire plant is cut
from the base and dried in the open. The dried fruits are then thrashed with a stick to
separate the seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 t/ha.
The preference is full or partial sun, moist to mesic conditions, and a rich fertile soil with
high nitrogen content. This type of soil is necessary to supply the nutrients that are
required by the prodigious growth of this annual plant. The foliage is often pitted by tiny
holes that are made by flea beetles (the same species that attack eggplant). The seeds can
remain viable in the ground for several years.
Thorn apple is easily cultivated, growing well in an open, sunny situation. It will flourish
in most moderately good soils, but will do best in a rich calcareous soil, or in a good
sandy loam, with leaf mould added. Seeds are sown in the open in May, in drills 3 feet
apart, barely covered. Sow thinly, as the plants attain a good size and grow freely from
seed. Thin out the young plants to a distance of 12 to 15 inches between each plant in the
drill. From 10 to 15 lb. of seed to the acre should be allowed. The soil should be kept
free from weeds in the early stages, but the plants are so umbrageous and strong that they
need little care later. If the summer is hot and dry, give a mulching of rotted cow-manure.
The plants may also be raised from seeds, sown in a hot-bed in February or March, or in
April in boxes in a cool greenhouse, the seedlings, when large enough, being transferred
to small pots, in which they are grown with as much light and air as possible till June,
when they are planted in the open. Thorn apple transplants readily. If grown for leaf crop,
the capsules should be picked off as soon as formed, as in a wind the spines tear the
leaves. Some seed, for propagation purposes, should always be collected from plants kept
especially for the purpose. Though cultivated in this country, on some of the herb farms,
such as Long Melford and Brentford, Thorn apple was not much grown on a commercial
scale before the War, considerable quantities of the dried leaves having always been
imported from Germany and Hungary.
D. stramonium is propagated by seeds sown in situ in spring (16C / 61F) or earlier
under
glass
and
set
out
after
danger
of
frost
has
passed.
The foliage is extremely susceptible to viruses affecting other Solanaceous plants and
may act as a host. Datura seems to be awkward genera in that it will often grow like a
weed and at other times seems to resist every attempt at germination. Datura seem to
occur naturally on fertile wasteland, rubbish tips, dry river banks and roadsides - they
almost always start growing where the ground has been recently disturbed (giving the
seeds sheltered nooks where plant material can gather and rot, and where the humidity is
maintained by being sheltered from direct sunlight and wind). If similar conditions are
reproduced Daturas can be very successful sown in-situ outdoors. Aerial parts of
perennial species die back during the winter (if frosted) and will grow back from the
roots in spring.

28

Figure-19 Growing phase of D. stramonium (URL-27)

There seem to be 3 things that encourage good germination (Datura stramonium): (URL1, URL-8, URL-10, and URL-28)

6.1.1.1 Temperature:
One experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of temperature on the germination
of D. stramonium seeds. The procedure and results are as follows

6.1.1.1.1 Untreated Seeds versus Temperature:

Petri dishes were sterilized at 120 C for 4 hours in an oven. Filter papers were placed in
them to prepare seed beds. Filter papers were moistened with distilled water avoiding
excess of water at any time. 10 seeds were kept on the filter paper; replicated six times
for each test. Petri dishes were always sealed with ''polythene bags''. They were checked
after every 24 hours and rewatered when necessary with the help of dropper. Four ranges
of temperature i.e. 25 C, 30 C, room temperature (32 C ) and 35 C were used for
every test. Emergence of radical was taken as the index of germination. The experiment
was tried for ten days to find the temperature and time interval for the best germination.

6.1.1.1.2 Mechanically Scraped Seeds versus Temperature:

Due to low germination percentage, obtained from previous procedures, the seeds of D.
stramo nium L. were mechanically scarified between two sand papers till the testa is
ruptured from one point or is totally removed without injuring the embryo. After
mechanical scarification the seeds were transferred to the Petri dishes and kept at 25 C,
30 C, and 35 C. The experiment was tried for 10 days to find the temperature and time
interval for the best germination

29

Table 6:- Result showing the percentage of germination of a) untreated and b)

mechanically scraped seeds of D. stramonium L. at different temperatures in the
laboratory.

No. of
Days

% age germination (a)

25C

30 C

32C

35 C

28.33

8.33

36.66

10.00

36.66

11.66

10

36.66

18.33

3.33

No. of
Days

% age germination (b)

25 C

30 C

32 C

35 C

5.00

11.66

3.33

13.33

13.33

18.33

8.33

16.66

16.66

30.00

18.33

16.66

18.33

35.00

21.66

21.66

10

18.33

40.00

33.33

23.33

- no germination

In untreated seeds of D. stramonium L., maximum germination percentage was observed

at 30 C, suddenly decreased at 32 C and absolutely negative results were obtained at
25 C and 35 C. With the removal of testa greatest percentage of germination was
observed at 30 C after 10 days. It is concluded that optimum temperature for the
germination of D. stramonium L. seeds is 30 C. With the removal of testa the
percentage of germination increased. So it is concluded that hard testa of D. stramonium
L. seed slows down germination. The seed coat is nearly impervious to the diffusion of
gasses, and embryo may be maintained in the dormant condition due to lack of oxygen.
For metabolism oxygen is necessary. The seed covering may prevent the absorption of
water and thus limits germination. (Marwat et al., 2005)

30

6.1.1.2 Light:
Sow with just a very thin sprinkle of sand or vermiculite on top of the seeds experiments have produced results of 15% to 25% germination in the dark and 27% to
100% germination with some exposure to light (not direct sunlight as this will cook the
seeds or burn the sprouts of those that germinate - the small plants must be gently
introduced to full sunlight).

6.1.1.3 Humidity:
Covering the seed tray with a sheet of glass, or cling Film will maintain the humidity.
Propagating trays with clear plastic covers are also useful, they usually have air vents so
that damping off can be prevented once germination commences.
Gibberellins (Gibberellic Acid-3 (GA-3)) have been found to stimulate germination
amongst Daturas, but many growers prefer not to use them. Gibberellins are naturally
produced by fungal action when leaves and other plant material decay - some compost or
leaf mold blended with the seed mix may Daturas are subject to statutory control as
weeds in some countries. (URL-10)

6.1.1.4 Requirements for cultivation practices

6.1.1.4.1 Climate
Datura seeds are sown in October to, January or spring season.

6.1.1.4.2 Soil
It can be grown in any kind of soil but for good production, medium loam soils are highly
suitable.

6.1.1.4.3 Manures and fertilizer management

For its cultivation, land should be ploughed 2-3 times. About 10 tons of cow dung
manure or good decayed compost per hectare should he applied and along with this
25:50:25 kg of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash should be mixed in the soil.

6.1.1.4.4 Sowing
Datura is sown by seeds. About 7-8 kg of seed is needed per hectare. Sometimes nursery
is raised first and when plants attain 8-12 cm height, they are transplanted in well
prepared field.
For better germination, soak the seeds in water over night or wash seeds with water and
place in rows 1 metre apart and cover with soil. Within 10 days germination starts and
complete germination is over in one month. Seedlings when attain a height of 10-12 cm
or when plants have four leaves they should be transplanted.
31

6.1.1.4.5 Weeding and interculture

When Datura plants are 10-12 cm tall all the weeds should he removed. At this stage
plant to plant distance in the row should he 70-90 cm and weak plants should be removed
from the row.

6.1.1.4.6 Irrigation
If there is no rain after sowing then one irrigation should be given within a week.
Afterwards irrigation may be given at an interval of 10-15 days.

6.1.1.4.7 Improved varieties

1. RRL Neel Lohit (Purple):
Its whole plant along with the leaves is purple. It yields 240-290 quintal per hectare of
green stubble and leaves and 18-24 quintal of seed. The amount of alkaloid in the seed is
0.24-0.36% and in leaves it is 0.12 to 0.19%.
2. RRL Green:
The stem is green and its leaves are light green. This is a late season crop. It yields 210
quintal of leaves per hectare containing 0.24-0.28% alkaloid. It also yields 15-20 quintal
of seed having 0.09-0.128% alkaloid.

6.1.1.4.8 Yield
The main medicinal products of Datura are leaves and seeds. On an average about2001700 kg/ha of dry seeds are obtained. The seed contain 0.2-0.35% alkaloid.
(Govil et al., 2002)

6.2 Ecology:
The study evaluated how natural selection act upon two proposed alternatives of defense
(growth and resistance) against natural enemies in a common garden experiment using
genetic material (full-sibs) from three populations of the annual plant Datura stramonium.
Genetic and phenotypic correlations were used to search for a negative association
between both alternatives of defense. Finally, the presence/absence of natural enemies
was manipulated to evaluate the selective value of growth as a response against herbivory.
Results indicated the presence of genetic variation for growth and resistance (1--relative
damage), whereas only population differentiation for resistance was detected. No
correlation between growth and resistance was detected either at the phenotypic or the
genetic level. Selection analysis revealed the presence of equal fitness benefits of growth
and resistance among populations. The presence/absence of natural herbivores revealed
32

that herbivory did not alter the pattern of selection on growth. The results indicate that
both strategies of defence can evolve simultaneously within populations of D.
stramonium. (Valverde et al., 2003)
In the annual weed D. stramonium the existence of genetic variation for tolerance and
fitness costs of tolerance is explored. To determine which fitness-related trait was
responsible for possible differences in tolerance, growth rate, total flower and fruit
production, and the number of seeds per fruit were recorded. Inbred line replicates of D.
stramonium from a population of Mexico City were exposed to four defoliation levels
(0%, 10%, 30%, and 70%). Results from a greenhouse experiment using controlled
genetic material (inbred lines) indicated that significant genetic variation for tolerance
was detected across defoliation environments. Defoliation reduced plant fitness from
15% to 25% in the highest levels of defoliation. Differences on tolerance among inbred
lines were accounted by a differential reduction in the proportion of matured fruits across
defoliation levels (up to 20%). Within defoliation levels, significant genetic variation in
plant fitness suggests that tolerance could be selected. The correlation between fitness
values of inbred lines in two environments (with and without damage) was positive (rg =
0.77), but not significant, suggesting absence of fitness costs for tolerance. The finding of
genetic variation on tolerance might be either due to differences among inbred lines in
their capability to overcome foliar damage through compensation or due to costs incurred
by inducing secondary metabolites. A result also indicate the potential for norms of
reaction to be selected under a gradient of herbivory pressure and highlights the
importance of dissecting induced from compensatory responses when searching for
potential causes of genetic variation on tolerance. (Fornoni et al., 2000)

6.3 Soil and manure:

It can be grown from seeds sown in spring in drills. The plant is sensitive to frost and
sheltered situations are, therefore, preferred for cultivation. Nitrogen manuring, which
favours the growth of plants, also favours alkaloid formation.tetraploids produced by
colchicines treatment contain more alkaloids (sometimes double the amount) than
diploids. (Anonymous, 2003)
Germination studies under various soil conditions was done in an experiment as follows

6.3.1 Pot experiment

(a) Preparation of soil

As for the project, five types of soil were suggested and were prepared as follows:1. Clayey Soil: Pure clayey soil was brought from a typical area and made uniform by
hands. Equal volume was put in 5 pots of large size.

33

2. Sandy Soil: Pure sand, which was brought from a typical area, was used in equal
volumes in 5 pots of the same size.
3. Loamy Soil: Loamy soil was prepared by mixing clay and sand mentioned above in
(1) and (2) in equal proportion by volume. Equal volume was put in 5 pots of the same
size as mentioned above.
4. Leaf Mold soil: Leaves buried in the soil with other organic matters of the Botany
Department, Peshawar University, were used as a soil which was given name Leaf Mold
Soil. Equal volume of this soil was put in 5 pots of the same size as mentioned above.
5. Control Soil: The garden soil of Botany Department, University of Peshawar, was
used as control soil which is clayey loam. Equal volume was put in 5 pots of the same
size.
(b) Sowing of Seeds:
Before sowing, the viability of the seeds was determined by floating test The healthy
seeds were selected and sown at the rate of 10 seeds per pot. They were slightly watered
to moisten the surface layer of the soil and were checked after every 24 hours. After 17
days seeds germination started. The first seeds germinated, were, in leaf mold soil. Next
day in sandy soil germination started and then in loamy, clayey and control soil (clayey
loam) seeds were sprouted. The germination was checked for 33 days, after which
germination stopped.

6.3.2 Field Experiment

A field experiment was set up simultaneously with pot experiment to study the
germination under different five types of soil in the field condition. Five culture beds of
0.84 x 1.3 m were designed for this purpose. All the beds were in two rows. The distance
between every two beds was o.61 m.
(a) Preparation of Soils:
Five different types of soil were prepared as mentioned already in (A). Each type of soil
was put in one bed up to the depth of 18 cm. The surfaces of soils were leveled by kurpa.
(b) Sowing of Seeds:
Before sowing, the viability of seeds was determined by floating test as mentioned earlier.
The viable seeds were sown at the rate of 50 seeds per bed. Sowing was done in rows.
They were slightly watered daily to moisten the surface layer of the soil and checked
after every 24 hours. After 13 days germination started and the checking was done for 25
days, because after this period germination stopped.

34

Table 7:- The percentage of germination of Datura stramonium L. seeds in the a) Pot
Experiment and b) Field Experiment in different soil conditions. 25 pots (5 pots for each
type of soil) were used, each with 10 seeds, (5 beds were employed, each with 50 seeds

a)
Type of soil
Clayey soil
Loamy soil
Sandy soil
Control soil
Leaf Mold
(Soil)

Total no.of seeds

sown
50
50
50
50
50

Total No. of
germinated seeds
20
21
28
8
30

% germination

Total No. of
germinated seeds
30
20
32
24
36

%
germination
60
40
64
48
72

40
42
56
16
60

b)
Type of soil
Clayey soil
Loamy soil
Sandy soil
Control soil
Leaf Mold
(Soil)

Total no.of
seeds sown
50
50
50
50
50

During the study of the germination of D. stramonium L. seeds in different types of soil,
maximum germination percentage was found in leaf mold soil, in both pot and field
experiments. This is due to its properties which provide most favorable environment for
germination.
Leaf mold soil is very porous having large spaces for storing of oxygen. It has organic
matters which affect water contents by retaining it in large amount on the extensive
surfaces of its colloidal constituents and holding it like a sponge in its less decayed
portions.
The second highest percentage of germination of the seeds of D. stramonium L. is in
sandy soil.
Sands are the coarser particles of the soil. They are loosely arranged and have large
spaces as compared to clayey, loamy, and clayey loam soils. They have no compactness,
so in sandy soil aeration is exceptionally favorable, temperature is relatively high and has
lower moisture holding capacity.
The third highest germination percentage is in loamy soil. It has both the properties of
clayey and sandy soils. It is relatively less porous as compared to sandy soil.
35

The germination percentage of the seeds of D. stramonium L. is less in clayey and control
(clayey loam) soils as compared to other three types of soils as mentioned above.
According to Weaver and Clements (1938), the chief physical properties of clay are a
high water holding capacity, high plasticity or stickiness. Clayey soil has fewer amounts
of oxygen and temperature due to poor porosity. (Marwat et al., 2005)

6.4 Soil pH requirements:

6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic)
6.6 to 7.5 (neutral)
7.6 to 7.8 (mildly alkaline)
(URL-29)

6.5 Training and Pruning:

D. stramonium abuse causes a potentially lethal anticholinergic intoxication. Today, with
the internet widely available, youth are potentially exposed to partial and quite often
dangerous information that systematically disregards the danger of Datura use. Without
educational efforts regarding the dark side of Datura use, there is rise in poisoning by this
dangerous substance. So general management of the intoxication of D. stramonium
should be educated. (Berger et al., 2003)
2 cases of teenagers who were poisoned with Jimson weed (D. stramonium) and
presented to the emergency department with a severe acute anticholinergic toxidrome
after ingestion of several hundred seeds were reported. The patients presented with visual
hallucinations, disorientation, incomprehensible and nonsensical speech, and dilated
sluggish pupils. Both patients required restraints for combativeness until adequate
sedation with lorazepam and haloperidol was achieved. Jimson weed is found in southern
Canada and the United States and can cause acute anticholinergic poisoning and death in
humans and animals. The treatment of choice for anticholinergic poisoning is mainly
supportive care and gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal. Jimson
weed intoxication should be considered in cases of patients presenting with unexplained
peripheral and central anticholinergic symptoms including delirium, agitation and
seizures, especially among younger patients and partygoers. It is important that health
care professionals recognize that Jimson weed is a toxic, indigenous, "wild" growing
plant, subject to misuse and potentially serious intoxication requiring hospitalization.
(Spina et al., 2007)

6.7 Nutrition:

36

The sucrose requirements of Datura stramonium embryos in vitro have been studied over
an incubation period of 8 days. Different stages of development require different minimal
sucrose concentrations for growth: pre-heart stages, 8-12%, late heart stage, 4%, nearly
mature embryos grow even without sucrose. The optimal concentration for hypocotyls is
8% in preheart stage and decreases to 1.0-0.5% in torpedo stage. Cotyledons and
hypocotyls have the same growth rate up to 5-8 mm. Thereafter hypocotyls alone
continue growth. Roots develop when hypocotyls are 2.5-4 mm. long. Their optimal
sucrose concentration is 2%. Higher concentrations than 4% decrease root formation.
Different embryo stages require different osmotic values of the medium. The optimal
osmotic value decreases as the embryo stage advances. If the osmotic value is kept
constant, all embryo stages respond in the same way to changes in the sucrose
concentration. (URL-30)

6.8 Pests and Diseases:

The flowers are pollinated by Sphinx moths. Various species of beetles are attracted by
the flowers, especially at night, where they steal nectar and chomp on the pollen. The
foliage and its juices are consumed by flea beetles, aphids, psyllids, and other small
insects; their presence attracts ladybird beetles and other predatory insects. The foliage
and seeds contain an impressive assortment of toxic alkaloids that can be fatal to
mammalian herbivores and humans. (URL-16)

6.8.1 Diseases:

6.8.1.1 Leaf spot:

Causal organism: Alternaria alterneta, A. rrassa
Symptoms: The disease appears as water soaked circular spots on leaves. In later stages
the spots coalesce, become dull yellow and then turn to light brown due to the death of
the infected tissue. A single spot on a leaf cause curling of entire leaf in advanced stages
of infection. The wilting of the entire branch of the plant occurs when 2-3 leaves of a
single branch are affected. Leaves of affected branch curl and this is followed by death
and defoliation. Such plants do not form normal fruit and seeds. Older leaves are more
susceptible to infection as compared to younger ones.
Control: Spraying 2-3 times copper oxychloride (3 g/b or mancozeb) 2.5 g/L any other
thiocarbamates controls this disease.

6.8.1.2 Carpospora leaf spot

Causal organism: Carpospora jamaicenrsis
Symptoms: The disease was characterized by sub circular to irregular, scattered but often
coalescing leaf spots. 1-11 mm diameter. In the early stage of the disease the spots are
huffy brown in color but later they become alive, brown on account of numerous
fructifications.
37

Control: Three to four spraying with dithane M-45 (2.5 g/U at 10days interval or bavistin
(1.5 g/l or duter or cercobin (2.5 g/L) at 15 days interval has been found effective
against spread of leaf spots in the field.

6.8.1.3. Charcoal rot

Causal organism: Macrophomina phascoli
Symptoms: The disease appears as black sunken cankers just below the colyledonary
node at the time of emergence. The lesions later extended up to the stem as far as leaf
petioles and sometimes reach upto the growing point. Leaf yellowing and stunting are
observed with the advancement of the disease. Gradual withering of leaves starting from
the lower ones is noted. The withered leaves remain attached even after death of the plant.
The fruit remain unfilled and seeds immature. Black pin head like pycnidia and sclerotia
are found all over the bark inside the pith, below the epidermis and within the xylem
vessels.
Control: 1. Furrow application of PCNP (Brassical) or thiram at the rate 8 kg/ha at
planting time gives good relief. (Govil, 2002)

6.8.2 Pests

Various viruses those are susceptible to D. stramonium are as follows:

Chickpea chlorotic dwarf
Abelia latent tymovirus
monogeminivirus
Abutilon mosaic bigeminivirus
Chicory yellow mottle nepovirus
Alstroemeria ilarvirus
Chino del tomat bigeminivirus
Arabis mosaic nepovirus
Commelina X potexvirus
Arracacha A nepovirus
Cowpea mosaic comovirus
Arracacha B nepovirus
Artichoke latent potyvirus
Cowpea severe mosaic comovirus
Asparagus 3 potexvirus
Croton yellow vein mosaic
Bean distortion dwarf bigeminivirus
bigeminivirus
Belladonna mottle tymovirus
Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus
Brinjal mild mosaic potyvirus
Cucumber soil-borne carmovirus
Broad bean wilt fabavirus
Cymbidium mosaic potexvirus
Broccoli necrotic yellows
Cymbidium ringspot tombusvirus
cytorhabdovirus
Daphne X potexvirus
Caraway latent nepovirus
Datura Colombian potyvirus
Carnation ringspot dianthovirus
Datura distortion mosaic potyvirus
Carrot mosaic potyvirus
Datura innoxia Hungarian mosaic
Cassava African mosaic bigeminivirus
potyvirus
Cassava common mosaic potexvirus
Datura mosaic potyvirus
Cassava green mottle nepovirus
Datura yellow vein nucleorhabdovirus
Cassava Indian mosaic bigeminivirus
Dioscorea latent potexvirus
Cassia mild mosaic carlavirus
Dogwood mosaic nepovirus
Cauliflower mosaic caulimovirus
Dulcamara mottle tymovirus
38

Eggplant mosaic tymovirus

Eggplant mottled crinkle tombusvirus
Eggplant severe mottle potyvirus
Elderberry latent carmovirus
Epirus cherry ourmiavirus
Eucharis mottle nepovirus
Euphorbia mosaic bigeminivirus
Frangipani mosaic tobamovirus
Grapevine chrome mosaic nepovirus
Guar top necrosis virus
Henbane mosaic potyvirus
Hippeastrum mosaic potyvirus
Hop American latent carlavirus
Ivy vein clearing cytorhabdovirus
Kalanchoe isometric virus
Kennedya yellow mosaic tymovirus
Kyuri green mottle mosaic tobamovirus
Lamium mild mottle fabavirus
Lettuce necrotic yellows
cytorhabdovirus
Lucerne Australian latent nepovirus
Maracuja mosaic tobamovirus
Melandrium yellow fleck bromovirus
Melilotus mosaic potyvirus
Melon Ourmia ourmiavirus
Milk vetch dwarf nanavirus
Narcissus latent macluravirus
Narcissus mosaic potexvirus
Neckar River tombusvirus
Nerine latent carlavirus Ononis yellow
mosaic tymovirus
Parsnip yellow fleck sequivirus
Pea early browning tobravirus
Pea streak carlavirus
Peanut chlorotic streak caulimovirus
Peanut stunt cucumovirus
Peanut yellow spot tospovirus
Pelargonium leaf curl tombusvirus
Pelargonium line pattern carmovirus
Pepino mosaic potexvirus
Pepper mild mottle tobamovirus
Pepper Moroccan tombusvirus
Pepper ringspot tobravirus
Pepper Texas bigeminivirus
Pepper veinal mottle potyvirus
Physalis mosaic tymovirus

Pittosporum vein yellowing

nucleorhabdovirus
Plantain X potexvirus
Plum American line pattern ilarvirus
Poinsettia mosaic tymovirus
Poplar mosaic carlavirus
Potato 14R tobamovirus
Potato Andean latent tymovirus
Potato Andean mottle comovirus
Potato aucuba mosaic potexvirus
Potato black ringspot nepovirus
Potato leafroll luteovirus
Potato M carlavirus
Potato mop-top furovirus
Potato T trichovirus
Potato U nepovirus
Potato X potexvirus
Primula mottle potyvirus
Prune dwarf ilarvirus
Radish mosaic comovirus
Raspberry ringspot nepovirus
Red clover necrotic mosaic dianthovirus
Ribgrass mosaic tobamovirus
Rose tobamovirus
Rubus Chinese seed-borne nepovirus
Scrophularia mottle tymovirus
Serrano golden mosaic bigeminivirus
Solanum apical leaf curling
bigeminivirus
Solanum nodiflorum mottle sobemovirus
Sonchus cytorhabdovirus
Sowbane mosaic sobemovirus
Soybean crinkle leaf bigeminivirus
Spring beauty latent bromovirus
Strawberry latent ringspot nepovirus
Sunn-hemp mosaic tobamovirus
Sweet potato mild mottle ipomovirus
Sweet potato ringspot nepovirus
Sweet potato yellow dwarf ipomovirus
Tamus latent potexvirus
Telfairia mosaic potyvirus
Tobacco etch potyvirus
Tobacco leaf curl bigeminivirus
Tobacco mild green mosaic tobamovirus
Tobacco mosaic satellivirus
Tobacco mosaic tobamovirus
39

Tobacco mottle umbravirus

Tobacco necrosis necrovirus
Tobacco necrotic dwarf luteovirus
Tobacco ringspot nepovirus
Tobacco streak ilarvirus
Tobacco stunt varicosavirus
Tobacco vein-distorting luteovirus
Tobacco yellow dwarf monogeminivirus
Tomato Australian leafcurl
bigeminivirus
Tomato black ring nepovirus
Tomato bushy stunt tombusvirus
Tomato golden mosaic bigeminivirus
Tomato mild mottle potyvirus

Tomato pseudo curly top

hybrigeminivirus
Tomato ringspot nepovirus
Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus
Tomato top necrosis nepovirus
Tomato vein clearing nucleorhabdovirus
Tomato yellow leaf curl bigeminivirus
Tomato yellow mosaic bigeminivirus
Tulip halo necrosis virus
Turnip crinkle carmovirus
Turnip mosaic potyvirus
Ullucus mild mottle tobamovirus
Watermelon mosaic 2 potyvirus
White clover mosaic potexvirus

(URL-31)

6.9 Varieties:
There are two varieties of this species of Datura, one with a green stem and white
flowers, the other with a dark-reddish stem, minutely dotted with green and purplish
flowers, striped with deep purple on the inside. The latter is now considered as a distinct
species, being the D. tatula of Linnaeus. The leaves are mostly of a deeper green, and
have purplish foot-stalks and mid-ribs. (URL-3)

6.10 Propagation:
Sow the seed in individual pots in early spring in a greenhouse. Put 3 or 4 seeds in each
pot and then if necessary to the best plant. The seed usually germinates in 3 - 6 weeks at
15C. Plant out in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts.
Especially in areas with hot summers, it is worthwhile trying a sowing outdoors in situ in
mid to late spring. (URL-32)
Propagation Methods:
From herbaceous stem cuttings
From woody stem cuttings
From softwood cuttings
From semi-hardwood cuttings
From seed; direct sow outdoors in fall
From seed; winter sow in vented containers, coldframe or unheated greenhouse
From seed ; germinate in a damp paper towel. (URL-33)

6.11 Tissue culture:

From sterile root cultures of D. stramonium, an NADP (H)-specific tropine
dehydrogenase has been isolated and characterized. The enzyme catalyzes the reversible
40

and stereospecific oxidation of tropine and related tropane-3 alpha-ols to the

corresponding ketone. Isomeric pseudotropine (tropane-3 beta-ol) is neither accepted as
substrate nor produced in the reverse reaction. It is assumed that this dehydrogenase is
involved in the biosynthesis of tropane alkaloids. (URL-34)
'Hairy root' cultures of D. stramonium were established following infection of aseptic
leaves with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Transformation was confirmed by Southern
blotting using [(32) P]-labelled fragments of the T-DNA as probes. The transformed
cultures grew in the absence of added phytohormones and cell mass increased 55-fold
during 28 days incubation. Hyoscyamine was a major component of the alkaloid fraction
and accounted for at least 0.3% of the dry matter, comparable to pot-grown plants from
which the cultures were initiated. Production of hyoscyamine followed growth during the
first 15 days of incubation, but continued to increase during the early part of stationary
phase. The alkaloid was retained almost entirely in the root tissue. The effects of medium
composition and pH on growth and hyoscyamine production are reported. (URL-35)
Primary nitrogen metabolism in transformed root cultures of Datura stramonium was
observed by in vivo 15N NMR. Treatment of the root cultures with the plant growth
regulators -naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and kinetin caused a de-differentiation of the
root tissue, together with perturbation of primary and secondary nitrogen metabolism.
The levels of newly-synthesized glutamine and glutamate during ammonium assimilation
were depleted relative to control cultures, whereas GABA biosynthesis was enhanced.
Although GABA production could be stimulated by a decrease in cytoplasmic pH
(whether imposed artificially or induced by hypoxia), observation of the roots during
phytohormone treatment by 31P NMR showed that the cytoplasmic pH remained stable,
indicating that the perturbation of nitrogen metabolism in the de-differentiated roots must
be due to other causes. (Ford et al., 1996)
Treatment of suspension cultures of D. stramonium with Cd2+ ions in low concentration
induced synthesis of tropane alkaloids. The best induction was achieved at about 20mol.
While production was rapid over the first 9 days in medium with 44mol Cd, little or no
further increment was found thereafter. We have demonstrated that, elicitation is however
effective only by the low concentration of Cd. It has been establish in D. stramonium
cultures that elicitation of tropane alkaloids includes decrease of their composition and it
seems probable that seem mechanisms are active in D. stramonium hairy roots.
Table 8:- Tropane alkaloids in suspension cultures of D. stramonium L.
SN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Compound
Hygrin
3--Tropin
3--Acetyltropin
3--Tigloyltropin
Cuscohygrin
3--phenylacetyltropin
Apoatropin
41

8
9
10
11

Methylhyoscyamin
Hyoscyamin
3-, 6--ditygloiltropin
Methylscopolamin

Investigation of production of p-hydroxymethylphenol-beta-D-glucoside (gastrodin)

through biotransformation by plant cell suspension cultures was done by using cell
suspension cultures of D. stramonium to convert the exogenous p-hydroxybenzaldehyde
into gastrodin was conducted and the converted compounds were separated with a
combination of multi-chromatography. Their chemical structures were determined on the
basis of spectral analysis and chemical evidence. The conversion procedure of phydroxybenzaldehyde into gastrodin by D. stramonium cell suspension cultures was
established. The synthesized gastrodin (II) was isolated from the fermental liquor and
identified by spectral analysis. At the same time, the p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (I)
converted through biotransformation of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde by cell suspension
cultures of D. stramonium was also isolated and identified. Two compounds were also
isolated from the cell cultures and they were identified as beta-D-furanoallulose (III) and
n-butyloxystyryl-beta-D-pyranoallulose (IV). Hence D. stramonium grown in suspension
cultures can convert exogenous p-hydroxybenzaldehyde into the corresponding gastrodin.
(URL-36)

42

Figure-20 Idioblast cells (Id) originated from semi-hyaline callus of D. stramonium. Note
their spherical or oval shape, thick cell wall and large central vacuole. Adjacent cells are
smaller, condensed and smooth, whereas idioblast cells are rough. Pr parenchyma.
400. Idioblast cells (Id) in leaves of D. stramonium adjacent to vessel bundles and
subsidiary veins, and in interstices of scalenous chlorenchyma. (a) Transverse section of
leaf at time of inoculation, (b) Transverse section of leaf cultured in vitro. E epidermis;
S scalenous chlorenchyma; C cork. 400.

43

Figure -21 Micrograph of idioblast cells in semi-hyaline callus originated from basal part
of leaf of Datura stramonium. a) SEM, 1400, (b) TEM, 4400
(Iranbakhsh et al., 2006)
A cDNA for a plant ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), a key enzyme in putrescine and
polyamine biosynthesis, has been isolated from root cultures of the solanaceous plant
Datura stramonium. Reverse transcriptionPCR employing degenerate oligonucleotide
primers representing conserved motifs from other eukaryotic ODCs was used to isolate
the cDNA. The longest open reading frame potentially encodes a peptide of 431 amino
acids and exhibits similarity to other eukaryotic ODCs, prokaryotic and eukaryotic
arginine decarboxylases (ADCs), prokaryotic meso-diaminopimelate decarboxylases and
the product of the tabA gene of Pseudomonas syringae cv. tabaci. Residues involved at
the active site of the mouse ODC are conserved in the plant enzyme. The plant ODC does
not possess the C-terminal extension found in the mammalian enzyme, implicated in
rapid turnover of the protein, suggesting that the plant ODC may have a longer half-life.
Expression of the plant ODC in Escherichia coli and demonstration of ODC activity
confirmed that the cDNA encodes an active ODC enzyme. This is the first description of
the primary structure of a eukaryotic ODC isolated from an organism where the
alternative ADC route to putrescine is present.

44

You can look these two figures at high resolution on

http://www.biochemj.org/bj/314/0241/bj3140241f01.htm and
http://www.biochemj.org/bj/314/0241/bj3140241f02.htm
respectively (Acessed on
Oct.17, 2008)

45

E
E

Figure 22 A. Nucleotide sequence and predicted amino acid sequence of the Datura ODC,
B. Alignment of the Datura ODC amino acid sequence with other eukaryotic ODCs,
plant ADCs and E. coli ADC, DapDC and the deduced sequence of the product of the
tabA gene of Ps. syringae cv. Tabaci, C. Southern analysis of the Datura ODC genomic
sequences, D ODC transcript levels in Datura organs, E. Time course of ODC, ADC and
SAMDC transcript accumulation during growth of Datura transformed root cultures.
(Michael et al., 1996)

6.12 Harvesting:
The commercial drug as imported into Great Britain consists of the leaves and young
shoots, collected while the plant is in flower, and subsequently dried, and containing the
shrivelled, bristly young fruits, tubular calyx, and yellowish corolla, but the official
description, for medicinal purposes, permits of the use of the leaves only. The leaves
should be gathered when the plant is in full bloom and carefully dried. The United States
Pharmacopoeia considers that they may be gathered at any time from the appearance of
the flowers till the autumnal frosts. In this country they are generally harvested in late
summer, about August, the crop being cut by the sickle on a fine day in the morning, after
the sun has dried off the dew, and the leaves stripped from the stem and dried carefully as
quickly as possible, as for Henbane. Stramonium seeds are official in a number of
Pharmacopoeias. The thorny capsules are gathered from the plants when they are quite
ripe, but still green. They should then be dried in the sun for a few days, when they will
46

split open and the seeds can be readily shaken out. The seeds can then be dried, either in
the sun or by artificial heat. (URL-1) The total alkaloids content is considerably less after
a rainy period than after clear weather. Indeed, the difference is so marked, that the drug,
to be rich in alkaloids, needs to be collected after a period of clear days. Leaves collected
in the early morning contain more alkaloids than those picked in the evening and leaves
dried in shade contain more alkaloids than those dried in the sun. Leaves which are
allowed to dry on the plant contain more alkaloids than those dried after clipping; the
increase is accompanied by a decrease in the alkaloids content of root and stem,
suggesting relocation. The alkaloids content of picked leaves, exposed to a temperature of
100 C for 15 minute to destroy the enzymes as a preliminary to drying, is higher than
that of leaves not so treated. The removal of flower buds increases the yield of leaves.
(Anonymous, 2003)

6.13 Commercial value:

In the early 1990s, Thorn Apple sold its fresh pork and manufacturing products to more
than 900 customers in the United States, Canada, and several Pacific Rim countries
International sales for fiscal year 1992 were 1.5% of the company's total sales.
Thorn Apple's performance in the mid-1990s lagged behind that of the early 1990s, as net
sales stagnated from fiscal 1992 through fiscal 1995 and net income fell each year, from
the high of $21.1 million in 1992 to just $5.3 million in 1995. Although net sales
increased dramatically in fiscal 1996, the increase was largely attributable to a major
acquisition and meanwhile the company posted a net loss of $21.7 million.
In an early move in the restructuring, Thorn Apple in early 1995 recorded a $7.9 million
restructuring charge to close Tri-Miller Packing, whose facilities were considered
redundant after the expansion of the company's Grand Rapids, Michigan, plant, and to
move and consolidate the corporate headquarters.
Shortly thereafter, in May 1995, Thorn Apple paid $64.6 million to acquire the Wilson
Foods Retail Division from Food brands America, Inc. Nevertheless, the size of Wilson
Foods, which had annual sales of about $220 million, made the integration of the new
brands, products, and facilities difficult to manage, leading to the fiscal 1996 net loss of
$21.7 million.
Financial results for the fiscal year ending May 30, 1997, backed up this confidence as
Thorn Apple posted a net loss of just $3.2 million, which even took into account a $5
million restructuring charge for costs associated with suspending a joint production
agreement at a production facility located in Council Bluffs, Iowa. Although net sales fell
slightly to $955.8 million, full-year cash flow amounted to $24.3 million, a vast
improvement over the negative $10.7 million of fiscal 1996. (URL-37)

47

7. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
7.1 Alkaloids:
The seat of synthesis of alkaloids is the root; this has been established by the study of
alkaloid accumulation in reciprocal grafts of Datura with tobacco and tomato. Scions of
tobacco and tomato grafted on Datura Stocks contain stramonium alkaloids, while
Datura scions grafted on tobacco and tomato root stocks contain no alkaloids. The
alkaloids in the leaves are chiefly located in the epidermis, particularly in the upper
epidermis and in the phloem parenchyma; the midrib contains the higher concentrations
of alkaloids than the petiole. The upper leaves and branches are richer in alkaloids than
those near the base. (Anonymous, 2003)
Table 9:- Percentage of atropine and scopolamine alkaloids in different parts of Datura
stramonium plant quantified by GC/MS (Gas chromatography/ Mass spectroscopy)
method

(Iranbakhsh et al., 2006)

48

7.2 Variation of Alkaloids in diploid and tetraploid hairy root

culture of D. stramonuim
Hairy root cultures were obtained from diploid and induced tetraploid plants of D.
stramonium and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Twenty alkaloids
(19 for diploid and 9 for tetraploid hairy root cultures) were identified. A new tropane
ester 3-tigloyloxy-6-propionyloxy-7-hydroxytropane was identified on the basis of mass
spectral data. Hyoscyamine was the main alkaloid in both diploid and tetraploid cultures.
In contrast to diploid hairy roots, the percentage contributions of the alkaloids, with
exceptions for hyoscyamine and apoatropine, were higher in the total alkaloid mixture of
tetraploid hairy roots.
Table 10:- Alkaloids identified in diploid (2n) and tetraploid (4n) hairy roots cultures of
D. stramonium

(Berkova et al., 2003)

49

One pharmacognostical application has been the determination of the complete amino
acid sequence of one of the iron sulpher feredoxins present in varieties of D. stramonium.
(Evans, 2008)

7.3 Chemical composition:

Whole plants contains 0.26% alkaloids. The seeds of Datura stramonium contain the
alkaloid daturine, said to be combined with malic acid . It was first obtained pure and
crystallized by Geiger and Hesse, in 1833, who also found it to occur in the leaves and
the herb. It is now known to be a mixture of several alkaloids. Von Planta (1850)
pronounced daturine to be identical with atropine, the principal belladonna alkaloid.
Ladenburg differentiated daturine into atropine and hyoscyamine, the latter alkaloid
predominating. E. Schmidt, however, contended that atropine predominates. It is
accepted that hyoscyamine is the principal Datura alkaloid; other alkaloidal constituents
being atropine and hyoscine. The seeds of Datura stramonium contain fatty oil (25 per
cent), from which a new fatty acid, daturic acid (C17H34O2), was isolated by Grard. It
stands intermediate between palmitic and stearic acids. Stramonin is an indifferent,
crystallizable, tasteless body, obtained from the seeds by Trommsdorff. As to the quantity
of total alkaloids in various parts of the plant, Dr. A. R. L. Dohme concludes that the
stems contain more alkaloid (0.3 to 0.4%, volumetrically) than even the seeds (0.25 to
0.29%), and the latter more alkaloid than the leaves (0.21 to 0.23%, and 0.27% for green
leaves), etc. Herb gathered. in July and August contained more alkaloid than that
collected in June. J. B. Nagelvoort (1897) finds the flowers of D. alba, L., to contain a
notable quantity of total alkaloids. (Khare, 2007)
Table 11:- Chemical constituents of D. stramonium
Chemical constituents
3-alpha, 6-betaditigloyloxytropane
4-hydroxylubimin
Acetic-acid
Acetione
Aconitic-acid
Alkaloids

Alpha-ketoglutaric-acid
Apoatropine
Ascorbic-acid
Atropamine
Atropine
Atropinesterase
Butanol

Plants parts
Plant
Plant
Plant
Leaf
Plant
Fruit 4,600 ppm; leaf 2,500 - 5,100 ppm
Plant 1,000 - 5,000 ppm; root 2,100 ppm;
Seed 1,000 ppm; stem 2,500 - 2,600 ppm
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Leaf
50

Caffeic-acid
Capsidol
Citric-acid
Cuscohygrine
Datugen
Datugenin
Ditigloyl-d-dehydroxytropane
Eo
Esculetin
Ethanol
Fat
Ferulic-acid
FluroDaturatine
Formaldehyde
Formic-acid
Fumaric-acid
Galactose
Glucose
Glycolic acid
HomofluroDaturatine
Hyoscine
Hyoscyamine
Isobutyraldehyde
Lactic- acid
Lignoceric-acid
Linoleic-acid
Malic acid
Meteloidine
Methanol
Neochlorogenic-acid
Nicotine
Oleic-acid
Palmitic-acid
Potassium-nitrate
Propionaldehyde
Protein
Putrescine
Rutin
Scopin

Plant
Plant
Plant 750 ppm
Leaf
Plant
Plant
Plant
Leaf 450 ppm
Plant
Plant
Seed 150,000 - 300,000 ppm
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Leaf
Leaf
Plant
Plant
Leaf 550 - 2,500 ppm; seed 1,200 - 5,000 ppm
Seed 80 - 490 ppm
Plant
Plant
Plant
Seed 22,500 - 45,000 ppm
Plant 2,120 ppm
Leaf
Leaf
Plant
Plant
Seed 93,000 - 186,000 ppm
Seed 15,000-30,000ppm
Plant
Plant
Seed 140,000-194000ppm
Plant
Plant
Plant
51

Scopol
Scopoletin
Scopolin
Sitosterol
Sophorose
Stearic-acid
Succinic-acid
Tannin
Tigloylmeteloidin
Umbelliferone
Vitastramonolide
(URL-38)

Seed5 3-3050
Plant
Plant
Seed
Leaf
Plant
Plant
Plant 70,000
Plant 5-25ppm
Plant
Plant

7.4 Structures of selected compounds:

O
O
OH

HO

OH
O

HO

O
HO

OH

HO

Ascorbic acid

Aconitic Acid

H3C

H3C

CH2

Apoatropine

Atropine

52

CH2OH

H
N
O

OH

H
HO

O
HO

Atropamine

Caffeic acid

O
HO

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH
O

OH

Citric acid

Chlorgenic acid

CH3
N

OH

OH

OH

HO

O
N

HO

CH3

Esculetin

Cuscohygrine

53

O
H3CO
OH

HO

Flavonoid

Ferulic acid

CH2OH
O

OH

OH
OH

OH

HO

OH
Galactose

Glycolic acid

H3C

H3 C

N
O

OH

OH
O

O
Hyoscine

Hyoscyamine

54

OH

Linoleic acid

COOH
Lignoseric acid

H3C
N
HO
HO
CH3
O

CH3
O

Meteloidine
O

Oleic acid

55

OH

O
OH

Palmitic acid
N

CH3
N

H2N

NH2
Putrescine

Nicotine

HO

HO

Lactic acid

OH
HO
H3C

OH

O
O

OH

O
HO

HO
O

O
OH

HO
OH

OH

OH

Scopolin

Rutin

56

OH

HO
OH

H3C
O

HO

O
O

HO

OH
OH
Scopolin

HO

O
H3CO

OH
Scopoletin

Scopin

HO
OH

O
HO
H

HO

H
H

HO

OH
O
OH

OH

HO

Sophorose

Sitosterol

57

O
OH
Stearic acid

HO

Umbeliferone

Figure-23 Structures of selected compounds

8. USES
8.1 Mythological importance:
Among Native Americans, Datura has been regarded as a scared plant, used to induce
visions and visit with the gods. The complete spectrum of these uses have been employed
by the Zunis to commune with the Feathered Kingdom, Zuni Rain Priests put the
powdered roots of D. innoxia in their eyes. Also, they chew the roots in order to ask the
dead to parley with the spirits for rain. Datura has also been used in initiation rites for
boys entering puberty. Initiates were made to fast; they then drank a decoction made from
the roots. This decoction was often prepared ritually, to the accompaniment of singing.
As the decoction began to take effect, each boy, in the care of an adult, was taken to a
ceremonial enclosure. There the boys remained for several hours to several days, having
visions, and learning to unlive their boyhood, becoming men. (URL-16)
Datura is referred to in ancient Indian literature as Shivashekherea because the flowers
are believed to be associated with Lord Siva. It was known to the ancient Hindu
physicians. (URL-39)

8.2 Social value:

Datura was definitely used in the Old World, no where did it have as much application as
in the New World. The seeds were used by ancient Peruvians in trepanning operations as
an anesthetic and archeological evidence Indicates that these complex surgical procedures
had a higher survival rate than one would expect. The use of enema syringes in Peru
58

dates back to 600-800 AD and could have contained Datura among other things,
considering the vast herbal knowledge of the healers of this region. Wild and cultivated
species of Datura were also used in other parts of western South America by indigenous
peoples to Induce partial intoxication, to control unruly children, and the plant was given
in large doses along with tobacco to women and slaves to deaden their senses before
being buried alive with their dead husbands or masters. Extracts made from the bark,
leaves, and seeds were also used in shamanistic rites and practices of this region.
The Aztecs also made use of Datura, specifically which they called ololluhqui "the magic
plant," for all kinds of diseases including paralysis and as an ointment for cuts or wounds.
The plant's narcotic effects were employed by Aztecan shamans and priests to
communicate with spirits, causing visions and stimulating people to dance, laugh, weep,
sleep, or tell oracular prophecies. The seeds were considered sacred and kept on altars or
in secret boxes and sacrificial offerings made to them by the Aztecs.
Zuni Indians and other cultures in the American Southwest and Mexican region used
Datura as well and referred to it as toloache used to relieve pain during the setting of
bones among other things. It was also taken by young boys in male initiation rituals and
used in ceremonies following the death of a member of the tribe. Attitudes toward the
plant varied among tribes from no special reverence to attribution of supernatural powers.
But while knowledge of this plant was widespread among Native Americans, early
colonialists were not as aware of its properties. (URL-40)
Dhattura seeds are frequently used in India for criminal purposes. (Shastri, 1997)

8.3 Traditional uses:

Jimsonweed or stinkweed (D. stramonium or D. inoxia) was familiar in North America
before the Europeans arrived; the name, a corruption of "Jamestown weed," is derived
from an incident in which it was eaten by seventeenth-century English colonists at
Jamestown Virginia. The Aztecs used the drug toloatzin or toloache (D. inoxia) in
divination and prognosis; other tribes still use this and other Datura species for sores and
internal injuries, as a preparation for the hunt, in rain-dance rituals and puberty rites, and
above all in witchcraft. California Indians personified toloache as a great shaman and
used it in their vision quests for an animal spirit helper. It is still sold in Mexican markets
as an aphrodisiac and medicine. A Spanish term for Datura is hierba del diablo, the
devil's weed; under this name it is used, along with other "power plants": like peyote and
a psilocybin mushrooms mixture, by the Yaqui Indian sorcerer Juan Matus in Carlos
Castaneda's popular series of books. European investigators were once inclined to
identify any unknown drug said to produce visions or hallucinations as the familiar
Datura, and in the twentieth century the lysergic acid amide morning glory ololiuqui was
misidentified in this way.
Plants containing atropine and scopolamine are also in common use in South America,
from Columbia (Methysticodendron amnesianum) to southern Chile (Latua pubiflora,
known as "the sorcerer's tree"). Various species of Datura and Brunfelsia are known in
59

the Amazon and the Andes as chamico, chiric sanango, borrachero, and maikoa, among
other names. Datura is often one constitutent of the Amazonian drink ayahuasca, and in
coastal Peru it is sometimes added to the mescaline drink cimora made from the cactus
Trichocereus pachanoi. The Jivaros of the Amazon use Datura as well as the harmaline
drink natema; they regard Datura as stronger, more dangerous, and more suitable as a
preparation for war. It is taken for spirit voyages to encounter the supernatural, but is not
used in healing because the effects are so uncontrollable that the shaman cannot retain his
ties to this world while journeying in the other one. Many South American Datura
species unlike those of other regions are tress; interestingly, these tree Daturas are all,
like coca, domesticated plants that are unknown in the wild. (URL-41)
Ritual use of D. stramonium is as widespread as the plant itself. In Mexico it is used
exchangeably with D. innoxia as a visonary plant. Either a brew is made from the leaves,
or the seeds are chewed and swallowed. Men will consume 27 (=3 X 9) seeds, while
women only take 21 (=3 X 7). Unlike other visionary rituals this one can be performed in
the daylight. In NorthAmerica, the leaves of D. stramonium were mainly consumed as a
smoking herb in mixtures of Kinnickinnick. In Europe it is mostly associated with
witches salves and -brews. Seeds were used to fortify beer in many countries.
It is a very effective medicinal plant. As a poultice it can relieve rheumatism and muscle
pains, smoked it will relieve asthma, and water extracts used externally may relieve
migraines and headaches. (URL-42)
During ancient religious rituals in India, seeds were eaten by priests to induce
hallucinogenic, prophetic and oracular states. European priests apparently drank Datura
for the same reason. Some authorities believe the intoxicating smoke inhaled by Greek
priests over 2,000 years ago at the Oracle of Delphi was Datura. Thieves in India and
Europe used Datura for centuries as "knockout drops" to rob their stupefied victims.

In the East Indies, women fed Datura leaves to beetles, and then fed the poisonous dung
to faithless lovers. Prostitutes in India added the seeds to their patron's drinks to induce
sexual excitement. In fact, the use of Datura as an aphrodisiac spread throughout India,
the Far East and Europe, and was an important ingredient in love potions and witches'
brews. According to M.J. Harner, writing in Hallucinogens and Shamanism (1973), the
use of a broom or staff was undoubtedly more than a symbolic Freudian act, for it served
to apply the salves to sensitive vaginal membranes.
Greek and Roman physicians used Datura mixed with opium as a sedative and general
anesthetic during surgery. In fact, the use of scopolamine (one of the alkaloids in Datura)
plus morphine as an effective pain reliever and sleep inducer was common practice until
the nineteenth century.
In 1905, Dr. Carl Gauss used extracts from Datura and morphine to induce twilight sleep
treatment for women experiencing difficult child birth. The combination of scopolamine
(one of the active alkaloids found in Datura) plus morphine was used for years as an
effective pain reliever and sleep inducer.

60

Datura had a number of uses among Indian tribes of the United States, as well as Mexico
and South America. Some aboriginal Indians in South America gave a Datura-alcohol
beverage to wives and slaves of dead warriors and chieftains. The high priests of some
tribes took Datura in order to communicate with spirits of the dead and with their gods.
Probably the best known use of Datura by several North American Indian tribes was the
puberty ceremonial dances involving the drinking of a "toloache" (Datura) infusion by
young boys preparing to enter manhood. (URL-43)
Helps in relieving the spasm of the Bronchitis in Asthma. It is used in treatment of
Parkinsonism and Haemorrhoids. Young fruits are sedative and intoxicating. Leaves
applied after roasting are useful in relieving pain. (URL-44)

In Europe the plant was used for witch craft, in salves or ointments. Throughout most
European countries the seeds were used to brew beer. In Mexico various tribes (i.e. Opata,
Seri) used Toloache in religious rituals. The weed was dried and smoked; the users were
left on a high which consisted of hallucinations and total relaxation. Jimson weed was
thought to cure those with deafness, soothe insomniacs, and release the heat of those with
a fever. D. stramonium is thought to be one of two plants identified in 4,000-year-old
rock paintings throughout the Pecos river region of Texas and northern Mexico, used by
the Huichol Indians along with peyote to commune with the spirit world.
Hernandez (1959) reported that the Aztecs applied a decoction of leaves to the body for
fever or administerd as a suppository. The fruit and leaves were considered good for pain
in the chest. If too much was taken, it was beleived to cause insanity. In northwester New
Spain, the Opata rubbed a leaf of Taguaro on the painfual area for "spleen disease". They
beleived it also matured tumors and abscesses. An ointment of the ground seeds and suet
is rubbed on boils, pimples, and swellings; the powdered leaves are applied to
hemorroids; and hot baths containing the plant give relief to colds and diarrhea. (URL45)

8.4 Ethnomedicinal Uses:

In West Nepal, leaves along with the leaves of Cannabis sativa and stem of
Neopicrorhiza scrofulariflora, are pounded with water and applied to treat headache in
Jumla District. Seeds with grains of rice are crushed and taken to get relief from
indigestion at Karnali zone.
In Central parts of Nepal freshly leaf is made warm and placed on the sprained part of the
body repeatedly and regularly before going to bed for the alleged analgesic effect at
Sindhupalchok district. Leaf juice is given with warm milk to expel intestinal worms,
more particularly tapeworm. (Rajbhandari, 2001)

61

Seeds are mixed with palm oil and applied to severe cases of insect bites and stings.
(Egharevba et al., 2008)
In India the seeds have an acrid and bitter taste, used as tonic, febrifuge. The leaves after
roasting are applied locally to relieve pain. (Gorsi et al., 2002)
The women, in Pakistan, warm up 5 to 8 leaves in low fire and then tie on flagged breasts
to bust them up. This treatment is continued for 15 days. Seeds (2 to 5) are added to a cup
of green tea to relieve headache. (Hussain et al., 2006)

8.5 Medicinal uses:

It is used as spasmolytic, antiasthmatic, anticholinergic, cerebral depressant, nerve
sedatives. It controls spasms of bronchioles in asthma and temporary relief from
parkinsonian tremor is also recorded (contraindicated with depressant drugs). If applied
locally stramonium palliates the pain of rheumatism, neuralgia, also pain due to
hemorrhoids, fistula, abscesses and similar inflammations. It also prevents motion
sickness. Key application of Datura is in diseases of autonomic nervous system. The
British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported antispasmodic action of leaf and Indian Herbal
Pharmacopoeia accepted it as expectorant and antispasmodic. (Khare, 2007)
The diseases that can be cured by Datura includes anxiety disorders, asthma, relaxes the
nervous system, calm the central nervous system, inflammation, anti-epileptic, gall stone,
cough, anthelmintic, whooping cough, colic, anti-convulsant, gastric catarrh, digestive
ulcers, excessive urination at night, nerve problems, anti-neuralgic, Parkinson's disease,
enlarges the pupil of the eye, anti-dandruff, pain, hypnotic, enteritis, disease of the eye.
(URL-46)
8.5.1 Asthma

Datura is very useful in asthma, when the smoke from the burning leaves is inhaled. The
leaves rolled into cigarettes can be smoked to relieve asthmatic attacks. (URL-47)
D. stramonium, used frequently as an anti-asmatic treatment. It contains a variety of
alkaloids including atropine and scopolamine that can cause anticholinergic poisoning if
taken in large doses. Atropine and scopolamine act on the muscarinic receptors by
blocking them (particularly the M2 receptors) on airway smooth muscle and submucosal
gland cells. However, this will cause a continuous release in acetylcholine (Ach). Ach
also act on nicotinic receptors; however, it is known that over exposure of nicotinic
receptors may cause desensitization. Exposure of the foetus to D. stramonium when a
mother uses it for asthma, will cause a continuous release of Ach, resulting in the
desensitizing of nicotinic receptors, this could ultimately result in permanent damage to
the foetus. (Pretorius et al., 2006)

8.5.2 Epilepsy

62

In one experiment it is seen that about 1 week after the induction of status epilepticus in
male rats by a single systemic injection of lithium (3 mEq/kg) and pilocarpine (30 g/kg),
rats were continuously administered extracts of Scutellaria lateri flora (Skullcap),
Gelsemium sempervirens (Gelsemium) and D. stramonium (Jimson Weed) displayed no
seizures during treatment y, the results of this experiment strongly suggest that the
appropriate combination of herbal compounds may be helpful as adjunctive interventions.
(Peredery et al., 2004)

8.5.3 Malaria

Datura fruit is a specific remedy for phlegmatic and bilious types of malarial fever. A
desired quantity of the fruit should be placed in an earthen pot and covered with a plaster
composed of cloth and clay. It should be parched in 10 to 12 grams of cowdung cakes.
When the fire gets extinguished and the pot is cold, the burnt fruit should remove,
powdered and kept safely in a phial for use in malarial fever.

8.5.4 Heart Disorders

The herb is valuable remedy for heart disorders. It relieves cardiac pains, distress,
palpitation and aortic disorders.

8.5.5 Earache

The leaves of the herb are useful in the treatment of earache. About 125 grams each of
the juice of Datura leaves and sesame oil should be boiled in a tin vessel on gentle fire.
When half of the juice has evaporated, seven leaves of gigantic swallow wort (akh)
should be put in it after smearing them with oil and sprinkling with powdered salt. The
leaves should be boiled till they begin to char. This oil is then filtered through a coarse
cloth and preserved in a bottle. A few drops of this oil in the ear cure earache and
suppurative conditions of the ear.

8.5.6 Impotency

Datura is useful in impotency. The seeds of 15 ripe fruits should be extracted and boiled
in eight kilograms of cow's milk on gentle fire. This milk should then be made into curd
in the usual way and churned the next morning to extract butter which is stored in a
broad-mouthed bottle. This butter, massaged every morning and evening on the penis and
63

the spine, will provide the desired effect. It is also used as an oral medicine. Four grains
with betel leaf can be taken. The use of this butter both externally and internally in this
way will gradually promote health and vigour and restore absolute fitness in the body.

8.5.7 Baldness

A preparation made from Datura seeds with other ingredients is useful in patchy baldness.
A paste made with. Datura seeds, liquorice, saffron and milk cream is heated in coconut
oil thoroughly till the solid mass converts to a charred powder. The oil when applied on
bald patches has the power to stimulate hair growth. As Datura is poisonous, hands
should be washed thoroughly after handling the oil. The mixture should not be used on
the scalp of children.

8.5.8 Problem of Breast Milk Secretion

The herb is highly beneficial in checking secretion of breast milk. In case of an

unfortunate death of a newly born baby, accumulation of milk in the breasts of the mother
poses a problem, causing severe pain. In such a case, warmed leaves of the Datura tied
on the breasts will help dry the milk without any pain and difficulty. Just 2 or 3
applications will bring the desired results.
Precautions: The usual dose of Datura is about 2 decigrams. In large doses, it may lead to
dilation of the pupils and dryness of the mouth and throat. (URL-48)

8.5.9 Dizziness

Due to presence of compounds scopolamine Datura stramonium is used for dizziness. It

can nicely work, but it can also cause side effects such as blurred vision, dry mouth,
hallucinations and heart palpitations.
8.5.10 Parkinsons diseases

Anticholinergics present in Datura stramonium act as potent antiparkinsonian drugs so

ayurvedic formulation containing Datura was found to be an effective treatment for
patients with Parkinson's disease. (HP 200 Group, 1995)
8.5.11 Skin Diseases

Externally the paste of the seeds is used in urticaria and other skin diseases due to the
presence of lice or other animal parasites. It is also applied to decayed teeth and to relieve
64

toothache. Indians apply medicated oil to the head in headache, to enlarged testis and
boils and to skin in skin diseases such as pediculi, lice and psoriasis.
Dhattura juice with the root of Boerhavia diffusa (Satodi) and opium is used as an
application for the relief of rheumatic pains and swellings over the hands and feet. In
hemorrhoids, fissures and painful diseases of rectum leading to tenesmus its application
as a local anodyne ointment gives relief. (Shastri, 1997)
8.5.12 Severe organophosphate (OP) poisoning

Jimson weed (D. stramonium) contains atropine and other anticholinergic compounds
and is common and readily available. It is used recreationally for its central
anticholinergic effects and is made easily into an extract by boiling the crushed seeds.
The extract has rapid onset of effects and useful for treatment of OP poisoning. To
determine whether pretreatment with an easily stored and prepared Datura seed extract
(DSE) will increase survival following a severe OP poisoning, D. stramonium seeds were
collected, crushed, and then heated in water to make a 2-mg/mL atropine solution (100
seeds contain approximately 6 mg of atropine or 0.007 mg/seed). Male rats were
randomized to pretreatment with either saline (n = 10) or 7.5 mg/kg DSE (n = 10) given
as a single intraperitoneal injection 5 minutes prior to a subcutaneous injection of 25
mg/kg of dichlorvos. The endpoint was time to death recorded by a blinded observer. The
Kaplan-Meier estimates of the 24-hour survival rate was 90% (95% CI = 56% to 100%)
for the DSE-pretreated group and 10% (95% CI = 0% to 45%) for the control group. The
log-rank test revealed a statistically significant longer survival for the Datura-treated
animals (p = 0.0002). Median survival time was 22 minutes 30 seconds for the control
group and greater than 24 hours for the DSE-pretreated group. So pretreatment with DSE
significantly increases survival following severe dichlorvos exposure. (Bania et al., 2004)

8.5.13 In Bleeding Disorder

Fresh leaves of D. stramonium are squeezed and the juice is dropped on the affected parts
in order to stop bleeding. (Govil et al., 2002)

8.5.14 In insanity

Juice of D. stramonium leaves combined with equal quantity of centella asiatica leaves
juice to alleviate insanity. (Sharma, 1996)
Plants like Abrus precatorius L., Datura stramonium L., and Balanites aegyptiaca L.
Delile etc. commonly found in Rajasthan India show anti-HIV activity. (URL-49)

65

In cases general swelling of body, the whole plant is crushed and squeezed to get the
juice. This juice is applied externally on the body, 2-3 times a day until care is obtained.
(Govil et al., 2002)

8.6 Medicinal uses of specific parts of D. stramonium

8.6.1 Roots and barks

A paste prepared by mixing the root bark powder of Echinops echinatus with the juice of
D. stramonium and Blumea lacera leaves is used to avoid premature ejaculation. (URL50)
8.6.2 Leaves

Hernandez reported that the decoction of leaves is applied to the body for fever or
administered as a suppository. The fruit and leaves were considered good for pain in the
chest. If too much was taken, it was beleived to cause insanity. In northwester New Spain,
the Opata rubbed a leaf of Datura is applied on the painfual area for "spleen disease".
They beleived it also matured tumors and abscesses. An ointment of the ground seeds and
suet is rubbed on boils, pimples, and swellings; the powdered leaves are applied to
hemorroids; and hot baths containing the plant give relief to colds and diarrhea. (URL51)
The leaves can be used as a very powerful mind-altering drug, they contain hyoscyamine
and atropine. There are also traces of scopolamine, a potent cholinergic-blocking
hallucinogen, which has been used to calm schizoid patients. Atropine dilates the pupils
and is used in eye surgery. The leaves have been smoked as an antispasmodic in the
treatment for asthma, though this practice is extremely dangerous. (URL-52)
A teaspoonful of leaf juice is given with warm milk to expel intestinal worms particularly
tapeworms. A decoction of leaf is reported to effectively control wheat rust on detached
leaves. The ethanolic extract of the plant exhibited antifungal activity against rice
pathogens, Pyricularia oryzae, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium moniliforme and
Curvularia lunata. The leaf extract exhibited antifeedant and insecticidal activities
against okra fruit borer, Earias vittella Des. Soil application of seed and leaf powder
reduce the number of primary galls of Meloidogyne incognita. (Anonymous, 2003)
The paste of leaves along with turmeric is used externally in chest pain. (Govil et al.,
2002)
.
For treating malarial fever a leaf is taken in the morning with some sweets or uncooked
grains of rice, on three days in a weak (that is on Sunday, Tuesday and Saturday). (Govil
et al., 2002)
66

8.6.3 Flower

The juice of flower is useful for earache. (Govil et al., 2002)

The poultice made from the flowers is applied to wounds to reduce pain. A decoction of
flower and root has been used as a sedative to calm patients during setting of fractures.
(Bhattacharjee, 2004)
8.6.4 Fruits

The juice of the fruit is applied to the scalp to treat dandruff and falling hair. (URL-53)
8.6.5 Seeds

The seeds are used in Tibetan medicine, they are said to have a bitter and acrid taste with
a cooling and very poisonous potency. They have analgesic, anthelmintic and antiinflammatory activity and they are used in the treatment of stomach and intestinal pain
due to worm infestation, toothache and fever from inflammations. (URL-54)

8.7 Homoeopathic uses:

Main homeopathic uses of D. stramonium are asthma, convulsions and neuralgia (URL46).
D. stramonium is similar to belladonna in the symptoms produced by it, and in its general
physiological and therapeutic action. It has incomplete curative action in the peculiar
mind affections and in convulsive ailments. It is supereminent for some spasmodic
muscular movements and suppressed secretions and excretions; in such cases, absence of
pain is a prominent symptom. (Joshi, 2000)
It has been homeopathically used in epilepsy as well as in other forms of spasmodic
disease. It is remarkable, however, that the convulsions produced by it are partial, rather
than general, affecting the arms rather than the lower extremities; affecting, also, isolated
groups of muscles. Thus, twitching of the extremities and of the facial muscles, jerkings
of the head, etc may be seen.
In delirium tremens, stramonium is indicated in the second stage too. It has been tried and
with admirable success.
Stramonium has been of greatest service in suppression of the urine, without pain or
discomfort, such suppression usually occurring in the course of long fevers, such as
typhoid or typhus, not a simple retention of urine in the bladder; in such a case Opium
would do better. Likewise in suppression of urine after miscarriage or after labor, where
the desire to pass water is great but there is no ability to accomplish it, stramonium will
67

give speedy relief, provided always the case be not one of retention from a mechanical
cause, such as retroversion of the uterus
In affections of the respiratory organs, stramonium has acquired a great reputation for the
relief of asthma. The dried leaves were smoked in a pipe, sometimes alone and
sometimes with niter; giving often relief but sometimes causing damage. (URL-55)
D. stramonium extracts have been used for centuries in homeopathic preparations for
asthma, psychosis, epilepsy, depression, burns, wounds and Parkinson disease. Some
investigators have demonstrated its antimicrobial activity in vitro. Furthermore, the plant
apparently achieves palliation by means of a "narcotic" effect its resin produces. People
from various cultures have treated toothaches by inhaling vapor from boiled seedpods or
leaves, chewing the root, smoking the leaves and unspecified use of the flowers. (Brooks
et al., 2007)

8.8 Ayurvedic properties and uses:

wQ"/f] dbj0f{lUgjfts[HHj/ s'i7g't\ .
siffof d'w'/l:tStf] o"sflnIff ljgfzgM..
pi0ff] u'?j|0fZn]ids08's[ld ljiffkxM .
Dhatturo Madawarnagniwatkrijjwarkushthanut. Kashayo Madhurastikto
Yukalikshyawinashana:.
Ushno Guruwarnashleshmakandukrimiwishapaha:.
(Shastri, 1997)
Rasa-Kasaya, Madhura, Tikta (Pungent, sweat and Bitter)
Virya-Usna (Hot)
Guna-Laghu, Ruksa, Vikasi, and Vyavayi (Light, small, heavy, dry)
Vipaka- Katu (Sweat, astringent)
(Joshi, 2000)
The Malays mix leaves with wine or powdered rice and saffron and apply them externally
for various pain and swellings. They heat such mixture over a torch until smoked, and
then apply as a poultice over the spleen in intermittent fever. The root is powdered and
applied to the gums in order to relieve the pain of tooth ache. The flowers are dried and
roughly powdered with or without the leaves and rolled into cigarettes for the relief of
asthma. The green fruit is powdered and applied to carbuncles in Guiana. The warmed
leaves are applied topically in sciatica. In the Gold Coast, the leaves are crushed, mixed
with oil and used as an antidote for poisonous insect bites, such as those of tarantula
spiders.
68

The Xosas and Fingos use the leaf to blister the skin over inflammations where there is
no open sore. The former apply the leaf for the relief of headache. Europeans apply a
warmed pad of the leaf to painful and swollen parts, and a similar poultice to in growing
tow-nails and to burns. In former times the fresh warmed leaf or the vapour of an infusion
of the leaf was applied particularly to relieve the pain of rheumatism and gout. Europeans
also make an ointment containing the juice of the leaf and young shoots for application to
running sores. A poultice of the leaf was formerly applied to carcinomatous ulcers. The
smokes from the burning leaves are inhaled for the relief of asthma and bronchitis. A
European remedy for hemorrhoids is to steam the part over boiling water containing the
leaf. The fruit juice is applied to the scalp for falling hair and dandruff. The Zulus apply
the powdered leaf to bruises and wounds in both man and animals, the application being
thought to draw out pus and inflammation. They use it as a smoothing application to
painful wounds and sores, and the Rhodesian natives have a similar use. In southern
Rhodesia, natives apply the fresh leaf to tropical ulcer. The Sutos use a decoction of the
plant to bathe bruises and apply the leaf for headache. (Kritikar and Basu, 1999)

8.9 Other Uses:

D. stramonium (or innoxia) has been found to rapidly clear 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)
from munition waste sites, and to transform it via nitroreduction. Other species of Datura
might very well have similar properties as remediators of explosives (URL-56).
Until now there is no any edible use of D. stramonium.
The growing plant is said to protect neighbouring plants from insects. The juice of the
fruits is applied to the scalp to cure dandruff and falling hair. (URL-57) It can be used as
potent weedicide also that is following graph is one of the examples of it.

69

Figure- 24 Effect of Datura stramonium density on Gossypium hirsutum yield loss in

1998 and 1999. Percentage yield loss was fitted to the rectangular hyperbola equation: y
= (I x)/(1 + (I x/100)), where y is percent yield loss, x is weed density, and I is
percentage yield loss as weed density approaches zero. (URL-58)

8.10 Therapeutic Potential of Datura

In spite of its reputation as a witch's herb, Datura was commonly used for medicinal
purposes even in Europe. Datura cigarettes have been prescribed to asthma sufferers for
the anti-spasmodic/bronchodilating effect of atropine on the respiratory system.
Both atropine and scopolamine have interesting pharmacological actions. Atropine
suppresses nicotinergic activity (i.e., activity of agents that act to enhance the action of
ACh at nicotinic receptor sites) more than cholinergic activity (i.e., activity of agents that
directly mimic the actions of ACh at receptor sites or block acetyl cholinesterase).
Therefore, atropine is a parasympatholytic (inhibits the physiological effects generated by
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system). It is mainly used as a mydriatic (dilate
the pupils) before surgery, although a newer drug, tropocamide, is now the drug of choice
due to atropine's slow degradation. Atropine is also used in the treatment of bradycardia
(slow heart beat). It reduces bronchial and salivary secretions and also serves as an
antidote for poisoning by organophosphate insecticides and nerves. Like atropine,
scopolamine is also used as an antidote for the toxic effects of phosphate insecticides and
"nerve gases." Both scopolamine/hyoscine and atropine have been used to treat motion
70

sickness. The mechanism is as yet unclear, but it is thought to involve inhibition of

vestibular input to the CNS, thereby inhibiting the vomiting reflex.
In addition, hyoscine was formerly used together with morphine just before childbirth to
produce "twilight sleep and amnesia" whereby the expectant mother remains semiconscious but forgets the pain associated with delivery afterwards. Besides the unpleasant
adverse effects of the hyoscine-morphine combination, it was also found that pain was
not really reduced. The side effects included neonatal depression, drug transfer via the
placenta to the fetus, which caused respiratory distress, teratogenesis, and in rare cases,
death of the mother and/or child. Hyoscine has also been used as an anaesthetic and,
more dubiously, in narcoanalysis (as a "truth drug"). In the 1950s, various intelligence
agencies such as the US Central Intelligence Agency investigated the effectiveness of
scopolamine as a "truth drug," but the possibility that findings could be distorted by the
compound's hallucinogenic side effects resulted in the project being abandoned.
The tropane alkaloids also cause paralysis of the muscles of light accommodation
(cycloplegia) and pupil dilation (mydriasis).
One of the first medical investigations to uncover the therapeutic potential of Datura in
mental health was undertaken in 1762 by Anton Stock. His investigations led him to
report that Datura had the ability to make "unsound minds sane and sane minds mad." In
1886, August Sohrt of Torty is said to have utilized Datura isolates for the "mentally ill,"
possibly on the recommendation of one of his teachers who claimed that hyoscine was an
extremely valuable medicine for psychiatric treatment. It has been suggested that the
period following the comatose state induced by Datura may be ideal for
psychotherapeutic efforts, comparable with the teaching of "moral values" by the
Chumash tribe after inebriation. However, it has been shown that small doses of some
Datura constituents such as atropine may impair learning and memory functions in
dementia. (URL-59)

9. TOXICOLOGY
Datura poisoning is common in India, the seeds being usually employed; a few cases of
poisoning by the leaves and root have, however, been reported. In the great majority of
cases the motive for its administration is facilitation of theft, and when in India an
individual has been first drugged and then robbed, it will usually be fund that Datura has
been employed. A common form of theft by aid of this poison is road robbery, and D. W.
Center mentions the use in such cases of a hollow pestle, the cavity containing the seeds.
Inversion of this while pounding the masaleh or spices always used in Indian cookery,
introduces the poison into the food without existing suspicion. It rarely happens that there
is any ground for suspecting homicidal intent cases of Datura poisoning; in fact, there
seems to be a popular belief in this country that the drug is simply an intoxicant. As
Harvey remarks, road poisoners sometimes partake with their victims of the drugged food,
which they would hardly do if aware of the danger. Commonly, when Datura is used for
criminal purposes in India, the poison is mixed with sweetmeats on food, but in
exceptional cases it has been mixed with tobacco given to the victim to smoke. Datura is
said to be used by vendors of native liquor, for the purpose of increasing its intoxicating
71

power, the liquor being poured into a vsse1 which has been first filled with the smoke of
the burning seeds. Suicidal poisoning by Datura, if it occurs at all, is extremely rare.
Accidental poisoning auwig children are occasionally met with. (Govil et al., 2002)
Many of the cases of Datura intoxication reported in the 1960s and 1970s occurred in
hospitals and often featured quite severe symptoms These cases may have involved
people ingesting large (potentially toxic) amounts of the alkaloids with virtually little
knowledge of the potential effects and dosages.
Symptoms such as increased heart rate, drying up of the mucous membranes, dry throat
and cramps, restlessness, giddiness, disorientation, constipation, and confusion have been
observed. Uncontrolled talking or laughing, memory disturbances, and repetitive acts, as
well as hallucinations and elated fantasies are also common features. These effects are
often followed by a deep prolonged sleep during which sexually inclined dreams and
hallucinations can be experienced. On "recovery" from this state of altered consciousness,
a characteristic "hang over" and amnesia are felt.
In 1968, DiGiacomo reported the symptoms presented in Table 12 as having occurred in
four cases of Datura intoxication in teenagers.
Table 12:- Central and peripheral effects of anticholinergic syndrome induced by D.
stramonium intoxication in 4 cases

Central
nervous
system
effects
(begins 30-60 minutes after ingestion)
Confusion, Disorientation, Ataxia slurred
speech,
Fluctuating
lucidity
and
hyperactive agitated state, Staring into
space, Labile state (of laughter and crying),
Sensitivity
to
peripheral
activity,
Misidentification of people, Auditory
hallucinations (voices of close friends),
Visual hallucinations (beetles or insects)

Peripheral effects
Red appearance ,Warm, dry skin and
mucous membranes, Dysphasia (due to
mucosal
dryness),
Elevated
body
temperature (for 8 to 12 hours),
Tachycardia (in 3 patients), Pupillary
dilation with poor reaction to light, Blurred
vision

In Table 13, Gowdy provides a more representative picture in a review of 212 cases of D.
stramonium intoxication (mentioning both seed pod and ingestion of asthma powder
containing dried Datura).

72

Table 13:- Symptoms of D. stramonium intoxication in 212 cases

Symptom
Hallucinations
Disorientation
Dilated pupils
Dryness of skin and mucous membranes
Ataxia
Hyperactivity or combativeness
Amnesia
Fever
Rapid pulse
Flush
Paranoia
Anxiety
Blood pressure elevated

No. of people
99
45
36
32
31
29
21
20
18
13
10
8
2

In his review, Gowdy points out that 99 out of the 212 cases actually experienced
hallucination. Since this was the expressed intention by most of the inebriated, nearly half
achieved what they had set out to do and only a reported 8 out of 212 experienced anxiety.
Gowdy also states that negative or biased reporting of symptoms and the omission of
positive effects or terminology could be because reports of amnesia, anxiety, and
paranoia would inevitably discourage abuse of these preparations.
In some of these cases, behavior comparable to that of "possession inebriation" was
described here as "violent" or "aggressive" (Table 2 describes as hyperactivity or
combativeness). Similarly, what might be deemed "hallucination" in orthodox medical
terms may in another context be referred to as a "vision?"
Although the outcome of Datura intoxication is said to be favorable and "treatment" best
confined to protective measures, prolonged use of scopolamine may result in withdrawal
symptoms including dizziness, nausea, vomiting, headache, and disorientation. (URL-60)

Experimental work reported here, indicates an intake of D. stramonium seeds equivalent

to a dose of about 1.5 mg alkaloid per kg body-weight as a threshold level for the
expression of mild toxicity symptoms in the pig. The pig can very effectively reject
whole seeds in the diet and whole seeds ingested may pass through the gut intact. Thorn
apple seems far less likely to cause poisoning in the housed pig than is generally believed.
The standard text misquotes the findings of earlier work by a factor of 250. (URL-61).
The toxic effects of D. stramonium most often include visual and auditory hallucinations,
confusion and agitation. Severe and even fatal complications (coma, respiratory distress
or death in more than 5% of cases) are not rare since the lethal concentration of the drug's
toxic substances (i.e., atropine and scopolamine) is close to the level at which delirium
occurs. Lets see the following cases:
73

CASES: A 17-year-old man was admitted to the emergency department with agitation,
delirium with persecutory ideation and frightening hallucinations of being assaulted by
animals. Blood samples taken 12 hours after D. stramonium ingestion and analyzed with
liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) found 1.7 ng/mL of atropine,
close to the lethal level. After restraint and treatment with the antipsychotic drug
cyamemazine, the young man returned to normal 36 hours after drug ingestion. A 17year-old woman was admitted to the emergency department after losing consciousness on
a public thoroughfare. At the emergency department, 2 hours after she had ingested D.
stramonium, she was agitated, with delirium, anxiety, and frightening visual and tactile
hallucination of green turtles walking on her as well as auditory hallucinations. Blood
samples at D0, D1 and D2 after D. stramonium ingestion, analyzed with LC-MS/MS,
found: 1.4, 1.0, and 0.2 ng/mL of scopolamine, respectively. Atropine was massively
eliminated in urine on D1 (114 ng/mL). After restraint and cyamemazine treatment, the
young woman returned to normal 40 hours after she had first ingested this hallucinogen.
DISCUSSION: These cases of intoxication with D. stramonium are, the first clinical
reports correlated with toxicologic analysis by the reference method (LC-MS/MS) in an
emergency setting. Since neither the drug-users nor those accompanying them usually
volunteer information about drug use, it is important to consider this specific risk in cases
of agitation and confusion in adolescents or young adults. (URL-62)
D. stramonium is a hallucinogenic plant that causes serious poisoning. Consumption of
any part of the plant may result in a severe anticholinergic reaction that may lead to
toxicity and occasionally cause diagnostic difficulties. It is reported that patients with
coma as a presenting sign of intoxication following intentional Datura seed tea ingestion.
(Diker et al., 2007)

9.1 Clinical effects of D. tramonium poisoning:

The mnemonic for clinical effects of typical Datura poisoning is: "blind as a bat, mad as
a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone,
and the heart runs alone." Symptoms include mydriasis; cycloplegia; flushed, warm, dry
skin; dry mouth; ileum; urinary retention; tachycardia; hyper or hypotension; delirium
with hallucinations; jerky, myoclonic movements; choreoathetosis; hyperthermia; coma;
respiratory arrest; rare seizures; and central stimulation followed by depression.
Hallucinations are reported in as many as 83% of cases; typically they are simple visual
images in natural colors, but infrequently also tactile hallucinations of crawling insects.
The onset of symptoms occurs within 30 to 60 minutes after smoking leaves or drinking
tea; and 1 to 4 hours after ingestion of plant material or seeds. Initial symptoms include
dry mouth then pupil dilatation. The duration of symptoms is often 24 to 48 hours
because of delayed gastrointestinal motility; symptoms have been reported to last up to 1
to 2 weeks. Although poisoning may lead to fatal modularly paralysis, arrhythmias and
cardiovascular collapse, Jimson Weed-related deaths mainly are as a result of impaired
judgment and coordination resulting in risk-taking activities associated with accidental
74

death.
The differential diagnosis of Jimson Weed poisoning includes any other medicines with
anticholinergic properties such as: antihistamines, antispasmodic GI preparations, overthe-counter sleep aids, cold preparations, muscle relaxants, antipsychotics, other plants,
mushrooms, scopolamine, or cyclic antidepressants.

9.2 Management of D. stramonium poisoning:

Management of Jimson Weed poisoning is generally conservative beginning with the
usual ABC's (that is airway, breathing and circulation) of resuscitation. If the patient
presents with stupor or coma, treatment may include dextrose, thiamine, naloxone, etc.
Otherwise the main component of management is support and observation. The patient
should be placed in a nonstimulating environment and monitored with frequent vital signs.
A cooling blanket can be used for hyperthermia. The patient may require bladder
catheterization for urinary retention.
Decontamination should be considered even hours after ingestion secondary to the
anticholinergic properties which may delay the gastric emptying and absorption of the
vegetable matter. Lavage has been proposed up to 48 hours after ingestion secondary to
delayed gastric emptying. Activated charcoal is an effective alternative to lavage in
preventing further drug absorption and should be given with a cathartic if no ileus is
present. Multidose activated charcoal and hemodialysis are not considered effective,
although Haddad has speculated that multidose activated charcoal may decrease
continued, delayed absorption secondary to the decreased GI motility. Hemodialysis and
forced diuresis do not enhance the elimination of atropine.
Physostigmine works by reversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that
degrades acetylchoine. This increases the concentration of acetylcholine which causes the
stimulation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. The tertiary amine structure allows
penetration of the blood-brain barrier to allow exertion of a central cholinergic effect.
Cholinergic stimulation of the brainstem reticular activating system causes nonspecific
analeptic arousal effects. However physostigmine's use may precipitate seizures,
cholinergic crisis, bradyarrhythmias and asystole. Relative contraindications include:
history of cardiovascular disease, gangrene, asthma, glaucoma, and GI/GU obstruction.
Thus its use as a cholinergic agent in Jimson Weed poisoning is controversial and is
generally reserved for life-threatening, intractable, anticholinergic effects including
hypertension, seizures, unstable tachycardia, hyperthermia, or pronounced hallucinations
unresponsive to other agents. The dose is 0.5 mg every 5 minutes as needed in a child to a
maximum total of 2 mg; 2 mg in an adult slow IV injection, or 0.02 mg/kg repeated every
20 to 30 minutes. Onset of action is within 3-8 minutes, duration is 30-60 minutes, and
elimination half-life is 15 to 40 minutes. Atropine (0.5 mg/1 mg physostigmine given in
the last dose) should be available for reversal of symptoms of cholinergic excess from the
physostigmine that are bradycardia, heart block, or excessive secretions.
Shenoy described the use of physostigmine as a diagnostic tool with a hallucinating
75

patient who became worse on haloperidol. He was given 2 mg of physostigmine as a

challenge, and became lucid enough to give the history of the ingestion, then was treated
with lorazepam. Guharoy suggested its use in treating mild symptoms in three teens, who
were discharged without problems in 24 hours. Rodgers proposed conservative treatment
after reviewing 29 cases over 7 years that received no physostigimine. He felt that
charcoal, sedatives and monitoring were adequate and that the majority of ingestions pose
little threat.
Alternatives or adjuncts to using physostigmine to treat tachyarrhythmias are alkalization
of the blood to pH 7.5 and propranolol. The dosing of propranolol for an adult is 2 mg IV
over 1 minute, repeating every 2-5 minutes to a maximum of 5mg total. For children
0.01-0.1 mg/kg/dose over 10 minutes, maximum 1 mg/dose. For patients that require
sedation for extreme agitation, benzodiazepines or hydroxyzine should be used instead of
phenobarbitol, phenothiazines, or haloperidol secondary to their additive anticholinergic
effects. A patient should be admitted if physostgmine is needed or until CNS symptoms
resolve.

9.3 Prevention:
Defoliation programs are one way to decrease access to Jimson Weed. It is important to
educate health care providers about the hazards and symptoms involved with contact with
D. stramonium. However information to the public should stress hazards and avoid
explicit descriptions and locations of the plant which might encourage some to
purposefully seek out Jimson Weed for its use as a recreational drug. (Arnett, 1995;
URL-63)
The toxic effect of D. stramonium was studied in the Horses. The clinical signs
manifested after intoxication with Jimson weed were: hyperthermia, tachycardia,
polypnoea with dyspnoea, acute gastric dilatation, secondary intestinal gas accumulation,
mydriasis, dry mucosae, complete refusal of feed, and lack of thirst, defecation and
urination. In lactating mares, the course of Jimson weed intoxication was more rapid,
without the typical signs. The suckling foals did not manifest signs of intoxication. The
prognosis is more favourable, if during the recovery from intoxication polydipsia,
polyuria and frequent defecation are observed. The pathomorphological studies showed a
toxic liver dystrophy and extensive dystrophic and necrotic changes in the kidneys and
myocardium.

76

Table 14:- Change in clinical indices in horses after intoxication with Jimson Weed (D.
stramonium) (I- horses with typical clinical signs: 9 stallions, 1 gelding, 8 mares, and 3 of
them pregnant. II- horses with less obvious signs of intoxication: 3 stallions, 3 geldings, 2
pregnant mares, 8 lactating dams group) and controls (III group).

p<0.05; bp<0.01; cp<0.001.

(Binev et al., 2006)

10. PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS

In large doses, stramonium is an energetic, narcotic poison, producing dryness of the
throat, thirst, nausea, giddiness, nervous agitation, dilatation of the pupil, obscurity of
vision, headache, disturbance of the cerebral functions, perspiration, occasional
relaxation of the bowels, and, in some cases diuresis. When about to prove fatal, maniacal
delirium, loss of voice, dryness of throat, etc., are usually present. In fact, the
physiological action of stramonium is practically the same as that of belladonna, though it
is thought to influence the sympathetic more strongly, to occasion irregular heart-action,
and induce greater delirium. Full doses of it are said to increase the sexual appetite and
power. Daturine, though chemically similar to atropine, produces a more profound effect,
both as a mydriatic and in other ways, and is more liable to produce depression, heart
failure, and unconsciousness.
Daturine is seldom employed in medicine. It is a very energetic poison, 1/8 grain having
killed a sparrow in 3 hours, and nearly proved fatal to a cat, when applied to the eye.
Very minute quantities applied to the eye occasion protracted and excessive dilatation of
the pupil. In cases of poisoning by D. stramonium and its alkaloid, the best mode of
obtaining relief is to evacuate the stomach by emetics or the stomach-pump, after which
vinegar and water may be used, with mucilaginous drinks, at a later period, and strong
77

coffee, tea, and other stimulating drinks, if there is much prostration. The physiological
antidote is opium (or morphine) its employment being guided by the degree of pupillary
contraction produced. Electricity and pilocarpine may also be useful. According to
Garrod, caustic alkalies, but not their carbonates, destroy the active principle of
stramonium.
In medicinal doses, stramonium acts as an anodyne antispasmodic, without causing
constipation, and will prove serviceable in cases where opium can not be given. It does
not readily produce sleep, but if sleep follows, it is generally due to the alleviation of pain
or nervous irritability produced by the drug. Belladonna has proved serviceable in
gastritis and enteritis, and may likewise be used to allay neuralgic pains. It is very
remarkable that a plant so closely allied to belladonna in physiological action, should be
so different in some of its therapeutic effects, and particularly in regard to pain. For deepseated pain, as of neuralgia, etc., it is far less effective than belladonna, but for
superficial neuralgia, when locally applied, it is more effective than that drug. It well
illustrates the fallacy of prescribing remedies for certain effects, because of known
physiological action of a drug; the therapeutical effects often being widely at variance.
Again, it is more effective in mental disorders than is belladonna. Besides, while daturine,
in some respects, exceeds atropine in power, in many respects it does not in the least
accomplish the therapeutical results of the latter. Stramonium, in combination with
quinine, forms an invaluable preparation which has been found beneficial in intermittent
fever, periodic pains, headache, dysmenorrhoea, delirium tremens, etc. It is said that the
seeds exert an influence to prevent abortion.
While less effective than belladonna for the relief of pain, it may be employed in
neuralgic dysmenorrhoea, with nervous irritation, tic-douloureux, spasmodic intestinal
pain, sciatica, rheumatism, and syphilitic pain. It is a minor remedy for some forms of
epilepsy. It has been lauded for vertigo and headache, from disordered conditions of the
stomach produced by hyperacidity, and is also endorsed for muscular tremblings of the
hands of functional or reflex origin, and associated with great restlessness. When gastric
headache is accompanied with marked nervous erethism and unsteadiness, its action is
specific.
D. stramonium is a remedy of value in troubles resulting from cerebral irritation, in
abdominal derangements, when due to irritation of the sympathetic. It has long borne a
reputation as a remedy for acute delirium, and in acute mania, the patient being violent,
boisterous, angry, and possessed of a destructive tendency. Such delirium may occur as a
grave symptom in inflammatory and febrile diseases, particularly in zymotic diseases.
The dose here ranges from a fraction of a drop to 4 drops of specific stramonium. In
regard to its action in maniacal excitement and other nervous disorders, Dr. Scudder
says: "It may be given in acute diseases when the patient is furiously delirious; in
delirium tremens, when the patient is enraged and inclined to injure those present, destroy
furniture, or harm himself; in violent mania; in epilepsy, associated with or followed by
maniacal excitement. In chronic disease, it is enough that the patient feels inclined to
violent outbursts of passion, and has difficulty in restraining himself." It is often a
remedy of value in hysterical mania, with convulsions, and alternate laughing and
78

weeping, and for globus hystericus. With these conditions, there is usually headache,
flushed face, and sexual irritation. Prof. Locke speaks of it as a good remedy in some
forms of paralysis following convulsions, strong injections, or shock, or due to
suppressed eruptions. Bloating and redness of the face indicate it. For retrocession of the
eruptions in the exanthemata, it is of considerable value, though less efficient than
belladonna. As an antidote to the opium habit, stramonium may be given. Stramonium is
indicated in cough, with constriction and difficult deglutition and impaired innervation. It
gives temporary relief in purely spasmodic asthma, but usually fails when dyspnoea or
asthmatic breathing are due to pulmonary or cardiac diseases. As a remedy for asthma it
was introduced into England, in 1802, by General Gent, who brought the custom from
India, where the smoking of Datura, under the name gharbhah ("forgetfulness of home "),
was common. It soon became very fashionable for individuals having difficult breathing
to smoke gharbbah. For spasmodic asthma, the remedy may be given internally, that is
powdered stramonium leaves; powdered anise seeds, powdered potassium nitrate are
mixed without trituration. Then the mixture is burned, a thimbleful of this powder under a
conical vessel, as a funnel, and inhale the fumes. Or equal amounts of sage and
stramonium leaves may be smoked in a pipe until slight nausea is induced. It is useful in
severe paroxysms of whooping-cough, with hemorrhage from the mouth and nose, and in
haemoptysis, brought on by fits of coughing, or by spasm. It is a better cough remedy
than opium, as it does not arrest the secretions. Stramonium has been extolled for its
effects in milk-sickness. In plethoric habits, and in patients with determination to the head,
the larger doses of stramonium must be administered with caution, keeping the excretory
organs, as the skin, kidneys, and bowels, in an active condition during its employment.
Externally, a poultice of the fresh leaves, bruised, or the dried leaves in hot water, will be
found an excellent application over the bowels, in severe forms of gastritis, enteritis,
peritonitis, acute rheumatism, painful bladder affections, pleurisy, etc. "I have in many
instances applied the leaves to the perineum, in cases of retention of urine from enlarged
prostate, where it was impossible to introduce a catheter, and, after having allowed them
to remain for about 1/2 hour, have been enabled to pass the catheter with ease and facility,
and thus afford relief to the patient. It will also be found beneficial as a local medication
to all species of painful ulcers, acute ophthalmia, taking care not to produce too great
mydriasis, swelled breasts, orchitis, parotitis, and other glandular vulvar inflammation,
inflammatory rheumatism, and irritable hemorrhoidal tumors. An ointment of it is very
valuable in many of the above diseases, but it should be prepared carefully without too
great heat, from fresh leaves and stems, if possible. In cases where the leaves can not be
obtained, a plaster of the alcoholic extract or inspissated juice may be applied over the
affected parts, or the extract may be rendered thin by heating it in diluted alcohol, and
then forming into a poultice with meal or moistened bread and applied. The ointment is
exceedingly efficient in cutaneous hypertrophy around the anus, attended with great
itching, and sometimes with sero-purulent secretion. Dose of the powdered leaves or
seeds, from 1/10 to 5 grains; of the extract, which is the best form of administration, from
1/20 to 2 grains; of the tincture, for which the seeds, bruised, are preferable, from a
fraction of a drop to 30 drops; specific stramonium 1/20 to 10 minims.
(URL-64)

79

10.1 Antibacterial effect of D. stramonium:

The antibacterial activity of the methanol extracts of the aerial parts of the D.
stramonium was investigated. The extracts showed activity against Gram positive
bacteria in a dose dependent manner. Little or no antibacterial activity was found against
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. (Eftekhar et al., 2005)
A lectin, D. stramonium agglutinin, induced irreversible differentiation in C6 glioma cells.
The differentiated cells had long processes, a low rate of proliferation and a high content
of glial fibrillary acidic protein. When the medium was replaced with D. stramonium
agglutinin-free medium after 1 h, cell proliferation continued to be inhibited.
Experiments with several other lectins indicated that both recognition of linear Nacetyllactosamine repeats and recognition of multiantennary units of cell-surface glycans
were required for the inhibition of C6 proliferation. Proliferation of four human glial
tumour cells was also inhibited by D. stramonium agglutinin. Further, these differentiated
human glial tumour cells had long processes and a high content of glial fibrillary acidic
protein similar to differentiated C6 glioma cells. Taken together, these observations
suggest that D. stramonium agglutinin may be useful as a new therapy for treating glioma
without side effects. (Sasaki et al., 2002)

11. PREPARATION AND USES

11.1 Preparations:
11.1.1 Extractum Stramonii. Extract of Stramonium

Manufacture
PILULAR, macerate, percolate 100g with 75 p.c. alcohol until exhausted, reclaim alcohol,
evaporate residue at 70 C (158 F) to pilular consistence, frequently stirring, mix
thoroughly; after assay add enough glucose for extract to contain 1 p.c. of total alkaloids,
mix thoroughly.
POWDERED, macerate, percolate 100g with alcohol, reserve first 100 cc. and continue
until exhausted (100 cc); reclaim alcohol from second percolate until residue in still is 10
cc., to which add first reserve and distill until residue of syrupy consistence; transfer to a
dish, rinse still with little warm alcohol, which add to dish and evaporate at 70 C (158
F) to soft extract, frequently stirring, add dried starch 5 g, heat, with stirring, until nearly
dry, thoroughly incorporate dried starch 2g, expose to current of warm air until dry,
pulverize; after assay add enough dried starch for extract to contain 1 p.c. of total
alkaloids, mix thoroughly, pass through fine sieve; contains 0.9-1.1 to 1 p.c. of the
alkaloids; 1g represents 4g of the drug. Should be kept in small, wide-mouthed, tightlystoppered bottles. Dose, grain 1/6-1/2 (0.01-01.03 g).
80

11.1.2 Unguentum Stramonii, N.F.

Pilular extract. 10 p.c., hydrous wool fat 20, benzoinated lard 65, diluted alcohol 5.
11.1.3. Tinctura Stramonii.
Tincture of Stramonium;
Manufacture: 10 p.c. Stimilar to Tinctura Veratri Viridis, page 104; menstruum: diluted
alcohol--percolate 95 cc., assay, and add enough menstruum for the 100 cc. to contain
0.0225 to 0.0275 Gm. of total alkaloids. Dose, 0.3-2 cc.

11.1.4. Fluidextractum Stramonii, N.F.

Fluid extract of stramonium (80 p.c. alcohol). Dose 0.06-.3 cc.

11.2 Unofficial preparation: Plaster, Juice (Succus Stramonii), Cigarettes,

Fomentation.
Properties
Narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic, diuretic, mydriatic. Internally very similar but
stronger than belladonna; weaker externally. Large doses produce dry throat, cardiac
irregularity, high fever with delirium, increase sexual desire, possibly laughing and
hallucinations (like in cholera, alcoholism), dizziness, fainting, red eruptions, dilated
pupils, insomnia, black objects appear green; pneumogastric becomes paralyzed, thus
stopping the inhibitory action, hence whole system paralyzed finally by over-stimulation,
including the heart, then delirium, stupor, convulsions, death by asphyxia; in case of
recovery remember nothing that has occurred; does not affect some animals, as caterpillar,
tribe, goats, etc.
Insanity, mania, melancholia, epilepsy, nervous asthma (grains 15 (1g) of leaves smoked
with tobacco or sage at each paroxysm), whooping- cough, dysmenorrhea, retention of
urine, hepatic colic, laryngeal cough, chorea. Ointment in ulcers, hemorrhoids, fissures,
skin diseases, poison-ivy eruptions, rheumatism, bruises, sprains. In the absence of
belladonna may use stramonium with good results. (URL-65)
DosageLeaf 60-185 mg powder; seed 60-120 mg power. (Khare, 2007)

12 RESEARCH UPDATE IN D. STRAMONIUM

Several researches (more than thousands till the date) have been conducted in plant D.
stramonium but many of them are related with genetic variation, tissue culture, poisoning
and anticholinergic effect of the plant. Some of the research titles are mentioned here.
81

1. Hyoscyamine biosynthesis in D. stramonium hairy root in vitro systems with

different ploidy levels.
2. Unilateral mydriasis due to Angel's trumpet.
3. Intentional D. stramonium intoxication and circumstances of use in two
adolescents
4. Toxicity studies on D. metel L. with reference to official stramonium.
5. Coma as a presenting sign of D. stramonium seed tea poisoning.
6. Acute D. stramonium poisoning in an emergency department.
7. Food poisoning due to Jimson weed mimicking Bacillus cereus food intoxication
in Austria, 2006.
8. D. stramonium poisoning - a new problem in children and young people's
toxicomania in Poland.
9. Clinical and pathological studies on intoxication in horses from freshly cut Jimson
weed (D. stramonium) contaminated maize intended for ensiling.
10. The production of gastrodin through biotransformation of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde
by cell suspension culture of D. stramonium.
11. Studies on some para-clinical indices on intoxication in horses from freshly cut
Jimson weed (D. stramonium)-contaminated maize intended for ensiling.
12. Toxicological analysis of a case of D. stramonium poisoning
13. Colorimetric activity measurement of a recombinant putrescine Nmethyltransferase from D. stramonium.
14. Functional properties of prosomal protein 39 kappaDa from D. stramonium leaves
infected with Potato Virus X.
15. Alkaloid patterns in some varieties of D. stramonium.
16. Regionally specific distribution of the binding of anti-glutamine synthetase and
anti-S100 antibodies and of D. stramonium lectin in glial domains of the optic
lobe of the giant prawn.
17. Jimsonweed poisoning and the anticholinergic syndrome
18. Expression of an antisense D. stramonium S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase
cDNA in tobacco: changes in enzyme activity, putrescine-spermidine ratio,
rhizogenic potential, and response to methyl jasmonate.
19. Antimicrobial activity of Datura innoxia and D. stramonium.
20. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences of ferredoxin-cDNAs among some
Datura plants.
21. Analysis of biologically active compounds in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum),
tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), and jimson weed (D. stramonium) seeds.
22. TMV-infection localization and development of induced virus resistance in
Nicotiana sanderae Hort., D. stramonium L. and D. metel.
23. Herbal treatment following post-seizure induction in rat by lithium pilocarpine:
Scutellaria lateriflora (Skullcap), Gelsemium sempervirens (Gelsemium) and D.
stramonium (Jimson Weed) may prevent development of spontaneous seizures.
24. Population variation in the cost and benefit of tolerance and resistance against
herbivory in D. stramonium.
25. Accidental familiar poisoning by D. stramonium.
26. Fatal poisoning from ingestion of D. stramonium seeds.

82

27. Altered nitrogen metabolism associated with de-differentiated suspension cultures

derived from root cultures of D. stramonium studied by heteronuclear multiple
bond coherence (HMBC) NMR spectroscopy.
28. Jimson weed extract as a protective agent in severe organophosphate toxicity.
29. Neurological findings in a case of coma secondary to D. stramonium poisoning.
30. Evolutionary ecology of D. stramonium: equal plant fitness benefits of growth
and resistance against herbivory.
31. Voluntary poisoning by ingestion of D. stramonium. Another cause of
hospitalization in youth seeking strong sensations
32. Effect of physostigmine and gastric lavage in a D. stramonium-induced
anticholinergic poisoning epidemic.
33. Alkaloid spectrum in diploid and tetraploid hairy root cultures of D. stramonium.
34. Pathological alterations in the ovaries of Culex pipiens induced by fixed oil
extracts from Thevetia peruvine, D. stramonium and Acacia sp.
35. Anther-stigma separation is associated with inbreeding depression in D.
stramonium, a predominantly self-fertilizing annual.
36. Prostaglandin D2 generation by rat peritoneal mast cells stimulated with D.
stramonium agglutinin and its inhibition by haptenic sugar and wheat germ
agglutinin.
37. Inhibition of proliferation and induction of differentiation of glioma cells with D.
stramonium agglutinin.
38. Biosynthetic studies on the tropane alkaloid hyoscyamine in D. stramonium;
hyoscyamine is stable to in vivo oxidation and is not derived from littorine via a
vicinal interchange process.
39. Coma with focal neurological signs caused by D. stramonium intoxication in a
young man.
40. GC-MS investigation of tropane alkaloids in D. stramonium.
41. D. stramonium mass poisoning in Botswana.
42. 4-Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA hydratase/lyase, an enzyme of phenylpropanoid
cleavage from Pseudomonas, causes formation of C(6)-C(1) acid and alcohol
glucose conjugates when expressed in hairy roots of D. stramonium L.
43. Metabolism of the herbicide glufosinate-ammonium in plant cell cultures of
transgenic (rhizomania-resistant) and non-transgenic sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris),
carrot (Daucus carota), purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and thorn apple (D.
stramonium).
44. D-galactose-specific sea urchin lectin sugar-specifically inhibited histamine
release induced by D. stramonium agglutinin: differences between sugar-specific
effects of sea urchin lectin and those of D-galactose- or L-fucose-specific plant
lectins.
45. Evolutionary ecology of the tropane alkaloids of D. stramonium L. (Solanaceae).
46. Heritability of stigma position and the effect of stigma-anther separation on
outcrossing in a predominantly self-fertilizing weed, D. stramonium (Solanaceae).
47. Crystallization and preliminary crystallographic study of tropinone reductase II
from D. stramonium.
48. The complex-type oligosaccharide binding lectin D. stramonium agglutinin
detects type II A muscle fibres in the branchial biceps from man and cat.
83

49. Molecular cloning and functional identification of a plant ornithine decarboxylase

cDNA.
50. An alternative medicine treatment for Parkinson's disease: results of a multicenter
clinical trial. HP-200 in Parkinson's Disease Study Group.
51. Growth and the uptake of sucrose and mineral ions by transformed root cultures
of D. stramonium, Candida xaurea, D. wrightii, Hyoscyamus muticus and Atropa
belladonna.
52. D. stramonium poisoning. Identification of tropane alkaloids in urine by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry.
53. An initial signal of activation of rat peritoneal mast cells stimulated by D.
stramonium agglutinin: a confocal fluorescence microscopic analysis of
intracellular calcium ion and cytoskeletal assembly.
54. D. stramonium agglutinin released histamine from rat peritoneal mast cells that
was inhibited by pertussis toxin, haptenic sugar and N-acetylglucosamine-specific
lectins: involvement of glycoproteins with N-acetylglucosamine residues.
55. The reduction of tropinone in D. stramonium root cultures by two specific
reductases.
56. Protein chemotaxonomy of genus Datura: identical amino acid sequence of
ferredoxin from two varieties of D. stramonium.
57. Jimson weed toxicity: management
58. Atropine poisoning after eating chapattis contaminated with D. stramonium (thorn
apple).
59. Febrile coma with granulocytosis caused by D. stramonium poisoning.
60. The formation of 3 alpha- and 3 beta-acetoxytropanes by D. stramonium
transformed root cultures involves two acetyl-CoA-dependent acyltransferases.
61. The effects of low levels of dietary toxic weed seeds (jimson weed, D.
stramonium and sicklepod, Cassia obtusifolia) on the relative size of rat liver and
levels and function of cytochrome P-450.
62. D. stramonium agglutinin-reactive alpha-fetoprotein isoforms in hepatocellular
carcinoma and other tumors.
63. Production of hyoscyamine by 'hairy root' cultures of D. stramonium.
64. Carbohydrate binding properties of complex-type oligosaccharides on
immobilized D. stramonium lectin.
65. Attempted suicide by ingestion of D. stramonium seeds
66. Partial purification and properties of tropine dehydrogenase from root cultures of
D. stramonium.
67. Structural studies of the carbohydrate moieties of lectins from potato (Solanum
tuberosum) tubers and thorn-apple (D. stramonium) seeds.
68. Chromosomal characteristics and occurrence of main alkaloids in D. stramonium
and D. wrightii.
69. Acute atropinic syndrome caused by abuse of anti-asthmatic cigarettes (D.
stramonium)
70. Tissue and subcellular distribution of the lectin from D. stramonium (thorn apple).
71. Ultrastructural features of the parenchyma of young leaves of D. stramonium L.
systemically infected with potato virus X.
72. Bronchodilator effects of antiasthmatic cigarette smoke (D. stramonium).
84

73. A RNA extract from oncogenic and non oncogenic strains of Agrobacterium
tumefaciens is an indispensable element for the induction of tumors in D.
stramomium.
74. Effect of temperature on the reaction of D. stramomium L. plants infected with
potato virus X.
75. Ultrastructure of D. stramonium leaves infected with the physalis mottle strains of
belladonna mottle virus.
76. Biosynthesis of tropic acid.
77. Biosynthesis of the isovaleryl and senecioyl moieties of tropane alkaloids.
78. Effect of amino acids on the growth and formation of tropane alkaloids in the
extirpated embryo of D. stramonium L
79. Distribution of potato virus X in a tissue culture of jimsonweed (D. stramonium)]
80. [Induction of tumors by the thermostable endotoxin of Agrobacterium
tumefaciens on D. stramonium L.
81. D. stramonium as a narcotic.
82. An electron microscope study of the distribution of tomato spotted wilt virus in
systemically infected D. stramonium leaves.
83. Effect of artificial shading on nitrogen metabolism of D. stramonium plants
attacked by X-virus.
84. Production of scopolamine and hyoscyamine by D. stramonium L. suspension
cultures.
85. Experiments with gibberellic acid on dwarf-mutants of D. stramonium L. var.
godronii Danert. Cultivation research on medicinal plants.
86. Effects of beta-hydroxyethylhydrazine on growth and alkaloid formation of D.
stramonium.
87. Visualization of tobacco mosaic virus in local lesions of D. stramonium.
88. Application of ultrasound for increasing alkaloid yield from D. stramonium.
89. Comparative studies on D. stramonium and its symbiotic micro-organism.
90. Effect of various concentrations and frequency of application of gibberellic acid
on growth and formation of metabolic products of D. stamonium.
91. Generative hybrization of D. stramonium and its importance in obtaining high
quality drugs (Folium stramonii).
92. D. stramonium L.: new research on a drug with a long history.
93. Modern research on an ancient and classical drug: D. stramonium L.
94. On the nature and the future of changes produced in Capsicum annum L. var.
cayennense following grafting onto D. stramonium L.
95. The effect of adipic acid and methylamine on alkaloid biosynthesis in certain
members of the Solanaceae. I. D. stramonium Linn.
96. A study of the anatomical effects produced in the leaves of D. stramonium L. by
the action of 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.
97. Effect of potassium ferrocyanide on D. stramonium L. leaves and on alkaloids and
other compounds.
98. Pharmacognosy of seven varieties of D. stramonium.
99. Structure of the roots of D. stramonium L. and D. tatula L.
100. Case of acute poisoning with D. stramonium

85

(URL-66)

13. HERBERIUM

86

Figure-25 Herbarium sheet of D. stramonium (URL-67)

87

Figure-26 Herbarium sheet of D. stramonium (URL-68)

88

Figure-27 Developmental stage of D. stramonium fruit (URL-69)

Figure-28 D. stramonium Fruit maturation (URL-70)

89

Figure-29 Plant of D. stramonium (URL-71)

14 GLOSSARIES
14.1 Glossary of Botanical Terms:
Alternate- Of leaves or branches that are arranged singly on the parent axis.
Axillary- Situated in an axil, referred especially to buds.
Blade- The flattened part of the thallus of the larger sea-weeds.
Bract- A small atypical leaf subtending a flower-bud in its axil.
Bracteate- Having bracts.
Complete flower- A flower having calyx, corolla, stamens and carpels.
Cordate- Heart shaped
Cortex- The tissue in a stem or root between the vascular bundles and the epidermis.
Typically it is parenchyma.
Cross- The act of fertilization between two individuals of different breeds or races.
Cyme- An inflorescence in which the terminal bud is a flower-bud, i.e. it is a sympodium,
and any subsequent flowers are formed in a similar way at the ends of lateral braches.
Diadelphous- Of stamens which have the filaments, either in two bundles or in a group
with one free stamen.
Epidermis- The outer single layer of cells on an organ. The outer wall may be thickened
by the production of a cuticle, and the cells may be extended into hairs.
Filament- The stalk of a stamen.
Flower- The reproductive stem of the angiosperms. Typically it is made up of a calyx of
sepals, a corolla of petals, (these two being the perianth), an andrecium of stamens, and a
90

gynecium of carpels. Any of these parts may be missing in a particular flower. The floral
axis is the receptacle.
Foliage leaf- An ordinary green leaf.
Glabrous- Hairless.
Globular- Nearly spherical.
Herb- A plant having no persistent parts above the ground.
Herbaceous- Soft and green, containing little woody tissue.
Hypodermis- A layer of one or more cells thick of thickened cells lying immediately
below the epidermis.
Inflorescence- A flowering shoot, bearing more than one flower.
Kernel- The seed inside the stony endocarp of a drupe.
Lanceolate- Flattened, two or three times as long as broad common widest in the middle
and tapering to a pointed apex.
Lenticel- A pore in the periderm of a woody stem. It is packed with a loose aggregate of
cells derived from the phelloderm, and acts as an organ of gaseous exchange.
Oblong- Elliptical, blunt at each end, having nearly parallel sides and two to four times
as long as broad.
Obstuse- Rounded or blunt; or being greater than a right-angle.
Ovary- The hollow basal region of a carpel, containing one or more ovules. In a flower
with 2 or more united carpels, they form a single compound ovary.
Ovate- Flat and thin, shaped like the longitudinal section of an egg, widest below the
middle.
Ovule- The nucellus containing the embryo sac and enclosed by 1 or 2 integuments,
which after fertilization, and subsequent development, becomes a seed.
Palisade cells- A single cell of a palisade layer.
Palisade layer- A layer of elongated cells set at right-angles to the surface of a leaf or
thallus, and underlying the upper epidermis, or layers of cells. Its cell contains numerous
chloroplasts and is concerned with photosynthesis.
Palisade tissue- One or more layers of palisade cells beneath the epidermis of a leaf.
Parenchyma- A tissue of undifferentiated cells, which are more or less spherical,
frequently unspecialized, and with cellulose cell-walls. Air spaces are often present, and
the tissue is often for storage.
Pedicellate- Said of a flower or a fruit having a stalk.
Pedicels- The stalk of an individual flower of an inflorescence. A small stalk.
Pendulous- Said of an ovule which is suspended from a point at or near the top of the
ovary.
Perennial- A plant living for three or more seasons and normally flowering and fruiting
at least in the second and subsequent seasons.
Perianth- The flower envelope, it includes the calyx and corolla, or any one of them.
Pericyle- A cylinder of vascular tissue, 3-6 cells thick, lying immediately inside the
parenchyma, and sometimes fibers.
Perisperm- A nutritive tissue present in some seeds, derived from the nucellus of the
ovule.
Persistant perianth- A perianth which remains unwithered, and often enlarged around
the fruit.

91

Petals- One of the parts forming the corolla of a flower, usually brightly colored and
conspicuous.
Pistil- Each separate carpel of an apocarpous or syncarpous 2. The gynecium as a whole,
whether it is apocarpous or syncarpous.
Pitted- Having pits in the wall, having the surface marked by small excavations.
Placenta- The part of an ovary to which the seeds are attached.
Plumule- The terminal bud of an embryo in seed plants. It is a rudimentary shoot.
Polyandrous- Having a large and indefinite number of stamens.
Polymorphism- The occurrence in the same habitat of two or more distinct forms of a
species in such proportions that the rarest cannot be supposed to be maintained by
recurrent mutation from any other.
Pubescen-t Covered with fine hairs.
Raceme- A definite inflorescence, with the main axis bearing stalked flowers which are
born in acropetal succession.
Radicle- The embryonic root of seed plants; any very small root.
Raphe- The elongated mass of tissue, containing a vascular bundle, and lying in the side
of an anatropous ovule, between the chalaza and the attachment to the placenta; a stit-like
line running longitudinally on the vave of a diatom, indicating the position of a narrow
slit in the wall, it bears a nodule at each end and one in the middle.
Seedlings- The young plant developed from a germinating seed.
Segregated- Keep separate; in taxonomy a group which is based on part of an earlier
group.
Sessile- Lack of stalk.
Sheath- A leaf base, it forms a tubular casing around the stem.
Solitary- Of flowers occurring one in each axil.
Stamens- The microsporophyll of a flower; made up of the anther and filament.
Starch-grain- A round or irregular-shaped inclusion in a cell, made up of a series of
layers of starch, giving a stratified appearance, and surrounding a central hilum.
Stele- The vascular cylinder. The cylinder or core of vascular tissue in the centre of stems
and roots. It consists of xylem, phloem, and pericyle, in some cases pith and medullary
rays. It is surrounded by an endodermis. The detailed structure differs in different groups
of plants.
Stellate- Star like.
Stigma- The receptive part of the stigma.
Stipules- Basal appendages of a leaf or petiole. They may photosynthesize, or be scales,
and may protect the axillary buds.
Testa- The seed coat. It is derived from the integuments and is several layers thick. It is
protective in function.
Trait- A character.
Trifoliate- Said of a compound leaf having three leaflets.
Truncate- Blunt-ended, as if cut off abruptly.
Turgid- Said of a young or soft plant member which is stiff or rigid owing to the internal
pressure rising from a plentiful supply of water.
Vascular bundle- The longitudinal strand of conducting tissue, consisting essentially of
xylem and phloem.

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14.2 Glossary of Medical Terms:

Abortifacient- 1. Producing abortion. 2. An agent that produces abortion.
Abortion- Expulsion from the uterus of and embryo or fetus prior to the stage of viability
(20 weeks gestation or fetal weight <500g). A distinction made between abortion and
premature birth: premature infants are those born after the stage of viability but prior to
37 weeks. Abortion may be either spontaneous (occurring from natural causes) or
induced (artificial or therapeutic). 2. The arrest of any action or process before its normal
completion.
Acne- An inflammatory follicular, popular, and pustular eruption involving the
pilosebaceous apparatus.
Adjuvant therapy- Additional therapy given to enhance or extend primary therapys
effect, as in chemotherapys addition to a surgical regimen.
Amenorrhea- Absence or abnormal cessation of the menses.
Anedoctal- report of clinical experiences based in individual cases, rather than an
organized investigation with appropriate controls.
Anemia- Any condition in which the number of red blood cells per mm3 , the amount of
hemoglobin in 100 ml of blood, and/or the volume of packed red blood cells per 100 ml
of blood are less than normal.
Anodyne- agent that relieves pain
Anorexia- Diminished appetite.
Antispasmodic- Preventing or alleviating muscle spasms (cramps).
Aphrodisiac- 1. Increasing sexual desire. 2. Anything that arises or increases sexual
desire.
Arrhythmia- Loss or abnormality of rhythm denoting especially an irregularity of the
heart beat.
Arthritis- Inflammation of a joint.
Asthma- An inflammatory disease of the lungs characterized by reversible (in most
cases) airway obstruction. Originally, a term used to mean difficult breathing; now
used to denote bronchial asthma.
Boil- SYN furuncle
Bronchitis- Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes.
Bruise- An injury producing a hematoma or diffuse extravasations of blood without
rupture of skin.
Calculi- Plural of calculus.
Calculus- A concentration formed in any part of the body, most commonly in the
passages of the biliary and urinary tracts; usually composed of salts of inorganic or
organic acids, or other material such as cholesterol.
Carrageenan- A polysaccharide vegetable gum obtained from Irish moss; a galactosan
sulfate resembling agar in molecular structure.
Cellulite- Colloquial term for deposits of fat and fibrous tissue causing dimpling of the
overlying skin.
Cellulitis- Inflammation of subcutaneous, loose connective tissue.
Colic- 1. Relating to the colon. 2. Spasmodic pains in the abdomen. 3. In young infants,
paroxysms of gastrointestinal pain, with crying and irritability, due to a variety of causes,
such as swallowing of air, emotional upset, or overfeeding.
Contraception- An agent for the prevention of conception.
93

Delirium- An altered state of consciousness, consisting of confusion, distractibility,

disorientation, disordered thinking and memory, defective perception ( illusions and
hallucinations), prominent hyperactivity, agitation and autonomic nervous system over
activity, caused by a number of toxic, structural and metabolic disorders.
Delusion- A false belief or wrong judgments held with conviction despite in
controvertible evidence to the contrary.
Depression- A temporary mental state or chronic mental disorder characterized by
feelings of sadness, loneliness, despair, low self-esteem, and self-reproach; retardation or
less frequently agitation, with-drawl from social contact, and vegetative states such as
loss of appetite and insomnia.
Diabetes- Either d. insipidus or d. mellitus, diseases having in common the symptom
polyuria; when used without qualification.
Diuretic- 1. Promoting the excretion of urine. 2. An agent that increases the amount of
urine excreatedDizziness- Imprecise term commonly used to describe various symptoms such as
faintness, giddiness, imbalance, light-headedness or vertigo.
Dropsy- Old term for generalized edema, most often associated with cardiac failure.
Dysentery- A disease marked by frequent watery stools. Often with blood and mucus,
and characterized clinically by pain, tenesmus, fever, and dehydration.
Dyskinesia- Difficulty in performing voluntary movements.
Dyspepsia- Impaired gastric function or "upset stomach" due to some disorder of the
stomach, characterized by epigastric pain, sometimes burning, nausea and gaseous
Eczema- Generic term for inflammatory conditions of the skin, particularly with
vesiculation in the acute stage, typically erythematous, edematous, popular, and crusting;
followed often by lichenification and scaling and occasionally by duskiness of erythema
and , infrequently hyperpigmintation.
Edema- An accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in cells or intercellular
tissues.
Elephantiasis- Hypertrophy, edema and fibrosis of the skin and subcutaneous tissue,
especially of the lower extremities and genitalia with hydrocele or enlargement of a limb,
usually caused by long standing obstructed lymphatic vessels, most commonly the result
of years of infection by the filarial worm Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi.
Epilepsy- A chronic disorder characterized by paroxysmal brain dysfunction due to
excessive neuronal discharge, and usually associated with some alteration of
consciousness. The clinical manifestations of the attack may vary from complex
abnormalities of behavior including generalized or focal convulsions to momentary spells
of impaired consciousness.
Eruption- 1. A breaking out, especially the appearance of lesions on the skin. 2. The
passage of a tooth through the alveolar process and perforation of the gums.

94

Expectorant- 1. Promoting secretion from the mucous membrane of the air passages or
facilitating its expulsion. 2. An agent that increases bronchial secretion and facilitates its
expulsion.
Flatulence- Presence of an excessive amount of gas in the stomach and intestine.
Furuncles- A localized pyrogenic infection, most frequently by Staphylococcus aureus,
originating deep in a hair follicle. SYN boil, furunculus.
Galactorrhea- Any white discharge from the nipple that is persistent and looks like milk.
Hallucination- The apparent, often strong subjective perception of an object or event
when no such stimulus or situation is present; may be visual, auditory, olfactory,
gustatory or tactile.
Hemiplegia- Paralysis of one side of the body.
Hypercholesterolemia- The presence of an abnormally large amount of cholesterol in
the blood.
Hypotension- Subnormal arterial blood pressure.
Insomnia- Inability to sleep, in the absence of external impediments, such as noise, a
bright light etc, during the period when sleep should normally occur; may vary in degree
from restlessness or disturbed slumber to a curtailment of the normal length of sleep or to
absolute wakefulness. SYN sleeplessness.
Jaundice- A yellowish staining of the integument, sclerae, deeper tissues, and excretions
with bile pigments, resulting from increased levels in the plasma.
Laxative-Causes evacuation of fluid excrement.
Libido- Conscious or unconscious sexual desire.
Liniment- A liquid preparation for external application or application to the gums; they
may be clear dispersion, suspensions, or emulsions, and are frequently applied by friction
to the skin; used as counterirritants, rubefacients, anodynes, or cleansing agents.
Menses- Menstrual period.
Migraine- A symptom complex occurring periodically and characterized by pain in the
head (usually unilateral); vertigo, nausea and vomiting, photophobia, and scintillating
appearance of light.
Miscarriage- Spontaneous expulsion of the products of pregnancy before the middle of
the second trimester. SYN spontaneous abortion.
Oligospermia- A subnormal concentration of spermatozoa in the penile ejaculate.
Orthostatic- Relating to an erect posture or position.
Palpitation- Forcible or irregular pulsation of the heart, perceptible to the patient, usually
with an increase in frequency or force, with or without irregularity in rhythm.
Pimple- A papule or small pustule; usually meant to denote an inflammatory lesion of
acne.
Pyrexia- fever.
Scar- Fibrous tissue replacing tissues destroyed by injury or disease.
Scurvy- A disease marked by inanition, debility, anemia, and edema of the dependent
parts; a spongy condition sometimes the ulceration of the gums and loss of teeth,
hemorrhages and poor wound healing; due to a diet lacking vitamin C.
Secretagogue- an agent that promote secretion.
Spermatorrhea- An involuntary discharge of semen, without orgasm.
Teratogen- a drug or other agent that causes abnormal prenatal development.

95

Teratogenesis- The origin of mode of production of a malformed conceptus; the

disturbed growth processes involved in the production of a malformed neonate.
Teratogenic- 1. Relating to teratogenesis. 2. Causing abnormal prenatal development.
Tonic- In a state of continuous unremitting action; denoting especially a prolonged
muscular contraction; increasing physical and mental strength.
Ulcer- A lesion through the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from loss of tissue,
usually with inflammation.
Vermifuge- An agent that destroys or expels intestinal worms. SYN anthelmintic

15. REFERENCES
15.1 Book References:
1. Anonymous (2003) The Wealth of India, National Institute of Science Communication
and Information Resources, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi,
India. Volume 3: D, pp 6-7, 15-18.
2. Bhattacharjee SK (2004) A hand book of medicinal plants, (4th Ed.), The Diamond
Printing Press, India, pp 125.
3. Evans WC (2008) Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy (15th Ed.), Elsevier, a Division of
reed Elsevier India Private, Limited, New Delhi, India, pp 10, 341-343.

4. Farooq S (2005) 555 Medicinal Plants: Field and Laboratory Manual, International
Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp 94-97.
5. Govil JN, Pandey J, Shivakumar BG and Shing VK (2002) Recent Progress in
Meditional Plants, SCI Tech Publishing Lic, Texas, USA, Volume 1, pp 114, 133.
6. Govil JN, Pandey J, Shivakumar BG and Shing VK (2002) Recent Progress in
Meditional Plants, SCI Tech Publishing Lic, Texas, USA, Volume 7, pp 333, 533.
7. Jackson BP and Snowman DW (2000) Atlas of Microscopy of Medicinal Plants
Culinary Herbs and Spices, CBS Publications and Distributors (P) Ltd. New Delhi, India,
pp 228-229.
8. Joshi KK and Joshi SD (2001) Genetic Heritage of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of
Nepal Himalayas, Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu,
Nepal, pp 63-64.
9. Joshi SG (2000) Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
pp 370-371.
96

10. Keshari AK,Ghimire KR,Mishra BS and Adhikari KK (2005) A textbook of Higher

secondary Biology, (3rd Ed.), Vidhyarthi Pustak Bhandar,Bhotahity, Kathmandu, pp 403404.
11. Khare CP (2007) Indian Meditional Plants, Rajkamal Electric Press, Delhi, India, pp
203.
12. Kritikar KR and Basu BD (1999) Indian Meditional Plants (2nd Ed.), International
Book Distributors, Dehradun, India, Volume III, pp 1783-1787.
13. Manandhar NP (2002) Plants and People of Nepal, Timber Press, Inc. Oregon, USA,
pp 189-190.
14. Rajbhandari KR (2001) Ethnobotany of Nepal, Kishor Offset Press Private Limited,
Kathmandu, Nepal pp 142-143.
15. Sharma PV (1996) Classical uses of Medicinal plants, Chaukhambha Visvabharati,
Varanasi, India, pp 281.
16. Shastri BD (1997) Bhawaprakashanighantu, (9th Ed.), Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi,
India, pp174-177.

15.2 Journal References:

1. Arnett AM (1995) Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium) Poisoning. Clinical Toxicology
Review, 18, no pp.
2. Bania TC, Chu J, Bailes D and O'Neill M (2004) Jimson Weed Extract as a Protective
Agent in Severe Organophosphate Toxicity. Academic Emergency Medicine 11, 335-338
3. Berger E and Ashkenazi I (2003) Jimson Weed Poisoning. Harefuah, 142, 364-367,
397.
4. Berkova S, Pavlovb A, Kovatchevab P, Stanimirovaa P and Philipov S (2003) Alkaloid
Spectrum in Diploid and Tetraploid Hairy Root Cultures of Datura stramonium. Verlag
der Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung, 58, 42-46.
5. Binev R, Valchev I and Nikolov J (2006) Clinical and Pathological Studies of Jimson
Weed (Datura stramonium) Poisoning in Horses. Trakia Journal of Sciences, 4, 56-63.
6. Brooks JK and Reynolds MA (2007) Ethnobotanical Tattooing of the Gingival.
American Dental Association, 138, 1097-1101.

97

7. Diker D, Markovitz D, Rothman M and Sendovski U (2007) Coma as a Presenting

Sign of Datura stramonium Seed Tea Poisoning. European Journal of Internal Medicine
18, 336-338.
8. Eftekhar F, Yousefzadi M, and Tafakori V (2005). Antimicrobial Activity of Datura
innoxia and Datura stramonium. Fitoterapia 76, 118-120
9. Egharevba RKA and Ikhatua MI (2008) Ethno- Medical Uses of Plants in the
Treatment of Various Skin Diseases in Ovia North East, Edo State, Nigeria. Research
Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 4 58-64.
10. Ford YY, Ratcliffe RG, and Robins RJ (1996) Phytohormone-induced GABA
Production in Transformed Root Cultures of Datura stramonium: an in vivo 15N NMR
Study. Journal of experimental botany, 27, 811-818.
11. Fornoni J and Nez-Farfn J (2000) Evolutionary Ecology of Datura stramonium:
Genetic Variation and Costs for Tolerance to Defoliation. Evolution, International
Journal of Evolution 54, 789-797.
12. HP 200 in Parkinson's Disease Study Group (1995) An alternative medicine treatment
for Parkinson's disease: results of a multicenter clinical trial. Journal of Alternative
Complementary Medicine, 3, 249-255
13. Hussain F, Badshah L and Dastagir G (2006) Folk Medicinal Uses of Some Plants of
South Waziristan, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Plant Sciences, 12, 27-39.
14. Iranbakhsh A, Ail M, Oshaghi1 and Majd A (2006) Distribution of Atropine and
Scopolamine in Different Organs and Stages of Development in Datura stramonium L.
(solanaceae). Structure and Ultrastructure of Biosynthesizing Cells. Acta Biologica
Cracoviensia Series Botanica, 48, 1318.
15. Marwat SK, Rehman FU and Khan S (2005) Germination of Seeds of Datura
stramonium L. under Different Conditions (Temperature & Soil). Gomal University
Journal of Research, 21, 45-49.
16. Michael AJ, Furze JM, Rhodes MJC and Burtin D (1996) Molecular Cloning and
Functional Identification of a Plant Ornithine Decarboxylase cDNA. Biochemical Journal,
314, 241-248.
17. Peredery O and Persinger MA (2004) Herbal Treatment Following Post-seizure
Induction in Rat by Lithium Pilocarpine: Scutellaria lateriflora (Skullcap), Gelsemium
sempervirens (Gelsemium) and Datura stramonium (Jimson Weed) may Prevent
Development of Spontaneous seizures. Phytotherapy Research, 18,700-705

98

18. Pretorius E and Marx J (2006) Datura stramonium in Asthma Treatment and
Possible Effects on Prenatal Development. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology,
21, 331-337.
19. Sasaki T, Yamazaki K, Yamori T and Endo T (2002) Inhibition of Proliferation and
Induction of Differentiation of Glioma Cells with Datura stramonium Agglutinin. British
Journal of Cancer 87, 918-923.
20. Spina SP and Taddei A (2007) Teenagers with Jimson weed (Datura stramonium)
Poisoning. Canedian Journal of Emergency Medical Care, 9, 467-468.
21. Valverde PL, Fornoni J and Nez-Farfn J (2003) Evolutionary Ecology of Datura
stramonium: Equal Plant Fitness Benefits of Growth and Resistance against Herbivory.
Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 16, 127-137.

15.3 Web References:

URL-1
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fw016 (Accessed on June 21, 2008)
URL-2
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/wildflowers_north_america/96882/2 (Accessed on
June 28, 2008)
URL-3
http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=display&classid=DAST
(Accessed on June 26, 2008)
URL-4
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/jimsonweed.htm (Accessed on July 5,
2008)
URL-5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium (Accessed on June 20, 2008)
URL-6
http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/Spring%2005%20projects/jimsonweed.htm
(Accessed on July 28, 2008)
URL-7
http://content.herbalgram.org/abc/herbalgram/articleview.asp?a=2930 (Acessed on Oct 2,
2008)

99

URL-8
http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/physiology/cam/urbanherbs/jimsonweed.htm
(Accessed on July 12, 2008)
URL-9
http://www.drugstoremuseum.com/sections/level_info2.php?level=4&level_id=79
(Accessed on July 14, 2008)
URL-10
http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/Spring%2005%20projects/jimsonweed.htm
(Accessed on July 26, 2008)
URL-11
http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DAST (Accessed on July 5, 2008)
URL-12
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bielu_dzidzierzawa_Datu
ra_stramonium_Seed.jpg/600px-Bielu_dzidzierzawa_Datura_stramonium_Seed.jpg
(Accessed on July 10, 2008)
URL-13
http://content.herbalgram.org/abc/herbalgram/articleview.asp?a=2930 (Acessed on Oct 6,
2008)
URL-14
http://ppjoy.tripod.com/PDFs/Bk%20Medicinal%20Plants.PDF
2008)

(Accessed on Oct 16,

URL-15
http://medplant.nmsu.edu/Datura.html (Accessed on July 2, 2008)
URL-16
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium (Accessed on June 20, 2008)
URL-17
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.missouriplants.com/Bluealt/Datura
_stramonium_flower.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.missouriplants.com/Bluealt/Datura_stra
monium_page.html&h=405&w=450&sz=43&hl=en&start=4&um=1&tbnid=8shN9yjnh
CgS8M:&tbnh=114&tbnw=127&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dflower%2Bof%2BDatura%2B
stramonium%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN (Accessed on June 30, 2008)
URL-18
http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/Datura.htm (Accessed on June 30, 2008)
URL-19
http://shaman-australis.com.au/shop/index.php?cPath=21_26_70 (Accessed on Aug 1,
2008
100

URL-20
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=&enlarge=0000+0000+1104+05
64 (Accessed on Aug 1, 2008)
URL-21
http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DAST (Accessed on July 5, 2008)
URL-22
http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/48970/ (Accessed on July 16, 2008)
URL-23
http://www.divineremedies.com/Datura.htm (Accessed on July 15, 2008)
URL-24
http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17401857 (Accessed on Oct 6, 2008)
URL-25
http://www.swsbm.com/Constituents/Datura_stramonium.txt (Accessed on July 20,
2008)
URL-26
http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/Datura.html (Accessed on July 10, 2008)
URL-27
http://medplant.nmsu.edu/Datura.html (Accessed on July 10, 2008)
URL-28
http://www.divineremedies.com/Datura.htm (Accessed on July 15, 2008)
URL-29
http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Datura+stramonium (Acessed on Oct 3,
2008)
URL-30
http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17184114 (Acessed on Oct 5, 2008)
URL-31
http://delta-intkey.com/angio/images/solan577.gif (Accessed on Oct, 24, 2008)
URL-32
http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2003/1240/pdf/FestschriftNeumann_09.pdf
(Accessed on Oct 17, 2008)
URL-33
http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:7222435 (Acessed on Oct 6, 2008)
101

URL-34
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=&enlarge=0175+3301+2283+00
69 (Accessed on Oct 3, 2008)
URL-35
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/badplants/jimsonweed.htm
2008)

(Accessed on Oct 17,

URL-36
http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Datura+stramonium
URL-37
http://ppjoy.tripod.com/PDFs/Bk%20Medicinal%20Plants.PDF (Accessed on Oct 16,
2006)
URL-38
http://www.phcog.net/phcogmag/issue12/4.pdf (Accessed on Oct 17, 2008)
URL-39
http://www.agriculture.state.pa.us/agriculture/lib/agriculture/plantindustryfiles/noxious_
weed/jimson_weed.pdf (Accessed on July 20, 2008)
URL-40
http://www.herbal-ayurveda-remedy.co.in/Datura_stramonium.htm (Accessed on Oct 18,
2008)
URL-41
http://images.google.com.np/imgres?imgurl=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/trop
ane2.gif&imgrefurl=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0703.htm&h=288&w=235&sz=
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