World Housing Encyclopedia

A Resource on Construction in Earthquake Regions

an initiative of
Earthquake Engineering Research Institue (EERI) and
International Association f or Earthquake Engineering (IAEE)

HOUSING REPORT
Single-family stone masonry house

Report #

28

Last Updat ed
Count ry

Italy

Aut hor(s)

Dina D Ayala, Elena Speranza,

Reviewers

Miha Tomazevic,

Important
This encyclopedia contains information contributed by various earthquake engineering
professionals around the world. All opinions, findings, conclusions & recommendations expressed
herein are those of the various participants, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, the International Association for Earthquake
Engineering, the Engineering Information Foundation, John A, Martin & Associates, Inc. or the

participants organizations.

General Inf ormation

Building Type:

Single-family stone masonry house

Count ry:

Italy

Aut hor(s):

Dina D Ayala
Elena Speranza

Last Updat ed:

Regions Where Found:

Buildings of this construction type can be found in Centro

Italia, Umbria, Toscana, Alto Lazio, Marche, but also with
some changes in other parts of Italy.The seismic
performance is highly correlated to the masonry fabric and
quality of bonding agents. This type of housing
construction is commonly found in urban areas. Most
frequently found in medieval hilltop small and medium size
town centers. The quality of the stonework in the towns
tends to be better than in the rural examples.

Summary:

These buildings form the historic centres of most hilltop

villages and towns in central Italy. They are arranged in
long terraced arrays, with common party walls and variable
number of stories on the hillside (up to 2 or 3) and valley
side (usually 4 or 5, with a maximum of 6). The typical
house is usually formed by one or two masonry cells,
depending on the depth of the block, with a staircase
running, usually but not necessarily, along the party walls.
The masonry is made of roughly squared stone blocks set
in lime mortar, and the walls are made of two leaves with a
rubble core at the base, tapering at the upper floors.
Limestone is used for the blocks, while a particular type of
tuffa stone is used for the lintels above openings. At
ground level there are sometimes vaulted structures, while
the upper stories were originally spanned by timber
beams, with joist and timber boards covered by tiles. The
roof structure is usually original and made of timber
trusses. In recent past, many of the original floors have
been replaced either with iron "I" beams and jack arches
(refurbishments occurred before the World War II) or more
recently with weakly reinforced concrete slabs (last fifty
years). Other alterations include vertical extensions,
closing and opening of windows, introduction of hygienic
services. A high proportion of these houses show
traditional iron ties introduced in the 18th Century to tie
together orthogonal walls and floors, to ensure better
seismic performance. After the introduction of modern
seismic codes in 1980s many buildings have undergone
further strengthening, represented by RC ring beams and
concrete jacketing of walls.

Lengt h of t ime pract iced:

101-200 years

St ill Pract iced:

Yes

In pract ice as of :
Building Occupancy:

Single dwelling

Typical number of st ories:

2-5

Terrain-Flat :

Typically

Terrain-Sloped:

Typically

Comment s:

Traditional construction practice followed in the last 200

years with updates and modification during the last 100
years.

Features
Plan Shape

Rectangular, solid

Addit ional comment s on plan

shape

Roughly rectangular as usually part of arrays or terraces,

but alterations and joining of cadastral units may result in
different shapes. Also front and back walls are not
necessarily parallel as are not the party walls.

Typical plan lengt h (met ers)

4 meters

Typical plan widt h (met ers)

6 meters

Typical st ory height (met ers)

3 meters

Type of St ruct ural Syst em

Masonry: Stone Masonry Walls: Rubble stone (field stone)

in mud/lime mortar or without mortar (usually with timber
roof)

Addit ional comment s on

st ruct ural syst em

Lateral load-resisting system consists of masonry walls

with or without metal ties. Gravity load-bearing system
consists of single or double leaf masonry walls with rubble
infill.

Gravit y load-bearing & lat eral

load-resist ing syst ems

Although stone walls are commonly used, insertion of

brickwork is not uncommon. The quality of the masonry
can be very variable. Mortar is usually lime based.

Typical wall densit ies in

direct ion 1

>20%

Typical wall densit ies in

direct ion 2

5-10%

Addit ional comment s on

t ypical wall densit ies

Total wall area/plan area (for each floor) is from 0.17 to

0.25.
Opening layout is frequently altered over time, so that it is

Wall Openings

very often irregular from one floor to the next one. Typical
percentage are 30% to 50% of wall surface on facade,
much less on side walls, but with exceptions. In regular
cases for each floor of each cell , there are two windows
laid out in vertical arrays.

Is it t ypical f or buildings of
t his t ype t o have common
walls wit h adjacent buildings?

Yes

Modif icat ions of buildings

Addition of storeys, insertion of balconies and some

rearrangement of interior walls. Also as buildings have
existed for a long time, some modernization and
modifications have been introduced, such as bathrooms
and kitchens with running water.

Type of Foundat ion

Shallow Foundation: Rubble stone, fieldstone strip footing

Addit ional comment s on

f oundat ion

In some cases, following problems with uneven

settlements, in recent years some of these houses might
have been underpinned using micro-piles

Type of Floor Syst em

Vaulted masonry floorOther floor system

Addit ional comment s on f loor

syst em

Other: wood planks or beams with ballast and concrete or

plaster finishing As mentioned in the general description,
originally vaulted system at ground floor and timber
beams at the upper floors would be the typical
arrangement, but in the last 50 years these have been
replaced by precast joist system. In most cases the floor
structure cannot be considered as a rigid diaphragm.

Type of Roof Syst em

Wooden beams or trusses with heavy roof covering

Addit ional comment s on roof

syst em

Addit ional comment s sect ion

2

The main function of this building typology is single-family

house. In a typical building of this type, there are no
elevators and 1-2 fire-protected exit staircases. Building of
this type can have as the one main entry so the two
doors. These buildings are typically found in flat, sloped
and hilly terrain. They do not share common walls with
adjacent buildings. This value of 5 meters is average
distance. Buildings of this type in some places are located
close together and in other places are scattered When
separated from adjacent buildings, the typical distance
from a neighboring building is 5 meters.

An Elevation of a Typical Building

Plan of a Typical Building

Building Materials and Construction Process

Description of Building Materials
St ruct ural Element

Building Mat erial (s)

Comment (s)

Wall/Frame

Rubble stone masonry

Comp. = 1 MPa Shear = 0.02

MPa Lime mortar 1:3 or 1:2:9

Foundations

Dressed stone masonry

Comp. = 2 MPa Shear = 0.07

MPa Lime mortar 1:3 or 1:2:9

Floors

Timber

6 to 10 MPa Depends on
type and age of timber

Roof

Timber

6 to 10 MPa Depends on
type and age of timber

Other

Design Process
Who is involved wit h t he
design process?

EngineerArchitect

Roles of t hose involved in t he

design process

The design of repair and strengthening has to be signed

by an engineer. The architect would typically get involved if
refurbishment is planned.

Expert ise of t hose involved in

t he design process

Most of buildings were constructed many years ago and

didn't have any kind of expertise.

Construction Process
Who t ypically builds t his
const ruct ion t ype?

Builder

Roles of t hose involved in t he

building process

Very rarely these houses are built nowadays, but

contractors who will do maintenance or upgrading will live
locally, in similar type of construction.

Expert ise of t hose involved in

building process

Most of buildings were constructed many years ago and

didn't have any kind of expertise.

Const ruct ion process and

phasing

See above. However modern tools tend to be used for

repairs, strengthening or upgrading interventions. The
construction of this type of housing takes place
incrementally over time. Typically, the building is originally
not designed for its final constructed size. Buildings would
have typically undergone several alteration and
refurbishments during their life, including addition of
stories, replacement of staircases and demolition
/erection of bearing walls.

Const ruct ion issues

Building Codes and Standards

Is t his const ruct ion t ype
address by codes/st andards?

Yes

Applicable codes or
st andards

Decreto Ministeriale 2-7-1981: Normativa per le riparazioni

ed il rafforzamento degli edifici dannegiati dal sisma This
type of historic construction is only addressed in terms of
repair and strengthening. The first code was issued post
The Campania earthquake of 1981. Revised in 1986 and in
1996. New brick masonry structures are addressed in a
different standard.

Process f or building code

enf orcement

N/A

Building Permits and Development Control Rules

Are building permit s required?

Yes

Is t his t ypically inf ormal

const ruct ion?

Yes

Is t his const ruct ion t ypically

aut horized as per
development cont rol rules?

No

Addit ional comment s on

building permit s and
development cont rol rules

Most of these buildings fall within conservation areas, for

which special permits have to be required. Alteration to the
building are allowed only if accompanied by an
improvement of the structural seismic behaviour.

Building Maintenance and Condition

Typical problems associat ed
wit h t his t ype of const ruct ion

Who t ypically maint ains

buildings of t his t ype?

BuilderOwner(s)

Addit ional comment s on

maint enance and building
condit ion

Construction Economics
Unit const ruct ion cost

800 Euro/sq m.

Labor requirement s

4-6 working weeks depending on size.

Addit ional comment s sect ion

3

Critical Structural Details Stone Masonry

Wall With Irregular Roughly Dressed Stone
Blocks of Varying Dimensions Embedded
into Thick Lime Mortar Joints (not properly
repointed)

Critical Structural Details-Movement the

Blocks, Probably as a Result of Damage in
Previous Earthquake and Visible Loose
Stones Around the Arch

Key Seismic Features and Deficiencies

Showing the Regular Arrays of Floor Ties in
One the Next One, and Corner Return
Return Stones in the Third Unit

Earthquake-Resilient Feature - Corner

Returns between the Perpendicular Walls
Made of Larger Stone Blocks

Socio-Economic Issues
Pat t erns of occupancy

From 1 to 2 families depending on size of the building

Each building typically has 1 to 4 units in each building.

Number of inhabit ant s in a

t ypical building of t his
const ruct ion t ype during t he
day

<5

Number of inhabit ant s in a

t ypical building of t his
const ruct ion t ype during t he
evening/night

5-10

Addit ional comment s on

number of inhabit ant s

Some of these units have now been converted in holiday

homes, only occupied at weekends and in the summer
months.

Economic level of inhabit ant s

Low-income class (poor)Middle-income class

Addit ional comment s on

economic level of inhabit ant s

Ratio of housing unit price to annual income: 5:1 or worse

Economic Level: For Poor Class the ratio of Housing Unit
Price to their Annual Income is 5:1. For Middle Class the
ratio of Housing Unit Price to their Annual Income is 4:1.

Typical Source of Financing

Owner financedInformal network: friends or relativesSmall

lending institutions/microfinance institutions

Addit ional comment s on

f inancing
Type of Ownership

RentOwn outrightUnits owned individually (condominium)

Addit ional comment s on

ownership
Is eart hquake insurance f or
t his const ruct ion t ype
t ypically available?

No

What does eart hquake

insurance t ypically cover/cost

N/A

Are premium discount s or

higher coverages available f or
seismically st rengt hened
buildings or new buildings
built t o incorporat e
seismically resist ant
f eat ures?

No

Addit ional comment s on

premium discount s

Addit ional comment s sect ion

4

Earthquake insurance for this construction type is typically

unavailable. For seismically strengthened existing buildings
or new buildings incorporating seismically resilient
features, an insurance premium discount or more
complete coverage is unavailable.

Earthquakes
Past Earthquakes in the country which affected buildings of this type
Year

Eart hquake Epicent er

1997

Serravelle

Past Earthquakes

Damage pat t erns observed in

past eart hquakes f or t his
const ruct ion t ype

A small proportion of these buildings collapsed in the town

centres and usually these had very poor maintenance
record, i.e. the buildings had not been occupied for a
number of years. A greater proportion of similar buildings
(still within 25% of the total number) collapsed in the
smaller mountain villages closer to the epicentre. Two
main factors can be considered as possible causes of this
disparity, assuming a similar level of seismic excitation:
worse construction quality, and the fact that the houses
in the villages are isolated, whereas in the towns they are
built in the rows. Figure 9 shows a house in the historic
centre of Nocera Umbra, subjected to the 1997 UmbriaMarche earthquake. Typical "X" cracks developed in
masonry walls, in this case caused by the increased
stiffness of roof structure that had been replaced by
reinforced concrete slab with ring-beam. Figure 10
illustrates the earthquake damage associated with the
inadequate ring beam-wall connection. The roof had
slipped on the masonry and caused the wall damage.

Addit ional comment s on

eart hquake damage pat t erns

Structural and Architectural Features for Seismic Resistance

The main reference publication used in developing the statements used in this table is FEMA 310
Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Buildings-A Pre-standard, Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington, D.C., 1998.
The total width of door and window openings in a wall is: For brick masonry construction in
cement mortar : less than of the distance between the adjacent cross walls; For adobe
masonry, stone masonry and brick masonry in mud mortar: less than 1/3 of the distance between
the adjacent cross walls; For precast concrete wall structures: less than 3/4 of the length of a
perimeter wall.
St ruct ural/Archit ect ural
Feat ure

St at ement

Seismic Resist ance

Lateral load path

The structure contains a

complete load path for
seismic force effects from
any horizontal direction that
serves to transfer inertial
forces from the building to
the foundation.

FALSE

Building Configuration-Vertical

The building is regular with

regards to the elevation.
(Specify in 5.4.1)

TRUE

Building ConfigurationHorizontal

The building is regular with

regards to the plan. (Specify
in 5.4.2)

TRUE

Roof Construction

The roof diaphragm is

considered to be rigid and it
is expected that the roof
structure will maintain its
integrity, i.e. shape and form,
during an earthquake of
intensity expected in this
area.

FALSE

Floor Construction

The floor diaphragm(s) are

considered to be rigid and it
is expected that the floor
structure(s) will maintain its
integrity during an
earthquake of intensity
expected in this area.

FALSE

Foundation Performance

There is no evidence of
excessive foundation
movement (e.g. settlement)
that would affect the
integrity or performance of
the structure in an
earthquake.

TRUE

Wall and Frame StructuresRedundancy

The number of lines of walls

or frames in each principal
direction is greater than or
equal to 2.

TRUE

Wall Proportions

Height-to-thickness ratio of
the shear walls at each floor
level is: Less than 25
(concrete walls); Less than
30 (reinforced masonry
walls); Less than 13
(unreinforced masonry
walls);

TRUE

Foundation-Wall Connection

Vertical load-bearing
elements (columns, walls)
are attached to the
foundations; concrete
columns and walls are
doweled into the
foundation.

TRUE

Wall-Roof Connections

Exterior walls are anchored

for out-of-plane seismic
effects at each diaphragm
level with metal anchors or
straps.

TRUE

Wall Openings
Quality of Building Materials

FALSE
Quality of building materials
is considered to be

TRUE

adequate per the

requirements of national
codes and standards (an
estimate).
Quality of Workmanship

Quality of workmanship
(based on visual inspection
of a few typical buildings) is
considered to be good (per
local construction
standards).

FALSE

Maintenance

Buildings of this type are

generally well maintained
and there are no visible
signs of deterioration of
building elements (concrete,
steel, timber).

FALSE

Building Irregularities
Addit ional comment s on
st ruct ural and archit ect ural
f eat ures f or seismic
resist ance
Vert ical irregularit ies t ypically
f ound in t his const ruct ion
t ype

Other

Horizont al irregularit ies

t ypically f ound in t his
const ruct ion t ype

Other

Seismic def iciency in walls

-Level of bond in the geometric thickness of the multi-leaf

walls. -Extent of connection between facade and party
walls, depending on alteration and position of windows. Level of bond between mortar and units depending on
decay of original material and r

Eart hquake-resilient f eat ures

in walls

-Corner returns between the perpendicular walls made of

larger stone blocks are an original feature in many
buildings, see Figure 8. -In some buildings built in the last
100 years iron anchors connecting the floor timber
structure to the wall are an as bu

Seismic def iciency in f rames

Eart hquake-resilient f eat ures
in f rame

Seismic def iciency in roof and

f loors

Original structures are flexible diaphragms. Some roofs

can also produce active thrust on the walls. Earthquake
Damage Patterns: Partial or total collapse of floor or roof
structure associated with partial or total collapse of loadbearing walls.

Eart hquake resilient f eat ures

in roof and f loors

In some cases the main timber structure is laid out

orthogonally at different floor level to tie in both sets of
walls

Seismic def iciency in

f oundat ion
Eart hquake-resilient f eat ures
in f oundat ion

Seismic Vulnerability Rating

For information about how seismic vulnerability ratings were selected see the Seismic
Vulnerability Guidelines

Seismic vulnerability class

High
vulnerabilit y

Medium
vulnerabilit y

Low
vulnerabilit y

|-

-|

Earthquake Damage to a Retrofitted Building

to the Inadequate RC Ring Beam-Wall
Connection

Typical Earthquake Damage - "X" cracking

of walls (1997 Umbria-Marche earthquake)

Retrof it Inf ormation

Description of Seismic Strengthening Provisions
St ruct ural Def iciency

Seismic St rengt hening

Lack of Structural Integrity

Installation of new RC ring beams with or without

concrete slab. A procedure for the installation of a new
RC ring beam in an existing stone masonry building is
presented in Figure 15. Note the dowels anchored into
the existing walls and the new concrete slab atop the
existing wood floor. Figure 14 shows an alternative
solution, which includes the installation of steel anchors
grouted into the existing walls and the installation of
new concrete floor slab atop the existing wood floor.
Figure 11 shows a building strengthened with new RC
ring beams. It is very important to achieve the connection
between the new RC ring beam and the existing
masonry, otherwise the earthquake damage may be
caused, as illustrated in Figure 10.

Inadequate Wall-Floor
Connection

Installation of new steel ties. Figure 13 shows a steel

strap detail connecting an existing stone masonry wall to
a timber floor joists. Figure 14 shows a detail of ties with
an anchor plate at the exterior face of the wall. A
building with the installed ties is shown on Figure 7. It is
very important to accomplish a regular distribution of ties
- irregular tie distribution may be a cause of earthquake
damage, as illustrated in Figure 9.

Low Lateral-Load Resistance of

the Walls

Grouting

Addit ional comment s on

seismic st rengt hening
provisions

Figure 11 illustrates the following seismic strengthening

provisions: RC ring beams and anchorage of floor beams
to the wall, repointing and grouting using cement-based
grout, corner return in brickwork, and the installation of
concrete window frame. Figure 12 illustrates modern
anchors with anchorage plates and concrete lintels over
openings.

Has seismic st rengt hening

described in t he above t able
been perf ormed?

Seismic strengthening is recommended by a local

authority and required when other forms of alteration or
improvement are performed. It is quite common in design
practice.

Was t he work done as a

mit igat ion ef f ort on an
undamaged building or as a
repair f ollowing eart hquake

The work could be performed in both cases.

damages?
Was t he const ruct ion
inspect ed in t he same manner
as new const ruct ion?

N/A

Who perf ormed t he

const ruct ion: a cont ract or or
owner/user? Was an archit ect
or engineer involved?

An architect or engineer is required to sign the

strengthening design submitted to the local building
authority.

What has been t he

perf ormance of ret rof it t ed
buildings of t his t ype in
subsequent eart hquakes?

Generally good, but highly dependent on the quality of

implementation of the strengthening.

Addit ional comment s sect ion

6

Illustration of Seismic Strengthening

Techniques
Seismic Strengthening TechniquesInstallation of modern anchors with
anchorage plates and concrete lintels over
openings

Seismic Strengthening- Steel Strap Used to

Connect an Existing Masonry Wall to Timber
Floor Joists

Seismic Strengthening- Installation of Ties

with an Anchor Plate at the Exterior Wall
Face

Seismic Strengthening- Installation of New

Steel Anchors Grouted Into Existing Walls
and the New RC Floor Slabs

Seismic Strengthening- Installation of New

RC Ring Beam

Ref erences
1. D Ayala, D., Spence, R. (1995). Vulnerability of Buildings in historic town centres. Proceedings of
the VII National Conference LIngegneria Sismica in Italia, pp.363-372, Siena, Italy.
2. D'Ayala, D., Spence, R., Oliveira, C., & Pomonis, A. (1997). Earthquake Loss Estimation for
Europe's Historic Town Centres. Earthquake Spectra Special Issue on Earthquake Loss
Estimation, (November).
3. R. Spence, D. D Ayala, (1999). The Umbria-Marche Earthquake of September 1997. Preliminary
Structural Assessment. The Structural Engineering International, Journal of the IABSE. Vol . 9 n.3
pp. 229-233 (also available on line at http://www.iabse.ethz.ch/sei/sei_f.html).
4. D'Ayala, D. (1999). Correlation of seismic damage between classes of buildings: churches and
houses. Seismic damage to Masonry Buildings, pp. 41-58. Balkema Press, Rotterdam.
5. D Ayala, D., Speranza, E. (1999) Identificazione dei Meccanismi di Collasso per la stima della
Vulnerabilita Sismica di Edifici nei Centri Storici. Proceedings of the IX National Congress,
LIngegneria Sismica in Italia, Torino, Italy (in Italian).
6. D'Ayala D. (2000) Establishing Correlation Between Vulnerability And Damage Survey For
Churches Proceedings of 12th World Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Paper 2237/10/a,
Auckland, New Zealand.

7. D Ayala, D, Speranza, E. 2000, Confronto di misure di vulnerabilita ottenute con metodi statistici
per edifici in centri storici, research carried out in collaboration with the GNDT U.R. of Padova
(Italy), internal report of Dept. of. Costruzioni e Trasporti of University of Padova, Italy (in Italian).
8. D Ayala, D, Speranza, E. 2001, Seismic vulnerability of historic centres: the case study of Nocera
Umbra, Italy Proceedings of the UNESCO Congress More Than Two Thousand Years in the
History of Architecture.
9. D Ayala, D, Speranza, E. (2001) A procedure for evaluating the seismic vulnerability of historic
buildings at urban scale based on mechanical parameters. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Congress # Studies in Ancient Structures, Yildiz, Instanbul, Turkey.
10. D'Ayala, D., Speranza, E. (2001). Unreinforced Brick-Block Masonry - Traditional Housing in
Central Italy. Workshop on the EERI/IAEE Housing Encyclopedia Project, Pavia, Italy (also available
online at www.world-housing.net)

Authors

Name

Tit le

Af f iliat ion

Locat ion

Email

Dina D
Ayala

Director of
Postgraduate
Studies

Dept. of
Architecture
and Civil
Engineering

University of Bath,
00 44 1225
826537, D.F. D
[email protected]

[email protected]

Elena
Speranza

Architect

Dept. of
Architecture
and Civil
Engineering

University of Bath,
UK

[email protected]

Reviewers

Name

Tit le

Af f iliat ion

Locat ion

Email

Miha
Tomazevic

Professor

Slovenian
National
Building & Civil
Engr. Institut

Ljubljana
1000,
SLOVENIA

[email protected]