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Installing and uninstalling the game.

Commands for the user interface

The installation program of Europa Universalis

starts automatically when the CD is inserted in
your CD player. If your CD-ROM unit does
not have the auto run function activated, you
may start the installation by double clicking
setup.exe, which you will find in the root directory of the CD.
As soon as the installation program has started, you may install Europa Universalis and, if
necessary, DirectX 7.0, which is included on
the CD. When the actual installation has begun, just follow the instructions on the screen.
If Europa Universalis is already installed on
your computer just press Play in the installation
program to start. You may also start the program from a suitable button in the Program
menu under the Start menu. You may uninstall
Europa Universalis at any time by using either
the Installation program or using the Add and
Remove program of the Control Panel.

General
"Shift" + "F12" opens the chat function of
the network game.
"F11" saves a screenshot as a bitmap picture
on your hard disk.
"Pause/Break" pauses the game/Restarts
the game in progress.
"Ctrl" + "+" increases game speed (not available in network games).
"Ctrl" + "" decreases game speed (not
available in network games).
"+" increases map size.
"" decreases map size.
"ESC" and "ENTER" often functions as
Yes/No in dialogue windows.
"F12" opens the console. Press "F12" again
to close.
"Home" centers the map on your capital.
"F1" lets you view missions or victory points.
E/P/N are quick commands for easy
switching of map views.
"F10" opens the start menu for saving and
loading games, including settings.

Software requirements:
Windows 95/98/2000/NT
(NT requires service package no. 4).
DirectX 7.0

Hardware minimum requirements:

Pentium 200 Mhz, with 64 Mb RAM
2Mn Video RAM

Recommended hardware:
Pentium II, 300 Mhz, 128 Mb RAM
2Mn Video RAM

Requirements for network games:

Bandwidth of at least 512 kb/s
TCP/IP protocol installed

Commands for Armies and Navies

"PageUp/PageDown" for fast jumps between your various units.
"Ctrl" + "[number]" associates the chosen
unit with that number.
"[Number]" chooses the numbered unit,
press the number again, and the map will
center on the chosen unit.
"s" divides the chosen unit into two equal
parts.
"a" quick command during siege.
"u" to unload armies from a chosen fleet, if
you have troops onboard.
"g" forms selected units into a single unit.

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A) Introduction
A Simulated Europe
This game tries to simulate the interaction between the European countries during the period between 1492 and 1792 as realistically as
possible. This means that Europe is divided into provinces, which in turn make up the various countries. The provinces have populations
that produce goods, pay taxes, engage in trade,
and are recruited as soldiers and sailors. Each
population has a religion that incorporates
their view of the world and moral position. If
the monarch and the government act counter
to morally acceptable behavior, there is a risk of
rebellion. The monarch and the government
(actually the player) are responsible for the
country and represent the country to the rest
of the world. In this way all of the European
nations are part of the same quarreling family,
where some co-operate and others fight.
As time goes by the European nations
change, both in political, economic, and military strength. Depending on how well your
country is able to manage its resources, defend
its provinces, and invest in technology, nations
will rise or fall in power and status. Historically
the Ottoman Empire peaked during the 16th
century, after which its power slowly waned,
until it was finally regarded as the "Sick Man of
Europe" in 1792. Sweden began the period as
a backwards place on the outer fringes, and
then gained status as a great power during the
17th century, only to lose that status at the beginning of the 18th, to slowly sink into a second-rate power during the latter half of the
18th century.

What is Europa Universalis?

Europa Universalis is a game where you can
choose a European nation and play its ups and
downs over 300 years. The game provides what
you could philosophically call a "God perspective;" that is, you lead the country through 300
years, having the opportunity to be at many

places at the same time in order to make decisions.

This is an extensive and advanced game, but
do take it easy. By playing the learning scenario
and reading all the tips included in the game,
and reading the "The Learning Scenario"
chapter in this manual, you will soon be able to
play the game. In order to master the more
subtle parts of the game, you need to play a lot
of games and read the rest of the manual.
The game does not pretend to be historically
accurate. This means that it does not follow the
historical textbooks, because if it had, you
would not be able to act differently from the
actual governments. Instead you should view
the game as an "alternate history," that is, the
historic individuals, the nations, and the resources are provided, but you have a chance to
act differently. In your game the Thirty Years
War perhaps will never break out, or maybe
France will conquer America, or PolandLithuania will never cease to exist as a nation.
You lead a country and have a great number
of choices regarding war and peace, politics,
economics, and religion, but at the same time
your resources are limited because of the size
and traditions of your nation. You are simply
"The Grey Eminence" behind all of the
monarchs of your country during the period of
the game.
The game contains a number of different
scenarios, including the Grand Campaign. The
various scenarios usually cover shorter time periods, while the Grand Campaign will let you
take your country from 1492 until 1792.
When choosing a scenario or the Grand Campaign, you always have the choice of when the
game should end.

Why is the Clock Ticking?

In a game like this, which is about historical
change, it is not possible to be in every place at
the same time. Time in the game is running
forward like a clock in reality, providing a real
sense of the flow of time, because an English
king, for example, did not know how the bat-

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tles against the French in North America

turned out until months later. Even war in general was an activity with uncertain results; since
you are the one who is moving and controlling
all of your troops, you are forced to give priority to some while the clock is ticking away. It also simulates the difficulties of running a large
empire in contrast to a small, land-locked
country. As a player of Spain, for example, it
could be difficult to wage a successful war in
Northern Italy, at the same time that you are
colonizing a new province in Mexico, and
making improvements to the infrastructure in
the Philippines.
What you should know and remember is that
you may pause the game at any time. The clock
stops and the game stands still. In this "pause
mode" you can order troops around (although
they will not start moving until the game resumes), build army units and fleets, deal with
diplomatic offers, make changes in your budget, etc. You may also change the speed of the
"clock" at any time, i.e. change the speed of
the game, as you perceive it. In the beginning it
is advisable that you keep game time at a relatively slow speed, when you are feeling your
way around the various parts of the game.
4

What Is the Goal of the Game?

The goal of the game may actually vary from
player to player. The basics for the game are to
receive as many victory points as possible. It is
meaningless, at this moment, to discuss in any
greater detail exactly what provides victory
points throughout the game, as we have not
yet discussed that area of the game. Instead we
will direct you to the list of victory points at the
end of the game. If you play using the "standard" victory conditions, the player with the
highest total points becomes the winner, but
please note that at the end of the game you will
see how many victory points your country has
received, and its relative position. This means
that you can play a country you find difficult to
play just to try to get a better result from game
to game, which is also a way of "winning." Another approach is to play Denmark, for example, and try to get more victory points than its
perennial enemy Sweden.
You can also choose a couple of other victory
conditions other than the "standard" ones.
The first choice is "Power Struggle," which
means that the country that is first to reach a
predetermined number of victory points is the
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want to play a quick game. The second choice

is "Conquest," which means that the country
conquering a predetermined number of
provinces is the winner. You set the number
when you determine victory conditions. Conquest is the number one choice if you wish to
decide the outcome of the game on the battlefields. The third choice is "Mission," which
means that each country will receive a specific
difficult mission, and the player that succeeds
first is the winner. Various missions may include: Russia must conquer all orthodox
provinces in the Balkans, or Spain must "conquer England." Mission is the choice for players who would like to try something random,
yet challenging.
Europa Universalis is about a number of
ways of changing history, and changing history
becomes a goal in itself in the game, besides
winning. How you do it is up to you.

The Game An Overview

When you start playing you will have a map in
front of you. This is the "game board" of the
game; in the same way you have a game board
in front of you when you play Monopoly or
chess. You lead a country, or more exactly, you
are a country, and all of the provinces within

the borders of your country belong to you.

Provinces outside your country belong to other countries. You also have access to army units
(symbolized by little soldiers) and fleets (symbolized by small warships), which you can
move around on the map (just like in chess and
Monopoly). By clicking a province you get access to information about it in the "information window" on the left side of the screen.
Here you are able to construct army units and
fleets, invest in infrastructure, and many other
things. Exactly what you are able to do and
how to do it will be discussed in greater detail
later on.

How Do I Play?
Naturally, leading a country during 300 years is
not an easy task. To win the game you need to
collect as many victory points as possible. Starting the game by waging as many wars as possible may get your country a large number of victory points, but may also lead to quick ruin. It
is usually better to collect victory points at a
relatively normal pace during all of your 300
years, rather than gaining points quickly during
just 100.
The primary problem facing your country is
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involved in the third partitioning of Poland supposedly

said: "A nation not able to defend itself has no right to exist." In game terms your neighbors will try to take advantage of your weaknesses, but will also shy away from your
strength. In order to survive you must upgrade your defenses, and have enough army units and well-armed
fleets, but you must also pay attention to the development of your nation.
The secondary problem facing your country is development over time. If your country lags behind in economic or military development this will show up in losses
on the battlefields. When you consider economic development over time, it helps to think about this simple
metaphor. In very simple terms it is like putting money in
the bank. If you deposit 100 dollars at 10% interest, you
will have 110 dollars one year later, and 121 dollars two
years later. You should be aware of the dynamic nature of
economic development.
The third problem facing your country is discovering
the unknown world beyond the boundaries of Europe.
The discovery of new areas, and establishment of trading
posts or colonies, is quite costly at the beginning, but will
provide a lot of revenue later. The heart of the matter is
balancing your countrys priorities and making your resources meet your needs. A colonial empire also needs to
be defended, which means you should give the whole
idea some thought before you start putting things in motion. You may have to consider matters for the next ten or
twenty years ahead if you do not want to lose all you
gained due to poor planning.

How Is the Map Designed?

The game is played on a world map. You cant see everything on the map at the same time, but only the provinces
and sea zones familiar to you country. In order to find out
more you need to explore the unknown parts of the map,
which are called Terra Incognita. This map, which we will
call the normal map, shows each province with its name,
its type of terrain, whether it contains cities, colonies, or
trading posts. It will also show land boundaries between
countries. In the sea zones you will see what the weather
is like, and whether it is winter or summer in the
provinces. Note that a fog stopping you from discovering
any army units in the provinces, or fleets in the sea zones
covers parts of the map. Areas not covered by the fog include your own country, the countries of your allies,
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riages, and finally countries with which you are

currently at war. In these countries nothing is
hidden.
[screenshot of the "normal" map also showing
the fog of war]
You may also click on the button labeled the
"Political map" in order to view it. Here you
will find all of your foreign relations, and by
clicking a province in another country you are
shown the foreign relations of that country.
Note that this is the map you will be using
when you wish to perform diplomatic actions.
You may also click on the button labeled "Economic map," which shows the goods produced
in each province. There is also a "Trade map,"
showing the trade centers of the world, and
which provinces they control. The last map is
the "Colonial map," which you use when es-

tablishing trading posts or colonies. Note that

each map has a separate click able button,
which lets you view each one separately.

Geography and Weather

The game contains five different types of terrain: open terrain, forest, mountains, desert,
and swamp. There is also one geographical obstacle: rivers. The terrain types affect the movement of army units, battles, and army unit attrition. Some provinces also suffer the effects of
winter, which in turn affect the various terrain
types.
Sea zones are also affected by the weather.
Certain sea zones may be ridden by storms, or
be covered by ice during parts of the year. Note
also that attrition is lower in sea zones next to
coastal provinces, compared with the open sea.

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B) Learning Scenario
General
The screen you see is divided into two fields, or
"windows." The larger window to the right is
the world map, of which you only see a very insignificant part. You will see more and more of
it as you discover the unknown areas. The
white and unknown parts of the map are called
"Terra Incognita," which is simply "The Unknown World" in Latinthe language of
knowledge and science during this age.
You will also see one provinceUlster,
which happens to be your only province, containing your capital. If you left click on Ulster
on the map, you will open a picture of your
capital in the other window. For the sake of
simplicity we call that window the Information
window.
The Info window will be described in full a
little later. Below the Info window you will find
the picture of a historical map, or more correctly, an empty map. This is a world map in a
smaller format, which will aid you later in the
game when your knowledge of the world has
increased. Note the appearance of "tips"
whenever a scenario is started. These tips provide quick and abbreviated information about
the most important functions of the game. We
recommend that you read these. You may also
access the "tips" by clicking the menu button
at the bottom of the Information window, and
then choosing "Tips."

The Top Line above the Map Window

On the top line above the Map window, you
will find a border with three symbols and a
datethe game clockfollowed by another
three symbols. The first three show how many
Merchants, Colonists, and Diplomats you have
available. If you place the pointer above any of
the symbols you get information about how often you receive new ones, and what generates
them. The clock is shadowed whenever you
pause the game, and white when time is running. If you think that the "progress of time" is
too fast or too slow, you may change it by click8

ing the menu button at the lower left of the Information window, choosing Alternative, and
then following the instructions. The three symbols to the right of the clock show the Stability
level of your country, the Manpower in thousands of soldiers, and the contents of your treasury expressed in Ducats, which was one of the
most common currencies during the historical
epoch. You will receive more background information if you point at the symbols.

The Top Line above the Information

Window
The embellished line above the Information
window contains five coats of arms. If you left
click any of these, specialized information will
be shown in the Information window. The
shields will provide the following information
(from left to right): naval information, land
army information, general information about
the country and its monarch, the state budget,
and the Financial Summary. The military information shows your level of technology, your
upkeep costs, and your chances of changing the
wages and costs of your soldiers and sailors. The
economic information will show the income
and expenditures of your country, including
how they are allocated. You may also choose
how to allocate your research investments in order to develop your technology levels.

The Information Windowa Province

When you left click on your only province, you
will see the city of the province of Ulster in the
Information window. By clicking on buildings
and objects in the Information window, you
get additional information about the objects.
The buildings are the places where the various
officials of your province work. The officials
may be appointed to more qualified tasks by
clicking the buildings, which will give you
more advantages in the game. You may also
build fleets and recruit army units.
The church is a very important building. It
will be upgraded automatically when the population of the province increases. If you left click
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about the state of your province. If you click on

the text lines that appear when you click on the
church, you will get additional information.
You may also click on the symbols to get additional information about the economy and religion. In addition to the buildings of the
province you also see another shield. The
shield shows the most important products of
the province, including provincial revenue
from trade and taxes. When you appoint officials, for example, you will find that these revenues increase.

Army Units and Battles

Your first task is to recruit an army and fight a
battle. Note that there is a "Read more"-button in each "Mission window." We recommend strongly that you read this additional information, as it provides both historical information and information about how the game
works. Please note also that by clicking anything under construction, you will find out
when the construction is due to be finished.

Choosing Army Units

Besides left clicking a unit, you may also keep
the left mouse button pressed and "circling"
the unit. You know that a unit is selected when
a green circle surrounds it, and you see an elongated rectangle at the base of the unit. The
morale of the unit is indicated by the colors
red, yellow, or green. A newly recruited unit always starts at the lowest possible morale. It will
then increase month by month to the maximum level allowed by your technology level.
The Information window provides additional
information about the chosen unit, such as unit
commander, strength, and attrition. You may
also split the unit into two parts, merge units
by first choosing all units in a province, and also reorganize or customize your units. Finally, you may opt to disband the unit.

Movement of Troops
When you have clicked the area you want to
move your army unit into, the troops will start
marching. You also see a green arrow showing

the direction of the march. If you wish to do

something else for a moment, such as take care
of your province, you will see the green arrow if
you choose the unit again. As you may have noticed, it will take a relatively long time to move
your troops to the new area. The movement of
troops takes a varying amount of time depending on the composition of the unit and the
state of the province to which you are moving
the unit. The province you moved your unit to
was undiscovered, giving you the maximum
transportation time. In game time it takes at
least three months to move an army unit into
an undiscovered area. Note that you can reset
the speed of the game if you think the pace is
too slow at the beginning.

Discovered and Undiscovered Terrain

Discovered terrain is any terrain which is fully
disclosed on the map, while undiscovered terrain is only partly visible. The undiscovered terrain is partly covered by white, just like in old
maps, where any unknown terrain was represented in this fashion. Ulster was the only discovered terrain when you started the scenario.
Now you have discovered some more. You
must discover any terrain that is only partly visible before you may conquer it. Normally you
need a Conquistador, or land military technology level of 11 in order to discover provinces.
Undiscovered sea zones usually require an Explorer or Naval technology level of 21. We have
made an exception from this rule in the learning scenario to let you discover provinces at an
earlier stage.

Occupied and Non-Occupied Terrain

"A nation always has an army, either its own or
somebody elses," is a classical saying. This is
also correct in principle for this game. If you
see a province on the map containing a soldier,
it is an army unit occupying the province. If the
province looks empty you may left click the
province. If it belongs to somebody else you
will see the level of fortification. Fortifications
always have garrisons. Extremely few provinces
belonging to European nations completely
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lack fortifications, but there may be colonies

without them, or quite undeveloped provinces
at the very fringes of Europe. Fortifications are
not very common in the New World, but instead have loose confederations of tribes and
clans. This mean that somebody occupies almost every territory.
Strictly speaking, sea zones are not occupied.
Instead the struggle concerns the shipping
lanes. Anyone who is able to stop others from
using the shipping lanes therefore exerts a certain influence.

Colonization and Economy

The importance of a good economy cannot be
overrated. The economic wealth of your country determines how much of your resources
you can invest into various activities, from research to war. What then, are the cornerstones
of your economy? Most of your income will
come from production and taxes, which are
generated by your population. The population

lives in the provinces, which provides two main

paths that enable you to broaden your economic base: war and colonization.

To Colonize a Province
When you click the colonization button (the
button that resembles a small, light blue ship),
the map changes to show which provinces you
can colonize (dark green) and which you cannot colonize (bone white). This is called the
Colonial map. When you choose a province to
colonize, information will appear in the Information window; that is where you choose
where to send your colonists. Your colonists
may also be used as merchants, which will be
described later.

From HMS Mayflower to Cities

Colonies can be upgraded, and for each
colonist it is upgraded one level. A colony may
have up to six levels, where each level represents 100 inhabitants. When a colony reaches
700 inhabitants it is turned into a normal
province with a city. From then on you are able
to recruit troops and build fortifications in the
province.
Note that the economy of the province develops over time as the population grows. From the
moment you have established your colony, it ex10

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periences a monthly increase in population. It is

positive if the country has a high level of stability, and negative if stability is low. This means that
a first level colony may develop into a province
with a city without you having to send more
colonists. Population growth will not be very
high, which means that such a development will
take a long time. A first level colony rarely produces any revenue, while a sixth level colony is
more or less a small province. Each colonist
brings along 100 people.
The colonist, the leader of the expedition
consisting of 100 people, always starts out
from your capital, and is portrayed as a horse
and carriage and as a small sailing ship. The further away from your capital, the longer it takes
to complete the actual colonization. When you
establish a colony it may happen that the
colony receives the state religion of your country, and that may be interpreted as the presence
of a number of priests among the colonists. It is
an advantage if the religion of the province is
the same as the state religion, as differences
may result in rebellions during times of unrest.

The Financial Summary

Here you get an overview of the economic
state of your country. Remember that the entire economy is affected by the stability of your
country; low stability results in low revenues
and technology levels, while a high stability rating will optimize both revenues and development. You will also find that income will increase when you upgrade buildings and receive
higher technology levels in the areas of infrastructure and trade.
Be careful with inflation. Inflation increases
proportionally with the amount of money you
choose to receive each month (by minting
coins), and by taking loans from the citizens of
your country or from other countries. The
normal state, where inflation does not increase,
is when you do not take out a monthly income;
that is, by increasing the amount of coins in
your country. At that point you only have your
annual income available. Note also that gold
mines will increase inflation. If you have gold

mines you can never completely avoid inflation.

Your best cure against inflation is the Governor. By appointing mayors to governors you
lower the rate of inflation. Remember that inflation is relativeas long as the increases in
prices are lower than the increases in revenue, it
is not a bad thing, at least not in the short run.

The Budget Window

The state budget lets you decide on how to
manage your resources for development, investments in stability, and public consumption
in the form of appointments of officials, diplomacy, and the armed forces. This may be classified into three separate areas.
The first is research, which results in qualitative advantages. Military units get a higher
morale, better firepower, and greater impact.
Merchants become more competitive and
make greater profits. Infrastructure provides a
higher degree of effectiveness in production.
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The second area is stability, which affects every area of your country. Stability affects the
economy, troop morale, the risk of rebellion in
your provinces, and whether your vengeful
neighbors will think it wise to attack or not. If
anything is more important than other factors,
it must be stability. It also affects the total size
of your state budget, which means that total investments in technology will be lower over
time if you go along with a lower stability,
rather than investing in maximum stability.
Your third concern is public consumption,
or actually the expenditure of liquid assets from
your treasury on a monthly basis. You spend
these ducats on more troops, more war ships,
more colonists, and more merchants.

Trade and Merchants

Historically you could say that the global economy did not exist until the discovery of America. The easiest way of looking at the global
economy of that era is as a number of adjacent
local economies. These local economies were
connected to each other with sometimes weak,
and sometimes strong ties. The ties consisted
of course of the merchants, and the power connecting them was external trade. The greater
the number of local economies connected, the
more trade increased. When trade increased,
both demand and supply increased, giving rise
to global trade over time.
Each province in the game belongs to a center of trade. Goods are exchanged at the center
of trade, prices are fixed, and profits and losses
are divided through the care of invisible hands.
Trade during the 14921792 period had much
stronger ties to the state and the monarch than
today. The merchants you send off into the
world probably belong to some public or semipublic trading company.

Deploying merchants costs money, including their upkeep. It is more expensive to set out
and keep merchants abroad than in your own
country, and even more expensive the further
away from your own country you get. Each
merchant you have set out in the center of
trade provides a yearly income, depending on
the total trade value of each center of trade.
A center of trade covering a low number of
provinces, with commonly available goods
(such as fish, grain, and wool), has a lower trade
value and will provide lower revenues, than a
center of trade covering several provinces, trading with exotic goods such as ivory, slaves, and
spices. Your technological level will also affect
the profitability and competitiveness of your
merchants. When many countries appoint merchants in the same center of trade a veritable
trade war may very well erupt.

The Economical Effects of Trade

The economical effects of trade should not be
underestimated. A raised level in trading technology with lots of provinces and trading
posts, the trade centers will turn into veritable
gold mines for anyone managing to maintain a
monopoly. Additionally the effects of being the
leading producer of certain goods will provide
unimaginable profit, when war, rebellion, and
catastrophes strike the European continent,
changing all prices. Note also the importance
of having a center of trade within your own
country. New colonies and trading posts will
almost exclusively end up under the authority
of your own center of trade. This will increase
both your immediate profits, and also the trade
value of your center of trade. It is also easier to
be competitive in your own center of trade, but
more about that later.

Fleets and Sea Transport

Placing Merchants
You may only set out merchants at your centers
of trading. In order to get there you click either
on the Trade button, or on the small trading
company in the province on your map. In this
case its Ulster.
12

The fleet is a military unit consisting of a varying

number of ships in the same way that an army
unit consists of a varying number of troops.
There are three types of ship in the game: Warships, Galleys, and Transport Vessels. Warships
have a transport capacity of 1; galleys have a

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transport capacity of 0.5, and transport vessels a

capacity of 2. What is transport capacity? Each
army unit has a weight; the transport capacity of
your fleet indicates how many troops you are
able to transport. Cavalry and artillery have
greater weight than infantry. The total weight of
each army unit and the transport capacity of the
fleet can be found in the Information window
whenever you have selected a unit. War ships are
more effective in battle, galleys are the least expensive, and transport vessels have the largest
transport capacity. Galleys should be kept in the
Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black
Sea, as this ship type is useless on the open sea.
All fleet units suffer "attrition" when at sea.
When you choose a fleet unit you will find the
current attrition speed in the Information window. This is shown in connection with the
small skull. There is no attrition when a fleet is
in port, which means that you need to send
your fleets into port at regular intervals in order to maintain the ships. If a fleet transporting
army units is sent to port the army units will be
unloaded automatically in that province.
Merging, splitting, reorganizing, and dissolving fleets is done in exactly the same way as
army units are merged, etc.

Loading of Army Units

First you need to order your fleet into a sea
zone, and then order an army unit in an adjacent province to load onto the fleet. You cannot load the fleet unless it is in port.
When the troops are loaded you will find a
new button in the information window when
you choose the fleet. Click this button when
you want to unload the army unit in another
adjacent province.

Unloading an Army Unit from a Fleet

Choose the fleet and click the unloading button. You will now see the army unit on the
map. Now click the province where you wish to
unload your army unit. The troops will now
start marching to the province.

Trading posts
A colony is a province providing some produce
and a small amount of trade. Trading posts do
not provide any produce to speak of, but instead provide a better trade value affecting the
center of trade to which it belongs. By establishing many trading posts, preferably in
provinces producing unusual goods, you
quickly increase the trading value of the center
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of trade they belong to, and if you have a

monopoly or a large number of merchants
there, you will receive good revenues from
your invested funds. The trading posts may be
improved up to six levels. At the higher levels
the trading posts have a great trading value.
You build trading posts by sending out merchants. Click the colonization button. As we
mentioned previously, you have some colonists
availablethe number is shown in the line
above the map. These can be used either as
colonists or merchants. Historically the first
colonizations happened when the European
countries first established trading posts in an
area, and later on colonized it. Trading posts
are cheaper than colonies and are usually easier
to establish than colonies. It is also easier to
maintain a colony in a province where you already have a trading post, as compared with a
neutral and empty province.

How to Establish a Trading Post

Click the colonization button. Now you see
the map in its colonization view. Bone white
provinces are not available for colonization or
trading posts. They are either undiscovered, al-

14

ready fully developed provinces with more

than 5000 inhabitants, or belong to other
countries. Possible prospects are all of the
green colored provinces. If the province is dark
green, you already have a colony there, if the
color is medium green, you have a trading post,
and if the color is light green, you have neither.
Click the province where you wish to establish
a trading post, and then click the button "Send
merchant." You will now see a figure unpacking pots from a chest as a sign of work in
progress. When placing the pointer above the
merchant you will see how long it will take until the trading post is ready for business.

Neighboring Countries
Your neighbors are naturally of great interest to
you, whether they are your allies or your enemies. Normally you know about your European neighbors and their provinces, but usually you know nothing about the non-European
countries. You must discover them. You are also only able to send diplomats to a country if
you know about it, and diplomacy is one of
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Diplomacy
Diplomacy can be used in many ways. The
diplomats you send out are your tools when
you want to achieve something. What is it you
want to achieve? You can offer royal marriages
or alliances, or take up such offers. You may declare war or offer peace. You may try to exchange geographical knowledge, and you may
create better relations to other countries
through gifts and tokens of respect, or worsen
relations through insults and bans.
Royal marriages are a good thing. They improve relations and make it difficult to carry
out declarations of war. The alliances you enter
are also important, as you will easily fall prey to
other alliances if you do not belong to any. It is
quite possible to defend yourself against another power, but if three, or even four, other countries attack, you are in deep trouble.
In order to use diplomacy you click the
diplomacy button below the information window. This opens a diplomacy menu for your
country. You may look at another country on
the map at any time. By clicking the "coat of
arms" of that country you may review the
diplomatic situation of that country. You have
a number of choices in your diplomacy menu.

By clicking an option, that diplomatic mission

will be performed and you will have one diplomat less. Note that if you make an offer of royal marriage or an alliance the monarch will not
automatically accept the offer. The deciding
factor for such a decision is your previous relations. If you have attacked and occupied a
number of small and innocent countries your
surroundings will naturally treat you like an international pariah.

War
War is one of the fastest and best ways of expanding politically and economically. War also
has its share of disadvantages. Your research
will often suffer, as you probably need to invest
heavily in stability after each war. Wars almost
always destabilize your country. War also affects the risk of rebellion in your provinces. A
land with multiple religions often risks a "great
mess" each time a war drags out in time.

To Prepare for War

Before you declare war you need to prepare.
This usually means that you expand your
armies and fleets in order to obtain local
supremacy. You should also compare your
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strength to the strength of your potential enemies. If you are well prepared you suffer less
risk of having to finance your war with war taxes and increased minting of coins. Note that attrition is higher for army units that are moved
during the winter months. Plan your war accordingly. It is also important to consider the
allies of your potential enemy, and trying to figure out how your own stability will be affected.
On the one hand you check to see if you have
any Casus Belli (Latin for "cause of war"),
which will decrease your loss of stability because of the declaration of war, and on the other hand by declaring war and then "regretting
the act." When you declare war you are informed of the size of your loss of stability and
what caused it.

To Win a War

To Declare a War

Offers of Peace

War can be declared either from the diplomacy

menu, where you go to the country in question
and click the line "declare war," or by honoring
an alliance where one of your allies either has
declared war on another country, or has been
attacked.

In order to make an offer of peace you click a

province belonging to (or that has belonged
to) the enemy. Then click the diplomacy menu.
Here you click on the line saying "Offer of
Peace." Here you see the results of the war,
through the number of stars or tombstones in
the information window. If you see tombstones you should consider offering a tribute

16

In order to win a war you must be victorious in

battles and naval engagements and/or capturing the provinces of the enemy. You capture a
province by moving an army unit into a
province, defeating any enemy units in the
province, and performing a successful siege or
assault. When your flag is waving above the
town, colony, or trading post of the province,
you control it and this will be counted to your
advantage during peace negotiations. Note
that the opposite is true for your opponent,
which means that you should try to avoid losses in battle and try to hang on to your
provinces. Extended wars lead to exhaustion,
which often results in rebellion in your various
provinces.

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and/or provinces in order to gain peace. If you

find stars you may often demand a tribute
and/or provinces. Each star or tombstone represents a province or 250 ducats, which you either may offer or demand. You may only offer
to give up provinces, which have belonged to
you, and are now controlled by the enemy, and
you may only demand provinces, which have
belonged to your enemy, and now are in your
control. If you demand provinces that belonged to your enemy at the start of the scenario, that is, his or her core provinces, the enemy now has a Casus Belli (cause for going to
war) against your country.

C) Activities
Countries
Each player runs a country. Each country consists of one or several provinces and possessions
(the difference will be explained later). Your
country has a border marked on the map, and if
you wish to view the political map, the
provinces of each country are marked with the
same color. Each country has a monarch and a
state religion. Most of the countries are located
in Europe, but there are a few non-European

countries spread out in the world that may be

included in the game. Certain countries have a
special political status - these countries may be
played. Each scenario defines the countries you
are allowed to play. The difference between
player countries and other countries is that a
player country may not be occupied as the result of a peace treaty or through diplomatic
means (see Peace Treaties and War Damages).

Provinces
The province is the smallest geographical unit
of the game. There are two types of political
status for the provinces. They either belong to
a country, or they are independent. Your country consists of provinces belonging to you. The
provinces are fully developed, as opposed to
possessions. This means they have cities, where
you may appoint officials, and where you may
build ships and raise army units. Possessions
are provinces that lack a city, but have either a
colony or a trading post. Any province that
does not belong to a country is an independent
province. These provinces only exist outside of
Europe, and are populated by natives, organizing their societies through clan and tribal systems. The independent provinces do not have
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standing army units; instead native war bands

will meet you if you move an army unit into the
province. You may colonize or construct trading posts in independent provinces, thereby
gaining a certain level of control. Only countries may have a colony or a trading post in an
independent province. When a colony or a
trading post is established, the province is no
longer considered independent. A basic difference between a province with a city and a
province with a colony is that you can build
ships and raise army units in the former, including appointing officials, and establishing factories. You may not do any of this in a province
with a colony.
A coastal province is a province with a port.
Note that in order to have a port the province
must either have a city or a colony. A province
with just a trading post may never have a port.
Having coastal provinces also affects the number of colonists and merchants your country
will receive each year. Also note that ships do
not suffer attrition when in port, because they
can be maintained. If you have a large country
with provinces on several continents, you will
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do better if you have ports in as many places as

possible, in order to send your ships in to port
now and then, to avoid suffering attrition (See
Attrition). The provinces you start the game
with are your core provinces and your most important ones. Core provinces are marked on
the political map with small shields. The country a province belongs to is noted by the flag
waving above the city, the colony, or the trading post. During times of peace you may only
move your army units from and to provinces
belonging to your own country, or into independent provinces. During times of war you
may also move army units into provinces belonging to allied countries and dependent
states, and into countries with which you are at
war. There is also one exception. The Emperor
of the Holy Roman Empire may freely move
his army units within the borders of the Empire
(see The Holy Roman Empire).
Note that a province may belong to one
country, but may be controlled by another.
This happens when two countries are at war
with each other, and one of the countries has
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country. When peace has been declared, all

controlled provinces return to the original
owner, unless they have been surrendered as
part of the peace treaty. There are two exceptions. The first depends on whether you have
signed the Tordesilla Treaty or not (see The
Tordesilla Treaty), because you may then move
into and take control of the colonies or trading
posts of other countries, regardless of whether
you have been at war with these countries or
not. The other exception applies if rebels manage to seize one of your provinces. The
province still belongs to you, but the rebels
control it. If another country controls any of
your provinces, you will not receive any income
from these provinces. You will see that a
province is controlled by another country if the
flag of another country is flying above the city,
the colony or the trading posts. (Rebels fly a
red flag.) In order to take control of a province
you must capture the city, either by storm or
siege. Provinces with cities lacking fortifications, and provinces with colonies or trading
posts are automatically controlled when you
move an army unit into it. Also note that

provinces under your control will be counted

to your advantage during peace negotiations.

Sea Zones
The seas are vast open areas. During this period
the chances of controlling the seas was limited
by the quality of the ships and their crews, the
basic resources, and of course the weather. The
sea is therefore divided into sea zones. Each sea
zone is an area where fleets have a limited influence. Each fleet actually consists of a main part
and several smaller patrols. When the patrols
discovered enemy ships, the main part of the
fleet was assembled to deal with the enemy
fleet. This means that battles between fleets do
not occur automatically; this depends on the
quality of the fleets. The main problem was
finding the enemy and creating local superiority. If you did not succeed the engagement was
called off. Your territorial waters are the sea
zones off the coast from your coastal provinces.
Here you have several advantages, as you know
the waters, the weather, and you are close to
your bases for maintenance.

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Cities and Capitals

Trading posts and Colonies

Your capital is shown on the map. This is the

city belonging to the province where you find
your shield. The province with your capital
may not be surrendered during peace negotiations other than by occupation (see Peace
Treaties and War Damages). The city shows a
graphic representation of the level of development of your province. What you see in the information window is a picture of the city, as
you build ships, raise army units, upgrade
buildings, and build factories. The population
level of your city indicates the wealth of your
province. Normally the population of the city
will increase over time, but it may also drop because of war, rebellions, random events, and if
the city is situated in an area of adverse geographical conditions, for example in the
African tropics. When a colony has 700 inhabitants it develops into a city. The city is still colonial, and in order to become a real European
city with efficient production the province
must have at least 5000 inhabitants.

When you have established a trading post or a

colony in a province you gain control of the
province. In other words, the province is now
yours. This means that no other country may
use the province for troop movements during
peace, and no other country may establish
trading posts or colonies in the province. You
may lose your province either through negative
population growth because of the geographic
conditions, which will make your population
drop to zero, or by ceding the province to another country as part of a peace treaty. You may
also lose a trading post either because an enemy
army unit burned it to the ground during war
(see Trading Posts and Merchants), or by ceding the province to another country as part of a
peace treaty.
Trading posts and colonies are called possessions, and are different from provinces with
cities, partly because of population levels, and
partly because of the development levels. The
difference between a trading post and a colony

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is that the trading post provides a low production value and a high trading value, while the
colony provides a high production value and a
low trading value. In addition the colony has
population growth and may be developed into
a city, while a trading post does not have population growth, nor may it be developed into a
province with a city. You may still develop your
trading posts into colonies by sending colonists
to your trading posts.

Terra Incognita and Permanent Terra

Incognita
Both "Terra Incognita" and "Permanent Terra
Incognita" are undiscovered areas. Terra
Incognita represents provinces and sea zones
not yet discovered by your country. When
these are discovered, either by moving army
units or ships through them, or by trading
maps with other countries, the areas cease to be

Terra Incognita and become part of the known

world, as your country knows it. Note that you
normally need a Conquistador, or you must
have reached Land Military level 11 in order to
discover provinces. For undiscovered sea zones
you need an Explorer or you must have
reached Naval Technology level 21.
Permanent Terra Incognita represents
undiscovered areas not consisting of provinces
or sea zones. Permanent Terra Incognita comprises the areas that were not explored at all at
this time. Historically, there were several areas
that were not discovered until after 1792 (such
as some parts of Siberia and Australia), or
which had been discovered earlier, but where
all knowledge about it had faded into legends
(such as the interior of Africa), and finally areas
which could not be explored using the technology of the times (such as certain Northern
sea routes).

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Stability and the Wrath of

Your Subjects
What is Stability?
The political culture of Europe during the period was not an isolated phenomenon. How
each country should behave in regards to both
domestic and foreign policy had already been
formulated during the height of the Roman
Empire, and had later been developed during
the Middle Ages. The ideological startingpoint at the end of the 15th century was Christianity as a unit. Civilization was defined within
the framework of Christianity and consequently, what constituted civilized behavior between
countries. A similar starting-point existed in
the Moslem countries, where "country" was
not a properly recognized concept. Instead
they regarded all Moslems as part of the
Moslem Haram. Internally the division of society was frozen, partly because of the division of
power between various groups during the late
Middle Ages, but also through domestic policy, which could be described as a struggle or
game between various groups in society. The
monarch naturally played a large part.
You should also be aware of the advantages
associated with breaches against "the international rules." The princes of the Renaissance
were soon involved in a highly advanced game
of political struggle, where a European hegemony was the goal. In this aspect you should
consider the abstract concept of stability. If the
monarch broke the formal and informal rules,
both his foreign and domestic reputation fell,
including the status of his country. The response to declarations of war was often your
own declarations of war, which caused a spiral
of injustice, war, and revenge that affected all
of Europe.
Stability is thus affected by both the international status of your country, and by the relations between your monarch and his subjects.
The stability of your country may vary on a seven-point scale from 3 to +3.

22

Things that Lower Stability

There are several reasons why stability may deteriorate, but the most important are definitely
declarations of war. Declarations of war were
not regarded lightly by anyone in Europe during the period, perhaps with the exception of
the issuer. In other countries the monarchs and
the governments viewed any declaration of war
with concern, because it might upset the balance of power of the region. You could say that
society viewed the country as a person and the
declaration of war as a physical attack. You
could make this attack if you had good and
proper reasons (see Casus Belli), but uncalled
for wars were punished by force. As a result of a
declaration of war, you could lose prestige and
international honor. Add to this the quite negative reactions of the population, as war meant
levies, inflation, and raised taxes. A declaration
of war without Casus Belli lowers the stability
of your country by two steps (2). A declaration of war with a proper Casus Belli does not
affect your stability at all. Religion was something that united and divided countries during
the epoch. It was thought of as an un-Christian
and therefore it was immoral to declare war on
a country with the same religion, which meant
that the population and the priests reacted
quite negatively if any monarch chose that
route. A declaration of war against a country of
the same religion lowers your stability an additional step (1). To declare war against an allied country was seen as truly degenerate behavior, lowering your stability yet another step
(1) if the country under attack has ties
through a royal marriage with yours. If you declare war against your own vassal your stability
will drop another three steps (3), while ending your vassal ties without a declaration of war
lowers stability by three steps (3). If you declare war against a country with which you
have a peace treaty, your stability will drop by
another five steps (5); in effect, this means
that you will become an international pariah.
Peace treaties remain in effect for five years.
Some other important factors that lowered
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cal acts of a dubious nature. Breaking your foreign promises immediately lowered the reputation of a country and its prestige. The principle
of "Pact Sund Servanda" (agreements are
binding) was a basic rule already in Roman law,
and had been incorporated in the diplomatic
life of the times. Annulling a royal marriage
could be a good thing for your country in
many ways, but the stability of your country is
lowered by one step (1). You are seen as
flighty and insecure in your foreign relations,
which is cause for strong irritation among any
groups of society with strong connections with
the country in question. If you decide to sack a
vassal your stability is lowered by three steps
(3). Especially the nobility will question your
foreign competence. A vassal has subjected
himself to your decisions, even though this is
mostly of a formal nature, which means that
dissolving the relationship is regarded as a sign
of your weakness. If you leave an alliance your
stability is lowered by one step (1), which
means that many powerful men in the upper
levels of society probably have invested a lot of
prestige and friendship in the alliance that you
are leaving. The same thing occurs if you refuse
to honor an alliance; for example, if you do not
help a brother when a third country attacks
him. It will lower your stability by one step
(1). Sharp foreign turns will create uncertainty about your future direction in the political
game. If you refuse a country the chance to
trade at your trade centers you also lower stability by one step (1). Your neighbors will feel
threatened, because what you did against one
country may be repeated against another.
Finally, there are five general causes for lowered stability. The first occurs if your country
goes bankrupt. Bankruptcy occurs if you have
taken out five loans from the national treasury
(loans from other countries are not counted),
and you are unable to repay them when they
are due, or when you have taken out five loans,
and your monthly costs are higher than your
monthly income. With bankruptcy the stability
of your country is lowered by one step (1).
The population has lost confidence in the abil-

ity of the monarch and the government when it

comes to handling your finances. The same
thing applies when you are unable to repay a
loan from another country, as your stability is
lowered by one step (1). Stability is also lowered if you decide to raise war taxes (see War
Taxes), which means that you further increase
the burdens of your country while lowering
stability by one step (1). The fourth reason is
a change of state religion. Changing state religion normally means a huge transformation of
society, affecting every level of society. Some of
your subjects will celebrate, while others will
stage a revolution. Changing the state religion
lowers your stability by five steps (5), except if
you change from the Catholic Church to
Counter Reformed Catholicism. (For a longer
description, see Religion.) Finally some random events may lower the stability of your
country (see Random Events).
Please also note that all effects are cumulative; that is, if you have a stability of 0, and declare war against a country without a Casus
Belli, and in addition you have ties to that
country through royal marriage, and a peace
treaty, this will lower your stability by eight
steps (215=8). As mentioned earlier, you
may not have a stability of less than 3, but for
each additional step you will suffer an automatic rebellion in each of your provinces. In this
case your stability will drop from 0 to 3, and
then you will have 5 rebellions in each of your
provinces.

Things that Increase Stability

You may increase the stability of your country by investing in stability in your state budget
(see Investing in Stability). This is handled as a
certain sum set aside for this purpose each
month, which you may view in the information
window. Note that the cost of increasing stability is higher if you have a large country, as you
must appease more people. When the green
line has reached its end the stability of your
country is increased by one step (+1), and the
green line starts anew at the beginning. This is
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ernment making concessions to various groups

of society; for example, a temporary lowering
of taxes for the peasants, land grants for the nobility, trading rights for the townsmen, or
greater freedom for the serfs. You may also see
the cost as part of certain actions, like replacing
bailiffs, changing the laws, etc. Finally they
may cover the cost of raising the prestige of
your country; for example, by holding splendid
weddings, raising the magnificence of the
court, etc. You cannot raise stability above +3
by investments. The rate of increases will be
lower if you are at war, for each quarter you
have been at war, and for each province controlled by the enemy (core provinces are
counted twice and the capital is counted as ten
normal provinces). All investments made when
your stability is at +3 will result in ducats for
24

your treasury. Note that certain random occurrences may raise stability (see Random Events).
When you are victorious at war, and have managed to annex formerly independent countries
(see Annexation), your stability will increase by
one step (+1), as your victory will increase your
international prestige and make a big impression on your subjects.

What Is Affected by Stability?

To begin with, all population levels of your
cities and your colonies and all your monthly
and annual income are affected. During bad
times with spreading unrest the population often decreases. If your stability is low you are
probably at war with another country. Your
population is decreasing through levies, people
running off into the woods, and because of

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plagues that were often a result of the wars. In

game terms you will be able to view the percentage of increase or decrease of your population by clicking the church of a province. If
conditions are really bad, cities and colonies
may have a negative growth, which means that
they are being depopulated. Population levels
determine the production income of your
provinces, which means that stability will determine the long-term development of your income. The administrative system is also less effective when there is unrest. Bailiffs were not
obeyed, roads and communications deteriorated, and people evaded their taxes to a greater
extent, resulting in a higher cost of living with
lowered consumption and production. This
will mean that your tax income will increase
and decrease in proportion to your stability.
You see this as changes in your annual income
and also by checking up on your Financial
Summary.
Trade is also affected by the same phenomena.
Declines in both domestic and foreign trade
were common during wars and during periods
of unrest in general. This is portrayed by a connection between your annual quota of merchants and your stability. If your stability is at
the lower end that is, 3 or 2 you will have
great difficulties getting the merchants to do
business; they will simply lack all incentive to
trade, which lowers your pool of merchants by
two (2). If your stability is at 1, your pool is
lowered by only one merchant (1). If stability
is at 0 or +1, you gain one (+1) or two (+2) extra merchants. If the stability of your country is
excellent, +2 or +3, you gain three extra merchants. In addition, stability affects the ability
of the merchants to get into the trade centers,
as well as their ability to compete with merchants who are already present. Note also that
the annual interest of your loans varies along
with your stability.
Your diplomatic skills and the risk of rebellion
are also affected by the stability of your country. When it comes down to your diplomatic
abilities, you may not declare wars if your stability is at the very bottom (at 3). This is part-

ly due to social unrest and the fact that court

intrigue is at such a high level that the monarch
and the government are unable to deal with
anything other than trying to keep the country
united. To fight a war at such a time is impossible. The risk of rebellion in your provinces is in
direct proportion to your stability. The lower
your stability is, the greater the risk of rebellions, and vice versa. You can read more about
this later in the manual.

Rebellions and the Risk of Rebellion

Rebellions were fairly common during the period, primarily during the early part, the 16th
and 17th centuries, while decreasing in scope
and frequency during the later years. There are
several reasons for this. Normally rebellions
were caused by social or religious injustices
against the broad base of society, known as
"peasant uprisings." A fortunate start of a rebellion required leaders and even administrators in order to compete with the governmental power, and this is where the nobility and
prominent townsmen entered the picture. Any
successful rebellion required that all levels of
society got involved if they wanted to change
social reality. A few such "successful" rebellions
are the war of liberation of Gustavus Vasa, and
the French Revolution, but even properly organized and solid rebellions could fail in the
end. The fewer rebellions at the end of the period were usually due to the fact that few rebels
had access to the modern weapons technologies available to the government, and the increasing difficulties in uniting different social
classes. The arm of the government had become longer, and its grip was also much
stronger.
The risk of rebellion varied from province to
province. In order to review the risk of rebellion as a percentage value, click the church of
the province and point at "Risk of Rebellion."
You will then see what the risk is, and what is
causing it. You may also look at the map showing religions, where you see all provinces with
various levels of shading. The darker the shad
is, the greater the risk of rebellion. The two
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most important causes for rebellion are the level of stability and the level of tolerance of the
monarch and the government toward the religion of the provincial population (note that a
province may have another religion than the
"state religion" see "State Religion and
Provincial Religion). The risk of rebellion is in
direct proportion to the stability and the level
of tolerance; that is, the lower the values, the
greater the risk of rebellion, and vice versa.
There are also a few general factors affecting
the risk of rebellion. The risk is always lower in
the province with your capital, because the
monarch and the government have much better political control, compared with the other
provinces. If you have built a factory in the
province the risk is lower as the population has
a higher production, which results in a higher
standard of living. On the other hand, the risk
will increase if you have appointed a bailiff as
tax collector, as more efficient taxation leads to
less income for the population. You may also
lower the risk of rebellion by appointing a
lawyer as high judge, as this improves the judi26

cial system and the police. The game incorporates a special case, which may be good to
know about: the phenomenon is called "Dutch
nationalism" and will occur sometimes during
the second half of the 16th century. It will result in a heavily increased risk of rebellion in the
Dutch core provinces, which originally (1492)
belonged to Spain. This "nationalism" was
controlled by religion. The risk is affected by
the religion of the provinces. If the country
they belong to has a different religion, the risk
of rebellion will be much higher.
What happens when there is a rebellion?
Each month there will be an uprising in each
province, and the chance of success depends on
the risk for rebellion. When a province rebels, a
rebel army unit appears, carrying a red flag. It
immediately engages any regular army units in
the province and then starts a siege of the fortified city. If the rebel forces manage to take the
province, the red flag will fly above the city. If
the city garrison also rebels, then the rebels will
automatically control the city. This means that
the rebels will control the province, and also

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that the risk of rebellion will increase in each

adjacent province, and that the rebel forces will
move into the next province in order to conquer it. A rebellion may spread like wildfire all
over your country if you are unable to stop it in
time.
The same things apply to provinces controlled by enemies as to provinces controlled
by rebels; you do not get any income from the
province until you have manage to retake it. If
the rebels manage to take control of enough
provinces (the number to be controlled varies
from country to country), two things may occur. Either the rebels are allowed to take over
the sovereignty of certain provinces (more
about this in the next chapter), or the "government will fall." If the government falls, you return to stability level +3 and regain all of your
provinces that used to be controlled by the
rebels, and all rebel army units disappear.
There is also a chance of your country switching state religion. The rebels were simply able
to win, and you just lost a whole lot of victory
points.

How do you get rid of a rebellion? If low levels of tolerance caused the rebellion, these can
be changed. If the level of stability in your
country is low, you may try to change that, because rebellions decrease if stability is high. But
if a rebellion has succeeded, and you now have
a rebel force in your country, your only way of
dealing with it is through the use of force,
sending an army unit into the province and defeating the rebels in a field battle. When an
army unit is fighting and taking losses, then
morale decreases over time, until the unit panics and has to retire. The rebels will never retire. If the morale of the rebels reaches the panic level the unit simply dissolves. Do not forget
that provinces conquered and controlled by
rebels will generate new rebel forces, which
must be conquered in order to put a stop to the
rebellion.

Liberation Movements
A liberation movement may start as a regular
rebellion, but may develop after a while into a
liberation movement with demands of inde27

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pendence. Certain areas, like Brittany, Norway,

Catalonia, and the Ukraine, among others,
may develop into liberation movements, and
then proclaiming their independence, but this
is also true of formerly existing countries,
which have been annexed during wars. The
provinces under the control of the rebels are
simply transferred from your country to a new
country, which has just appeared. The new
country starts its existence automatically at war
with your country. There is nothing that prevents you from conquering the new country
and annexing it.
Example: France (stability 0) is at war with
Switzerland. The monarch and the government are of the firm opinion that the war may
be won, and decide to switch the state religion
from Catholicism to Protestantism. Stability
drops to 3, and rebellions start in several
Catholic provinces. The war with Switzerland
is not successful, and an alliance consisting of
Spain, Lorraine, and Cologne declares war
with France. After half a decade France has lost
a few provinces to the "alliance," but Provence
28

and Brittany have appeared as independent

countries. The "alliance" refuses to offer peace
without massive concessions of land, and
France finds it necessary to make smaller concessions to Provence and Brittany, in order to
lower the number of adversaries, thus avoiding
a loss of land to Spain.

Religion and Tolerance

Religion was a very important part of life during
the period. Catholicism was the uniting force in
Christian Europe. In 1492 Castile and Aragon
had "liberated" the Iberian Peninsula from almost 800 years of Moslem government. Neither
the Pope nor the Emperor had the same power
over people any longer as during the Middle
Ages, but religion still served as a common system of thought for the inhabitants of Europe.
People on the eastern fringes of Europe still confessed to the Orthodox variety of Christianity,
and lived within a similar, but slightly different
system. The Ottoman Empire was both the inheritor of the Byzantine Empire and the
Caliphate of Baghdad, and here the Sunnis were

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in majority. The Sunni Moslems were fighting

the Shia Moslems of Persia. This struggle concerned who should lead the Moslem Caliphate.
According to the Europeans, the world beyond
Europe and the Middle East was simply populated with lots of heathens.
When the Reformation occurred the
Catholic Church was divided, and Protestants
and Reformists emerged out of the split, which
also brought about a wave of violence, with
both religious and political overtones. Religiously it was a struggle for the reformation of
the old church order. It will be noted that the
Catholic Church was also reformed from within. The political struggle concerned the power
over the possessions of the church and the appointment of priests, but above all about the
freedom of thought: whether the Pope had the
right of interpretation in all religious matters or
not. You could also say that Catholicism represented a universal view, a common European
church, while the Protestants and the Reformists wanted more decentralized, National
churches.

After a while the struggle developed into religious wars without any clear winners. Because
of a general European fatigue, the different
variants of Christianity were finally forced to
accept the status quo. This was the first step toward tolerance and freedom of thought, which
would really get underway during the Age of
Enlightenment.

State Religion and Provincial Religion

Each country has a state religion, and as has
been mentioned earlier, it was a system of
thought, regulating morals and the philosophy
of life, but it was also a form of state ideology
the rulers used in order to control their subjects. This means that the religion of your
country affects certain phenomena of society
in the following ways:
Catholicism: Provides your country with 2
additional diplomats each year. The monarch
may be elected for the office of Emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire (see The Holy Roman
Empire). Poland-Lithuania is an example of a
Catholic country.
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Counter Reformed Catholicism: Provides

your country with 2 additional diplomats each
year, and 1 additional colonist each year. You
have the option of forcing protestant and reformist countries to convert to Catholicism.
This religion will also provide a positive bonus
when investing in stability, due to the authority
restored to the Pope. Finally it lowers your annual and monthly income by 20%, as this part is
due the Pope in Rome and the church, which is
separate from the state. The monarch may be
chosen for the office of Emperor of the Holy
Roman Empire (see The Holy Roman Empire). The Papal State, naturally, and Spain during the reign of Charles V are examples of this
religion.
Protestantism: Provides 1 additional diplomat and 1 additional colonist each year.
Provinces in Protestant countries will also have
a higher production value and provide higher
taxes on production than countries with other
religions, as the protestant mind frame places a
great emphasis on individualism and work
ethics. Each Protestant coastal province pro30

vides up to 3 additional merchants each year.

As individualism gives rise to sectors and popular uprisings, your country gets a negative
bonus when investing in stability, but as the
church is controlled by your monarch and government, your annual and monthly income are
increased by 20%. Sweden became a Protestant
country in 1544.
Reformist: Provides 1 additional diplomat
and 3 colonists each year. Militant Reformist
army units and fleets are also provided with one
extra level of morale. Reformist merchants receive higher profits than merchants of other religions. Each Reformist coastal province provides up to 3 additional merchants each year.
The Reformist society was heavily controlled
through the general social norms, which provides a positive bonus when investing in stability. Your annual tax income will decrease by
30%, as the Reformist society was strongly decentralized, and public spending was handled
at the community level. Examples of Reformist
countries include Holland, Switzerland, and
Scotland.

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Orthodox: Provides 1 additional colonist

each year. The Orthodox Church was not involved historically in the enflamed conflict between Catholics and Protestants, and its diplomatic relations were not affected in the same
way by religious change in the rest of Europe.
The best example of an Orthodox European
nation is of course "The Third Rome," Russia.
Shia Moslem:
During a very long period the Shia Moslem
faction was forced to keep its religion a secret,
in order to avoid the wrath of the Sunni
Moslem majority, but after a number of uprisings and heavy fighting, the Shia Moslems
managed to establish a number of independent
nations, with sharp theological differences toward the Sunni, which also gave rise to a certain fanaticism, providing their army units and
fleets with an additional level of morale. The
Shia Moslem countries had a stricter relationship to the Koran for political guidance, which
provides a positive bonus when investing in
stability, but as a much stricter interpretation of
the Koran regarding religious taxation was observed, the annual income is lowered by 30%.
Examples of Shia Moslem countries include
Persia and the Egypt of the Mamlukes.
Sunni Moslem: No special advantages or disadvantages in game terms, but functions instead like Catholicism in the Christian world.
An example of a Sunni Moslem country is the
Ottoman Empire.
The state religion is the religion preferred
and supported by the monarch and the government. In practice it means that the religious
leaders of the state religion were responsible
for the spiritual guidance of the people. They
also acted as missionaries. In certain countries
religious minorities could be exempt from the
state religion and keep their own religious leaders and church organizations. This practice was
fairly common and came about as a result of
provinces being ceded in war only if the populations were allowed to keep their old religions.
Another reason could be a lack of resources or
an actual will to "combat heretics" in the country. An example of a country with several differ-

ent religions within the borders, combined

with a high religious tolerance, is PolandLithuania, while Spain under Ferdinand and
Isabella may serve as an example of a country
with a low tolerance.
The provincial religion is the religion of the
population of the province. A province may
have another religion than your state religion,
which may result in rebellions if you have a low
tolerance toward the religion of the population. As a player you have a religious/political
tool you may use to control the level of tolerance of your monarch and government toward
different religions.

Religious Tolerance
You may control the level of tolerance in the religion window regarding different religions on
a scale from 0 to 10. Note that you have a "natural balance in a zero-sum game" between how
you determine your levels of tolerance. For example, if you only have two religions to control
your tolerance against, and you maximize tolerance toward Catholics (10), then you will automatically minimize tolerance toward Protestants (0). The level of tolerance affects the risk
of rebellion in your provinces (according to the
tolerance toward the provincial religion), and
also your diplomatic relations with other countries.
An example: Sweden has a high tolerance toward Protestants (9) and a low tolerance (1)
toward Orthodox Christians, which will affect
diplomatic relations with Russia (state religion:
Orthodox) and improve diplomatic relations
with Brandenburg (state religion: Protestant)
over time.

Four Important Events

There are four important historical events
closely tied to religion during the course of the
game. In chronological order, these are the Reformation, Jean Calvin, the Council at Trent,
and the Edict of Tolerance. Note that they all
assume that the previous one has occurred. In
order for "Jean Calvin" to occur, the "Reformation" event must already have happened.
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The first event is the "Reformation," although

not earlier than 1517. After Martin Luther
nailed his 95 Theses on the gate of the church
at Wittenberg a far-reaching discussion started,
particularly in Germany, about the relations
between religion and royal power. You could
say that the big question raised by Martin
Luther was whether the Pope and the Curia of
Rome really had the right of interpretation in
the areas of religion and politics, and that religion and politics had become inseparable was
obvious. After a while there came a break between the pope and countries that had taken
up the views of Luther and Melanchton of the
church as an inseparable part of the influence
of the princes. This means that your country
may now convert (see Converting Peacefully
or Using Force) to Protestantism. If a country
changes its state religion from Catholicism to
Protestantism, the country receives 25 ducats
per province for confiscated church property.
Note also that many European provinces will
change their provincial religion from Catholicism to Protestantism as soon as the event occurs. In a country like Sweden, for example, almost all of the provinces become Protestant,
while the state religion is still Catholic, which
may be as good a reason as any to change your
state religion.
The event "Jean Calvin" occurs after the Reformation, and actually represents the appearance of Jean Calvin as a reformer. Before him
Ulrich Zwingli, John Knox, and Ulrich von
Hutten had already acted as reformers. Calvin,
though, was one of the most important postLutheran reformers, and organized Protestants
in a decentralized fashion, with greater emphasis on the role of the layman in the church. Further, the main points concerned work ethics
and predestination, and a strong anti-Catholic
sentiment, which strongly increased the already great tension in Europe. This means that
your country and others may convert to the
Reformist teachings. Please also note that certain European provinces automatically convert
from Protestantism to Reformist.
The "Council of Trent" event occurred be32

tween 1545 and 1563. The goal originally was

to reform the Catholic Church to let Protestants and Reformist to be able to return. The
goal was not reached, however; one reason was
that the Protestants and the Reformists refused
to attend. They did succeed in renewing and
reforming the activities and the organization of
the church, and as en effect of the wars in
progress they repudiated the teachings of the
Protestants and the Reformists. This in turn
led to an agenda to let the lost sheep return to
the fold. This means that Catholic countries
now are able to convert to Counter Reformed
Catholicism, which provides a unique ability. If
a Counter Reformed country totally defeats
(controls all of the provinces) a Protestant or
Reformist country, it may demand that the
conquered country must convert to Catholicism as part of a peace treaty.
The event "The Edict of Tolerance" is a generic term for all of the edicts and treaties that
tried to create a permanent religious peace between Protestants/Reformists and Catholics.
None of these succeeded to any great extent
nor did any last very long. Ironically the sword
and not the pen brought peace to the religions
instead. Both the French wars of religion and
the Thirty Year War created such widespread
fatigue, that people were forced to accept the
status quo in the matter of religion. The effect
for your country is that the effects of both the
"Tordesilla Treaty" (see The Tordesilla Treaty)
and the Council of Trent end. All Counter Reformed Catholic countries return to the status
of "regular" Catholic countries, and all
provinces and colonies with a Counter Reformed church are now automatically
Catholic.

The Foreign Policy Consequences of

Religion
The state religion of your country is extremely
important to diplomacy. Your diplomatic capacity, that is your annual supply of diplomats,
is affected by your state religion. Catholic and
Counter Reformed Catholic countries receive
2 additional diplomats, Protestant and Re-

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formist countries receive only 1 extra diplomat,

while Orthodox and Moslem countries do not
receive any extra at all. The diplomatic relations (on a scale of +200 to 200; see Diplomats and Relations) of your country are also affected by your state religion. The relationship
between a Protestant country and Catholic
countries deteriorates over time. A simple rule
of thumb is that relations deteriorate all the
time
between
Counter
Reformed
Catholics/Catholics and Protestants/Reformist, and between Christians and Moslems,
between Sunni and Shia, and to a lesser extent
between Orthodox Christians and everybody
else. Relations only improve over time between
countries with the same state religion, between
Reformed Catholics and regular Catholics, and
between Protestants and Reformists. Also note
that your country may only arrange royal marriages with countries of the same religion, with
exceptions between Protestant and Reformist,
and Counter Reformed Catholic and Catholic
countries. Orthodox countries could enter
marriages with any and all Christian countries.

The Effects of Religion on Domestic

Politics
When we talk about the effects of religion on
domestic politics, naturally we discuss how the
monarch and the government are handling the
politics surrounding the religious issues. The
levels of tolerance in the religion window govern this. It is important that you think strategically when you handle religious issues. If your
country has a lot of religious minorities within
its borders it may become difficult to handle
religious issues and become difficult to wage
war, as the entire population probably has a
rather lukewarm view of your policies, meaning that some are quite happy, while others are
definitely unhappy about the whole thing.
Lets try an example. It is 1631 and the state
religion of Sweden is Protestant, and all of its
provinces are Protestant. Sweden knows about
Catholics, Reformists, Orthodox, and
Moslems, and thus has a level of tolerance toward each of these. Sweden may in principle

maximize its tolerance toward Protestants and

Reformists (allies), and minimize tolerance
against all the rest. In a violent two front war
Sweden then conquers and receives during
peace treaties provinces from both Russia and
Spain. The Russian provinces are Orthodox
and of the Spanish provinces one is Catholic
and the other is Sunni Moslem. The problem
now is dividing tolerance, as you cannot maximize all of them at the same time. If you chose
to keep a low tolerance toward Catholics, even
though you now have a Catholic province in
your country, you must expect rebellion. It is
not improbable for you to lose the province. If
instead you set all tolerance levels at the middle
level, war fatigue will be felt much quicker,
which in itself may be quite a problem if you
are going to fight a war for thirty years. The
question is if it is really a good thing for you to
settle a peace on such conditions. That is why
you must plan ahead, strategically, to avoid
ending up in impossible situations.
The levels of tolerance and stability are the
key to both control of your country and development of the same. If you let rebellion run
rampant, it will affect your treasury.

Converting by Peaceful or Violent

Means
In modern democratic countries matters of
faith are viewed as concerns on which each individual must take a stand. Should I or should I
not convert? During the period this was not
the case. The monarch and the government
were often seen as responsible for the spiritual
life of their subjects, as Gods representative on
Earth. A country where the subjects had the
same faith was also much easier to rule. Conversion may mean several things in the game.
It could mean that your country changes
state religion in a peaceful manner under your
control. In order to change state religion, go to
the religion window to choose the religion to
which you wish to convert, and then click the
"convert" button. Note that you may not
change state religion non-historically; for example, Gustavus Vasa of Sweden may not
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switch from Catholicism to heathenism or the

Sunni Moslem faith. Changing state religion is
not done lightly, because there will be a lot of
negative consequences. Your stability is lowered by five steps (5) when you switch religion. There is one exception, though: when
you switch from Catholicism to Counter Reformed Catholicism, as these two religions
were so much alike that the subjects never really bothered. The second consequence is a deterioration of your diplomatic relations with
countries that still have your old religion,
which may lead to war if things turn out really
bad. There is also a huge risk of rebellion in
your provinces, especially if you switch between Catholicism and Protestantism.
It may also mean that your country forces
another country to change state religion, or
another country forces your country to
change. This situation requires that the "enforcer" is a Counter Reformed Catholic country and the victim is a Protestant or Reformist
country. Also note that the actual conversion
occurs when you make an offer of peace (see
Peace Treaties and War Damages). An obvious
gain as a Counter Reformed Catholic is the
amount of victory points received for converting Protestants and Reformists.
Finally you may be forced to change state religion if there are such widespread rebellions in
your country that the government itself is
falling.
Your provinces may also convert to other religions, either to the state religion or to something else. It may happen in one of two ways.
Catholic provinces may change to Protestantism because of the "Reformation" event,
Protestant provinces may change to Reformist
through the "Jean Calvin" event, and Catholic
provinces may change to Counter Reformed
Catholicism because the country has performed the same change of state religion. The
second way for a province to change religion is
as a random event. It could be a change to the
state religion through the work of church officials, or to another religion as part of a heretic
movement.
34

Finally, under certain conditions you may

convert provinces of your country to the state
religion. Under certain conditions you may use
your colonists as missionaries. Use the same
procedure as when you are colonizing. You
may use your colonists to increase the population level to 5000 inhabitants. If you send
colonists to a province with less than 5000 inhabitants it will change its religion to the state
religion.
Example: Sweden (state religion: Protestantism) has conquered the province of Carelia
(provincial religion: Orthodox / population:
4876) in a war with Russia. You decide to convert the province by sending a colonist as a missionary (in the same way you send a colonist).
If the colonization (the missionary operation)
is successful the province of Carelia changes
from Orthodoxy to Protestantism.
Note that a rebellion in a province often lowers the population. This means that if your
country has provinces you wish to convert, you
may lower the level of tolerance toward their
religion until they rebel. If you then quash the
rebellion, thereby lowering the population to
less than 5000, you may now convert the remainder using the above method. It is important to remember, though, that rebellions are
quite dangerous affairs for your country, especially if you are not able to keep them under
control. Production and income are lowered,
and finally you lose victory points when the
population drops, as this is a clear sign of your
disability to run your country. To willingly put
your country at risk through a sort of religious
terror must be considered carefully. Examples
of failed religious politics are the Spanish driving out of the Moors, and the French persecution of the Huguenots.

Politics and Diplomacy

Diplomacy was developed during the second
half of the 15th century from the legislative
system of the Pope into an effective and organized tool in the hands of the rulers at the beginning of the 16th century. The diplomat was
the personal representative of the prince in all

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foreign courts, and it was his duty to defend

and strengthen the interests of the prince.
There were also many different types of diplomat, but all of them are gathered under this
name. Envoys had special tasks, while ambassadors had the highest rank and were accredited to foreign courts, performing all sorts of
tasks for the prince. The most important matter was that the informal rules for exchanging
diplomats were formalized and became part of
the civilized behavior between the countries.
The "rules" also protected the diplomat
against arbitrary violence.
In the game we only talk about diplomats.
The diplomats represent the ability of your
country to use non-violent power and to maintain relations with other countries. By sending
diplomats your country may present gifts, deliver insults, discuss royal marriages, or even
declare war or make offers of peace. The two
most important factors governing effective and
productive diplomacy are access to money and
the amount of available diplomats.

Diplomacy as a Political Weapon

Power, violence and diplomacy are intimately
connected. Earlier diplomacy was talked about
as the "first tool" of the monarchs and war as
the "ultimo ratio regum," or their last argument. In the classic lines of Carl von Clausewitz, war is "the continuation of politics using
other means." Frederick the Great once said
that diplomacy without power is like an orchestra without notes.
The diplomatic and military means may thus
be seen as alternative ways of reaching the same
goalinfluencing another country in a desired
way. Let us now see how the "political
weapon" may be used.

Diplomats and Relations

The nations of the world may be regarded as a
very large and quarrelsome family, where each
member is a separate country. Just like in a
large family, there are members with different
amounts of power, and they are able to enforce
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tion each family member has a special relation

to everyone else.
Your country has a specific relation to each
other known country in the game. This relation may vary between 200 and +200, and
may be influenced by many different things. To
start with, you should note that relations
change much more slowly if they are very good
or very bad, but quicker if they are neutral. The
second item to consider was the view of the untouchable rights of the princes to their own
countries, which meant that a declaration of
war without a good reason (Casus Belli) was
quite unacceptable. The same thing applied to
the annexation of formerly independent nations.
The relation between your country and another country is affected positively if there is a
royal marriage between members of your royal
families, and if you are part of the same alliance.
Countries with which you have this sort of tie
are less affected by any negative acts performed
by your own country. But the opposite also applies; for example, if Sweden declares war on
the Teutonic Order, then the relations between countries with marriage ties to the Teutonic Order and Sweden will deteriorate more
than with any other country.
Alliances are also important for your foreign
relations. By entering an alliance your relations
to your brothers in the alliance will improve,
and continue to do so as time passes. In addition the members of your alliances are much
more indulgent toward your acts against any
"third parties" (for example wars or annexations aimed at countries that are not part of the
alliance).
Religion is another important factor regarding relations. Your levels of tolerance toward
various religions affect the relations of your
country. If your country has a high level of tolerance toward a specific religion, your relations
will improve as time passes, while they will deteriorate with regard to religions where tolerance is low.
Annexations will almost certainly have a negative impact on your relations. It is perhaps not
36

so much a question of loyalty to the expelled

monarch, but the painfully realized awareness
that all annexations disturb the balance of power between the various countries.
Diplomats will use any kind of communication between countries. When you wish to present a gift, declare war, make offers of marriage, etc, you send a diplomat, which means
that your "diplomatic corps" is reduced by
one. On the other hand it does not cost anything to reply to an offer from another diplomat. You may not send more than one diplomat a month to the same country. You must
then wait a month before you send another
one. The "diplomatic corps" of your country
increases in numbers each year. The number of
diplomats you receive depends on the diplomatic ability of your monarch (each value
above 5 provides an additional diplomat), and
if your country is at war you receive an additional diplomat. If your state religion is Protestantism or Reformist you receive one extra
diplomat, but if your state religion is Catholicism or Counter Reformed Catholicism you
receive two additional diplomats. It may also
receive diplomats because of random events.
Your country will always receive one diplomat
because your neighbors recognize it.
There are three different methods of directly
improving relations with other countries. You
may send a letter of introduction, which costs
25 ducats and will give a small improvement.
The letters of introduction were a common
feature of the period, and it was not unusual for
some monarchs to send steady streams of letters to each other. Catherine the Great of Russia, Gustavus III of Sweden, Frederick the
Great of Prussia, and Joseph of Austria, were all
involved in discussions on the subjects of philosophy and national finances, for example.
You may also send personal gifts, which will
cost 100 ducats, giving your relations a stable
boost. In order to show how important these
diplomatic gestures used to be, we only need to
remind you of the tea services, embroidered
silk cushions, beautiful furs, etc, that are on display in many European museums. You may al-

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so send a gift of state, which will cost you 250

ducats, giving your relations a huge boost. Historically these were often a combination of different things. It could be a large personal gift,
like a gilded gala carriage or a pleasure yacht,
but often there were subsidies involved in the
game. Subsidies were similar to todays aid to
developing countries, gifts to poor relations. If
you want to be cynical you could say that countries bought the friendship of weaker countries. Examples include Sweden during both
the Scanian War (16741679) and the War of
Pomerania (17571762), both of which were
financed by French subsidies.
You may also choose to worsen your relations. You have three methods at your disposal,
reminiscent of the methods above (which you
used to improve your relations), with a small
differenceit never costs any money to worsen
your relations. The first method is sending letters of warning, which will worsen your relations a little bit. These were quite common and
were used to let somebody know that a certain
act was not acceptable and that violence could
be the response to further actions. The game
does not require any actual unfriendly acts to
have happened if you would like to send any
letters of warning. Just invent something, like
Peter the Great before the beginning of the
war against Sweden in 1700. He claimed that
he had been treated quite badly during his visit
to the Swedish town of Riga, but most of the
surviving documents suggest that this was just
an excuse.
The second method is sending insults, which
really worsen your relations. This was more unusual, but did occur now and then. It often
concerned problems between countries, which
escalated when the monarchs were unable to
solve their differences at the negotiation table.
A good example is the exchange of letters between Erik XIV of Sweden and Ivan the Terrible of Russia, which started with letters of introduction, turned into letters of warning, and
then changed into a veritable flood of written
insults. The relations then deteriorated into
war.

The third and final method is to present

claims to the crown of a certain country, which
may worsen relations all the way down to outright war. It was not unusual to lay claims to
the crown of other countries, but to do this
openly was a mortal insult, as it implied that the
sitting monarch was a usurper. A historical example is the claims of the Polish Vasa kings to
the Swedish crown for a number of years. The
Danes also had claims to the Swedish crown,
and certain English monarchs had claims to the
French crown. Both Spanish and French
monarchs had claims to the crown of Naples.
It is important to remember that changes of
relations are not static, but continually depend
on the diplomatic talent of your monarch. If
your monarch is undiplomatic, basically an incompetent in the area, even a gift of state may
cause a worsening of relations. You dont give
large gilded crosses to the sultan of Istanbul
without punishment, you know. The state religion of your country, and its level of tolerance
toward other religions also affect your relations. If Sweden has a very low tolerance toward Sunni Moslems, the relations between
the Ottoman Empire will deteriorate over
time.
There are some other diplomatic actions requiring diplomats. These will be explained in
greater detail later on, but we will mention
them here anyway. Diplomats are required if
you wish to make a declaration of war or make
offers of peace. Diplomats are also required if
you want to trade information about discoveries with other countries, basically to get access
to the maps of the other country. Finally, you
must send a diplomat if you want to offer to
lend money to another country.

Royal Marriages
The royal marriage was intended to unite two
dynasties and thus two countries to each other.
When such marriages were made the relations
between the countries improved. In order to
arrange a royal marriage both parties must be
of the same religion. There is one exception.
Orthodox Christian royalty could marry into
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any other Christian faith. The marriages were

also the basis for further diplomatic relations,
for example alliances and vassalage, after which
an eventual political annexation was possible.
Also note that the royal marriage could have a
defensive purpose, as the risk of war between
countries sharing royal blood is lowered. In the
game this is represented by a further lowering
of stability by one step if anybody declares war
on a country with which it has ties of marriage.
For example, you could imagine a royal marriage between Sweden and Russia as a precaution when preparing for a war with Denmark,
in order to avoid the risk of a two front war. Finally it should be noted that you may annul any
royal marriages your country is involved in, but
it will lower stability by one step as an effect of
the political turnaround, and the fact that your
monarch is breaking what the population views
as divine orderthe holy matrimony.
Please note that the term "royal marriage" is
not to be interpreted literally, as even a marriage between the republics of Venice and the
United States is defined as a royal marriage.
The important thing to remember is the important political bindings such an "official
marriage of state" entailed in the anarchic
world of nations. They were the most important proofs of friendship between countries
you could give. Even non-monarchies like the
Papal State, Venice, and the United States married off the protgs of important and powerful men in order to strengthen and protect the
interests of their countries.

Alliances
During the period alliances between countries
were as important then as now when it came to
keeping the peace and being fortunate in war.
To be a member of an alliance was a good thing
both as a deterrent and as protection during
war. The system of alliances of the period was a
sort of self-help. A number of countries swore
to defend each others independence on the
principle of "one for all, all for one." Anyone
attacking a member of an alliance was risking
war with all of the other members of the al38

liance. You should also remember that the "alliances" described here were a kind of ideal. In
reality monarchs and governments with a
strongly developed self-interest ruled the
countries. It was not at all certain that every
one in the alliance should honor their pledges.
In the game you may enter into already existing alliances, accept requests of entering alliances, or create new alliances by suggesting
the idea to another country of your choice. All
this is handled using the diplomacy window. In
order for your country to be able to do anything at all, you need to have good relations
with the country in question, or with the leader of the alliance you want to join. Each alliance
has a leader. Traditionally this was the strongest
member of the alliance, but it could also be a
rather small country. The Papal State and the
Republic of Venice are both examples of small
nations that often act as leaders of various alliances. In the game the leader is always the
country that created the alliance. The advantage of being the leader is that only the leader
may invite new members, and is also the only
one who may force members of the alliance to
leave. The leaders of two alliances may also enter a peace treaty with each other above the
heads of the other members, which means that
these two countries set the rules that the rest
must obey. This is something that Sweden suffered after the war of 16741679, when France
at the peace negotiations of Fontainebleau settled the peace between Sweden and its enemies
and at the same time did not allow the Swedish
envoys to even enter the chambers where the
discussions were held. The disadvantage is that
you, as the leader, may never leave the alliance
yourself, but have to wait until it expires. This
is not the case if you are not the leader.
Alliances are perishables. If the members do
not regularly repeat their solemn promises of
coming to each others rescue the alliance loses
its relevance and expires at a set date. The running time is normally 10 years from the date of
the latest peace treaty of the alliance. Note that
there can be differences if various members
make separate peace treaties or choose to wage

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their own wars, without requesting the active

support of the other members. If one member
of an alliance (Hungary) is attacked by another
country (the Ottoman Empire), all of the other members of the alliance (Venice and Persia)
are asked if they want to declare war on the attacker (the Ottoman Empire). There are two
natural choices in this case, and the other two
members will make the different choices. In
our example Venice chooses not to honor the
alliance, and will not declare war. Venices stability is lowered by one step because of its distasteful act of cowardice. Venice may also be
forced to leave the alliance if relations with
Hungary drop sufficiently. Persia chooses to
honor the alliance and declares war with the
Ottoman Empire. This may be done without
loss of stability. Persia is now at war with the
Ottoman Empire in conjunction with Hungary. The leader of the alliance, either Hungary
or Persia, may also end the war with the Ottoman Empire without consulting the other
member.
The art of upholding a good alliance, where
all members actually honor the alliance, is directly related to maintaining good relations between the member states. If you are not successful the alliance will dissolve sooner or later.
Military annexation of countries during peace
treaties is a sure way of destroying even the
strongest of alliances. A factor of some importance is the fact that you receive a temporary
Casus Belli toward each country not honoring
an alliance if your country is attacked. The temporary Casus Belli is only good for six months.
Two alliances could not be joined in order to
form a single alliance. The diplomatic system
during the period was not flexible enough to
handle this. There were actually reasons why
two alliances should keep away from each other, because sometimes the hatred between
members of two different alliances could be
enough to prevent it, and at other times the
problem was simply the case of the general unpredictability of even the biggest and strongest
of nations.

Vassalage
The purpose of vassalage changes with time in
the game. Originally the "vassal" emerged during the Middle Ages as a subordinate prince,
who was obliged to provide his lord with a
number of knights for the defense of the entire
kingdom. As compensation the vassal could
keep most of the income from his territory, but
was also required to uphold law and order in
his territory, which was a profitable line of business. At the end of the middle ages, which is
the earliest phase of the game (1492-1520),
the political systems of Western Europe developed away from feudalism and toward more
centralized states, when the kings started to
create the professional embryos of the state bureaucracies. This development also led to a
lessening of the importance of having vassals
throughout the country. Instead the vassal became countries heavily dependent on the
monarch of the country on which it was dependent. If you were to translate this concept of
vassals into modern times, you could compare
the political position of some of the small Central American states in relation to the United
States during the 1950s and the 1960s. A
Swedish historical example would be the subordination of Estonia under the Swedish
crown during the reign of Erik XIV. The Estonian knighthood submitted to the Swedish
crown under certain conditions, which may be
defined as vassalage. At a later stage the
province was simply drawn into the kingdom
of Sweden to be more or less annexed.
Vassalage may be the result of your country
arranging a royal marriage with another country. If the relations between the two countries
are at 190+, they are both sharing the same
state religion; your country may offer the other
country the status of vassal. If the country accepts, you may freely use the provinces of that
country for movement purposes, and you also
receive a part of the yearly income of the country. It may not enter into any royal marriages
with any other countries and will be on your
side if war breaks out. This also applies to the
vassals of other countries, so if you declare war
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on a vassal, you risk getting the "main country" coming after you.
If you start a scenario as a vassal, or if for some
impossible reason you have accepted to become
a vassal of another country, your only possibility
to get rid of your status as a vassal is to declare
war on your lord. This will of course result in a
massive loss of stability. The same thing is true if
you have a vassal and want to get rid of the vassal in order to declare war on that country. The
reason for such an event could be because your
relations have deteriorated so much that your
vassal has started to send tenders of alliance to
the archenemies of your country. Note also that
your vassal may end the dependence and declare war on you if your relations deteriorate
too much (it has this opportunity already at
120+). Countries available as player nations in
the scenario may not be vassalized. Note that
only vassals may be annexed politically.

nexation, so you dont forget any of the units,

which will then needlessly suffer attrition (see
Attrition). Your country will also receive a
bonus when researching various areas of technology, if the annexed country had any levels
that were higher than your own. Your country
will also receive a stability bonus if the annexed
country had a higher stability at the moment of
annexation. If the vassal had any loans at the
moment, these are written off (your country is
not liable). Finally your country will receive all
of the maps of the annexed country, which
means that your country now will "see" everything that the former vassal could see.
As an explanation you could say that "the offer of annexation" is given to certain select
powerful citizens of the country, such as the
nobility or the church leaders, as the vassal
himself probably would not like to lose his
power, regardless of the size of it.

Annexation

Refusal to Trade

Political annexations were not as common during the period as military annexations, but did
occur now and then. For example the union of
Scotland with England, and the union of Bohemia and Hungary with Austria may be seen
as political annexations. The political annexation of a country means that a formerly independent country becomes part of your own. Its
provinces become your provinces, and your
laws, your state religion, and your decisions are
to be followed, exactly as in your own country,
or more correctly, the provinces become a dissoluble part of your country. Political annexations are the epitome of diplomatic ability and
effort. This is where the border between war
and peace disappears, and diplomacy fulfills the
same goals as war.
You may only offer annexations to countries
that are your vassals, and only if your relations
are extremely good (190+). If your vassal accepts, the provinces of the vassal are turned
over to you and will behave just like your own
provinces. You also control all of the fleets and
army units of your former vassal. It is a good
idea to gather everything directly after the an-

To politically close a center of trade for the

merchants of certain countries was not an unusual occurrence during the time period. After
the Dutch struggle for liberation, when the
United Provinces were created, a temporary
peace treaty was signed with Spain. This peace
did not last very long, as the Dutch had closed
the waterways to Antwerp, thus monopolizing
trade in the whole area. This was of course unacceptable to the Spanish king. Also mercantilism contributed to a monopolistic attitude
with political overtones. The English Act of
Navigation of 1651 and the French acts under
the supervision of Colbert were de facto a refusal to trade. Sweden issued its own navigation act during the 1720s, but with poor results.
Using diplomatic means you may prevent
another country from trading at your centers
of trade. If you subject a country to a trade embargo, this country may not send any more
merchants to the trade centers in any of your
provinces. The merchants already present are
"frozen," no longer providing any income to
their country. You can now put them out of

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business by sending in additional merchants of

your own. Trade embargo was a common practice during the time period. Monopolizing
trade centers meant considerable income, and
the use of this political weapon was a very effective way of creating or maintaining monopolies, especially if the country concerned had
more effective merchants. Note that refusal to
trade involves some adverse effects. The country you are putting into quarantine has a Casus
Belli toward your country as long as the refusal
to trade is in effect. If you chose to allow trade
again, the Casus Belli against your country disappears. Also note that a trade embargo will
adversely affect research in trading technology,
meaning that your country receives a negative
bonus (1) for each country it subjects to a refusal to trade.
Also remember that your country may be
subjected to the same trade embargo if your
merchants start to act aggressively in any other
center of trading, especially if they are starting
to put the owner of the center out of business.

War Affects Your Relations

War will of course affect your relations. Declarations of war will catastrophically lower the
level of your relations toward the one you have
declared war upon, and to the allies of that
country to a lesser degree, even if the allies
choose not to honor the alliance. Relations
with any country that has a better relationship
to your enemy than you have will be lowered.
This will also apply to all countries tied to your
enemy by royal marriage. The deteriorating effects of the declaration of war will lessen if you
have ties through royal marriage to affected
countries.
The result of the war the peace treaty may
also affect your relations. Military annexations
will result in catastrophic worsening of relations with every country that knows about you.
Only your allies are not affected this way. If you
receive provinces as part of a peace treaty your
loss of respect (the lowering of your relations)
are not quite as damaging, although you are
now seen as dangerous and threatening. Re-

member that it is quite easy for relations with

your surroundings to deteriorate. This may
turn you into a hated pariah, but it takes a long
time and large sums of money to repair and rebuild your relations.
The relations of your country also affect you
in war. Countries that hate your country will
feel much less uncomfortable when attacking
your country, even stabbing you in the back.
Any country ceaselessly attacking other countries, annexing countries left and right, will easily become prey to one or more alliances that
want to put it in its place.

Tolerance Affecting Your Relations

We have already mentioned that your tolerance
toward the various religions is affecting your
relations. Historically countries saw themselves
as the protectors of every inhabitant in the
world sharing the same religion (or at least as
many as possible). For example, Russia considered itself to be the protector of all Orthodox
Christians, just like Spain during the 16th and
17th centuries considered itself to be the protector of every Catholic.
The level of tolerance is a value between 0
and 10, but only the really extreme values will
affect your relations. Normal tolerance, or a
tolerance of 5, will not make any difference. A
high level of tolerance (610) will increase the
annual improvement of your relations in relation to your level of tolerance. A tolerance of
10 will result in a higher increase than a tolerance of 6. The opposite is of course true for low
levels of tolerance.
This phenomena means that your country
may have problems later in the game when trying to maintain good relations with countries
of other state religions than your own. If your
monarch and your government have a low level of tolerance toward a religious minority, it
could happen that a country with that same
state religion may declare war on your country
in order to protect the "religious rights" of the
minority.

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The Holy Roman Empire

During the period the Holy Roman Empire
was not a single nation, like Sweden or England, but rather a supranational organism.
During the Middle Ages it was supposed to be
a country, a vast Christian Roman empire. It
had its origins in the efforts of Charles the
Great to reestablish the Roman Empire. The
efforts failed when his sons and grandsons divided the realm and started to fight over it. At
the end of the Middle Ages the Empire had
been quite decentralized, reducing the emperors power. The Empire consisted of a number
of independent states, with more or less their
own foreign policies. Some of these states were
called electors and elected the emperor at certain times. In the game the Holy Roman Empire consists of all of the independent states
within its borders, except for the Italian countries, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The
Hapsburg dynasty ruling Austria and Bohemia
had at this time been able to make the crown
go from father to son within the dynasty, but
the office of emperor still had to be appointed
by election, and this remained.
The office of emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire had certain advantages. The emperor
may freely move all of his troops throughout all
of the provinces of the entire empire if he is at
war. He also has an easier time improving his
relations to all of the countries within the empire. Note that your own state religion must be
Catholicism or Counter Reformed Catholicism if your monarch is to be eligible. The relations to all of the electors are very important if
you want to be elected emperor. You gain 50
victory points if you are elected emperor.
Note that conquered and annexed electors
no longer count as electors, and neither may
the conqueror "assume" the office of elector.
There is one special case. If a province of the
Holy Roman Empire is somehow given up to a
Moslem country through peace treaties or annexation, the province is no longer part of the
Holy Roman Empire, as the Turkish sultan
may never hold a fief under a Christian emperor, regardless of the size of the land.
42

War and Peace

Casus Belli and Declarations of War
Casus Belli has been mentioned earlier, but has
not been fully explained. Casus Belli is Latin
and roughly means "lawful cause of war." If
your country has a lawful reason to declare war
on another country, it will not affect any third
parties negatively, third parties being your own
population and any other countries. Normally
your stability is lowered by two steps if you lack
a proper Casus Belli. If you have a Casus Belli,
you do not lose any stability at all.
How do you receive a Casus Belli against another country? Firstly, there is permanent Casus Belli at the start of each scenario, because of
ancient enmity between countries. The permanent Casus Belli are in effect throughout the
scenario. Secondly, each country may receive
temporary Casus Belli. If your country loses
any of its core provinces during war you receive
a Casus Belli, which is in effect until you have
regained your province. If a country does not
honor an alliance when you are attacked, you
receive a limited Casus Belli against the country or countries that chose not to honor the alliance (6 months). If a country refuses to repay
a loan to another country, this country receives
a limited Casus Belli (of 12 months duration).
Any country receives a Casus Belli against
countries that refuse to trade. The Casus Belli
is in effect until trade resumes.
You may make declarations of war whenever
you wish, but with two exceptions. Firstly, your
country must have a diplomat available in order to declare war, and secondly, you may not
declare war if the stability of your country is at
the lowest possible level (3). Your monarch
and your government have enough on their
minds keeping the country in one piece to worry about anything other than the unrest at
home.
A country must declare war on another
country in order to move its army units into
that country. There are exceptions to this rule
(see The Holy Roman Empire, The Treaty of
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A declaration of war almost always will result

in loss of stability. The loss may have a number
of reasons (see Stability). After the declaration
of war your country is at war until a peace
treaty has been signed between your country
and the country or countries with which you
are at war. Being at war affects a number of
things in the game and your route toward victory. Lets take a closer look.

Advantages and Disadvantages of War

We should start by stating that if you want to
win the game you must collect the greatest
number of victory points. Victory points are
distributed throughout the game. For example
you receive victory points for having the largest
number of army units and fleets, by having a
high level of stability, by conquering provinces,
by winning pitched battles and naval battles, by
taking fortifications through sieges, by winning wars (getting stars when peace rolls
around), and by actually keeping the peace.
You lose victory points by losing wars (having
tombstones when the peace treaty is to be
signed), by losing provinces, pitched battles
and naval battles, by losing fortifications
through sieges, by losing historic commanders
in battle, by breaking peace treaties, by declaring war, and finally when you suffer rebellions
in your own country.
It is quite easy to see that war means a high
risk of losing victory points, even though war
may bring you victory points. If you win the
war you gain many points, and if you lose the
war you lose many points. Note also that this
also applies to your opponent. If we take Sweden as an example, you could say that Russia
passed Sweden in victory points at the peace of
Nystad in 1721, where Russia gained the same
number of points that Sweden lost. All losses of
victory points are directly due to declarations
of war. If a declaration of war lowers your stability, which it usually does, you will also receive a lower annual and monthly income.
Your monthly investment in technology depends on your income, which lowers the speed
of technological development. The country

leading in technological development receives

a number of victory points as time passes. In
this case it will be a country other than yours.
You also receive victory points if you have merchants present at the international centers of
trading, and your ability to send merchants is
limited in proportion to your loss of income.
We want to stress that war is not a profitable
adventure unless you can wage war without a
loss of too much stability, and you should go to
war only if you think you are able to win.
Now you are hopefully deterred from declaring and fighting wars without care or plan. War
can also be a very good prospect for your country. War is actually one of the best ways of expanding your country with new provinces, and
by winning wars you may increase your income
from your provinces. The higher income may
now be invested in new technology, which may
enable your country to defend itself at a later
stage in the game. It is important to think
strategically, especially when playing the long
scenario from 1492 to 1792. If other countries
are expanding territorially when your country
is not, they are becoming relatively stronger at
your expense. Later on it may become fatal, especially if they have a higher income, better
military technology, and a better manpower.
You risk your independence as a nation.
The relative effects of any shift of power
should not be underestimated. Lets try an example. Sweden (annual income: 100 ducats)
goes to war with Russia (annual income: 100
ducats). Sweden wins the war and receives
Carelia, Onega, and Novgorod, which in our
example are worth a total of 25 ducats annually. The total effect of the war is that Sweden receives an annual income of 125 ducats, and the
annual income of Russia drops to 75 ducats.
This shifting of power may change the entire
game. Make sure you also keep track of all of
the more distant countries, or else you may
find that they are undefeatable.
In order to lower the impact of the negative
consequences of war you may enter into an alliance where at least one of the member states
hates the country against which you would like
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to declare war. Chances are fairly high that

your brother in the alliance will declare war
sooner or later, and when this happens you may
honor the alliance without loss of stability. You
may also try to surround your enemy through
alliances with all of his neighbors. If war breaks
out, at least you have minimized your risks of
losing the war.

Side Effects of War

One of the first things you must consider is the
duration of the war. The longer a war lasts, the
greater fatigue you suffer, and consequently the
risk of rebellion in your provinces increases. If
your country has a number of religious minorities a long war may be fatal. Your effort at improving your stability is a much slower affair if
you are at war, compared with a period of peace.
The recovery after a war is also a difficult
time. You may have to invest in stability for
many years. This is when you should be investing in new technology instead, the very thing
your enemies are certainly busy doing. After a
long war there is a particularly great risk of having lagged behind in technology, which may
mean that you will loose the next war, even if
you won the last one. Your foreign relations
may also be ruined, especially if you have won a
war and have annexed another country. Also
remember that your country may be ruinously
devastated after the war, with a number of
provinces plundered, and many of your trading
posts may also have burned.
A very unpleasant side effect of war is the risk
of other countries getting into the game. If you
are really doing badly in a war, there is a risk of
getting declarations of war from countries
where your relations are really bad, as they may
think that your country is about to collapse.

Manpower and the Limitations of

Your Provinces
Each country has a manpower base, limiting
the possibility of recruiting army units. When
you recruit army units you will see how your
manpower base is lowered. Each unit of 1000
infantry, 1000 cavalry or 10 pieces of artillery
44

lowers your manpower base 1 step. There are

always a limited number of available young
able-bodied men, and there is always a permanent demand for strong men and women if you
want your farming to be handled properly in
each village. This all means that there is a limit
to how many soldiers you may recruit. Each
province has a recruitment value, showing how
much it contributes to the armed forces of your
country. The manpower base is computed as an
annual sum, which is increasing as time passes.
If your country has conquered new provinces
or developed colonies into towns, your annual
manpower base may increase. It will also increase as time passes because of a general population growth. Your manpower base may also
drop if you lose provinces or suffer losses of
population for any other reasons. Building
ships for your fleets is not affected by your
manpower base, as there was a relatively small
demand of manpower, compared with the
needs of the army units.
There is also a local limitation, or recruitment capacity when applied to the recruitment
of army units or fleets. You recruit your army
units in your provinces, which means that the
level of development of each province limits
each separate recruitment attempt. By appointing officials, upgrading fortifications, and
building factories, you improve the recruitment capacity of each province. Note that the
population level is the most important factor
defining recruitment capacity. If you are raising
an army unit or building a fleet in a province,
you may not start recruiting a new unit or build
a new fleet until the work in progress has been
finished.
If your country has reached a sufficiently
high level of military or naval technology, you
may increase the recruitment or building capacity by constructing conscription centers
(military tech level 31) and naval shipyards
(naval tech level 16). The conscription center is
shown as a small military tent, and represents a
number of administrative and economic functions in your province, making it easier to establish larger army units. The effect is a tenfold

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increase in the recruitment capacity of your

province, and improved maintenance ability
for any army unit in the province (see Maintenance, and Attrition). The provinces contribution to the recruitment capacity of your
country is also greatly increased. The naval
shipyard will change the port symbol of your
province, making it larger and colored in gold.
The naval shipyard is simply an improved shipyard, with the capacity of building all ship types
at a much higher speed, a sort of "assembly
line" production of the times. The naval shipyard increases the building capacity of your
province tenfold. The first naval shipyard you
build also provides one extra colonist each year.

Pillaged Provinces
Army units often lived off the land of whatever
province they occupied. This means that they
arbitrarily "requisitioned" whatever they needed. These necessities and moneys were of
course taken from the inhabitants of the
province. It is therefore quite understandable
that provinces where enemy army units have
passed through do not contribute as much to
the state treasury.
In the game this means that provinces where
the enemy or rebels have gone through may
have been pillaged. You will see that a province
has been plundered by the fires around the
town or colony of the province. The pillaging
does not provide any income to the pillager,
but there will be negative consequences for the
owner of the province. The pillaged province
does not contribute to the income of the country, and the population growth of the province
is decreasing, which will affect your total income in the long run. A pillaged province will
recover after a while, usually 12 months, and
then the town or colony will stop "burning."

War Taxes
War was associated with standing armies and
armed fleets during long periods. Moving
troops through the kingdom or making the
fleets seaworthy almost always required good
coin. The money covered running expenses for

supplies and ammunition. Money was also

needed to strengthen already recruited army
units. Attrition because of friction was as high
then as now, although it was caused by other
reasons then.
War taxes are a generic name for a number of
smaller taxes that were justified because of the
country being at war. The populations were
rarely very fond of all of these special taxes, war
contributions, war taxes, or lack of compensations for the activities of the state.
When choosing war taxes as an option, you
will get a 100 percent increase in income from
each of your provinces during 6 months. The
price to pay is a loss of stability of one step. You
should really consider if this extra income is
greater than the cost of regaining your stability.
If not, you should really save this measure for
any really desperate situations.

The Goal of War

We are used to looking at war in the rearview
mirror and with a focus on the 20th century
the Age of Total War. During the epoch of the
game the scope and goals of war were not total
and all encompassing. This was an era when
ideas like Honor, Fame, and Status were more
important than Freedom, Justice, Equality,
and Brotherhood. There was also a sort of fluid
boundary between the war of the Prince and
the war of the Nation, which of course influenced the overall goals. One of the reasons for
the Swedish declaration of war against Prussia
at the outbreak of the War of Pomerania in
1757 was that the Party of the Hats of the
Swedish Parliament wanted to insult the
Swedish queen, who was the sister of Frederick
II of Prussia. This will serve as an example of a
somewhat different way of thinking as compared with what we are used to. The goals were
often more modest than today. Taking too
much was always punished. Both Philip II of
Spain and Louis XIV of France met heavy resistance from strong coalitions when their lust for
power was perceived as a threat, but also Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden and Maximilian
of Austria ran into these "European scales of
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balance." When making an offer of peace your

country may receive or lose a maximum of
three provinces. The exception is when you
control all of the provinces of a (non-player)
country, where you may offer annexation, and
thus win the entire country.
In a game like this, of course each player
must formulate his or her goals. There are a few
things that must be pointed out. It is important
that you plan your wars. Continually ask what
you want to gain through the war, and always
consider your actions. Sometimes your goals
may be as clear as water, for example you want
to take just that province, presenting a very
clear approach. There may be greater problems, though, especially if you have a large
country with the ambition of rubbing elbows
with the great powers of the world. What
would happen if your neighbors realize that
one of their greatest competitors has grown
very powerful and seems to be increasing even
more in power? In this case it may be necessary
to form alliances and start a war against that
power which may be a war they dont always
expect to win. In this case your goal may be to
keep your enemies continually occupied by
wars with other countries, thereby breaking
apart in rebellion because the fatigue of war has
become too great.
In order to win your wars you only need to
do two things, although they are admittedly
quite difficult. You need to prevent your enemies from taking your provinces, and you need
to take the provinces of your enemies. You may
only demand provinces that you are actually
controlling at the time of the peace talks, and
your enemy will be more than willing to accept
your terms if you are also controlling the capital of the enemy.

Peace Treaties and War Damages

A peace treaty may be reached in three different ways. Either you accept the offer of peace
coming from your enemy, or you make an offer
of peace, or there will be an automatic status
quo peace between you and your enemy. Note
that the third alternative will occur automati46

cally only between two countries at war with

each other, when there have not been any hostile actions during the past 36 months, and if
neither of the parties are in control of any
provinces belonging to the enemy. Lets look
more closely at the details. If you are offered
peace you may only accept or decline. You may
not renegotiate. You may decline and then follow up with another offer to your enemy. If
you want to offer peace you open the diplomacy window, choosing "Peace offer," whereby
another window opens. The first thing you see
is the number of "stars" or "tombstones" the
war has given your country so far, and a verbal
assessment of the actual meaning of all these
stars and tombstones.
Essentially, the more stars you have, the
more you may demand, and the more tombstones you have, the more you must give up in
order to get your peace. Each star/tombstone
represents a tribute of 250 ducats, which you
may either demand or pay. Two stars/ducats
represent one province, which you may demand or cede. Note that you may never demand or pay more than the number of stars or
tombstones, as they are directly related to the
fortunes of war so far. Also note that no more
than three provinces may change ownership
through the same peace treaty. You may also
only demand provinces you already control,
and you may only cede provinces controlled by
the enemy.
What actions result in stars? You receive stars
for controlling enemy provinces, by winning
pitched battles and naval battles, and for controlling the capital of the enemy. Will your enemy accept your offer? It all depends on how
well the offer conforms to the fortunes of the
war, and if you are generous or not.
Lets take an example. Sweden and Russia
are at war, and Sweden has been fortunate, and
is now offering peace. Sweden has four stars. If
Sweden chooses to demand 2 provinces
(2+2=4 stars) there is a risk that Russia will not
accept the offer. If Sweden demands one
province and 250 ducats (2+1=3 of 4 stars) the
chance of peace is greater, and if Sweden would

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demand only one province (2 out of 4 stars) it

is very likely that Russia will accept.
Also note that you may never demand the
province where your enemys capital is located,
or cede the province of your own capital. There
is one special case, which has been mentioned
before, and that is "military annexation." If
you control all of the provinces of the enemy,
with its cities, when you offer peace you will receive all of its provinces (including colonies
and trading posts). The enemy country then
ceases to exist. There are two things of note in
this case. The first is that you make an "offer"
of annexation, which means that you make an
offer to the political elite of that country to become part of the political elite of your own
country; these powerful men may actually decline the offer. The second is that countries
that started the scenario as player countries
may never be annexed, for example if you play
the "The Grand Campaign of 14921792" as
Spain, you may annex any country except
France, England, Portugal, Sweden, PolandLithuania, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.
Dont forget that military annexations always
will worsen your foreign relations enormously.
When you have annexed a country you will also
control all of its army units and fleets. A useful
line of action is to gather all of these immediately after annexation, so you dont "forget"
any of them, which would make them suffer attrition (see Attrition).
When your country has accepted an offer of
peace, or when your enemy has accepted your
offer of peace, or when an automatic peace is
settled, your country and your enemy now
have a peace treaty. A peace treaty also means
that if either of you declares war on the other,
the one breaking the peace treaty within 5
years after signing it will suffer a terrible fate.
Breaking a peace treaty results in a massive loss
of stabilitya total of five steps (5).
If your country is involved in an "alliance
war," involving one or several alliances, there
are two possibilities regarding peace offers. If
your country is at war with an entire alliance,
you may make an offer of peace to the leader of

the alliance, and thus get a binding peace treaty

with all of the members of the enemy alliance,
or you may sign separate peace treaties with individual members of the enemy alliance. There
are many instances when using this option is an
excellent alternative. With a separate peace the
game only involves counting the stars and
tombstones that apply to your country and
your single enemy to whom you are offering
peace, while all of the stars and tombstones involved in the war are counted when you are
dealing with the leader of the alliance. Here is
an example of when you should offer a separate
peace during a war against an alliance. The Ottoman Empire is at war with the "Small Alliance," consisting of Hungary (the leader),
Venice and Bohemia. The Ottoman Empire
has won a few battles against Venice and controls three Venetian provinces. Hungary, on
the other hand, has taken two Ottoman
provinces and has won two battles. Bohemia
has won a single battle against the Ottoman
Empire. The Ottoman Empire starts by offering Venice a separate peace. Here the Ottoman
Empire has 5 stars, and demands and receives
two provinces. Venice is out of the game. Then
the Ottoman Empire makes an offer to Bohemia. The Ottoman Empire has one tombstone, but is hoping for a peace of status quo,
and succeeds. Bohemia is out of the game, and
only Hungary remains. The Ottoman Janitchars are turning toward Hungary. Even a
peace with only the leader of the alliance may
be quite effective. Sweden is at war with Russia
(the leader), Poland-Lithuania and Denmark.
The war is going badly for Sweden, as all three
members of the alliance control three Swedish
provinces each. Sweden makes an offer to Russia, offering 1 province and 1000 ducats, representing 6 tombstones. Russia accepts and
neither Denmark nor Poland-Lithuania receives any provinces. In this case Sweden gets
off the hook in relatively cheaply, only losing
some money and a single province.

Movement and Battle

Battles and movement are the tactical compo47

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nents of warfare. During the period, battle and

movement could often be decisive for the outcome of a war. A single pitched battle or a naval
battle could save the existence and independence of an entire country. If the Spanish Armada had not foundered in 1588, England
probably would have become a vassal state of
Spain, just like Portugal. If the Ottoman Empire had won outside of Vienna in 1683 Europe, as we know it, most likely would not have
existed. Another immensely important factor
was how efficiently a military unit could be
moved. Poland-Lithuania defended their giant
commonwealth by dashing about with their incredibly mobile armies: one moment to the
coast of the Black Sea; the next to the Baltic;
the next to the Ukraine, winning battles in the
meantime.
You may move two kinds of military units in
the game: army units and fleets. There are
three kinds of battle: Pitched Battles, Sieges,
and Naval Battles. All of this will be thoroughly covered in this chapter.

Army Units
As has already been mentioned, there are
three branches of the army that may be included in the army unit: infantry, cavalry and artillery. The infantry was the basic army unit and
the cheapest one to recruit, and was also easier
to train. The infantry, together with the artillery, served as a garrison for a fortification. In
a field army, the infantry was slower than the
cavalry but faster than the artillery. The cavalry
was less economical and took longer to train;
however it was the fastest unit, extremely maneuverable, and could have an enormous shock
effect in the heat of battle. On the other hand it
was less serviceable in a siege. It is also worth
noting that the cavalry, as the successor of the
knight, was the "army branch of the nobility,"
a status it was to hold until a long time after the
period covered by this game.
At the end of the 15th century, artillery was
chiefly used in sieges. Cannons were usually
very heavy and immobile and seldom of much
use in a pitched battle. The basis of the field
48

army was the infantry, which often lacked the

firepower to make it the decisive factor in a battle. The cavalry was the principal actor of the
battleground and lacked all firepower, but
made up for this by its strong shock effect with
the ability of quickly shattering the morale of
the enemy, if it was employed efficiently. In the
late 16th and early 17th century, the emphasis
was shifted from shock effect to firepower in
the armies of Europe. The infantry became the
equal of the cavalry, although the two forces
served different purposes during a battle. The
artillery had become lighter, and thereby more
mobile, and was also beginning to be utilized
as relief for the infantry in battles. During the
18th century, another shift in focus of battle efficiency took place. Drill and discipline had
been established in the European armies,
thereby making it possible for the infantry firepower to be utilized more efficiently. Infantry
became more important on the field of battle
than cavalry, even though the cavalry still
played a very important operational role, being
the most efficient branch for reconnaissance
purposes during the period. In addition, the
cavalry was still the only fast, long-range
branch of the army, which made it indispensable in deep-going wars such as those in Russia,
Poland, and the Middle East. The efficiency of
the artillery had increased, and it was organized in batteries with a direct fire effect
against infantry on the battlefield. Efficiently
utilized artillery could be the decisive factor of
a battle, simply because the heavy artillery fire
could shatter morale in a wing or even a flank,
an advantage that was then used by sending a
cavalry shock against the shaken, retiring infantrymen.
The time it takes to recruit a unit varies between the different branches, partly because
the time it takes to train an efficient army unit
varies, partly because the setup of the unit demanded several kinds of specialized equipment. To simplify, we can say that artillery units
take the longest to recruit, followed by the cavalry, and then the infantry.
The cost of recruitment depends upon a

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number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of

troops always cost differently. Artillery is the
most expensive, followed by cavalry, and infantry is the cheapest. Secondly, the cost is dependent on which country is recruiting the
troops. Different countries had different traditions when it came to choosing army branches
and the composition of army units. Some
countries, for instance, chose quality above
quantity. Thirdly, the cost will vary depending
on which level of military technology your
country possesses. In general, troops get more
expensive the higher your military technology
level is, since a higher level of technology
means costlier training and more expensive
equipment. Infantry and cavalry are recruited
in units of 1000 men and artillery in units of 10
pieces.
The maintenance of your army units is paid
monthly. By accessing your countrys Financial
Summary youll be able to see how large the
sum is compared with your other expenses.
You may change the maintenance payments of
your country by accessing the army information window, where you may choose what percent of the maintenance you wish to pay. The
payment must be at least 50% of the actual
costs. The size of the maintenance is also based
on the size of your troops; if you have 20,000
men youll have to pay twice as much as if
youd had 10,000 men. You may disband army
units to reduce the cost of maintenance. Note
that your morale will be adversely affected if
you pay less than 100% maintenance.

Fleets
As has already been mentioned, a fleet may include three kinds of vessels: warships, transports, and galleys. Warships are oceangoing,
heavily armed vessels, representing a number
of different sizes and designs. Your level of
naval technology is the determining factor.
Galleys also represent different sizes, levels of
armament and designs, but they differ from
warship in that they are less seaworthy on the
open sea, and their strength relative to the warship diminishes over time. Their advantage lies

in being cheaper to build. Transports are a

jumble of different designs, differentiated, like
the other types of vessels, by your naval technology level.
Building times vary between the different
types of vessels, due to their different levels of
advancement. Generally, the higher the level of
naval technology a country possesses, the
longer it will take to build a vessel. One rule of
thumb is that warships take the longest to
build, followed by transports, and then galleys.
The cost of building a vessel depends upon a
number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of
vessels always vary in cost. Warships are the
most expensive, followed by transports, and
galleys are the cheapest. Secondly, the cost is
dependent on which country builds the vessels.
Different countries had different naval traditions about the composition of fleets. Some
countries, for instance, chose quality above
quantity. Note that galleys can only be built in
coastal provinces along the Baltic Sea, the
Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and
the Gulf of Persia, which means that countries
by these seas will have naval traditions including the employment of galley fleets. Thirdly,
the cost will vary depending on the level of
naval technology your country possesses. In
general, vessels become more expensive the
higher your naval technology level is, since a
higher level of technology entails more expensive training and equipment. All vessels are
built in units of one ship, although certain
coastal provinces can build more than one at a
time.
The maintenance of your fleets is paid
monthly. By accessing your countrys Financial
Summary you can see how large the sum is
compared with your other expenses. You may
change the maintenance payments of your
country by accessing the naval information
window, where you may choose what percent
of the maintenance you wish to pay. The payment must be at least 50% of the actual costs.
The size of the maintenance is also based on
the size of your fleets; if you have 72 vessels
youll have to pay twice as much as if youd had
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36 vessels. You may disband fleets to reduce

the cost of maintenance. Note that your
morale will be adversely affected if you pay less
than 100% maintenance.

Commanders and Specialists

A commander leads each army unit or fleet.
Commanders have a very large impact on battles (see Pitched Battles and Naval Battles),
transportation, and attrition. Commanders are
historical or general. The former are wellknown generals and admirals who worked during the period and who are regarded as particularly interesting, either because of their skills or
their imperfections in battle. The latter come
from a "national pool" and have names from
history, but none of them were distinguished
enough to become historically important.
They are something of a cheaper article, but
they still mirror the state of training and skill of
the countrys body of officers.
An army unit or a fleet may have more than
one commander, but only one of them will
command the unit; this will be the highestranking commander, who is also the only one
who will add anything to the battle. Note that
you may split a unit if you want to take advantage of more than one good commander.
Commanders may die in battles or through
random events. A monarch, for instance Gustavus II Adolphus, may be a commander,
which means that if the monarch dies in a battle, the heir to the throne or regency will succeed him. If a commander dies in a battle, the
second-highest ranking commander will automatically assume command of the army unit or
fleet. If the unit or fleet only had one historical
commander, a general commander will immediately assume command.
All commanders are assigned a value in each
of the skills of Movement, Firing, Shock Effect/Boarding, and Siege. Note that each
commander is either an army or a navy commander. General commanders always have the
same values, depending on their country of origin. Their values may never exceed 6 or go below 0. Historical commanders have unique val50

ues that may be much more varied, i.e. be higher than 6 or lower than 0.
There are also two kinds of specialists: Conquistadors and Explorers. They function like
commanders, but also possess some special
functions.
Conquistadors lead army units and receive a
special bonus for exploring new provinces.
They also receive a special bonus when battling
natives, and a very high capacity for maintenance (i.e., small risk of attrition.)
Explorers lead fleets and have a special bonus
for exploring new sea zones and bordering
provinces. Like the Conquistadors, they have a
very high capacity for maintenance (i.e., small
risk of attrition.)

Movement Restrictions
When you order an army unit to move, i.e.,
give it marching orders, there is no limit to
how far away from the province where the unit
is stationed the destination may be. The unit
will start moving toward the destination at the
speed of its slowest army branch. If you, for instance, have a unit consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, the whole unit will move as
slowly as if it only consisted of artillery. If an
enemy army unit should move into a province
through which your unit is moving, the unit
will stop immediately and a battle will take
place. If your army unit should lose, it will retire. You cannot influence where it will retire,
as the commander automatically will move into
a neighboring province, giving preference to
provinces that you control. If your army unit
wins the battle, the enemy will retire while your
unit stands still, and you must give it new
marching orders. Thus, two army units from
enemy armies may never stand still in the same
province after a pitched battle, unlike units
from allied countries.
In times of peace, you may move your army
units both through your own provinces and
those of your vassals. When you are at war, you
may also move through the provinces of your
allies. You can also move freely through unfortified and fortified enemy provinces, provided

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that you detach a troop to watch the fortification. After detaching a troop, the main part of
your unit may march on. To detach a troop for
guard purposes, click on that button in the information window.

port. However, it may be blockaded if the level

of naval technology is sufficiently advanced
(see Naval Blockades and Ports.)
Each fleet is assigned a number of movement
points according to the following table:

Each army unit is assigned a number of movement points each month, according to the following table:

Naval
technology
level
Warships Galleys Transports
Carrack
6
4
6
Galleon
10
4
10
Lateen sail
10
4
10
Battery deck
10
4
10
Vaisseaux
12
4
12
Three-Decker
14
4
12

Infantry
2
Cavalry
3
Artillery
1.5
Each time you move to a province it costs
movement points as follows:
Open terrain
1
Woods
1.25
Mountains
1.75
Desert
1.25
Swamps
1.5
Rivers
1
Country border
0.5
Example: A cavalry unit (3 MP/month) is consequently able to move through three
provinces of open terrain in one month; or
through one desert and one mountain
province in one month. A mixed army unit
with all three army branches (1.5 MP/month)
wanting to move into a swamp province on the
other side of a river and a country border (1.5 +
1 + 0.5 = 3) will need two months to complete
their movement.
Fleets are moved in the same way as army
units, the only difference being that the sea
zones through which the fleet moves dont belong to anybody. If you move into a zone
where an enemy fleet is located, an attempt of
naval interception will occur (see Naval Interception.) If neither your fleet nor the enemy
fleet succeeds with the interception, you may
keep moving. If either of you succeeds, a naval
battle will take place and the one who successfully intercepted the other one will receive a
bonus since he surprised the other one. Ports
do not count as sea zones, and no interception
or naval battle can take place against a fleet in

Each discovered sea zone costs one movement

point.

Naval Supremacy and Interception

As has already been mentioned, you cannot
control the ocean; you can only try to prevent
the enemy from controlling the shipping lanes.
Naval warfare was conducted in a fundamentally different way from the battle on land, and
reaching what is sometimes known as domination of the seas was a lengthy process. We will
attempt to explain this.
Firstly, it was important to defend coastlines
and the strategic and important passages that
must be used. Enemy fleets could not be allowed to cruise off a countrys own coast, as
this could mean a sudden landing with disastrous consequences; England lived under this
threat for many years, mainly from Spain and
France. Moreover, a country could have a narrow canalizing passage such as the English
Channel, the control over which would give
economic advantages and would minimize the
risk of having part of the country cut off from
the rest. To defend a coast from a nearby enemy fleet, it was necessary to go out to sea, find
the enemy, and attack, and thus forcing him
back to his own waters. This is where interception is important. Since the sea zones were so
large, and a fleet could only control a small area
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tle would occur. Many times, two enemy fleets

would keep sailing back and forth looking for
each other for a long time without having a decisive battle.
When your fleet gets into the same sea zone
as an enemy fleet, there is always a chance of a
successful interception and an ensuing battle.
What happens depends on what respective levels of naval technology the combatants possess,
how skilled the commanders are in maneuvering their vessels and a considerable portion of
luck. Luck in this context is all about how the
wind blows. The one in the right quarter of the
wind usually had the decisive advantage in the
era of sailing ships. Note that fleets cruising
outside their own coast receive a bonus when
intercepting, and that interceptions in certain
coastal provinces (Scania, Zealand, the
Bosphorus, Gibraltar, and Tangiers) always
succeed, due to the tactical advantages for the
fleet controlling these constricted passages.
After having successfully chased an enemy
fleet away to their own port, the defending
fleet would then cruise outside the enemy coast
52

or try to blockade the enemy ports. When a

majority of the enemy fleets were eradicated or
in blockade, naval supremacy was achieved.

Naval Battles
A naval battle will occur when two or more enemy fleets receive orders to stop in the same sea
zone, or when an attempted naval interception
has succeeded.
The battle will consequently come about
when two or more enemy fleets are in the same
sea zone. You will see two battling sailing ships,
symbolizing the two sides in the battle. Each
ship will have a narrow rectangle. The color of
the rectangle shows the level of morale and how
it changes during the course of the battle. The
length of the rectangle shows the size of the
fleet compared with the enemy fleet, and how
the relative size of the fleets change as they suffer losses in the battle. The battle is divided into
a number of phases that will continue until one
side loses the battle. Note that you cant influence what happens during the various phases;
this is the duty of the fleets commander.

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The losing side is the one which first loses all

its morale and thereby flees, i.e. retires (see Retreat) or who loses all its vessels in the battle.
Note that both sides may choose to retire at
any point during the battle. If you do, your
fleet will hoist a white flag. If you win the battle, the enemy will retire and you may either
move your fleet to another sea zone or, if you
wish and possess the naval technology for it,
begin a naval blockade; or simply cruise in the
sea zone.
What determines the outcome of a naval battle? Firstly the odds, i.e., the relative difference
in strength between the fleets, are immensely
important. Secondly, the difference in naval
technology levels is very important. Thirdly
the commander is important, as his skill value
in maneuvering, firing, and boarding will influence the phases of the battle. Fourthly the outcome of the battle is influenced by who has utilized the wind conditions most efficiently, for
which your commander is responsible. You
cannot influence this, but note that only one
side will get the bonus for wind conditions.

The loser of a naval battle must retire from

the sea zone. If the enemy originally tried to
force himself out of a blockaded port, his fleet
will retire to the same port, or else it will retire
to the sea zone which is closest to one of the
countrys own or allied ports, and which does
not contain an enemy fleet.

Naval Blockades and Ports

It has already been stated that certain
provincescoastal provincespossess ports.
You may send a fleet into one of your own
ports (i.e., a port in your own country) at any
time providing that you control the province
where the port is located. You may also send
your fleets into the ports of allied countries
provided that the country in question controls
the province where the port is, and that your
country and the allied country together are at
war with another country.
Why would you want to send your fleet into
port? Firstly, a fleet in port may never be attacked by an enemy fleet, which means that it
can be tactically sound to send a fleet into port
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if the enemys naval strength is superior to

yours. Secondly, fleets dont suffer attrition in
port, which means that it is advisable to send a
fleet into port from time to time. Note that if
an enemy army unit takes control of a province
in which there is a port where you have a fleet,
the fleet is automatically forced out of the port
into the nearest sea zone. If there is an enemy
fleet there, a naval battle will take place.
What is a naval blockade? A naval blockade
means that you have a fleet in the sea zone adjacent to a port, and that your country has
reached the right naval technology level. What
will automatically happen is that your fleet
blockades every enemy port bordering on the
sea zone. Your fleet will patrol the entrance of
the port and thus prevent ships from leaving
and calling at the port. A fleet blockading a
port can be attacked both from other sea zones
and from the port in question. The fleet will
automatically receive the bonus for successfully
utilizing wind conditions if it defends itself
against the blockaded fleet.
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Pitched Battles
A pitched battle will occur when an army unit
moves or withdraws into a province containing
a hostile army unit, or when a hostile army does
something similar and moves into a province
containing one of your own army units. It may
also occur when an army unit moves into an independent province and encounters a band of
natives. If you have an army unit present a
pitched battle will take place. If not, one of two
things may happen. Either you had no trading
post or colony there before, and then nothing
will happen, or you had one, and in that case
the natives will take control over the colony.
Pitched battles, in other words, occur when
two or several army units find themselves in the
same province. You will then see two fighting
soldiers, symbolizing the two sides of the battle. Each soldier has a long rectangle. The color
of the rectangles shows the level of morale and
how it changes during the battle. The length of
the rectangles shows the size of the army unit
in proportion to the enemy army unit, and how

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the size changes when the unit sustains casualties. The battle is divided into phases that will
continue until one of the sides loses the battle.
Note that you cant control the action during
the phases. That is the task of the commander.
The side that either loses its morale and
thereby flees (or withdraws, see Retreat) or loses all its soldiers has been defeated. Note that either one of the armies may chose to withdraw at
any time. If you do that your army will carry a
white flag. If you win the battle the enemy will
withdraw and you may either move your army
to another province or you may chose to begin
a siege or assault against any fortifications in the
province where the army unit is standing.
What determines the outcome of the battle?
Firstly, the odds, i.e. the relative strength between the army units, are extremely important.
Secondly, the difference in level of military
technology is very important. Thirdly, the
commander is important since his skills of
movement, fire, and shock effect will influence
the phases of the battle. Furthermore, the outcome of the battle is affected by the side that
has cavalry superiority. This will give the commander scouting information that he may use
while commanding the battle and an effective
force to send against retiring enemies. Note
that cavalry superiority loses its importance in
provinces with forests, swamps, and mountains. Finally, the invader will receive a negative
bonus when attacking in a mountain province,
across a river, or when disembarking in a
province containing a hostile army unit.
The defeated party in a battle must withdraw
from the province, preferably to a province
controlled by its own country or an ally, and
not containing any hostile army units.

Retreat
Retreat will occur if either of two conditions
are present: when your army or fleet is defeated
in a pitched battle or naval battle, or when you
order your army or fleet during a pitched battle
or naval battle to move away from the province
where the battle is taking place, i.e. voluntary
retreat.

Note that if an army is defeated in a pitched

battle or if a fleet is defeated in a naval battle it
must withdraw. If, for some reason, there is no
province or sea zone to withdraw to, the unit
will be destroyed.
When a fleet or army withdraws the units
flag will be exchanged for a white flag, thus
marking that your are no longer in control of
the unit, that it will not affect the province it
withdraws to, and that it is increasingly vulnerable if attacked by the enemy.
When a withdrawing army or fleet arrives in a
province or sea zone free of hostile units, the
units flag reverts to the flag of its country, the
player regains control over the unit, and
morale will slowly recover.
Note that it is tactically sound to pursue a
withdrawing enemy and immediately resume
the pitched battle or naval battle, thus using
the advantage of your units superior morale.

Fortifications, Sieges, and Assaults

The importance of fortifications cannot be
overestimated. A hostile army unit automatically controls a province without a fortress as
soon as it has moved into the province. A
province with a fortress, however, must either
be put under siege or assaulted. Sieges may
take a long time; anywhere from three months
up to a year is common. The assault may be
quick, but usually with great loss of life. In addition, the great loss in combat morale experienced after an assault makes you vulnerable to a
quick counterattack that could completely
wipe out a hitherto successful military operation (see Combat Morale). You should erect
fortifications in your provinces. The basic cost
is 100 ducats, but the price may be higher depending on the countrys level of inflation. You
may also upgrade existing fortresses to more
modern and larger models, but in order to do
that you must achieve a certain level of military
technology.
A siege commences after a victorious pitched
battle in a fortified enemy province, or once an
army unit is moved into a hostile province with
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sent. In both cases the army unit must be of

minimum size in order to initiate the siege.
Normally the size should be equal to that of the
unit stationed at the garrison.
Why would you want to besiege a fortress?
This is your only opportunity to control the
city and thereby the province. A controlled
province gives you more stars when you or
your enemy offers peace. When preparing for a
siege, you have a couple of options. Firstly, you
may assign a watch detail. This makes it possible for you to maintain a supply line through
the province, keep an eye on the fortress, and
control the province. Secondly, you may assign
the actual siege force. This force will subsequently attempt to take the city by building
trenches that are successively extended and advanced, attempt to undermine the fortress
walls using sappers, fire upon, and starve the
garrison into surrendering.
Each month the garrisons defenses are tested. If they fail, the fortress falls into your
hands. Factors that affect this include how long
the siege has been in place, the besieged commanders siege experience, the provinces terrain (where the fortress is located), the relative
difference in artillery, the size of the fortress,
and earlier results.
A fortress usually falls sooner or later, but
note that your enemy may send an army unit
into the province, forcing you to fight and win
a pitched battle in order to continue the siege.
Another problem is attrition: If the size of your
army unit becomes smaller than that of the
forces defending the garrison, then the siege is
lifted and you may only guard the fortress. You
may of course move additional units into the
province and resume the siege. Also note that
at any time you may break off the siege in order
to leave the province, or assault the fortress.
It has been noted earlier that an assault may
turn out to be very bloody. An example of a
failed assault is Charles X Gustavus attempted
assault of Copenhagen in 1659. Assaults may
also be successful. Assaulting after a few
months siege is usually a good strategy. To
launch an assault, click on the assault button in
56

the information window. The assault itself is

similar to a pitched battle, with a few notable
exceptions.
The person launching the assault will win if
the enemys garrison is completely wiped out
or forced to retreat (which means it is disbanded). The terrain is of no consequence. Nor is
cavalry used during an assault. If the assault is
successful, the fortresss level is lowered one
step (e.g. from medium to small), although
never so low that the province is left without a
fortress. Finally there is a risk that the town is
pillaged, which significantly reduces the population. Pillaging is an abstract phase of the battle that cant be seen, and the player cannot
control it since it is the result of soldiers who
run amuck.

Supply Lines
Army units and fleets sometimes suffer attrition, i.e. suffer a loss of lives without having experienced battle. Army units must maintain
functioning supply lines in order to reduce the
risk of attrition. Historically, a supply line was
more or less a caravan of wagons with supplies
and necessities that shuttled back and forth between the field units and the supply depots located in more civilized areas. Each army unit
has its supply level checked once a month. If
the level is high there is a low rate of attrition,
but if the level is low the unit will lose more soldiers.
So what is a supply line? An army unit must
be able to draw an imaginary line through
provinces on the map to a province that serves
as a supply base. There is no limit to how long
this line may be. This line may only be drawn
through provinces that are controlled by you
or your allies and not through those containing
enemy units or provinces that are not held either by your forces or those of your allies. The
point is that the line cannot be drawn through
a province containing enemy army units. Also,
the line may not be drawn through neutral
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Which provinces may then serve as supply

bases? First of all, all provinces with a town or
colony, without a port, that belong to and are
controlled by the country. Secondly, coastal
provinces controlled by the country (i.e. they
do not have to belong to the country) and that
are not under a sea blockade. Note that you
and your allies may use each others supply
bases during war. In addition, note that
provinces with trading posts cannot be used as
supply bases.
The effect of not being able to draw a supply
line is that the attrition rate increases by 30% a
month.

Attrition
Army units were traditionally worn out more
quickly than they are today. There wasnt the
same level of medical care, the diet was different, and there was a different awareness of hygiene. You marched regardless of the weather,
you were seldom dry, and you slept under the
stars. Diseases and epidemics flourished and
poor nutrition increased susceptibility. To top

it all off, there were soldiers who didnt want to

fight. They were simply fed up and escaped as
soon as they saw their chance. These are a few
factors affecting attrition and are sometimes referred to as one element in the strategic concept of "friction."
In the game it is of course the case that the
more trials an army unit or fleet is exposed to,
the greater the attrition. Time also plays a part.
Each month the supply level of each army unit
and fleet is checked. The result is shown as the
number of losses due to attrition.
Which are the factors affecting attrition in an
army unit? Most important is the size of the
unit. Secondly, the allegiance, control, and status (pillaged or not) of the province in which
the unit is located. Thirdly, the provinces relative richness, i.e. the size of its production, is
considered. You may see this information for
each selected province in the information window if you click on the church. Also, some
types of terrain and the weather in the province
may have an influence (e.g. desert or swamps,
and winter). Moreover, the attrition rate is af57

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fected by the use of the army unit: movements,

retreats, battles, sieges, assaults, and whether
the unit is able to maintain a supply line. Finally, the attrition rate is lowered in proportion to
the commanders movement skill. Note here
that one of the great advantages of the Conquistadors above all other commanders is their
ability to reduce the attrition rate to a minimum level.
A skull in the information window indicates
the attrition level for a selected army unit. The
extent of attrition is shown using colors.
Red
Lacks a supply line
Yellow Attrition is occurring
White Army unit located in tropical climate
(very high attrition)
Grey
No attrition
Which factors play a part in the attrition of a
fleet? Firstly, the level of naval military technology achieved affects attrition. The higher the
level, the lower the attrition. Secondly, it is a
matter of where the fleet is located. Attrition is
always zero in port, but increases incrementally
in the following: sea zones that border on a
coastal province, sea zones that border on another province, and finally sea zones that do
not border on a coast. The attrition rises to
catastrophic levels if the fleet is located in a sea
zone where there is a storm or one that is icelocked. Further, attrition is reduced in proportion to the commanders movement skill. Also,
attrition increases for each month that the fleet
is at sea without visiting a port. Finally, attrition
increases on galleys operating outside the
Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, or the Black Sea.
A skull in the information window indicates
the attrition level for a selected fleet. The extent of attrition is shown using colors.
Red
Storm (as well as galleys in any "incorrect" sea zones)
Yellow At sea
White Following the coast
Grey
In port

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Combat Morale
Combat morale is an important factor in battle.
If the army units or fleets combat morale falls
to the lowest level during combat, then it will
lose the battle. Each army unit and fleet has a
combat morale value, shown as a narrow rectangle at the base of the unit. This indicates the
units morale in the scale red-yellow-green. A
newly recruited or assembled unit always starts
its career with the lowest possible morale. It increases each month until it reaches the maximum level possible considering your level of
technology.
The combat morale depends on the naval
and land military level of technology, respectively, that your country has achieved. The
higher the technology level is, the higher the
combat morale. There are some special cases.
Firstly, countries with a reformed or Shia
Moslem state religion experience a bonus in
combat morale. Secondly, the combat morale
in your country decreases for five years if it has
suffered an economic collapse. Thirdly, the
morale is lower if you pay less than 100 % of the
cost of maintenance. Fourthly, fleets consisting
only of transport ships have a very low combat
morale. Finally, galleys always suffer a low combat morale and are not affected by improvements in naval military technology.
Note that a unit whose combat morale has
decreased will recover to maximum morale
each month. It may therefore be tactically
sound to wait a month before using a unit with
low morale to attack and thereby allow it to
"take the bull by the horns" when it is fully recovered.

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Economy and
Infrastructure
Your Economy Is Your Heart
Economy is, of course, the art of managing
your resources. Your country enjoys many
sources of income, but also has a number of expenses as a result of the activities (war, trade,
etc.) that your country carries out. If your
country is poor, i.e. all enemies or potential enemies are richer than your country, then an important conclusion to draw is that you must increase the income and/or reduce the expenses.
Also note that poorly financed activities (such
as financing war by taking loans) seldom pays
in the long run.
There are different types of income, and they
vary both in form and size. First of all, we distinguish between annual, monthly, and other
incomes.

Annual income
The annual income is received at the start of
each new year and comprises a Census Tax,
Tolls, and Trade Tariffs. When you receive the
annual income, the funds are placed in your
treasury at your disposal.
The Census Tax is a fixed tax that was assessed per inhabitant and in the game it is based
on the sum value of your provinces taxes. In
reality, tolls were the fees that the state charged
on goods as they were transported from one
place to another within the country, and it was
through these that the government attempted
to control trade by channeling goods to only a
few cities. The size of the tolls depends on your
countrys level of trade technology, as well as
the size and number of cities, colonies, and
trading posts that belong to your country.
Trade tariffs are a fixed fee that merchants must
pay in order to run their business in the trade
centers that belong to your country (i.e. those
located in one of your provinces). The trade
tariff is 5 ducats per merchant.

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Monthly income
The monthly income is received once the
monthly cost (more about this later) has been
deducted. The monthly income comprises Tax
Income, Production Income, Interest on Extended Loans, and Income from factories. The
monthly income is to be distributed. You may
invest in stability, research in areas of technology (land military, naval military, trade, infrastructure), and make "withdrawals" to cash.
The exact composition the of tax income
varies from country to country and period to
period, but historically it may be said in general that land taxes and informal fees (e.g. salt
fees, etc.) made up the largest part. Tax income
is based on the sum value of your provinces
taxes. Production income traditionally came
from the sale of products from the royal
grounds, as well as the sale of official offices
and a throng of various minor fees aimed at the
subjects production and consumption. The
production income is based on the sum value
of your provinces production. Trade income
derived primarily from an indirect tax on international trade, but during the Mercantile era
also became a political method of attempting
to subsidize the development of the countrys
means of production. The trade incomes size
is a result of the total number of merchants
your country has stationed in foreign centers of
trade. Interest on extended loans is exactly
what it says: the interest you earn on the loans
you have made to other countries (see Loans).
Income from factories is the income that the
state receives, partly due to the special prices
that the governments own institutions enjoy
when buying the factory products, partly because the state often owned part of the factories and thereby received part of the profits.
These incomes are dependent on how many
factories your country has and of what type
(see Upgrading the Infrastructure).

These can be gifts from other countries, new

loans, tributes paid as a result of a peace agreement, the levying of a war tax (see War Taxes)
as well as random events.
Such things as the stability of the country,
the national level of inflation, and the level of
technology at which your countrys infrastructure operates affect both the annual and
monthly incomes.
In terms of expenses there are only monthly
expenses and other expenses. In other words,
there are no annual expenses. Monthly expenses include the cost of maintaining a military
and the interest on loans you have taken. As
mentioned earlier, the monthly expenses are
deducted from the monthly income before it is
received. If the monthly balance is negative,
the difference is withdrawn from the treasury.
If there isnt enough money to cover the difference or the treasury is empty, then your country is automatically forced to borrow money. If
your country already has borrowed the maximum five times allowed in the game (see
Loans), then it is automatically declared
bankrupt.
For example, balance is achieved if: monthly
income (monthly expenses + investments) =
0.
If there is no balance, then: liquid assets in
treasury negative result.
The other expenses lack regularity and appear on special occasions at which the cost is
immediately deducted from the liquid assets in
your treasury. These include gifts to other
countries, repayment of loans, payment of tributes as a result of a peace agreement, as well as
random events. Included in other expenses are
the variable costs incurred when recruiting
army units, building fleets, appointing officials,
building or upgrading fortresses, and sending
out colonists, traders, and merchants.

Provinces and Population Growth

Other Income
The other sources of income lack regularity
and appear on special occasions when the income appears as liquid assets in your treasury.
60

If it is true that your countrys economy is its

heart, then the provinces are your countrys
veins. It is in the provinces that everything happens. The economic system is alive with the ex-

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change of goods. This occurs in the market

places next to where people live, people who
produce and consume.
In other words, the population of a province
is directly related to the amount of goods produced, the number of people working, the extent of the trade, and finally the governments
ability to receive income from taxes and fees.
This means that every province has a tax value, a production value, and a trade value.
These are in direct proportion to the size of the
provinces population. If the population increases, then these three values increase as well,
which in the end means that both the monthly
and annual incomes increase.
How then do you increase the size of the
population? Note first of all that when we refer
to the population we are talking about the
towns, the colonys, or the trading posts population, i.e. the provincial center. Each
province normally experiences a positive population growth that contributes to an increase in
the size of the provincial population each
month. You can see the exact amount by click-

ing on the church in the information window.

The amount of growth can be higher than normal if there is a center of trade in the province
or in a neighboring province, if there is a factory in the province, or if the province contains
the countrys capital.
The province may also experience a negative
population growth (i.e. the size of the population decreases over time). This is likely to occur
in provinces where you have founded a colony
and in cities located in very inhospitable areas
(e.g. in the tropical parts of Africa). The
province may also suffer a temporary negative or
less positive population growth if the province is
plundered, besieged, or if the province is controlled by rebels.
There are also times when the size of the
population changes suddenly and at once, either up or down. When you send a colonist, the
population will increase by 100 inhabitants, although you cannot send colonists to provinces
with a population of 5000 or more. When an
army unit successfully conquers a province
through siege or assault, the population might
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decrease in size due to a massacre (the soldiers

of the time were sometimes very difficult to
control). Finally, random events may change
the size of the population.
So, the larger the population the higher the
production value, tax value, and trade value.
Trading posts usually have a very low production value and barely any tax value, but have a
very high trade value. The colony will be seen
as a less developed city. A city has more balanced values, but the production value and tax
value may increase significantly as the population increases, while the trade value remains
steady. Note that the trade value is not as dependent on the population size as are the other
values. What is much more important is supply
and demand and the market price, but more
about this later. To get an idea of at what population levels these three values are strongly affected, see "levels of development" below.
When a citys population has grown so much
that the city achieves a new level of development, the three values increase significantly.
62

Level of development Inhabitants

Colony Level 1*
Colony Level 2*
Colony Level 3*
Colony Level 4*
Colony Level 5*
Colony Level 6*
Colonial City Level 1*
Colonial City Level 2*
Colonial City Level 3*
City Level 1
City Level 2
City Level 3
City Level 4
City Level 5
City Level 6

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1400
2800
5000
10000
20000
40000
80000
200000

Sending colonists may increase the population.

Also note that if the population size reaches
1000 inhabitants it can never decrease to less
than this amount. Remember that stability always has an impact on population growth.

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Production and goods

Production is, of course, the foundation of any
economy. The inhabitants of a province produce goods and these goods are varied, but
usually one or a few stand out as characteristic
for a province. Using modern terminology one
would speak of "comparative advantages," i.e.
if a province is best at producing a certain product then that product should be the one they
produce. It isnt difficult to see that it is better
they produce wine and feta cheese in southern
Europe, and timber and furs in northern Europe rather than the other way around. Therefore, in this game each province has a specific
product that they produce. This should be seen
as the most important product in the province
(after all, historically every province produced
grain and fish).
For obvious reasons, products have different
prices on the market. The market price depends on supply and demand, but also on what
we call the products base value. What is base
value? Today there are relatively few new products that have never been seen before, but the
pricing mechanism is affected by advertising
and trends. During the period of the game
there were similar factors that affected pricing.
New, exotic goods created the same kind of
"higher value" as our trends today. Status was
not only as important then as it is now, but it
was more visible. Open and boastful consumption brought status and showed everyone what
a great person you were. Base value is, in other
words, the difference in value that is caused by
reasons not normally taken into account by the
pricing mechanism. The chart below shows the
products found in this game and their respective base values.

Product
Cloth
Gold*
Cotton
Fish
Fur
Grain
Ivory

Products base value

Normal (10)
Special (-)
Normal (10)
Normal (10)
Normal (10)
Low (5)
High (15)

Iron
Normal (10)
Copper
Normal (10)
Chinaware
Very High (20)
Naval Supplies
High (15)
Salt
Normal (10)
Slaves
Normal (10)
Spices
Very High (20)
Sugar
High (15)
Tobacco
High (15)
Wine
Low (5)
Wool
Low (5)
*Gold is not traded and is not given a base value. However, the production value is automatically converted to liquid assets. Below you will
find a more detailed description of each product and what affects the demand side of the
pricing mechanism.
Cloth represent various fabrics and raw materials for clothes that were used during this
time period, primarily fleece and wool, but also
linen, rough homespun, etc. Once the plantations started up in America during the 18th
century and trade with India increased, cotton
also became a raw material in the production of
cloth. Demand for cloth increases when more
trade good factories and recruitment centers
are built.
Gold and silver were the basis for the entire
monetary system in Europe, and they were
much-coveted raw materials. The discovery
and exploitation of gold deposits in Central
and South America made some European
countries very wealthy, but also increased inflation and significantly lowered the value of their
currencies. The value of gold is not affected by
supply and demand. The more gold that is extracted globally, however, the more inflation
increases for all countries in the game. The
countries mining gold will experience even
greater inflation.
Cotton originally came from Central Asia
but was not commonly used in Europe until it
was successfully planted in the American
colonies. It was used as an inexpensive and adequate complement and substitute for wool in
the emerging textile industry of the 18th century. The demand for cotton increases when
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more trade good factories are built, as well as

when provinces that produce textiles are colonized.
Fish was not only the basic source of nourishment for historical Europe (meat was considered the luxury food of the upper class), but
also the entire fishing industry contributed to
considerable shipbuilding. Fishermen were the
primary manpower for most naval military
fleets. The demand for fish increases when
more factories, recruitment centers, and naval
shipyards are built.
Furs were the basis of high quality, warm
clothing and came from a number of different
animals such as sable, fox, mink, bear, and wolf.
The highly desirable furs originally came mainly from Scandinavia and Russia, but as America
was colonized this also became an important
source up until the middle of the 18th century.
The demand for furs increases when more factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards
are built, as well when an increasing number of
cities appoint chief judges and governors.
Grain represents the different vegetables
that constituted the foundation of the daily diet (i.e. bread) for both humans and domesticated animals. The lack of grain nearly always
led to uprisings and rebellion. The European
cereals especially rye, oats, and barley were
later joined by tomatoes, corn, and even potatoes, which provided a significantly more varied diet. The demand for grain increases when
more factories, recruitment centers, and naval
shipyards are built.
Ivory was one of the most important trade
goods from Africa alongside the slave trade.
Ivory was highly sought after by the craftsmen
of Europe, who used it to make eating utensils,
jewelry cases, reliquaries, instruments, ornaments, furniture, etc. The demand for ivory increases when more factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards are built; and when
more cities appoint chief judges and governors.
Iron includes iron and similar metals except
copper, lead, and precious metals. Iron was the
most important raw material of the entire metal industry, and was used for weapons, tools,
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shipbuilding, reinforcement of buildings, etc.

The demand for iron increases when more
weapon factories and naval shipyards are built.
Copper also includes metals such as tin, zinc,
lead, and silver, as well as gems. Copper is one
of the ingredients in brass and therefore important to the early foundries, but it was also used
in its pure form or in other alloys to manufacture receptacles, weapons, armor, and canons.
The metal was also used to make coins and objects of art. The demand for copper increases
when more weapon factories and naval shipyards are built.
Chinaware includes various exotic trade
goods such as silk, porcelain, carpets, gems,
ebony, and other arts and crafts manufactured
in India, China, Persia and the Far East. Since
every object of this sort was completely unique
in Europe, the merchants and sea captains who
succeeded in bringing home a couple of objects often received astronomical sums. The
demand for chinaware increases when more
factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards are built; and when more cities appoint
chief judges and governors.
Naval supplies represent all of the different
raw materials necessary for shipbuilding, from
timber and canvas to tar, hemp, and ropes.
Originally most of these raw materials came
from Scandinavia, but later North America became an increasingly important source. The
demand for Naval supplies increases when
more shipbuilding plants and naval shipyards
are built.
Salt was as important a part of the domesticated animals diet as it was for the humans. It
was also the only way (apart from freezing in
the winter) of preserving food. They used either the mineral salt from the mines in Central
Europe, or the sea salt extracted by evaporation
at sunnier latitudes. The demand for salt increases when more factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards are built.
Slaves were an accepted commodity for trade
since antiquity, but demand increased drastically when they were needed as labor on the
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plantations. Slaves were an important commodity in the Moslem world long after the
time when slave trade was more or less abolished in Europe. The demand for slaves increases as more provinces that produce cotton,
sugar, and tobacco are colonized.
Spices were known in Europe since antiquity
and used both for food preservation, seasoning
of rather rotten food, and for alleged healing
properties. Pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon, etc., were shipped from East Africa, India, China, and the Spice Islands (today called
Indonesia) to the markets in Alexandria and
the Middle East. The European call for a faster
and less expensive supply was the main reason
for the first Portuguese explorations eastward.
The demand for spices increases when more
factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards are built; and when more cities appoint
chief judges and governors.
Sugar was used not only as a seasoning but
also as a preservative. At the time cane sugar
was the only known source of sugar, and it was
originally cultivated near the Mediterranean.

The plantations in America, primarily in the

Caribbean, quickly took the lead, however.
The demand for sugar increases when more
breweries are built.
Tobacco was unknown in Europe until the
first Conquistadors returned home from
America during the 16th century. It quickly
became fashionable in the upper classes to
smoke the expensive tobacco, which lead to a
quick economic boost for the British colonies
on the North American East coast and in Portuguese Brazil. The demand for tobacco increases when more factories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards are built; and when
more cities appoint chief judges and governors.
Wine had been produced in southern Europe for as long as anyone could remember and
was a regular feature in the daily diet, with the
exception of the Moslem world. Wine was not
considered exclusive, but was probably a rather
welcome relief from the pains of everyday life a
couple of hundred years before penicillin, antibiotics, and sterile environments. In northern
and eastern Europe mead, beer, vodka, and
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low-alcohol beer were similarly used as mealtime beverages. The demand for wine increases
when more factories, recruitment centers, and
naval shipyards are built.
Wool came primarily from the flocks of sheep
that were kept in Europe and Asias more distant corners, and together with linen constituted the main raw material for clothing before
the arrival of cotton. The demand for wool increases when factories, recruitment centers,
and naval shipyards are built.

External Factors
Your countrys economy is, of course, affected
by what happens in the world at large and what
your country does. The factors we discussed
earlier in the chapter production, taxes, trade,
etc. take place in your provinces; i.e., within
your own country. We have also described
what "normally" happens, when the world is
quiet and peaceful. Things may be quite different, however, in times of war or general unrest.
Two factors that affect your economy on different levels and thereby have "multiple effects"
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are your countrys level of stability and its level

of infrastructure technology. If your country
suffers reduced stability, all of your income will
be reduced together with your ability to invest
in research. War is another scourge since, even if
your countrys stability is intact (i.e. another
country declares war on yours), you will face reduced resources. Pillaged provinces, centers of
revolt, sieges, assaults, and many other factors
may reduce the population of your provinces
and, with time, your income.
Remember that you must think relatively.
When you look back on the past decade and
discover that your annual income has risen
10%, it is not necessarily time to celebrate. If
the annual income of your potential enemies
has increased by 50% during the same period,
you have lost economic strength in relation to
them.

Loans
Loans during this period were as common as
they are today, but repayment was not as common.

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First of all, you may receive a loan from the

countrys national bank. This means that you
are borrowing money internally from your
own subjects. If you do not repay the loan you
will suffer the consequences, since your subjects are not likely to trust you in the future. A
national bank loan equals 200 ducats, no more
and no less. The size of the loan, however, may
change as a result of development of your
countrys financial institutions (random
events). Your country may have no more than
five loans simultaneously. Each loan has a term
of five years (effective as of the loan date). After
five years, the loan is either repaid or extended
for five more years. If a loan is extended, then
the interest rate on all loans increases. Each
month the interest due on all loans is deducted
from the monthly income, since the interest is
part of monthly costs, as was mentioned earlier.
The level of stability in the country, the number of loans you have taken, if the country has
been declared bankrupt, and whether you have
renewed any loans, affects the interest rate.
Countries may also lend each other money.
You decide the terms when you extend the offer
to lend money (in the diplomacy window). Here
you decide the sum you want to offer, and you
may offer no more than half the sum in your
treasury at any one time. You may also decide
the interest rate, which can be between 1 and
10%. Finally you decide the loan period, which
may be between 1 and 300 months. Note that
your counterpart may decline the loan offer.
This is a result of the terms you offered and your
foreign affairs relationship. If you are offered a
loan you cannot negotiate the terms. You may
only accept or decline. If two countries that have
a loan relationship (one has borrowed from the
other) go to war, then the loan ceases to exist,
i.e. the lender will never be repaid and the borrower never has to repay the money.
Repayment of a loan is always a problem and
may sometimes come as an unpleasant surprise.
The best way to avoid the surprise is to use the
archive effectively (see Archive). Loans from
the national bank are for a five-year period,
which means they are to be repaid five years af-

ter they are issued. You cannot choose to repay

the loan earlier because loans of liquid assets
had to be repaid in liquid assets, and since the
majority of the countrys income and expenses
was managed within a barter economy, careful
planning was required. Nor can loans be amortized, i.e. paid back a little bit at a time. This is
because those who extended the loans obviously want to maximize the interest income
they receive. When a loan is due for repayment,
you may choose either to repay it in full, or to
renew the loan. Note that if you renew a loan,
you are only postponing the problem because
sooner or later you will either have to repay or
declare national bankruptcy. The latter is very
unpleasant and should be avoided at all costs.
Repayment of loans from other countries
works a little differently. Firstly, they are not
counted toward the five-loan limit. Secondly,
you may simply decide not to pay back the
money, i.e. declare that you do not owe the
other country any money. This will result,
however, in your stability level dropping one
level and giving the other country a Casus Belli against your country.
You must declare national bankruptcy if your
country has five unpaid loans and you either
cannot repay one of them on the due date, or if
you have five unpaid loans and your monthly
income/expense balance is negative and your
treasury lacks the funds to cover the difference.
Note that if this should occur and you have less
than five loans, then a loan will automatically
be taken to cover the negative balance.
When your country declares national
bankruptcy the stability level drops one level,
since your subjects lose faith in the ability of the
monarch and the government to manage the
countrys finances. All loans from the national
bank are written off (i.e. disappear) when you
declare bankruptcy, but all future loans from
the national bank will have a much higher interest rate. Inflation is cut in half since the
country no longer has interest payments to
make. Finally, your army units and fleets combat morale drops. This effect will last for three
years from the time your country goes
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bankrupt. The reason for the drop is the general unrest that spread through the troops when
they heard that the national treasury, from
which their salary is paid, was empty.
Observe that loans are not necessarily trouble, only poorly managed loans are. Loans are
in fact often a necessity. A few examples are
when your country wants to build factories or
needs to recruit army units quickly for a war
that is about to break out. In other words,
there will be times in the game when you cannot afford not to take a loan, and then it will be
more profitable to take the loan instead of
slowly saving money in the bank.

Inflation
In the past inflation was an even greater problem than it is today, at least in Europe. The reason for this was that they had a lesser understanding of the causes of inflation than today,
and that they lacked the political control necessary to suppress it.
As you know, inflation is a function of general price increases keeping a higher pace than individuals increases in income, as well as the
amount of legal tender (i.e. money) circulating
in the economy. This was very problematic
during the pre-capitalist era, and for good reason. One problem was the differentiated monetary system during this period. It meant that
part of the system was a barter economy without money as a means of payment. When money was used there were several different types of
coins used simultaneously. The value of the
coins was based on the value of the metal of
which the coins were made. Generally it can be
said that the majority of people used copper
coins, the merchants and city dwellers added
the use of silver coins, and the government
added gold coins to the mix. If, say, the value of
copper dropped then the relative value of silver
and gold coins increased, amplifying the effects
of inflation for the broad masses of society. Another problem was the subjects confidence in
the quality of the coinage. There were many
possibilities for forgery, a fact abused by less
scrupulous governments.
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What will increase inflation in your country?

First, it is the supply of gold in your provinces.
The problem was that gold could be used for
little else than coins. If a country could extract
a lot of gold from its gold-producing
provinces, then the countrys government
could use this gold as a means of payment. In
simple terms you could say that the amount of
currency in a country must be in balance with
the countrys total production, and when the
means of payment increased disproportionately inflation followed. The rule of thumb is,
then, that gold causes inflation, but at the same
time gold production provides a direct profit of
liquid assets that the other provinces do not
yield. Secondly, inflation is affected if your
country borders on a country that produces
gold. Thirdly, the inflation rate will be impacted for every neighboring country that has
higher inflation than your country. Fourthly, it
is affected by each loan your country has taken,
since the loan results in liquid assets pouring
into your countrys monetary system. Fifthly
and perhaps most importantly, it is changed by
the amount of liquid assets you choose to withdraw from your monthly income. By withdrawing liquid assets in this way you are financing public consumption through the production of coins, which in modern terms is usually
referred to as "starting up the printing press"
(for bank notes).
So what will decrease the countrys inflation?
You may conquer and annex countries that
have a higher inflation than yours, but for obvious reasons this is hardly cost-effective. Choosing to cede gold-producing provinces through
peace treaties isnt an alternative either since
these provinces are some of the richest in the
world. There were, after all, more reasons than
just establishing trading posts for why Spain
chose to colonize America. You may, however,
attempt to avoid taking loans, or at least take as
few as possible and pay them back on when
due. To never withdraw part of your disposable
monthly income as liquid assets is a near impossibility, but not doing it unnecessarily is a
virtue. Declaring national bankruptcy will cut

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inflation in half, but as mentioned earlier carries with it a number of negative economic
consequences. It is almost impossible to avoid
inflation completely, but through a planned
and well-executed economy you may lessen its
effects. One thing you may do to control inflation is to appoint mayors as governors. They
are efficient inflation fighters and each appointment lower inflation by one percent.
What are the effects of inflation? Basically,
the price of anything that money can buy will
increase with inflation. This includes recruiting
army units, building fleets, building or upgrading fortresses, building factories, and appointing public officials. Note that all income connected to taxes, trade, and production is affected by inflation.

Upgrading the Infrastructure

Your countrys income is dependent on the
provinces and their ability to generate it. How
can you affect the provinces tax, production,
and trade value?
First of all you may appoint public officials in
the provinces. The bailiff can be appointed tax
collector (infrastructure technology level 1 is
necessary), which means that the provinces tax
value and production value increase, while at
the same time the risk of rebellion in the
province increases. The population does not
approve of the introduction of an efficient tax
authority. Provided that you have appointed
the bailiff as tax collector you may appoint the
legal counsel to chief justice (infrastructure
technology level 3 is needed), which further increases the provinces tax value and lessens the
risk of rebellion. The population is justified in
feeling more secure with an efficient justice system. You may also appoint the mayor to be
governor (infrastructure technology level 5 is
necessary), which increases the provinces production value and population, while at the
same time lowering the countrys inflation.
This is natural since the highest public official
has higher status and authority to control and
manage the province.

One should view the appointment of public

officials in the game as a development over
time from a decentralized semi-feudal political
system to an increasingly centralized political
system. The political reform introduced during
the period of the game had strong ties to the
organization of the countrys economy. In
countries with a semi feudal economy such as
Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire,
the political development toward a more centralized society could quickly come to a halt.
Secondly, you may build factories which of
themselves affect a lot of other factors (see Investing in Factories). Factories raise the production value and tax value of the province in
which they are built, since their relatively advanced work methods had "spin-off" effects.
Note also that factories increase the size of the
population in the province and increase global
demand for certain products.
Thirdly, you may build and upgrade fortresses. These do not affect the economy significantly, but protect the province from enemy
control that in turn would lead to a loss of income.

Managing Your Resources

Managing your resources is not a miracle drug,
but it may significantly simplify your countrys
challenging path toward victory. "Resources
are limited, but goals are unlimited" is an old
saying that rings true to this day.
When you use your resources, "balance" is a
keyword. This applies both to the monthly balance between income and expenses, as well as
the balance between the different enterprises in
which you may invest your resources. We divide these enterprises roughly into three areas:
Defense, Finance, and Expansion.
The challenge is to defend your country while
you are investing in research and upgrading
fortresses, appointing public officials, and colonizing the New World. If you can succeed in creating monopolies in trade centers and winning a
war or two, then your fortune is securedbut
its all a matter of keeping the balance.

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Trade and Colonization

When the Europeans first came to America it
was to find gold, honor, and new souls to
Christianize. But the driving force of the expansion changed very quickly. While they started out as discoverers and explorers, the Europeans changed to become traders and conquerors. Both in the role as trader, which the
Europeans were in Africa and initially in North
America; and in the role as conqueror, which
they were in South and Central America, the
motivational force behind the expansion
evolved as the native ("discovered") peoples
economy was penetrated, broken apart, and finally replaced with the Western economic system (during the larger part of the historical period a form a proto-capitalism).
What happened may be illustrated by the European contact with the native peoples of North
America. The native population primarily subsisted on hunting and fishing before the Europeans came, but after the first contact when the
Europeans offered weapons and luxury items in
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exchange for furs, it made more sense in the

short term for the native people to hunt and
gather furs and to a lesser extent grow corn for a
living. By so doing the native people slowly but
surely moved further inland and left the fishing
waters and game-filled hunting grounds behind.
When a tribe later experienced a poor harvest or
drought they were forced to turn to the European traders who exchanged goods for future
supplies of furs at prices that today would be
called profiteering. The areas that the native
people left behind, either due to the aforementioned reason or because of epidemics, was extremely suitable for European colonization that
indeed started during the early 17th century.
Once the Europeans had a strong foothold in
North America the native peoples never succeeded in retaliating. The Europeans had more
advanced weapons that in fact could have been
parried by the native peoples mobility and effective combat tactics, heretofore never seen by
the Europeans, but what finally proved decisive
was the difference in political systems. While the

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European systems main purpose was to centralize resources for use by a small government, the
native peoples decentralized system prevented
the North American tribes from mustering joint
resistance.
Due to increasing international trade, more
and more non-European economies were tied
to the European economy, which eventually
transformed into a global economy. The new
colonies grew, increasing the demand for products, sparking a dynamic, forward-pushing
economic effect.

Supply, Demand and Market Prices

As was mentioned earlier, each province has a
tax value, production value, and a trade value.
Production and taxes were an important part
of a provinces economy, but very few countries were autarchies, i.e. self-sufficient. Different countries inhabitants were variously proficient at producing different products, and
some countries lacked the necessary prerequisites to produce some products. Switzerland
does not produce a lot of fish, and Sweden does
not produce a lot of ivory. Trade started as a
means to acquire all the goods that a country
needed but didnt produce. You could say that
a provinces tax and production values benefit
the country to which the province belongs,
while a provinces trade value goes into a pool
from which every country can compete for the
profits using merchants.
Every province has a trade value based on the
size of the population and the base value of the
product. The trade value is placed in the trade
center to which the province belongs, which you
may see on the trade map by clicking on the trade
symbol in the information window. All trade
thereby takes place in the globally distributed
centers of trade. In these centers market prices
are "set" as a balance between the product value
and the trade value, which represent supply and
demand. The trade income your country receives depends on the number of merchants you
have sent to the trade centers around the world,
i.e. your income is directly proportional to how
much of the trade your country controls.

Centers of Trade, Merchants and

Trade Income
When a center of trade has "set" a market price
each country with merchants in place will receive income from the trade in proportion to
how much of the trade they control. Note that
different centers have different total trade values. A center of trade with a relatively low total
trade value provides less trade income than a
center with a high total trade value. Your countrys trade income depends primarily, however,
on two factors: trade levels and trade technological levels.
First, it depends on the trade level your
country has achieved in each center of trade. A
country may have anywhere from no trade level (i.e. does not control any trade there) to
trade level 6, which means they have a monopolistic status. More than one country may have
the same trade level. The only exception is
trade level 6, since only one country may have a
monopolistic status. The reason the term "monopolistic status" and not "monopoly" is used
is simply because a country with trade level 6
may accept that other countries trade at the
center but do not send more merchants. In
terms of trade income, the higher your countrys trade level is, the greater the trade income
will be.
Second, your countrys trade technology
level plays an important part. The concept
"trade technology" perhaps sounds a bit
strange, but it is a generic term for a number of
innovations in the areas or transportation,
measurement, credit systems, accounting systems, administrative and financial advances
such as corporations and insurance, and corporate law. The higher your countrys level of
trade technology, the greater your trade income from all centers of trade; and each merchant is given greater competitive power in the
battle over market shares.
How do you increase your trade level at a
center of trade? The only way is to send your
merchants. Stationing merchants costs money,
as does their maintenance. It is more expensive
to station and maintain merchants abroad than
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it is to do so in your own country, and it is more

expensive the further from your own borders
the center is located. When one or more merchants have been sent to a center of trade they
will fight with existing merchants for market
shares. It takes at least a month to settle this
and success depends on the distance from your
capital to the center of trade. Once it is done,
you may see if your country has achieved a
higher trade level or not as well as if you have
driven the merchants of any other country out
of the market. Doing this means that their
country drops one trade level. Note also that
the reverse may happen to you; i.e., that you
lose trade levels in a center of trade as a result of
other countries sending merchants who drive
you out of the market.
Your countrys merchants guild will grow
each year. The reason for this is your country
starts with one merchant, in addition to which
you earn one merchant for every center of
trade within your countrys borders, one merchant for every center of trade where your
country has a monopolistic status, one mer72

chant if your country has achieved trade technology level 5, one merchant for every core
province that is also a coastal province, one
merchant for every two coastal provinces if
your state religion is Reformist or protestant
(to a maximum of three merchants), and finally the level of stability is deducted or added depending on whether it is negative or positive.
Your country does not have to send out the
merchants immediately upon receiving them
but may instead save up to six merchants at a
time. You may also choose to automatically
send the merchants to the centers of trade. This
you do at one of the centers of trade. Observe,
however, that in this case, you cannot control
where the merchants are sent. The computer
will instead calculate which placement is the
most profitable for your country and send the
merchants as soon as there are ducats in the
treasury. Also note that you cannot send merchants to trade centers located in countries that
are carrying out a trade embargo against your
country (see Trade Embargo).
The competition at a center of trade depends

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on how many merchants have been sent there

and how often. If the level of competition is
high at the center it may be because the total
trade value is high, the cost of sending merchants there is low, and that nearby countries
have access to a small number of alternative
centers of trade. It is important to remember
that the trade income from a center of trade
where you have monopolistic status (trade level 6) is so much greater than the income at other levels that the fight for monopolistic status
may increase competition immeasurably. In
terms of income, the country with monopolistic status receives trade income from their trade
level (6) as well as all other trade income that
would have been generated if the center of
trade had been filled with merchants; i.e., had
all the trade levels been occupied.
The competitiveness of the merchants depends on the relative trade technology level of
their country, the administrative skill of their
monarch, which trade level they have already
achieved at the center of trade in question, and
the stability of their country. Additional factors

that may affect their competitive ability is

whether there is a trade embargo in place between competing merchants of different countries, and if the center of trade in which the
competition is taking place lies within either of
the competing merchants own borders or not.
Trade income is based on how many trade
levels your country has achieved in the centers
of trade. At each center of trade there are 20
trade levels that may be occupied by the merchants. When the trade income is distributed
your country receives as large a share of the total trade value of the trade centers as the number of trade levels you hold divided by the total
number of trade levels, and finally multiplied
by your countrys trade technology level divided by ten.
Example: Curland has trade technology level
3 and four trade levels in the center of trade
"Novgorod" (total trade value: 200). The formula reads: (Curlands trade levels / 20) x total
trade value x Curlands trade technology level
/ 10 = Trade income from center of trade.
Curland would in this case receive (4 / 20) x
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200 x 3/10 = 12 ducats from the trade in

"Novgorod."
As mentioned earlier, monopolistic status
(trade level 6) gives you extra trade income.
What makes this so is the number of trade levels that you may count as yours; i.e., you are
credited for all the "empty" trade levels. It
seems you have more trade levels than you really own. Heres an example.
Example: Spain has trade level 6, England
trade level 3, and Curland has trade level 2.
Since there are 20 trade levels at a center of
trade, Spain may count on 6 + (20-6-3-2) trade
levels = 6+9 = 15 trade levels, which gives them
15/20 of the center of trades total trade value.

The closing of Japan a historic event

In 1636, the warlord and leader of Japan, the
Shogun Tokugawa Iyemitsu, decides to close
the door of Japan on the world. The Japanese
are not allowed to travel abroad, and those residing abroad are not allowed to return home.
This is the beginning of a consistent blockade
policy under which Japan lives in total isolation
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for 250 years a petrified Middle Age kingdom, shut out from the worlds political, social, and economic progress, but also protected
from the aggressive colonial policy of the Europeans.
The event means that Japan carries out, automatically and without negative consequences, a trade embargo against every other
country in the world. In order to trade with
Japan you have to defeat them in a war.

Pirates
The period of 1492-1792 may be described as
the golden age of piracy. Pirates worked in
more or less all the known seas, mainly because
of the lack of any protective bases. The relatively unprotected trade caused piracy. The colonial powers naturally tried to protect their
trade, but they were not able to patrol the
oceans beyond Europe until the later part of
the period. Nevertheless piracy continued and
still exists today, although on a lesser scale.
Piracy involves enormous risk, but also very
high profits if you are lucky.

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Pirates are autonomous fleets cruising the

sea zones close to centers of trade. The goal of
the pirates is to exploit the weakly protected lucrative trade far away from the European naval
bases, thereby stealing as much as possible. Pirates, (naval units) may never be controlled by
a player but are always autonomous. Pirates are
automatically at war with every country in the
game, and may attack and be attacked by all
countries in the game at any time. Note that a
country does not have to declare war to attack
pirates. A country is never at war when pirates
attack their ships. The country does not lose
any stability, and may not issue any war taxes,
etc.
Pirates influence economy and trade in the
area they reside in by capturing ships and attacking coastal provinces. In all provinces adjacent to a sea zone with pirates, tax income and
trade values are lowered by 0.5 ducats for each
ship of the pirate fleet. In this way pirates affect
both your annual and monthly incomes.
The only way to get rid of pirates is to wipe
them out by sending a fleet and defeating the
pirates in a naval battle. Note that the pirates
may return, because even if the risk was great,
the chance of profit was even greater. We also
recommend placing a fleet in the vicinity of any
sea zone where pirates have attacked, in order
to quickly eliminate any further attempts. Finally, pirates strongly dislike fortifications as
they make it harder to attack your coastal
provinces. Building fortifications lessens the
risk of pirates appearing at your coasts, and
thereby leaving your income untouched.

Trading posts and Merchants

Trading posts do not provide any notable produce from the province, but instead give you a
better trading value, which affects the center of
trade it belongs to. It may never have more
than six levels. At the higher levels the trading
post provides a very high trading value. Each
level is equal to one merchant you have sent
there who has succeeded in setting up the next
level. Your colonists may be used as merchants,
colonists or missionaries.

You could say that by setting up a trading

post you lose the ability to start production, as
you let the local inhabitants produce, and instead manage the trade with the goods produced.
Trade centers have been mentioned earlier
and it will again be noted that there are big differences between centers situated in your own
country and centers located outside your borders. If your country has trade centers within
its own borders, the trading value of each trading post your country establishes will belong to
centers in your country. It is also easier to acquire and maintain a monopoly (trading level
6) in a center of trade in your own country, as
your merchants will have better competitive
powers.
What are the advantages and disadvantages
of trading posts? The advantage of having trading posts compared with colonies is that they
are cheap. It is a cheap and practical tool to
"claim" what is yours and thereby tell other
countries to stay away. You may at any time
send a colonist and turn the trading post into a
colony.
Additionally, some parts of the world are directly unsuitably for colonization, but trading
posts are always feasible. Greater parts of Africa
and Asia have climates, which prohibited almost all colonization prior to the 19th century.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, trading
posts produce high trade values, especially
when trading in unusual and exotic products.
If you manage to establish a number of such
posts and also manage to acquire a monopoly,
trading posts can be a lot more profitable than
colonies.
The drawbacks of trading posts are that they
do not increase the population of your country,
and thereby do not increase your production
and tax values. Trading posts also lack ports,
which limits the reach of your fleets. You may
not build fortifications, recruit armies, or build
any fleets at your trading posts. This makes
them quite vulnerable to attacks. Additionally,
the maintenance ability is low in provinces with
trading posts, which means that attrition is very
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high. Finally, while colonies may only be transferred to other countries through peace
treaties, enemy army units in the province may
burn trading posts.
If your army unit is in a province with an enemy trading post, a "Burn trading post" button will appear in the information window. If
you press the button the trading post will disappear and the province will be emptied.
Establishing trading posts is the quickest and
easiest way to raise the total trade value of a
center of trade.

Colonization of the New World

We have mentioned before that trading posts
are cheaper then colonies, and most often the
attempt to establish a trading post has a greater
chance of success than an attempt at colonization. Furthermore, it is easier to establish a
colony in a province where you already have a
trading post, compared with a neutral
province. Provinces with colonies may develop
into provinces with towns, which is very good
for your country. Provinces with towns provide
both tax and production income, along with
certain trading revenues. A nation with a limited economy can never win in the long run. Besides war, colonization is the means by which
you may expand your countrys financial
strength. It must be noted that not all countries were colonial powers of the same caliber as
Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the
Netherlands. Countries like Russia, Sweden,
Denmark, and Curland made attempts along
those lines but failed to create lasting empires
mainly due to their less strategic geographical
locations and relatively weak economies. To
colonize, your country must explore new
provinces, and have access to colonists that
may be sent out as settlers (including merchants).
You receive an annual number of colonists at
your capitol. The actual number available to
your country depends on the following conditions. Firstly: you never get any colonists if
your country lacks coastal provinces. Secondly:
you acquire one colonist if you build a naval
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shipyard. Thirdly; countries with the following

state religions acquire colonists in accordance
with their religion: Catholics and Sunni
Moslems get none; reformed Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Protestants get 1; Shia
Moslems get 2; and Reformists get 3. Further:
you may receive colonists through random
events. Finally you may receive 0-3 colonists
depending on colonial dynamics. This depends
on what nation you are playing and what year
you have reached in the game.
When you discover an independent province
to colonize, there are a couple if questions you
should ask. First, check to see if the province
contains local inhabitants, and in such cases, also check the size of their military forces (in
game terms: number of army units) and the aggression level of the units. You have two choices. Either you may send army units to destroy
all enemy forces or you make an attempt at colonizing, even though the local inhabitants are
still in the province. The advantage of your first
choice is that you get a higher chance of success, and that there are no more locals to rebel
and take over your colony. The advantage of
the second alternative is that when you have
sent seven colonists to the province, it develops
into a town. The local army units will then dissolve and are added to the population of the
city, which in turn may provide very high populations and thereby a high income. Base your
choice on the aggression level of the locals,
which varies from province to province but falls
within a scale of "Very low" to "Very high."
You should also consider whether the province
is suitable for colonization or not. Maybe it
would be better to set up a trading post. This is
something you will learn by playing the game,
but the goods produced by the province and
the aggression level of the natives also play a
part. A rule of thumb is that Africa is rarely suitable for colonies.
The chance of establishing a colony or a trading post along with its respective costs depends
on a number of things. The cost is lower if you
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province, and if it borders on a province with a

town, or a colony belonging to your nation.
The cost is also heavily dependent on the aggression level of the natives, the distance to
your capital, things present in the province at
your colonization attempt, whether it already
contains a trading post, colony or town, and
what level it may have. The climate of the
province also plays a part. The chance of success depends on whether you have a conquistador in the province or not, if there is a town,
colony or trading post already present, and the
number of earlier attempts. Note also that
France has a small extra bonus if there are natives in the province, which represents the historical successes of France in negotiating with
the natives of America, India and Africa.
When you have succeeded in establishing a
colony it is appropriate to check the rate of
population increase of your province by clicking the church icon in the information window. If the population growth is negative you
have either chosen a very poor location for the
colony or your country has a low stability. Note
that growth also is dependent on the size of the
colony, i.e. if you send more colonists and
thereby increasing the population, you will also
increase the growth rate, and the chance of
success at your next attempt at colonization
will increase. Its a good thing to have colonies,
but developing them into towns is even better.

The Treaty of Tordesillas

A Historical Event
The Treaty of Tordesillas formalized the decree
of the Pope that the world west of the Azores
should belong to Spain and that the eastern
half should belong to Portugal. The dividing
line was later moved to the west of the Cape
Verde islands, allowing Portugal to keep its
possessions in Brazil. The world was also divided in the Pacific to let Spain keep the Philippines. Portugal got everything west of the line
and Spain everything to the east. The borders
of the Treaty can be seen on the map, i.e. the
one you use when you want to send colonists.
The Treaty of Tordesillas ceases to be valid

when the Edict of Tolerance occurs (see Four

Important Events).

Explorers and Conquistadors

Explorer and Conquistadors are often absolutely necessary if your country is to become a
real colonial power. Explorers explore sea
zones that are Terra Incognita, and conquistadors explore provinces that are Terra Incognita.
Note that there are areas that are Permanent
Terra Incognita that may never be explored.
When a country reaches Naval Technology
Level 21 and Land Military Level 11 any "normal" commanders may discover provinces and
sea zones that were previously Terra Incognita,
but it takes much longer, when compared with
explorers and conquistadors.
Conquistadors and explorers also have some
unique abilities, which is why they are called
specialists and not commanders. Conquistadors and explorers provide lower attrition rates
for their respective fleets and army units. This is
due to their personal courage and excellent
ability to lead these units into the unknown.
Conquistadors also receive a bonus in pitched
battles against natives, due to the better
weaponry of the Europeans, and the ability to
turn cultural beliefs about gods and myths to
their own advantage. Finally, the conquistadors have a nasty ability to spread disease
among the natives in the provinces through
which they pass.
Note that the measles, smallpox, and the
common cold were some of the most important reasons why the Europeans managed to
establish control over North America. Note also that none of the special values have any effect in Europe and that the power value is a lot
lower there then beyond the borders of Europe.
Note also that explorers need to get ashore
from time to time; otherwise they will wear out
and disappear. A good tactic is to establish
colonies here and there, so that your explorers
do not have to travel far every time they go to
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quistadors it may be a good idea to develop at

least one colony into a town in every important
region or continent you try to explore, as you
may then periodically increase the army of the
conquistador, as even these units suffer attrition.
As the conquistador increases the chance of a
successful attempt at colonization, it may be a
good idea to return with a conquistador to a
colony when you want to speed up the development by sending more colonists. Remember
that it may be a good idea to "claim" a province
you cant afford to colonize by establishing a
trading post, as the trading post is both cheap
and easy to establish.

Colonial Growth and Economic

Consequences
We have mentioned that the populations of
your provinces grow over time. The population of a province grows or declines on a
monthly basis, with growth depending on the
population growth factor of the province. The
only difference between a province with a town
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and a colony is that the colony has a lower population growth due to its smaller size. Other
then that all growth factors are the same.
Whether it is best to concentrate on a few
colonies and develop them into towns as fast as
possible, or to go for more colonies that partly
run themselves and let them develop over time
with the population growth, is not an easy
question to answer. It all depends on the style
of the player, the position of your country on
the map and what the other countries are doing, where your colonies are located, et cetera.
The important thing to keep in mind is that a
good balance between trading posts and
colonies is very profitable for your nation, as
you receive higher income from both production and taxes, and from trade. Trading posts
compared with colonies provide higher revenues in a shorter period of time at a lower
price. The only problem is in defending them.
Another good point is that, no matter what
strategies you choose, you always have to find a
way to defend your possessions. Remember
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nize North America, (between 50 to 100

colonies) with Level 1 colonies, and if you have
not deployed any army units or fleets as protection, your transatlantic empire will be a quick
and easy target for any of your neighbors. Even
computerized countries enjoy free lunches.

Protecting Your Colonies

As has been mentioned earlier, colonies and
trade centers need protection. The attrition
rate of the army units are often very high in
provinces with trading posts and high in
provinces with colonies and for this reason it is
often a good idea to expand a colony into a
town, preferable in a province within marching
distance of your other colonies and trading
posts. You may only recruit army units and
build ships for your navies in provinces with
towns. Unless you want to transport a great
number of army units that are rapidly worn out
all over the oceans, it is important that you try
to create a small, civilized zone in an ocean of
colonies.
It is also appropriate to base naval forces at
strategic points along your new provincial
coasts, in order to fight pirates and to ward off
enemy troops. We should mention that a trade
station may never provide the province with a
port, which in some regions (i.e. Africa) means
that you may have to build colonies in less profitable locations if you want to be able to sail
from Europe to India or Asia, or if you want to
be able to defend any of your trading posts in
Africa.
Note that diplomacy is a natural tool for protecting your colonies and trading posts. If for
instance the Netherlands were creating a small
trade empire with unprotected colonies and
trading posts spread all over the world, it
would be wise not to make enemies with powerful neighbors like Portugal.

Technology and
Development.
To Develop Over Time
This game starts in the late Middle Ages when
armored knights, crossbows, and halberds
ruled the battlefield. Then comes the renaissance with the first firearms and the drill. It
ends with the late baroque period with welltrained and drilled mass armies in perfect
squares and scientifically formed sieges. Under
such conditions it is of utmost importance that
you develop over time.
Your nation has four areas of technology. Research is automatic in these areas and the level
of technology in each field increases over time.
This basic research is slow, but may be improved by investments. This means that you
may choose how much of your monthly income you want to spend on research in the various fields on a regular basis, but you may also
directly invest in one or more areas of research.
The direct investment cost 200 ducats and provides a technology advancement equal to 100
ducats spent over time. Note that you may only invest directly in a field of technology once a
year. All investments are made in your state account. When enough research has been made
within a field the level increases by one step. If
your nation has reached the maximum level in
a field of technology at the end of the game, all
investments in that area are transferred to the
treasury.
The four fields of technology are Land military technology, Naval military technology,
Trade level and Infrastructure.
Besides the investments mentioned above,
research is influenced by the military and administrative skill of the monarch with reference
to trade and infrastructure, which both influence the land and naval military technology.
Also, you receive a negative research bonus for
every trade embargo your country has received, as it prevents influence and impulses
from abroad. The levels of your neighbors in
those areas influence all areas of technology. It
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is also linked to the technology group of your

country, which will be explained later. Finally,
research is cheaper if your country is small
(containing fewer provinces) than if your
country is large (with more provinces), as applying and coordinating research and introducing the results need more time in larger
countries compared with the smaller ones.
Note that every consecutive level of technology becomes more expensive over time. This is
due to inflation and the increase of your income, as well as due to the fact that innovations
in time become more highly advanced and
need more resources. Technology does not really advance until the Industrial Revolution.

To Invest in Stability
Stability is not technology as such, but as we
mentioned earlier, it is a generic term for the
political and social state of your country. You
may divide your monthly income as "investments" in stability or you may make point contributions in the same way as in the other technological areas. This investment is actually the
cost of countering and pacifying various upset
social groups. It should be noted that when
your countrys stability reaches its maximum
(+3) the entire sum invested each month is
paid out in real ducats instead. It is therefore
wise to watch this development, in order to reset the distribution of your investments so you
wont get unnecessary inflation.

Areas of Technology and Research.

There are four areas of technology in the game;
Land military, Naval military, Trade and Infrastructure.
Land Military Technology concerns the innovation and change of weaponry and equipment; e.g. firearms, standardized uniforms and
new systems of maintenance and support, but
also tactical and strategic developments such as
formations and the introduction of the dragoon on the battlefield. Sometimes advances in
natural science may have immediate effects on
warfare. Your land military technology affects
all of your army units. The higher the level is,
80

the higher the firepower, the shock effect, and

the morale of your units will be. It should be
noted that in pitched battles, the most important factor is the relative strength of the opposing forces.
Naval Military Technology comprises innovations and changes in weaponry, equipment
and new types of ships, e.g. new naval artillery
types, roping and rigging in new materials, new
navigational techniques, or the introduction of
the frigate as a heavily armed vessel etc. Also included are tactical and strategic advancements
such as new flag signaling systems, new battle
arrays and new improved ways of maneuvering.
Sometimes advances in natural science may
have immediate effects on naval warfare. Your
naval technology affects all your fleets. The
higher the level is, the higher the firepower, the
shock effects and morale of your fleets, along
with a better ability to use the winds and the sea
will be. As with pitched battles, the important
factor is the relative strength of the opposing
forces.
Trade is not technology in itself, but a development and refinement of the rules and methods that make trade more effective and profitable. Examples are transportation, measurements, and systems for credit, bookkeeping,
administrative and financial innovations like
companies and insurance, and the right of
commerce. Trade technology affects the income of trade and the competitiveness of your
merchants.
Infrastructure is not technology either, but a
generic term covering the changes in society,
which increase governmental influence and efficiency of the economy. The systems of transportation are another example. Additionally
we should mention factors such as new improved systems for taxes and fees, a functional
national banking system, the bureaucracy of
the state management, partitioning of land and
crop rotation, and changes in the guilds. Infrastructure affects all your income except
trade revenues.

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Cultural Technology Groups

The game contains four technology groups:
the Exotic, Orthodox, Moslem, and Latin
groups. Each nation belongs to a technology
group, which may never be changed. You may
not change technology group by changing
your state religion, as there are more factors involved than just religion. The technology
groups represent the different political and social attitudes, along with cultural and religious
beliefs about and against new technology. The
difference between the technology groups is
the rate of research. The groups are listed below in technological order of effectiveness
(from the slowest to the fastest).
Exotic: All non-European nations having
neither Moslem nor Christian state religions,
along with the Nubians and the Mughal Empire.
Moslem: All nations with the Moslem state
religion except the Nubians and the Mughal
Empire.

Orthodox: All nations with the Orthodox

state religion, including Hungary, PolandLithuania, Moldavia and Wallachia.
Latin: All other nations.

Investing in Factories
Your nation may invest in factories, which are
specialized buildings of great importance to
your nation. Historically we may show that the
number of proto-companies and proto-industries determined the relative importance of the
various regions of Europe in economic, political, and social status. A factory turns your
province into one of the important regions. You
may only build one factory in each province.
Factories provide a monthly income, as has
been discussed above. Additionally they affect
research in their respective fields of technology,
lessen the risk of rebellion, increase the demand for certain goods, and increase the rate
of population growth in the province where
the factory is located. There are five buildings

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that are called factories: refineries, naval equipment factories, fine arts academies, weapons
factories, and goods factories.
The refinery was usually a semi-governmental distillery, which could produce alcoholic
beverages at a reasonable price and in much
higher quantities then at home. Lots of liquor
became important export goods to foreign
countries and colonies. Liquor also became a
part of the social intercourse among both high
and low. The calming effects of the intoxicating beverages lessened social anxiety and increased the fighting ability of soldiers and
sailors during harsh conditions. You may build
refineries when you have reached technology
level 2, providing an extra monthly income if
the refinery is placed in a province producing
sugar or wine. Every refinery provides a research bonus in Trade.
Naval equipment factories were a number of
smaller factories producing rope, rigging,
treated hemp and flax and sails. Naval equipment factories are necessary if you want to
achieve the status of naval nation, because all of
these goods are in demand if you are going to
build ships. The naval equipment factory may
only be built when you have reached naval
technology level 5, providing an extra monthly
income if it is built in a province producing
naval necessities or fish. Each factory you build
provides a research bonus in naval military
technology.
The fine arts academies were not actually
places of manufacture, but places where the atmosphere and environment were designed to
attract artists such as singers, philosophers, historians, academics and learned men. The fine
arts academy also contains a number of things,

82

which attract these people, such as universities,

theaters, opera houses, churches, and magnificent castles and palaces. They had immaculate
botanical gardens, and you could also find the
occasional triumphal arches.
A fine arts academy may be built when you
have reached infrastructure level 4, and it provides an extra monthly income if you build it in
your capital province. Each academy provides a
research bonus for stability.
The weapons factories consisted of a number
of different production facilities. These were
advanced furnaces, smithies, and foundries,
and they could also contain mines and facilities
for ore processing. To have a weapons factory
is a definite plus in the technological struggle
for advantages on the battlefield. Weapons factories may be built when you reach land military technology level 17 and they provide an
extra monthly income when building in
provinces producing iron or copper. Each factory provides a research bonus in land military
technology.
Goods factories are a generic term for all the
specialized smaller workshops producing goods
for export. Mostly these include refined cloth,
cotton, and tobacco, but other luxuries may also be included, such as ivory, furs, spices, and
oriental goods, or even the packaging and handling of fish, sugar and salt. The spread of the
goods factories comprised the origin of industrialization, a catalyst for huge trade volumes
and capitalism in general. Goods factories may
be built when you reach infrastructure level 6
and each provides a monthly income if built in
provinces producing cloth, cotton or tobacco.
Each factory also provides a bonus in research in the area of infrastructure.

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Monarchs
Stimulating Development
The development of your country is affected
by a number of factors. It is affected by everything you may do that is described in this text,
along with everything that your opponents are
doing and how they are reacting. We have
mentioned earlier that you are playing the man
behind the throne, "the gray eminence." This
means that the monarchs of your country are
succeeding each other over time. The qualities
of your monarch affect the development of
your country in a number of areas. Each
monarch has a military, an administrative, and a
diplomatic skill.
The military skill provides a continuous
bonus in research in both land and naval military technology. Note that a monarch does not
have to be skilled on the battlefield to obtain a
high level of military skill, but may be a reformer with strong interests in technological
and organizational development. Examples of
such monarchs are the Swedish king Charles XI
and the Ottoman sultan Sleyman the Great. If
the monarch is a great leader on the battlefield,
your country will then gain a supreme commander in the monarch. Note that the
monarch may die prematurely in battle on land
or at sea, just like ordinary commanders. If this
happens, governmental control is taken over
by regency. Andrea Doria, a leader of the Genovese Republic, Jan Sobieski, a Polish-Lithuanian king, and Gustavus II Adolphus, a king of
Sweden, are examples of such monarchs.
The administrative skill provides a continuous bonus in research for infrastructure and
trading technology, along with an investment
bonus for stability.
The Administrative skill affects your foreign
political relations every time your country is involved in diplomatic activities. The higher the
skill of your monarch, the greater the chance of
making successful suggestions will be.

Epochal Events
There are monarchs and there are monarchs.

In the game, some monarchs are joined in what

are called "epochal events." This simulates the
exceptional dynamics of your country during
the period. Below is a list and description of the
monarchs and statesmen who automatically
provide epochal events. These events are in fact
random events, which are no longer random,
but happen automatically during each reign.
Exactly what these events are will not be revealed here, as you will have to play to find out.

Sleyman I
Country: The Ottoman Empire
Skills:
Administration: 9
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 7
Period of reign: 1520-1566
Type: Monarch
Sleyman the Great, or "the Magnificent" as he
was also known, was the son of Selim I, and
gained power in a fast and bloody coup. His
brothers, who lost all their influence in the coup,
were executed, just like Ottoman custom dictated. His 46 years as a ruler is regarded as a very
glorious period in Ottoman history, and posterity often calls this the golden age of the Ottoman
Empire. He was a highly skilled administrator
and lawmaker, and he also reformed the economy, financing system, and the bureaucracy. He
also sped up the incorporation of European
technology in the Ottoman Empire. After having reorganized and modernized the Ottoman
armies, the great conqueror launched thirteen
great military campaigns. These added Serbia,
Rhodes, Hungary, Iraq, Moldavia, and Azerbaijan to the realm. Parts of Hapsburg Austria and
Persia were also conquered. At the same time
the Ottoman fleets were spreading terror
throughout the Mediterranean. The Christian
nations in the area were highly concerned about
ending up under the scepter of the sultan. He also negotiated with Franois I of France, who regarded Sleyman as a bulwark against Austrian
hegemony. Until his death in 1566, Sleyman
and thereby the Ottoman Empire was perhaps
the most important arbitrator of Europe.
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Henry VIII
Country: England
Skill:
Administration: 7
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 6
Period of reign: 1509-1547
Type: Monarch
As the son of Henry VII, the founder of the
Tudor dynasty after the War of the Roses, the
most important goal for Henry VIII was the
survival of the dynasty. To reach his goal he
married six times in order to provide the English throne with an heir. Henry VIII was a
monarch of his times and he was very proud of
his court and its splendor, but he nevertheless
took care of the political, economic, and religious problems facing England. He very skillfully used the animosity between Spain and
France, and allied himself sometimes with the
one, sometimes with the other. As an administrator, Henry managed very well in his work to
pull England out of the economic misery it had
fallen into after the War of the Roses. He
chiefly supported the production of wool, and
it would later become the foundation for Englands prosperity, as this wool was then exported to the Flemish cities, which turned it into
cloth, dyed it, and sold it. Because of this economic connection, England would later on
show a great interest in the Dutch struggle for
freedom.

Charles V
Country: Spain and Austria
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 6
Period of reign: 1516-1566
Type: Monarch
Charles was the leading man of the house of
Hapsburg, and as son of Philip the Good and
Joan the Mad he came to inherit a realm where
the sun never set. From his mother he inherited
Spain, southern Italy, and The New World to
the west, and from his father he inherited Aus84

tria, Bohemia, Hungary, and the Netherlands.

In Austria he was Charles V but in Spain he was
known as Charles I.
Charles was a very pious Catholic and spent
most of his time fighting the Protestant
heretics in Germany and the infidel Turks in
the whole of the Mediterranean region. He also launched an attack against the Barbary
States of Algeria and Tunis, and although the
attack failed, it did not affect his rising star. His
greatest victory was against France in Italy. The
French had invaded this region and Charles defeated Franois I at Pavia in 1525. The struggle
against the French fared worse at his northern
front in present day Belgium and Lorraine, and
this may have been the first signs showing that
his realm was far too big and too diverse. In
1566 he abdicated, bitter about his setbacks in
the religious conflicts in Germany. The empire
was split between his brother Maximilian of
Austria and his son Philip II of Spain. Charles
returned to his beloved Spain where he spent
the last of his days praying in the monastery of
San Yuste.

Franois I
Country: France
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 5
Period of reign: 1515-1547
Type: Monarch
When Louis XII, the former king,
died in 1515, his sons were long since dead. As
France had an order of succession preventing
women from inheriting the throne, Franois de
Valois-Angoulme, the son of a second cousin,
succeeded to the throne. He was crowned in
1515 as Franois I. He was imbued with the
chivalrous and knightly ideals of the earlier
generations, and the legendary Bayard had
dubbed him a knight directly on the battlefield
at Marignano in 1515. He was also without
scruples as a diplomat and politician, who
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was also a leading personality in the field of culture and a protector of the arts, with a passionate interest in the Italian renaissance. Franois
was less successful in his wars against Charles V
and left his nation in chaos at his death in 1547.
Maybe he should be excused as France had actually fought several wars against one of the
greatest empires of the world without losing as
much as an inch of his lands.

Ivan IV
Country: Russia
Skill:
Administration: 4
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1533-1584
Type: Monarch
Ivan was born in 1533 and his mother Elena
ruled the nation from when he was three years
old until he ascended to the throne as czar of all
Russia in 1547. He was a highly skilled and active organizer and reformer, and set up the
Strelstser Guard (infantry in the west European style equipped with firearms), and managed to expand the realm south (Volga) and
east (Kazan and Siberia). He failed to make inroads in the Baltic counties or Finland, but in
all probability laid the foundation for the
strategic dogma which influenced all later
czars, namely to gain ports in the west. Ivan is
often given the epithet "the Terrible." It is true
that he reigned with terror chiefly against the
powerful nobles at the end of his period, but it
should be noted that his mother "disappeared"
when he was only eight and that during the
next decade he lived in fear of the nobles who
had pushed him aside and humiliated him. He
also accused them of the death of his beloved
wife Anastasia in 1560. His violent behavior
seems to have its origin in the senile dementia
Ivan acquired toward the end of his life. The
fear of forgetfulness and the hate he felt for the
nobles could well have been the offsetting factors. His death in 1584 was followed by a long
period of anarchy in Russia.

Mehmet Sokullu
Country: The Ottoman Empire
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 6
Diplomacy: 6
Period of reign: 1564-1579
Type: Statesman
Mehmet Sokullu was Sadr-I azam or "grand
vizier" in the Ottoman Empire. Sokullu Pasha,
as he most often was called, was a very righteous and loyal administrator, which was rather
unusual during the period. Mehmet partially
reformed the financial system of the Ottoman
Empire and made the state less dependent on
the feudal system. He also managed to reconstruct the finances after the costly wars of Sleyman the Great. At an early stage he also understood the fact that the naval forces of the
country were not up to the task of expanding
its dominion at sea in the Mediterranean and
then keeping it without upgrading the technology. Unsuccessfully he tried to convince his
ruler, but Sleymans continued naval warfare
resulted in the battle at Lepanto in 1571,
which turned into a strategic loss for the realm.

Elizabeth I
Country: England
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 6
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1558-1603
Type: Monarch
Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and
Ann Boleyn and succeeded her half brother
Edward VI and her half sister Mary on the
throne. Elizabeth was a strong monarch with
the same spirit as her father and grandfather, a
true Tudor. Under Elizabeths firm leadership
England developed from a backward land of
farmers on the outskirts of Europe to a nation
of merchants and seafarers. It was also during
her reign that English explorers and adventurers, like the Cabots, father and son, and Sir
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tablished trading companies for trade to the

West Indies, the Far East and India. The manufacture of wool was developed further with different protectionist measures and special trading companies. Elizabeth ruled with an authority that resembled the autocracies later developed on the continent. Autocracy never got a
foothold in England, mainly because of its
strong parliament, but during the reign of Elizabeth, decisions were often made by royal decree and within the Privy Counsel without
passing through parliament. This way of ruling
worked during the reign of Elizabeth, as the
nation faced strong and powerful neighbors
like Spain and France, but after the destruction
of the Armada in 1558 and the death of the
queen in 1603, the conflict between the new
Stuart dynasty and the parliament increased.
This would eventually be the catalyst for the
coming civil war.

Richelieu
Country: France
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1624-1643
Type: Statesman
Armand Jean du Plessis, the cardinal Richelieu,
was 39 years old when he was accepted into the
council of ministers through the widowed
queen, Marie deMedici. Four years later he
was the prime minister of Louis XIII. His
greatest accomplishments in domestic politics
were the elimination of resistance against the
crown among the dukes and princes, and the
abolition of the privileges of the Huguenots,
enjoyed since the religious peace of Henry IV.
He was also a man of progress who supported
colonial expansion, non-European trade, and
the founding of a permanent royal navy. His
best characteristic was perhaps his exceptional
diplomatic skill. The intricate game he played
during the Thirty Years War is a prime example.
With subsidies he managed to maintain an effective Swedish offensive, which seriously
86

threatened the power of the Emperor, and

made France finally enter the war against the
Emperor in 1653. France entered as an individual participant that made it independent of the
fortunes or misfortunes of the other nations.
His goal was to reduce the power of the Hapsburg dynasty and prevent the surrounding of
France; for the most part, the great cardinal
was successful in this.

Olivares
Country: Spain
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 7
Period of reign: 1621-1643
Type: Statesman
The Count of Olivares led the Spanish government under the reign of Philip IV between
1621 and 1665. Philip IV ascended the throne
as king at the age of 16. He was a talented
youth and more interested in culture than politics, which gave Olivares quite a free hand.
Olivares was a brilliant man, a cunning statesman with a hard grip. Poetry, literature
(Calderon), and art (El Greco, Velasquez, and
Murillo) flourished. Spanish fashion and customs spread rapidly across Europe. In its politics Spain fared worse, mainly because the
country no longer had the resources of a few
decades earlier, but also because Olivares tried
to accomplish too much in too short a time.
He quickly involved Spain in the Thirty Years
War on the side of the Emperor and the Spanish troops were considered the best in Europe
at the beginning of the war. At the same time
he started a re-conquest of the Netherlands.
When the Holy Alliance started to lose ground
and it was seen that Spain couldnt retake the
Netherlands the situation turned chaotic.
Spain was paralyzed by rebellion and in 1640
both Catalonia and Portugal broke free of the
kingdom, although Catalonia was recaptured
in 1652. The treasury of Spain was emptied
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many of the Spanish problems were based on

economic reasons, or depended on the poor
strategic position of Spain, for which Olivares
should not be blamed.

Gustavus II Adolphus
Country: Sweden
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1611-1632
Type: Monarch
Gustavus II Adolphus was crowned in 1611 at
a time when Sweden was in the middle of a raging war. He was a magnificent and refined, but
slightly choleric, gentleman who had inherited
many of the traits of his grandfather, Gustavus
Vasa. His goal was to bring order to the domestic politics and to stop Russian expansion and
the Danish attempts at recapturing Sweden.
These political goals later developed into a desire to control the sea and to create a Swedish
influence in Protestant Germany. Sweden
reached peace with Denmark in 1613, with
Russia in 1617, and agreed to a cease-fire with
Poland-Lithuania in 1692, all of which provided Sweden with a political breathing space,
some new provinces, and customs income
from a number of Polish ports. This gave Gustavus II Adolphus a chance to engage in the
Thirty Years War. It was a war that, for a short
period of time, turned Sweden into a great
power, but also resulted in a number of neighbors lusting for revenge. Gustavus II Adolphus
reorganized and made the military more effective, and thus provided Sweden with one of the
strongest armies of the century. As a man he
was always at the center of events, and died in
battle one foggy morning at Ltzen. He was
the last of the Vasa dynasty, as his daughter
Kristina left no heirs, and after a short reign she
abdicated and left Sweden for Rome and
Catholicism.

Axel Oxenstierna
Country: Sweden
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1612-1654
Type: Statesman
Count Axel Oxenstierna was born in 1583 and
started his career in the service of the state as
early as 1602. In 1612 he was appointed lord
high counselor and became the right hand of
Gustavus II Adolphus. In many ways he was also the kings teacher in economic and diplomatic matters, but his influence did have limitations. He did not manage to stop the king
from entering the heavy strife over religion that
developed into the Thirty Years War. After the
death of the king in 1632 he took control over
Sweden and the Protestant Union. He also
managed to get Richelieus France to intervene
in the conflict. Initially he also had a strong
grip on domestic politics, but lost everything
when queen Kristina abdicated, something he
was dead set against. He died in 1654, only a
short time after the coronation of Charles X
Gustavus.

Colbert
Country: France
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1661-1683
Type: Statesman
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was born in 1619 and
was appointed counselor of the exchequer in
1661 by Louis XIV. Colbert created a uniform
French economy in the modern sense. His
state-controlled economy resulted in better
systems for taxation, systematic budgeting, and
budget follow-ups. Colbert was also one of the
first economy theorists. By defining the workings of the economy he was able to influence
the economy profitably. In this sense Colbert
created the economic and political theories
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that today are known as mercantilism. In accordance with this he strove to maintain trade
balance by supporting exports and introducing
tariffs on imports. He encouraged and increased the efficiency of domestic trade by
building roads and canals, by abolishing local
tolls, and the introduction of state monopolies.
He subsidized manufacturing, supported trading associations, and forbade emigration to areas other then Canada, etc. He supported the
royal navy, the merchant fleet, and the national
shipbuilding industry. The main weakness of
mercantilism was that it did not strive to encourage any increase in production. When
Colbert died in 1683, his son Colbert de
Seignelay took over until 1690. The son was a
good and loyal associate but he lacked the brilliance and courtly skills of his father.

Peter I
Country: Russia
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1682-1725
Type: Monarch
Piotr Alexeievitch was the son of Fyodor III
and succeeded him to the throne in 1682, at
the age of 10. His half sister Sophia was not
pleased and through a palace coup she placed
his mentally ill half brother Ivan V as co-regent. She herself ruled Russia from behind the
throne with her lover Vasilij Golitsyn. When
Ivan died in 1689, Peter took over as ruler. His
goal was to expand Russia and to succeed
where his predecessors had failed. He made a
trip to Western Europe in 1697-98 and it
probably gave him the practical ideas needed to
improve the technology of Russia. Throughout most of his reign he was busily making war.
Before the Great Nordic War he was conquering lands around the Black Sea. During the
Great Nordic War he conquered the Baltic, and
the battle of Poltava is considered one of the
most important battles in Russian military history. The victory marked Russias position as a
88

European nation and one of considerable

strength. His reforms were mainly aimed at
creating a powerful and skilled army, but it provided a number of positive side effects. The reforms concerned trade, production, politics,
military organization and the establishment of
a navy. Many are of the opinion that Peter the
Great, as he was called later, was the greatest of
all the Russian czars.

Kprl
Country: The Ottoman Empire
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1656-1661 (Mehmet) and
1661-1676 (Ahmed)
Type: Statesman
Mehmet Kprl was born sometime between
1557 and 1580 in the small village of Radnick in
Albania. His parents were Christian and as a
young boy he was recruited by the devsirm system (Christian boys without clan loyalties were
collected at a very young age and brought up as
warriors and good Moslems). He started his career as a cook and advanced to the ministry of finance, where his competence soon made him
pasha of central Anatolia, where he before long he
earned a reputation of being a very fair and disinterested administrator. This was relatively unheard of in the Ottoman Empire during the period, as local clans were quite powerful. You needed great integrity and social competence to rule a
province with authority. As governor of Damascus he was brought to Rum on the 15th of
September in 1656 and entered the role as sadr-i
azam (grand vizier) by order of the mother of the
young sultan Mehhmet IV. Kprl was a warrior
by heart, who fought corruption and introduced
many reforms, balanced the state budget, and led
the nation in war against Venice. After his death in
1661, his son Ahmed the Righteous inherited the
position and ruled until 1676. Other sadr-i
azams, like Kara Mustafa (1676-1683), Mustafa
Pasha (1689-1691) and Hussein Pasha (16971702) were all descendants of Mehmet.

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De Witt
Country: The Netherlands
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1653-1672
Type: Statesman
Jan de Witt became prime minister in 1653,
and the Netherlands experienced a golden age
during his rule. Jan also spent the greatest part
of his life fighting the power of the house of
Orania. This struggle can be viewed in the light
of the battles between parliaments and the royalty of other nations, but the house of Orania
was the "stathoulder," which was more like
supreme commander of the military, rather
than royalty. In 1667 Jan managed to get his
bill of exclusion directed at them, thereby eliminating their influence from the affairs of the
state. This would later backlash when the
Netherlands declared war on France, as the
family returned and he himself was imprisoned.
On the 20th of August 1672 Jan and his brother Cornelis were lynched by a mob incited by
de Witts political adversaries.

ceive their orders. Louis XIV was very

pompous; he regarded himself as the Sun King,
and his goal was French hegemony in Europe.
The pomposity had two very real political purposesto serve as propaganda to trump others
in pomp and flare, and by limiting the influential power of the nobility on the rule of the nation by the pompous rituals surrounding the
monarch. Louis XIV did not succeed with the
goal of hegemony, but nonetheless managed to
put his grandson on the Spanish throne. It
must also be mentioned that his anti-Protestant domestic politics, which were a consequence of the autocracy, resulted in economic
and humanitarian disaster. The highly industrious Huguenots left France for countries like
England, the Netherlands, and Sweden, where
they provided an economic renaissance. When
his majesty died in 1715 at the age of 78,
France was exhausted and on the verge of
bankruptcy. But at the same time France had
become the leading nation of culture,
renowned for its fine arts, its culture and fashion. Louis XIV is probably the best-known
French king throughout history.

Frederick William I
Louis XIV
Country: France
Skill:
Administration: 6
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1643-1715
Type: Monarch
Louis XIV inherited the throne from his relative Louis XIII at the age of five. A rebellious
nobility and civil war threatened France during
the early years of his reign. When he personally
came to power he ruled as autocrat. "I am the
State," is an expression that has been attributed
to Louis XIV. The expression "Well see,"
which he used systematically to always get the
last word, is more interesting. During the period the palace at Versailles was completed and
the royal family took residence there. The nobles had no alternative but to go there to re-

Country: Prussia
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 7
Period of reign: 1713-1740
Type: Monarch
Frederick William I of Prussia was a very competent organizer who shunned all unnecessary
expense, except when it applied to military
matters. It has been said that Frederick William
tried to build a company of guards consisting
of giants (i.e. they were all more than two meters tall) and pairing these with equally giant
ladies, but to his great dismay their offspring
were of normal height. Frederick William is often called the "soldier king" and more or less
lived with his soldiers, because that was what
he preferred. Its been said that when he was
sick, he used to order his favorite regiment to
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march through the royal bedchamber in full

parade uniform. This naturally improved his
mood and made him feel better. He built an
army of 80,000 men that was one of the best
organized and trained in Europe. He reorganized the social system, giving the junker class
(the land-owning nobility) priority to the army
in exchange for total obedience. The only time
he used this magnificent war machinery was
when he occupied Swedish Pomerania during
the Great Nordic War. His son, Frederick II,
had greater use of the army.

William Pitt the elder

Country: England
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1757-1778 (actually a recess
between 1763 and 1765)
Type: Statesman
William Pitt the elder was born in 1708 and
was the grandson of the English governor of
Madras, India. Originally he was meant to have
a military career, but he became member of the
House of Commons as a representative of the
Whig party and a glowing patriot. William
strove to turn England into a global empire
based on the supremacy at sea. He led his coalition government to victory in North America
and India during the Seven Years War, despite
the strong disapproval of king George II.
William was forced to leave his position in
1763, which probably saved France from losing even more land than they did at the peace
of Paris. William regained his power in 1766
despite his failing health and became involved
in a war with France in 1778. William died the
same year and was thereby spared the independence of the United States at the end of the war
in 1783.

90

Hensius
Country: The Netherlands
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1688-1720
Type: Statesman
Antonius Hensius was born in 1640 and enjoyed the confidence of William II of Orania
throughout his life. He was sent to Versailles
after the peace at Nijemen in 1672 to supervise
the implementation of the clauses and was appointed prime minister in 1668 when William
became king of England and had to move to
London. Hensius was a tough negotiator and
one of the greatest and most obstinate opponents of France. He was the mind behind most
of the anti-French coalitions made during the
late 1600s to counter French expansion. He
died in 1720

Kaunitz
Country: Austria
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1753-1792
Type: Statesman
Count Wenzel-Anton of Rittberg-Kaunitz was
born in Bohemia in 1711 and was later appointed Prince.
He was raised in the spirit of the enlightenment
and he was a dutiful man of the state. Throughout his career he had the confidence of queen
Maria-Theresia. After his initial diplomatic career he became prime minister of Austria, a position he held until two years prior to his death.
As a specialist in alliance changes and with an
acute sense for new political currents, he built a
strong alliance with France against the Prussia
of Friedrich II. But at the end of the Seven
Years War he turned to Prussia and provided
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Fleury

Frederick II the Great

Country: France
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1726-1743
Type: Statesman
Hercule de Fleury was born in 1653 and was
the son of a tax collector. He made his way up
in society by means of his own skills. In 1715
he became the teacher of young Louis XV, and
a very great mutual trust developed between
the monarch and his teacher. At the age of 73
Fleury was appointed chief minister in 1726.
He held this position until his death in 1743.
Fleury was loyal and honest and stood above all
the intrigue of the court and strove for peace
for France. During his reign France had its
longest period of peace in more than 300 years.

Country: Prussia
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1740-1786
Type: Monarch
Frederick II had a very harsh childhood under
his tyrannical father Frederick William I, who
regularly whipped his frail son, who was interested in culture. Eventually he ran away, but
when his tough-skinned father caned his little
sister Wilhelmine, he gave up and reconciled to
the will of his father. Frederick was an enlightened monarch, but also a warrior. He successfully led his fathers army during the Austrian
War of Succession (1740-1748) and he thoroughly learned the art of war, which gave him
the epithet Frederick the Great. He was one of
the greatest field marshals in history. His qualities on the battlefield were definitely shown
during the Seven Years War (1756-1763),
when he used inner lines and tactical offensives. This gave him many victories and he also
avoided many losses if the war itself was one he
could not win. Frederick was also a skilled
diplomat and among other things he produced
the Machiavellian plan to divide Poland. He also enjoyed culture, was a personal friend of
Voltaire, and a good example of a typical enlightened despot.

Guilio Alberoni
Country: Spain
Skill:
Administration: 7
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 6
Period of reign: 1702-1719
Type: Statesman
Guilio Alberoni, the son of a simple gardener
in Fiorenzuela of Italy, was born in 1664 and
began his career in the service of a French general, the duke of Vendme. Alberoni advanced
to negotiator to the duke of Parma, when the
duke married Elizabeth Farnese to Philip V of
Spain. As a reward for his services Alberoni entered the center of the Spanish state administration and was appointed cardinal in 1717.
Neither his politics nor his diplomatic talents
helped Bourbon Spain to any greater acquisitions of land. His Spanish adventure ended in
1719, when he was banished from this country.
Alberoni was a talented and ambitious politician, but failed to raise Spain out of its deep recession.

Robert Walpole
Country: England
Skill:
Administration: 8
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1721-1742
Type: Statesman
Robert Walpole, the count of Orford (16761745), was appointed minister of war in 1708,
but was compromised by a number of scandals,
and he lost his position. When the house of
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gained his position as minister and pursued a

consequent policy of balance in order to promote peace in Europe. He dominated politics
in England from 1721 to 1742 as First Lord
and Exchequer, a post that later developed into
the present office of prime minister.

Charles XII
Country: Sweden
Skill:
Administration: 6
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 5
Period of reign: 1697-1718
Type: Monarch
Charles XII became king at the age of 15 in
1697. He was a bold and sometimes quite
stubborn ruler. Charles was less skilled as a
diplomat. He liked the simple life of a soldier
and had great problems with the refined flattery and ramblings associated with diplomacy.
To this may be added his strong religious convictions, which at times may have swayed his
decisions at certain points. He was an excellent
field marshal who often used the superior tactics of shock, and his greatest victory may very
well have been the one at Narva where his
10,000 Swedish soldiers met 36,000 Russians
and won an overwhelming victory. The defensive battles against Denmark, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia were too great a task in the long
run. The invasion of Russia was a high-risk
campaign, which turned bad. His greatest
chance at maintaining and supporting his
troops was to be found in the Ukraine, but Peter the Great beat him to it and Charles XII had
to make do with wagons of provisions that
slowly rolled across the almost endless country.
After the battle at Poltava, the greatest victory
of Peter the Great, Charles fled to Bender in
the Ottoman Empire where he tried to gain the
support of the Ottomans, which succeeded in
1711, when the Ottoman Empire attacked
Russia. Nothing was accomplished by the war,
and after peace was signed Charles XII was

92

banished from the Empire. He returned to

Sweden in 1715, and in 1716 and 1718 respectively, he launched two invasions against Danish Norway in order to kick Denmark out of
the enemy alliance. On The 30th of November
1718 a bullet from outside the Norwegian fortification at Fredrikshald killed him. As Charles
had no brothers the crown went to his
youngest sister, Ulrika Eleonora, who together
with her husband Frederick of Hessen-Cassel
made peace with all of the enemies of Sweden.
The nation lost almost a third of its holdings
and its status, as a great power was lost.

Catherine II
Country: Russia
Skill:
Administration: 7
Military: 7
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1762-1796
Type: Monarch
Jekatrina II, who also was called "the Great,"
was a princess of German origin who married
the czar Piotr III. She managed to win the love
and respect of her people by converting to the
Orthodox faith, by supporting the church and
fighting the pro-Prussian politics of her. He
was probably mentally ill and indulged in a
number of atrocities, which were directly offensive to the people surrounding him. In
1762 Katarina launched a successful coup and
then ruled without hindrance after the execution of her husband. During her reign Russia
reached its greatest expansion after having conquered the Crimea in 1783, Odessa (1774 and
1791), northern Caucasus (1786) and in the
west the three partitions of Poland (1772,
1793 and 1795). The only major threat to
Russia during the period was the Pugatchev revolt in 1773-74. Catherine was a typical enlightened despot, who exchanged letters with
Voltaire. She turned a major part of the government over to her lover Potemkin.

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Oleg Potemkin
Country: Russia
Skill:
Administration: 9
Military: 8
Diplomacy: 9
Period of reign: 1772-1796
Type: Statesman
In the year of 1772 the great prince Oleg
Potemkin became prime minister and the favorite of Catherine the Great. This happened
immediately after her former favorite, Gregorij
Orlov, had been dismissed from office and was
forced to retire. Potemkin is mostly known for
the conquest of the Crimea and his talents as an
administrator. He increased the development
in the more backward southern parts of the
empire. He was also a highly skilled political
leader and must have been rather loyal and dependable as he held the confidence of the Empress, and actually retained his position when
she left him for a younger lover.

Stefan Batory
Country: Poland-Lithuania
Skill:
Administration: 5
Military: 5
Diplomacy: 3
Period of reign: 1574-1586
Type: Monarch
In 1574 King Henri de Anjou left the country
and declared it as a republic of nobles with an
elected king. Poland-Lithuania was facing
chaos. Czar Ivan IV of Russia, Emperor Maximillian II of Austria, and Johan III of Sweden
all tried to seize the throne, but it was the
Prince of Siebenbrgen (Transylvania) who
eventually claimed it, much to Poland-Lithuanias joy and fortune. Stefan became an unusually powerful ruler, who both managed to keep
the nobility at bay and successfully maintained
the interests of Poland-Lithuania on the Baltic.
When he was elected king in 1575 he immediately made sure that his brother Christopher
could succeed him in Siebenbrgen. He then
launched a quick campaign to pacify Poland.

After reinforcing the army with Cossack units

and sending a suggestion of peace to the Ottoman Empire he attacked czar Ivan IV, whose
forces were trying to capture the Baltic holdings of Poland-Lithuania. This war is often
called the Livonian War and ended in 1582
when Russia had to recognize the rightful
holding of Polotsk and Livonia. Stefan had a
very faithful and loyal associate in his statesman
and field marshal, Jan Zamoyski, who helped
him reinforce royal authority and of course aided in the wars. Stefan Batory was a strongwilled man and also an ardent Catholic. Personally he had a very tolerant view of the other
religions of his realm. Nevertheless he gave
some support to the Counter Reformation,
which met with great resistance among the
people. He also had to fight difficult battles of
domestic politics to reinforce royal power, but
he never let these problems stop him from fulfilling his ambitious plans of expansion. Stefans goal was to unite Poland-Lithuania, Russia and Siebenbrgen under his personal leadership. His advanced plan of a war against Russia and the Ottoman Empire was stopped only
by his own death. Stefan is regarded as the
most ambitious monarch in the entire history
of Poland-Lithuania.

Wladyslaw IV Vasa
Country: Poland-Lithuania
Skill:
Administration: 7
Military: 6
Diplomacy: 4
Period of reign: 1632-1648
Type: Monarch
Wladyslaw was born in Krakow on the June 9,
1595, the son of King Sigismund of PolandLithuania and Sweden, and he was the crown
prince of Sweden for almost six years. When he
turned fifteen his father managed to have him
elected czar of Russia, which was a step on the
way to conquering all the Russians by force and
converting them to Catholicism. The throne
was not held for long as the "time of troubles"
in Russia ended shortly after he had ascended,
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and instead Michail Romanov took the throne.

During his youth he participated in many Polish wars and acquired a lot of military knowledge. His most important meeting was perhaps
the one with the Spanish field marshal Spaniola, who taught him the value of having a welltrained military. The country suffered during
the rule of his father, an obstinate and humorless man, with extreme religious politics and
many failed wars. As king, Wladyslaw healed
many of the wounds his father had inflicted on
the society of Poland-Lithuania. He was immediately forced into war against Russia and the
Ottoman Empire, but successfully kept them at
bay. He succeeded with his main goal, which
was to create peace for Poland-Lithuania. The
main solution was his modernization of the
army, and from 1633 and for a long period afterward, Poland-Lithuania fought on equal or
better terms than its enemies. Wladyslaw never
managed to regain the Swedish crown, nor did
he manage to stop the "Sejm" (the parliament)
from undermining royal power within the nation. In a final effort in trying to become indispensable, he ordered the Cossacks to attack
targets within the Ottoman Empire, to force
them into attacking Poland-Lithuania in return, thereby placing him at the center of attention again, but these tactics failed. Brokenhearted over the recent death of his son, he
himself died in 1648. That same year the Cossacks began the greatest rebellion in the history
of Poland-Lithuania.

rior king with excellent qualities. He never lost

a single battle after being appointed field marshal and crowned as king. He was appointed
field marshal in 1668. During the 1650s he
participated in many battles against Cossacks
and Swedes and did so with great skill. During
the 1670s he won a number of brilliant victories against the Ottoman Empire. He also negotiated a secret agreement with France to attack Brandenburg together with Sweden. This
chance never materialized as the war against
the Ottomans could not be interrupted, and
Sweden lost two great battles in Brandenburg.
After the peace with the Ottoman Empire, Jan
made a compact with Austria, and in 1683 he
relieved and rescued Vienna from the Ottoman
armies. In two great campaigns he led his army
of 65,000 men to victory. This gave him a reputation of almost epic proportions and stopped
the Turkish advances in Europe. Unfortunately, Jan continued his wars against the Ottoman
Empire, which hindered him from seeing the
growing danger of Brandenburg-Prussia and
Russia. He also avoided dealing with the domestic reforms without which Poland-Lithuania would be lost. When he died in 1696 the
commonwealth was on the verge of bankruptcy, and was faced with another chaotic round of
electing a new king. The Polish nobility took of
that chaos during a very brief period of time.
Jan III Sobieski was the last of the great kings
of Poland-Lithuania; afterwards, the nation
was slowly brought under Russian dominance.

Jan III Sobieski

Random Events

Country: Poland-Lithuania
Skill:
Administration: 7
Military: 9
Diplomacy: 8
Period of reign: 1674-1696
Type: Monarch
The legends tell that Jan III Sobieski was born
in 1624 in Olesko in present day Ukraine on a
night when the thunder was rolling and the
Tartars were attacking. Jan was a typical war-

We have mentioned earlier that random events

may affect your country and its dealings. There
is a function in the game that randomly generates events of a kind that may affect any of the
areas previously discussed. Exactly what those
events are will not be discussed, as it would destroy the fun of playing the game. Random
events may be of a political, economical, social,
religious, or military nature, and may be either
temporary, i.e. occurring between two dates,
or may become permanent.

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Monarchs and Victory Points

D) The Archive
To the player the archive is what the royal secretary
was for the renaissance prince. All the information
you might need is stored systematically in the
archive. As with all other kinds of information it may
initially be hard to see the forest for all the trees, but
by using the archive effectively you will soon realize
what a gold mine it really is. It is the only way you
may see how your country fares in comparison with
your opponents. When you click the icon showing a
small book in the information window the game
pauses and the archive opens on the last page you accessed.
The archive contains 33 pages organized in the following chapters:
Monarchs and victory points
Economy
Diplomacy
Technology
Military
Settlements

1-4
5-16
17-20
21-22
23-29
30-32

There are three ways of browsing through the pages.

You may either right click on any page to get an index, where you click on the page you want to view.
Or you may turn one page at a time by using the arrow keys on your keyboard. The third way is by clicking the arrow icons of the archive. You may also
change chapters by clicking the icons for each chapter, which you will find below the page at which you
are looking. If you do, the archive will open on the
first page of the chosen chapter.
There are two types of pagesthose that present data in tables, and those that display the data in graphs.
To sort data into tables, just click on the corresponding column and it will be sorted according to the label.
For example, if you click on Year of ascension in the
Monarch table you will see the monarchs in chronological order. You may also add/remove data in the
graphs by checking or unchecking the boxes at the
bottom of the page. Checked boxes will show the data, unchecked will not. When many lines in the graphs
are very close to each other it is often hard to see which
one is which. A good tip is to check/uncheck the
needed lines several times to make them blink. An example of this is the graph for naval military technology
development, where the leading nations may be very
close to each other in the race for new improvements.

The victory points gained and developed along with

the monarchs of your nation are shown on these four
pages (1-4). One graph (1) shows the victory points
over time, which is also shown in a table (3) broken
down by Battle, Diplomacy, Explorations, Economical development, Settlements, Missions and Peace
treaties. There is also a separate table (2) showing the
missions you have received and whether you have succeeded or failed, and of course your rewards in victory points. Finally there is a table (4) showing the former and present monarchs of your nation. The table
will show each monarch along with an assessment of
his or her ability to rule the country within the administrative, diplomatic, economic, and military areas. You will also see the year of ascension to power
and the year of death, along with the number of victory points your country gained during the reign of that
particular monarch.

Economy
The four first pages contain graphs showing the development of your countrys wealth, inflation, infrastructure, and trade levels compared with the other
great nations. All the graphs show development over
time. Note that wealth is what is left when your nations expenses have been subtracted from your income. Inflation is given as a percentage. Changes in
infrastructure and trade levels are given in levels of
technology levels.
The following four pages (9-12) show the income
and expenses of your country, broken down by entry,
and the income/expense ratio of each entry along
with the figures for these from the previous and the
current year.
The last four pages (13-16) deal with information in
the provinces, trade, and any loans, along with the
maintenance costs of your army and navy units. The
provincial information contains tax revenues, the base
of recruitment, production income, and specifies the
main product of the province. The table may be viewed
as a summary of the provinces financial strength. The
trade information presents a table of all the trade centers you know of, your activities at each of them, the
level of competition as a percentage, the centers total
trade value, and the monthly cost associated with keeping a merchant there. The loan information shows
which loans you have, where they come from, the sum,
the interest in absolute numbers, and percentages and
their expiration dates. The table for maintenance costs
shows the number of men and the monthly cost of
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keeping them trained and equipped, branch by branch
(cavalry, infantry, etc.).

Diplomacy
These four tables (17-20) show the other nations
(friend and foe), existing alliances, along with current wars, if any. The first two tables (17-18) show
your relations to other nations. The first (17) contains all the countries you know of and specifies who
your vassals are, and describes your alliances. It also
shows where you have dynastic connections in terms
of royal marriages, where you refuse to trade, and
where you have Casus Belli (reason for war). The
other table (18) shows anyone who has a Casus Belli
against you, trade embargos directed at you, and the
nations with which you are at war. The last two tables
(19-20) show both existing alliances, the members of
the alliances, and the expiration dates (month and
year) along with all other current wars, showing the
participants of each.

Technology
These two pages (21-22) show the development of
land and naval military technology over time for all
the great nations.

Military
Seven pages (23-29) showing graphs and tables for
commanders and experts, army and naval units, shipbuilding, and army recruitment, along with the total
military losses of your country.
The first page (23) shows each of your commanders and specialists, giving the name, type, rank, and
name of the units under his command, his year of appointment, along with his skill levels in maneuvering,
battle, shock and sieges.
The following two pages (24-25) show a graph of
the strength of your army in thousands of soldiers
and the strength of your navy in number of ships over

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time, and in comparison to the other nations. Note

that each piece of artillery counts as 1000 soldiers.
Following that you will find two tables (26-27)
showing your armies and fleets with their respective
names, provinces or sea zones, regions, and
strengths. Page 28 describes army units under recruitment and naval units under construction, both
in table format. The page shows the number and type
of unit under construction, where it is being assembled, and when the unit will be ready for battle. Finally table 29 shows your total military losses of men
and equipment up until now. It is divided into
branches showing the amount lost in total, in battle,
by attrition and by disbandment of units.

Settlements
The first page (30) contains a graph showing how
your entire territory, your provinces, colonies and
trading posts have changed over time, along with the
rest of the nations. The table on page 31 gives information about your provinces. Each province is described by name, the area and greater region in which
it is located, the provincial capital, its population, its
base of recruitment, and the extensiveness of fortifications, and whether any other nation has taken control over it. The third page (32) shows your colonial
holdings in table format. You will find its name,
whether it is a trading post or a colony, and in what
region and on what continent it is located. You will
get information on the size of the holding, the size of
any fortifications, and whether any other nation has
taken control over it.
These tables can be of great help if you use them
correctly. It is easy to see the advantages if you compare the amount of work you have to put in to check
your status by moving around the entire map in order to spot any hostile takeovers among any of your
thirty some holdings. Instead you can just right click
the archive icon, choose page 32, and have all your
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E) Historic Review
Three Points of Departure
The Year of 1492
This is a year more than five hundred years ago. It is a
year imprinted upon our historic consciousness and
collective view of the world. It was the year when
Columbus discovered America. A new world opened
up for Europe, but what constituted Europe?
Europe had experienced a relatively quiet period
for approximately a century. The population was
about 70 or 80 million people. The continent had
not quite recovered from the catastrophic ravages of
the Black Death during the 1350s. The towns had
grown somewhat, but only at the expense of the
countryside.
Today it is difficult to imagine what the long lost
landscapes of that age really looked like, but we may
assume that swamps were more prevalent, covering
vast areas of northern Germany, Russia, and parts of
France. The Italian countryside was very desolate
and not quite as romantic as we may imagine it. The
Slavic name for the Hungarian plains, which consisted of nothing more than grass and ponds, was puszta, which means "desolate" or "abandoned" The
Muscovite deciduous forests were beginning to give
way to the vast fields of oats, even if the conquest of
the steppe south of Moscow had not yet begun.
Along the shores of the North Sea the struggle to reclaim land from the sea had not yet had any notable
success. In the far North of Europe there were vast
areas of pine and spruce and fur-bearing animals,
which turned hunting into an important source of
income, and at the same time farming and raising cattle contributed to the clearcut areas of central Sweden. In the Po Valley and on the Spanish plains the
landscape was transformed by irrigation, and the
conquest of distant valleys of the vast Alpine areas
continued.
Europe was still an entity with one foot in the Middle Ages and one foot in the new era. All of the 15th
century, as well as the Middle Ages, were as one with
Christianity. "The Empire," together with the Pope
and his clerical administration, was and remained a
powerful moral and spiritual force, in which people
still believed, regardless of its laughably small actual
power. It was primarily seen as a Republica Christianorum, Corpus Christianorum (a Christian Republic, a Christian Body), without any special reference to the holy Roman crown. The idea that all

sovereigns were equal became more and more accepted, as a result of the previous political power
struggles between Pope and Emperor. Of course the
Emperor had many problems if he chose to work
with any kind of authority within the formal borders
of the Empire.
Diplomacy had its origins in the Papal bureaucracy,
and it developed because a hierarchy of states existed
based on importance and prestige. The political organs of the kings of France, England, Portugal,
Castile, and Aragon had monopolized this diplomatic function. The first important steps toward a centralized rule were taken in these countries at that
time.
Economically Europe was facing a change of system. Poland-Lithuania and the Baltic area were the
main producers of grain. England, Flanders, Brabant, and Northern Italy produced fabric. Northern
Europe provided furs and fish. The Hanseatic
League was the most important transporter of goods
in the Northern half of Europe, but was on the decline. A more differentiated trade was slowly emerging throughout Europe. Venice and Genoa were the
middlemen in the Southern part of Europe, with
monopolies on the trade with the Levant. Northern
Italy was the strongest economic center of Europe,
with an enormous ability to finance production and
trade. The Ottoman Empire functioned as an intermediary with trade from the Orient. This situation
raised the prices greatly on goods like spices, incense,
dyes, and silk.
The effect of all this meant that rich and strategically situated countries like Spain and Portugal intensified their efforts to reach India by sea in order to
avoid the Ottoman middlemen. The Portuguese had
already found the way to India by rounding the Cape
of Good Hope, but the Spaniards wanted to find a
more direct route. Columbus went looking for India
when he left Europe, but instead discovered America, a continent named after the explorer Amerigo
Vespucci, who was the first to claim that the new continent could not be a part of Asia. Soon Spaniards
such as Cortez and Pizzaro had conquered the Aztec
and Inca empires. Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovered
Brazil, Diego Diaz discovered Madagascar. Francisco de Almeida and Albuquerque conquered important coastal provinces in India. These discoveries and
conquests broke the economic power of Venice and
Genoa. Slowly but surely Portugal and Spain
emerged as the economic great powers of Europe,
Portugal through its control of the trade of spices
and silk in India, and Spain through the silver and
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gold mined in America.
Culturally Europe was facing a period of expansion,
and 1492 hints at the great things that were about to
be created. At the court of Ludovico Sforza a 40year-old man named Leonardo da Vinci was busily
drawing statues of horsemen, building cannons, and
creating machinery for the theater. At the monastery
at Steyn Geert Geertsz, a 26-year-old monk, was saying his prayers. He would soon leave the monastery
when he no longer felt his calling. We know him as
Erasmus of Rotterdam. The 23-year-old son of a
poor, but well-bred family, was sitting in his study
finishing his exams in Latin. Within two years he was
about to start an undistinguished career as a civil servant in Florence. As an adult Niccolo Machiavelli was
exiled from his beloved Florence and would write
"The Prince," a study of realpolitik. There was a
16-year-old in Florence named Michelangelo
Buonarroti, who was said to be quite talented with a
chisel. The Duke of Ferrara had a commander, whose
17-year-old son was called Ludovico Ariosto. He was
studying law, but would soon begin a literary career
and write "Orlando Furioso," one of the greatest
"bestsellers" of the period. Nine-year-old Rafael
Santi lived in Urbino, the son of the rather mediocre
court painter Giovanni Santi. A Saxon boy by the
name of Martin, son of a miner with the surname of
Luther, was nine years old. As a priest he would create the greatest ideological upheaval in Europe since
the advent of Christianity. Ignatius of Loyola had
been born the previous year and was still in his cradle.
As an adult he would provide the Catholic Church
with its greatest rekindling since the Middle Ages.
In 1492 the struggle for supremacy was knocking
at the door. The political arena of Europe was a
hotbed of intrigue, drama, and great personalities. A
few days after Columbus left Seville, the College of
Cardinals had just elected Rodrigo Borgia as pope
under the name of Alexander VI. He was probably
one of the most controversial popes in history. This
pope was rich, both in earthly goods, energy, mistresses, and children. A few years later he hammered
out the Treaty of Tordesillas, which divided the
world between Portugal and Spain. During the later
half of the 15th century Europes first federal experiment was carried outthe Duchy of Burgund, consisting of the Netherlands, Lorraine, FranchComte, Bourgogne, and periodically southern Italy.
When this state was dissolved there was a conflict
about how to divide it involving Maximilian I of Austria, Charles VII of France, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and finally Henry VII of England.
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France was most aggressive, and when Charles VII

prepared and carried out an invasion of Naples,
Spain, and Austria closed ranks in a way that led to a
dynastic marriage. France brought the war to the
Netherlands, the Spanish border, and southern Italy,
but no real victor emerged. It was rather the dynastic
union between Spain and Austria that resulted in the
most important shift of power during the entire 16th
century. We should mention that France tried to
counter the union by binding Poland-Lithuania to
France, by making Henri of Anjou elected as king,
but the plan was a total failure.
The transformation of the political structure of Europe had begun. Both the heritage of Burgundy and
the Spanish-Austrian marriage were to create conflicts and tension for years ahead, initially at the
Dutch border and in northern Italy, but it would
soon spread to all of Western Europe.
In the south Portugal was busy with its new colonial empire and did not get involved in the politics to
any greater extent.
In the southeast Venice, Hungary, and PolandLithuania were involved in small clashes with the Ottoman Empire, which was definitely on the rise, and
would have conquered all of the Balkans, Hungary,
the realm of the Mamelukes all the way to Egypt,
Iraq, parts of Persia and Austria within 50 years. The
multinational commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania
was in principle the largest country of Europe and
the only one to stop the Ottomans from conquering
Europe from the southeast. Russia was still a mere
babe in arms. Austria had not yet grown strong under the Hapsburg dynasty. Venice was still fighting
the Ottoman Empire, but was too weak to confront
the Ottomans on her own. Hungary was large, but
quite feudal and lagging in development, and would
soon succumb. Russia had just been created when
the Grand Duchy of Moscow conquered the merchants republic of Novgorod. The country was still
lagged technologically after having been under the
yoke of the Mongols, but was quite aggressive and
would soon start to expand far in all directions. The
wish of Russia to conquer a window on the oceans,
and the goal of the Ottoman Empire to conquer Vienna, in order for the Imperator at Rum (Constantinople) to become the only legitimate ruler of
Europe, were the main destabilizing forces in eastern
Europe (the sultan regarded himself as a Roman emperor).
In the northwest England was licking its wounds
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Scotland. The Danish Empire (the Union of Calmar)
was at war with the Hanseatic League over trade in
northern Europe, and would finally quash the
League. Denmark had ambitions south toward the
small German border principalities, but had to leave
that ambition unfulfilled after the much humiliating
battle with the peasants republic of the Ditmarch in
1500. Furthermore Denmark was fighting the
movement of independence of the Swedish high nobility, which would soon break out of the union. The
inability of Denmark to bring Sweden into the fold
once more was the beginning of the end of Denmark
as a great power. Sweden increased its power mainly
by conquering areas in the Baltic region from the relatively weak Russia, and Poland-Lithuania, which
was busy at another front.
The strongest and most powerful nations during
the next 50 years were probably Spain, the Ottoman
Empire, France, and Poland-Lithuania.

The Year of 1617

Exactly one century after Martin Luthers famous
nailing of his 95 theses on the gate of the church at
Wittenberg is the year when all of Europe was set on
fire. It was a fire that completely changed the view of
politics and religion, but primarily it brought on suffering and violent death to thousands upon thousands of people.
The population of Europe had increased explosively. From staying at a level of 55-66 million people the
population had grown to about 100 million at
around 1600. It dropped during the Thirty Years
War, but still reached 120 million in 1650. The population of both Asia and Africa was also rising. The
climate was one of the main reasons why the Europeans never seriously tried to colonize Africa during
the period, as it meant diseases to which the Europeans were not resistant. In the Americas the population fell even faster than it was rising in Europe. The
natives were killed by measles, flu, leprosy, plague, typhoid fever, and elephantiasis. In Mexico the population more or less fell apart through massive epidemics. About two million people are said to have
succumbed to disease during 1576 and 1577. A
number of islands in the Caribbean were totally depopulated.
The large and fast population growth had a number
of consequences to both the landscape and its people. Farmland and pastureland were reclaimed from
nature. In certain areas, like the Iberian Peninsula,
France, Germany, and Italy practically all farmland
yielded good crops. In the northern, central and

eastern regions, where nature was more ungovernable and the populations smaller, it took more time.
In Russia and Sweden, for example, you could walk
for miles before reaching the next neighbor, but
these were the extremes. When all of the land was
claimed for farming a number of people had to do
without, and instead moved into the cities, were they
became badly paid workers in the quickly growing
production of goods. Others were more or less left
outside of society, and as income differentiation
grew, and open conflict began, these were the first
people to be recruited as mercenaries in the upcoming wars.
In 1617 Europe faced one of the greatest wars in
history since the early Middle Ages. The war was
based on the political and religious differences of the
times. When it boiled down to religion, there had
been reforms and changes within the framework of
the Catholic church constantly until the final breakup with the Protestants and the Reformists, after
which church officials hoped that it might be possible to achieve a reconciliation, but this was not to
happen. Both the Protestant and Reformist teachings contained new strong ideas about individualizing and decentralizing, which many princes, especially in Germany, found politically useful, especially
when asserting their independence from the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Thus ideas coming
from religion, universalism vs individualism, had
been transferred to the political arena during the later half of the 16th century and the beginning of the
17th. You could say that religion and politics became
inseparable, especially since those who advocated religious universalism (Catholics) also advocated a political universalism (Austria and Spain), while those
who advocated religious individualism (Protestants
and Reformists) also often advocated political individualism and decentralization (the Netherlands and
a number of German principalities). When these
forces started to challenge each other they more or
less ended up in different camps, the Catholic
League and the Protestant Union. The other countries not directly involved with the chaotic policies of
the Holy Roman Empire could chose sides or remain
outside. Denmark and Sweden were two countries
that chose to side with the Protestants and Reformists. Although they were Protestants themselves
they joined more out of self-interest than any real
concern about how the Holy Roman Empire should
be organized. England chose to remain outside, but
got its own "Thirty Years War" in the form of a conflict between the Parliament and the sovereign king,
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about freedom of religion. France awaited the outcome, but finally entered on the side of the Protestant Union, even though it was a Catholic country.
To France it was more a question of balancing the
power of the Hapsburgs rather than a question of religion. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in the
region that remained completely outside the conflict. This was a country whose religious policy was
distinguished by its tolerance. The country had a
number of religious minorities and could not have
functioned politically without this religious tolerance, which in itself does not detract from the honorable behavior of that country.
Economically the Hapsburg countries, with Spain
at the lead, had been the most important in Europe
during the entire 16th century, with a practical
monopoly on the import of silver, which was the
most important raw material for coins. Spain had also been most successful in using the services of the
Italian bankers. In 1617 change was about to happen, and shortly thereafter there was an international
reversal. The Italian bankers suffered a heavy loss at
the same time that the Spanish position as European
leader was undermined. The population of the Spanish Netherlands had manage to drive the Italians out
of the market in the matter of clothing and laid the
foundations for their position as an exporter of produce. The result was that the Dutch created an efficient economic sector, which was able to solve the
needs of the merchants, and also took over the position as the anchor of European finances. They had also managed to steer all the American silver by way of
Dutch ports, which reinforced the economic influence of the Dutch. Together with the English, the
Dutch also took over the role as middleman from the
Hanseatic League in northern Europe. This development moved the economic center of Europe from
northern Italy to center upon Amsterdam and London, which also brought Western Europe into the focus of historians.
In 1617 Portugal and Spain were no longer the only colonial powers (note also that Portugal had been
annexed by Spain). The Dutch had colonies and
trading posts in the Far East, which they had established during the Spanish era. France had returned to
its colonization of Canada, where they had founded
Quebec, and were on friendly terms with the Huron
nation. England had returned to its colonization of
Virginia and had founded Jamestown. Soon the English, the Dutch, and the French were to conquer
more and more territories. Countries like Denmark,
Sweden, and Courland also entered the arena of the
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colonial powers, but could not manage the competition.

Culture was a broad and rich river at the turn of the
century. To mention everyone you would need to
write a full volume, but instead we will provide a
small sampling of the culture of 1617. A few years
earlier Christopher Marlowe wrote "Tamerlaine"
and "The Jew of Malta." William Shakespeare died in
1616, but had produced a number of classics first.
Others whose works had just been brought to public
attention were the skeptic Michel de Montaigne, the
artist Peter Paul Rubens, and the writer Miguel de
Cervantes. Hugo Grotius, a professor from the
Dutch university at Leiden, claims in his book "Mare
Librum," that all the seas were free and international. His later epochal work "De jure belli ac pacis"
(About Law during War and Peace) from 1625
would create the basis for modern international law.
Seven years earlier Galileo Galilei used the first telescope for astronomical computations. He defended
Copernicus heliocentric view of the world and ended up in conflict with the Inquisition, who thought
that the concept of the Earth circling the Sun was
ridiculous and preposterous. The scientist Sir Francis
Bacon was the right hand man of the Duke of Buckingham as prime minister, but lost his position after a
few years due to a bribery scandal.
Europe was on the brink of a major war. They knew
nothing about this in 1617. Actually, the planning of
the various countries indicates that they thought
they could continue waging their minor wars.
Spain was preparing to quash the problems in the
rebellious Netherlands once and for all. The independence the "United Provinces" had won was seen
as a blemish on the banner of Spain, and an awkward
affair, which must be corrected. Independence was
not in question. Helping Austria with a large scale
German war was not what they had planned for, and
the whole idea had probably been regarded as totally
ridiculous, even if it had been proposed. Austria was
busy with the religious conditions of the country.
Bohemia suffered a very harsh government, but
there were no plans for war, though the emperor
Mathias was well aware of a possible trial of strength
in the near future. France was busy with its own political matters. On several occasions the high nobility
had rebelled in favor of the odd queen dowager or
duke. As king Louis XIII was still too young to govern the country, and while various regencies handled
the actual rule, while fighting their own little vendettas with their own personal enemies, making a consistent foreign policy impossible. The situation in

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England was similar, where the struggle between the
Parliament and the king prevented any forceful foreign policy.
Northern Europe and Russia had just survived a
period known as the "Time of Troubles," when total
anarchy reigned and Swedes and Poles competed at
putting their royal sons on the throne. Once again
Russia experienced a period of calm and was able to
consolidate both internally and externally. Sweden
wasnt able to claim the throne through a Swedish
prince, but instead won Ingermania and a good
peace settlement. Sweden had also achieved a hard,
but necessary peace with the stronger Denmark. The
plan was set, expansion was meant to go across
Poland-Lithuania, the main competitor of the area.
Poland-Lithuania, on the other hand, needed peace.
Thankfully they didnt need to worry about the Ottoman Empire, as that nation was busily warring with
Persia. Poland-Lithuania had also failed in putting a
prince on the throne of Russia, but the borders were
secured, which was enormously important, as the
country was very large. Denmark was facing a dangerous situation. It had defeated Sweden, but hadnt
won very much during the peace negotiations. Furthermore the relations with the Dutch had worsened
dramatically and the alliance between Sweden and
the Netherlands could be a dangerous threat against
Denmark. In order to maintain their superiority
against Sweden they had to do something, but the
course of action was unclear.

1700
Three hundred years ago autocracy was at its zenith
and never before had the fate of so many men and
women been in the hands of so few. This fate meant
that two extensive conflicts would ravage Europe
and to a certain extent become the first of all of the
world wars.
In 1700 Europe probably had a population of
about 120-140 million. The increase since 1617 had
not been that great, but one explanation is the great
number of wars and rebellions, and the change of climate sometimes called "the little ice age." Another
explanation could be that the harvests from farming
had not kept up with the previous increase in population, resulting in a lower birth rate, as each family was
not able to support the same number of children.
The epidemics also struck harder than during the
17th century, as germs spread faster in the crowded
cities. Another thing that would contribute to a
change of this trend during the 18th century was the
fact that the brown rat invaded Europe from Asia,

wiping out the black rat, the greatest carrier of the

plague. The lice of the brown rat did not spread disease to the same extent. More and more areas of the
previously under-populated areas of northern and
eastern Europe now had larger populations, but the
Russian steppes and the Arctic still did not have many
people.
Centralization became a necessary step in order to
achieve a more efficient rule, and also be able to successfully wage war. Centralization reached its peak
during the decades around 1700. Countries like
France, Spain, Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Sweden all had autocracies; it was only in England and
Poland-Lithuania that Parliament had the real power. The 1690s saw a violent quarrel over the remains
of Spanish realm, because Charles II was dying, with
no children to ascend to the throne. In 1700 he grew
bitter about the whole issue and named Philip, the
grandson of Louis XIV as heir to the entire Spanish
empire, on condition that Spain would not be united
with France. Louis XIV broke all previous agreements and accepted the agreement. France then became involved in a conflict with everyone who
thought that the Bourbons would become too powerful through the arrangementthe Spanish War of
Succession was ready to be unleashed.
At the same time the Swedish king, Charles XI, had
died, and his young son, Charles XII, had succeeded
him. Swedens status as a great power was built on a
rather shaky ground at the expense of its neighbors
Russia, Poland-Lithuania, and Denmark-Norway.
These now found it suitable to regain all that had
been lost. Early in the year of 1700 Russians, Poles,
and Danes crossed the Swedish bordersthe Great
Nordic War had begun.
The Netherlands was the great center of trade in
1700, controlling the most important ports in the elder Portuguese empire (India and the Far East). This
situation was about to change, although no one
knew it at the time. It was England, which later
would overtake the Netherlands on the high seas,
but as late as 1712 a distinguished English gentleman stated that they were willing to sell even their
last shirt in order to gain the position that the
Netherlands held. England had entered an expansive
phase, which would not end until the 1750s. The elements of expansion were increased production in
the English colonies, innovations in the area of national financing, and the skill of the merchants. Both
the Netherlands and England were countries with
strong centers of production, and excellent opportunities to trade. France and Spain were both larger,
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but their production was practically in ruin after the
expulsion of the Moors and the Huguenots. The
main product of these two countries was agricultural.
Denmark-Norway basically lived off their income
from the duties from the Sound, while Sweden received income from the same duties, and from controlling Riga, where almost all of the trade to and
from Russia had to pass. Production in PolandLithuania was substantial, but because of the almost
paranoid unwillingness of the magnates to provide
the monarch with the necessary funds, the nation
could not profit from the exports. Russia mainly produced grain, but the country was economically backward. It was only because of its size that it had anything to say politically, but this would change during
the 18th century, when Russia grew much stronger.
In North America, France was holding parts of present day Canada, while England was holding parts of
present day United States. Spain was holding on to
Florida and California. The Caribbean was held by
Spain, followed by France, England, and the Netherlands. Spain also had almost all of South America, except for Brazil, which belonged to Portugal, and two
small areas controlled by France and the Netherlands
(present day French Guyana and Surinam). England,
France, and the Netherlands all had a few trading
posts in Africa controlling the slave trade. The only
colonies were the Cape Province (present day South
Africa), and Angola and Mozambique, which had
belonged to Portugal for quite some time. England,
the Netherlands, Portugal, and France controlled a
few coastal towns in Asia, while the Netherlands had
colonies in present day Indonesia and at Ceylon, and
Spain had the Philippines.
Culturally the French court at Versailles was the
trendsetter for all of the other European courts, and
French was the language of the educated upper classes. Tight-fitting coats reaching down to the knees,
long vests, lace ties, full-bottomed wigs, and short
trousers characterized the male fashion of the day.
Draped gowns with trains, lace sleeves, and high coiffures characterized female fashion. The Age of Enlightenment had not yet arrived, but science and philosophy were at a high point regarding clarity and
purity, which would be represented by natural science and rationalistic philosophy. Philosophers like
Nicholas Malebranche, John Locke, Christian Wolff,
and Pierre Bayle were active during 1700. The future
bishop of Cloyne, the philosopher George Berkeley,
entered Trinity College at Dublin this year. 1700 ac-

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tually stands between two great phases in Western

thinking. A few years earlier the scientist Isaac Newton had published his "Principia Mathematica,"
where he explained his mechanics, and would within
a few years publish "Opticks," another classic. Ten
years later the thoughts of Newton would come into
conflict with perhaps the greatest philosopher and
mathematician of the period, G. W. von Leibniz,
who in his "La Monadologie" was to develop another way of understanding the universe. This would result in a harsh correspondence about the nature of
time and space. Their correspondence provides an
understanding of two of the sharpest minds in history. Music was also a very expansive area during the
period. Composers such as Handel, Scarlatti, J. S.
Bach, Purcell, Buxtehude, Couperin, Charpentier,
and many others enriched their age with their music.
There were a number of great authors. Molire and
Racine had recently died, but a great number were
still around, and more were to come. Voltaire was
just 6 years old, and Montesquieu was 11 years old.
The most famous writers in the Ottoman Empire
were Yusuf al-Simani and Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi.
Artists and architects of high renown created the
"baroque" style. Fischer von Erlach, von Hildebrandt, Falconnet, Neuomann, and Tiepolo were a
few of the artists of the time.
The political situation of 1700 was anything but
clear. People knew the wars to the East and the
North would be long, but the prospects for Western
and Central Europe were more uncertain.
France was preparing for a large-scale conflict, and
allied itself with Spain, Savoy, and Bavaria. Everyone
thought that the war would mainly be taken to the
Netherlands, and France was intent on expanding in
that direction. There was also the hope of striking at
Austria from two directions, from northern Italy and
from Bavaria. The Austrian emperor, who thought
that his son had the greatest claim to the Spanish
throne, also prepared himself for a great conflict. An
alliance between Austria, the Netherlands, and England was seen as the natural and obvious course.
France had repeatedly attacked the Netherlands during the past half century, and England saw an opportunity to maintain the balance of the European continent. Another reassuring thought was that Austria
had recently fought a successful war against the Ottoman Empire, and felt satisfyingly secure; no threat
was coming from that direction. For England the situation was completely unacceptable. To start with

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Louis XIV refused to accept that his grandson would
have to give up his claims to the French throne,
which would result in a drastically compromised
strategic situation both in Europe and in North
America. It was also obvious that France wanted a
war, as they had sent out a number of privateers
against English ships in American waters, and had
started to garrison Spanish Netherlands and northern Italy. The deciding factor came when Louis XIV
recognized James Edward Stuart as the rightful king
of England and Scotland. This was it. The Netherlands would rather avoid a war, as it hardly would
benefit trade, and the Netherlands were not at all as
strong as France, but when England was willing to
sign an alliance they did not say no.
Conditions in the north and east were different.
Denmark-Norway was willing to go to war with Sweden, but thought the brothers of the alliance were in
too much of a hurry. They simply had not had time
to build their strength. The Danish army was standing in the duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which was in
alliance with Sweden. Sweden, England, and the
Netherlands had sworn to protect the independence
of Holstein-Gottorp, and a combined fleet of English and Dutch ships was on their way, at the same
time Sweden was massing a large army in Scania. For
Poland-Lithuania the situation was anything but
clear. The nobility had accepted the war in order to
retake Livonia and to expand their holdings, but they
also had concerns about the king and were worried
that August of Saxony would use the opportunity to
increase his powers in Poland-Lithuania. This is the
reason why the attack against Livonia went so slowly;
the nobility were simply waiting for king August, as
they wanted to keep him under control. The Russians, under the leadership of Czar Peter, attacked as
well as they could in Ingermania. The goal was clear:
they wanted to take the Baltic provinces belonging to
Sweden. The view was that the "Germans" had withheld the Russians rightful place at sea for too long.
The time of reckoning had arrived. There was also
some concern in the circles around Peter regarding
the Russian army. Was it good enough, or would history repeat itself? For Sweden the situation was politically just so much simpler. This was a war of defense,
they thought. The strategic difficulties were to be
found in the size of the kingdom. Where should they
attack? Charles XII had decidedhe would start by
kicking Denmark-Norway out of the war, and Sweden had England and the Netherlands to assist
themthis was a chance that could not be missed.

The Great Powers of

1492-1792
Denmark-Norway
1492-1588
The double kingdom of Denmark-Norway was a
great power in Europe in 1492. Its greatest enemy
was the Hanseatic League, whose political and military power was waning, but still had a formidable
economic power. Norway was not a problem during
the period, and was safe and secure. Sweden, on the
other hand, was an irritating problem. It was run by
headstrong nobility, which opposed every effort of
the Danish king to increase his control.
The first half of the period is characterized by the
war against the Hanseatic League. Each war weakened the role of the League, until it was completely
erased during the feud of the counts during the
1530s. Denmark-Norway was successful, but to
great cost during later periods. One effect of the numerous wars between Denmark-Norway and the
League was that Sweden was finally able to win its
war of independence. During the period of 14921521 there had been a veritable civil war between
unionists and secessionists, but when Christian II executed a number of obstinate Swedish nobles the
whole country turned against him. The Danish
monarch was no longer able to hold on to the
Swedish crown, and Sweden went its own way. Another problem for Denmark-Norway was the perpetual lack of money, and the crown had entered into alliances with Russia, the Netherlands and England in
order to crush the Hanseatic League. One of the
clauses of the alliance was that the Dutch and the English got the same trading privileges that the League
used to have, which in the long run would mean that
Denmark-Norway did not gain anything in the way
of trade.
During the second half of the period DenmarkNorway and Sweden grew a bit closer by delivering
the deathblow to the League, but relations heated up
after 1560. Denmark-Norway thought it was time to
bring the obstinate sheep back into the fold. Denmark-Norway won the war, but without any conclusive victories. No land was ceded, but instead the independence of Sweden was confirmed. DenmarkNorway had a professional army of mercenaries
throughout the period, which repeatedly defeated
the Swedish peasant armies, but it turned out to be
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almost impossible to hold onto the conquered territories in the barren lands of the north. Even if they
had to let Sweden go for a while, they were the
strongest power in the north. They had taken Dag
and sel and thus secured a network of ports and total control of the Baltic Sea. Even though Sweden
had taken Estonia, it also got a longer border with
the neighbor to the east. There was no longer any
threat from the south. There was just the willful Sweden.

1589-1648
Denmark-Norway began the period with a long period of peace lasting for two decades, when the country recovered and improved its financial situation.
When Sweden was busy with a war against PolandLithuania and Russia the country decided to declare
war. The idea was that they would be able to crush
the Swedish rebels. During the Calmar War (161111613) the fighting was extremely mobile, but once
again they were disabled by the difficult supply situation in the barren north. The Danish fleet was superior at sea, but the Danish army was not able to get
that decisive victory which could crush Swedish
morale. The war resulted in a Danish victory, and the
Swedes had to pay a huge tribute for defying king
Christian IV, but there no land was ceded, to the
great disappointment of the king. After the war Denmark-Norway was in a peculiar situation. It could
not expand to the south, without facing very strong
alliances, and the route across Sweden was closed for
the moment. Christian IV was worriedly regarding
Swedish expansion in the Baltic area. The power base
of Denmark-Norway was far too weak in the area
(only consisting of sel) in order to really compete
with Swedes, Russians, and Poles.
When the Thirty Years War had been in progress
for some time, Denmark-Norway found an opening.
A triple alliance between Denmark-Norway, England, and the Netherlands was signed in December
1625, and Christian IV took command of the army
of the alliance. Soon thereafter, in 1626, Christian IV
was forced into battle against Tilly at Lutter am
Barenberge. Denmark-Norway lost the battle, mainly because the imperial troops were veterans. Christian IV lost his support with the North German
princes, and the conflict developed into a defensive
war. When Jutland was completely occupied by the
enemy in 1629 there was a cheap peace without any
cessation of land, primarily because the Austrian
commander feared an alliance between DenmarkNorway and Sweden. During the latter part of the
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Thirty Years War, Denmark-Norway was attacked by

Sweden (1643-1645), and although the Danish fleet
commanded by the naval hero Niels Juel was victorious and Christian IV besieged the Swedish town of
Gothenburg, they were forced into peace and had to
cede Jmtland, Hrjedalen, Gotland, sel, and Halland for 30 years. The main reasons were the Swedish
weapons, the superior Swedish commanders, and the
support from the Netherlands. The great power status of Denmark-Norway was questionable at the end
of the period, and great changes were needed if that
position were to be regained.

1649-1721
Denmark-Norway experienced a brief breathing
space before catastrophe again cast its long shadows
across the country. The government of the country
was strongly in favor of peace, but they manage to
provoke the Dutch by raising the customs at the
Sound and trying to force trade into the Baltic Sea.
When the Swedish warrior king Charles X Gustavus
was found himself in an impossible situation in
Poland he turned and marched toward Denmark.
Denmark-Norway raised army units, but they were
not veterans, and the willfulness of the nobility
meant that there were not enough funds for the purpose. Through a combination of daring and luck the
Swedish army marched across the ice to Copenhagen, when a large portion of the sound between
Zealand and Jutland froze during the winter of
1657. The situation was impossible, because all of
the Danish units had to fight in isolation against the
superior Swedish force. The peace treaty took a
heavy toll on Denmark-Norway, as the country lost
Halland, Blekinge, Scania, Bohusln, Bornholm, and
Trondheim, which meant the loss of a third of the
entire country. The Swedish king was not satisfied,
though, and attacked again, but this time DenmarkNorway was saved by a number of countries that did
not accept that the country would cease to exist, and
Denmark-Norway regained Trondheim and Bornholm. During the war of alliances on the continent in
1672-1679 Denmark-Norway tried to regain what
was lost. The war was extremely even and could have
ended up either way, but Lady Luck smiled on Sweden, and Denmark-Norway received nothing for its
efforts.
In 1700, the year before the Spanish War of Succession broke out, the Great Nordic War began. Russia,
Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony
had decided to regain everything that had been lost
and possibly divide Sweden among them. Initially

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things went awry for Denmark-Norway, as a quick
Swedish landing the same year forced DenmarkNorway into signing a peace treaty. The Swedes had
been too fast, and the Danish armament was not finished. Denmark-Norway attacked once more in
1710, but was once again forced into an ignominious
retreat after having landed in Scania. From now on
Denmark-Norway decided to wait it out, as Sweden
had gained almost a dozen enemies. Around 17161717 a Russian-Danish-Saxon landing was planned,
in order to retake the former north-eastern provinces
of Denmark-Norway, but because of fatigue and the
stubbornness of the allies the invasion never took
place, and Denmark-Norway only received some
money as tribute. When the period ended DenmarkNorway was a rather weak country, but the only
country that had been a threat had been utterly
crushed and no longer posed any threat.

1722-1792
The foreign policy situation of Denmark-Norway
changed completely in the wake of the Great Nordic
War and the Spanish War of Succession. Sweden was
no longer any real threat, and the Silesian part of
Holstein-Gottorp was fully annexed in 1721, and the
Holstein part in 1773. England and Russia had,
however, become the winners of both of the wars and
had a decisive influence on Danish-Norwegian foreign policy. Russia was used as support against Sweden, while the country had to stay on good terms
with England for trade reasons. This was a rather difficult situation, as Russia and England had very little
in common.
The relationship with Sweden, however, was more
important. About 1740 Swedish succession was
brought to the fore and the Danish crown prince figured as pretender, which could have restored the
Calmar Union. There was further talk about DanishNorwegian help in the Swedish war against Russia in
1741-1743, but as the war was turning out badly for
Sweden, the Swedes chose a Russian pretender,
Adolphus Frederick of Kiel, to lessen the losses at the
peace treaty. The government of Denmark-Norway
was on the verge of a breakdown because of this deceit, but had to comply, as they could not get any
great power to join them in a war of conquest against
Sweden. In contrast to Sweden, Denmark-Norway
always managed to end up well in the perpetually
changing alliances, and always succeeded in gaining
subsidies from one great power or the other without
having to do anything in return. The Danish-Norwegian armed forces were stronger than the Swedish

forces after Swedens war with Russia in 1741-43,

which was of some consolation. During the Austrian
War of Succession Denmark-Norway declared itself
neutral for the first time ever, and was able to watch
the outcome of Swedens Russian adventure.
During the period of 1650-1750 the demand for
grain and timber in Europe had been gradually decreasing, which had severe economic consequences
for Denmark-Norway. Perhaps this was the cause of
the downfall of Denmark-Norway as a great power.
In the wake of the Austrian War of Succession, from
1750 and onwards, the demand for such goods increased anew, giving the Danish-Norwegian economy a boost. This in turn set a number of reforms in
motion, and the long period of peace gave DenmarkNorway a late economic golden age.
When the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 broke out
Denmark-Norway again declared itself neutral and
got away with it. The country had subsidy deals both
with England and France and could not choose to
support either of them without loss of credibility. Instead the country chose peace and prosperity. However, the country had to act against Sweden in 1788
when it was fighting against Russia. If the DanishNorwegian government had wanted to enter the
war, they would probably have been able to regain
lost provinces from Sweden, but the government was
also well aware of the risk associated with a weakened
Sweden, as the Russians would soon be knocking on
the doors of Copenhagen otherwise. With its active
policy of peace and its healthy economy DenmarkNorway was able to preserve its position as a second
rank power, although that position would be lost
during the Napoleonic wars, but that was in another
age.

England
1492-1588
England in 1492 was a very weak country. It had not
only lived through the Hundred Years War with
France and had lost all of its French possessions, but
it had also fought a very bloody and destructive civil
war (the War of the Roses 1455-1485). It was true
that the power of the high nobility was weaker and
the power of the king stronger than before, but the
country was in ruins. Recovery would take a long
time. During the first half of the period English shipping was increasing. England had a good geographical position and the Spanish and Portuguese colonies
in America meant trade with these people. Further105

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more, traveling in these waters brought a good idea
about the North American coast, which the English
were to start colonizing during the next period. During the second half production increased, chiefly in
the areas of textiles and metals.
For England the period was problematical. During
the first half the Catholics were in the majority, while
king Henry VIII broke with the Pope in order to
have his divorces in peace. Under Mary (married to
Philip II of Spain) England had a policy of reactionary Catholicism, which created ill feelings
among all types of Protestants. When Elizabeth I
then came to power the Anglican Church was created as a unique Protestant state church. Catholics and
Puritans (Reformed faith) did not like it at all, and in
principle no one was satisfied with any of the religious solutions. There was another tricky problem
that had to be solved, and this came from Scotland.
The problem was that Mary Stuart, the Queen of
Scotland, had legal claims to the throne of England,
and quite literally attracted all of the dissatisfied
Catholics. For different reasons Mary Stuart ended
up in an English prison and was later beheaded for
plotting against the life of queen Elizabeth. This put
the Spaniards in motion. There were a number of
reasons for the conflict between England and Spain.
One was the English support of the rebellious
Netherlands, another that Elizabeth had refused to
marry Philip II, a third that English pirates had started to harass the Spanish merchant ships, and finally
the execution of Mary Stuart. Spain, the leading
power of Europe, dispatched the Great Armada, the
greatest collection of ships seen in the north for ages.
The attack against England failed completely and
turned into a catastrophe for Spain. England was
saved and had shown the world that it could be victorious against a naval power at sea. The Netherlands
continued to receive English support in their struggle for independence from Spain.

1589-1648
The struggle for independence in the Netherlands
continued more or less unbroken until 1648, and
Englands foreign policy had been to support this
country. There were several reasons, but the most
important was that the Netherlands was a thorn in
the side of the great power of Spain, and therefore
right in the path of expansion of the great power of
France. Furthermore both England and the Netherlands were non-Catholic countries and shared a common ideological base, and both of these countries together were the expanding central point of European
106

economy. This would in part change. During the

reign of the Stuarts, who had come to power in
1603, support for the Protestants was somewhat
toned down, and relations to France and Spain had
improved, as England never really actively participated in the Thirty Years War. This foreign policy was
not very popular, and in combination with the power
struggle between the Stuarts and Parliament, England became embroiled in another civil war between
royalists and roundheads (1642-1649). The Parliament was victorious and the king was executed, but
the struggle for freedom took a wrong turn. When
the bells of peace started tolling in Germany the Parliament had just gotten the upper hand in the civil
war. Economically the country had slipped behind
the Dutch, but they now had a top class army, and
England was a country that would play an important
role in the future.

1649-1721
Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Parliament already in
1653 and ruled the country as dictator. Meanwhile
the Dutch had established themselves as the great
economic power of Europe. England managed to
capture that position through several naval wars
against the Netherlands, but was not fully secure until the 1670s. In 1660 the Stuarts were restored to
the throne, but these had not given up their plans to
return Catholicism to the country, crushing the Parliament and introducing autocracy. Initially cooperation between the king and Parliament functioned,
but the Parliament under-financed each and every
one of the kings projects, which pushed him into the
hands of the king of France, Louis XIV, during the
1670s. The Stuart kings received subsidies from
France in order to have any sort of efficient operations, but in return, of course, they were expected to
have a pro-French foreign policy, which aroused the
wrath of the Parliament. In 1688 the powerful men
of the kingdom had had enough. The last Stuart,
James II, had been exposed. His extensive plan of returning Catholicism to England and the French
bribes became his downfall in "the Glorious Revolution" A side branch was brought in, and England and
the Netherlands became united under William.
When the century was nearing its end England had
become involved in the discussions about what to do
at the death of Charles II of Spain. A number of plans
had flourished and England had invested a lot of
prestige in trying to prevent a large-scale war when
the crown of Spain passed on to other hands, or upset the balance of power. This failed completely, as

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the dying Charles bequeathed the entire Spanish
realm to Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, if he renounced all claim to the French throne. England did
not want to go to war, but was more or less forced into it, when Louis XIV announced that his grandson
was also to inherit France, and that James Stuart was
the only lawful king of England. The Spanish War of
Succession in 1701-1714 had no clear winners, but
England gained the most at the peace of Utrecht in
1713, perhaps due to the brilliant victories of the
Duke of Marlborough. England gained Gibraltar,
Menorca, New Foundland, Nova Scotia, and the
Hudson Bay area. Almost immediately after the
peace had been signed England entered the Great
Nordic War by declaring war on Sweden. This country was in all practical matters already defeated, and
the king of England was able to add Bremen-Verden
to the realm of his German native land of Hanover after the peace of Stockholm in 1718. In all relevant
matters England was without threats at sea, and a
European great power together with France, Russia
and Austria.

1722-1792
When the house of Hanover gained the throne of
England and Scotland the power of the king decreased in favor of the Parliament, and the modern
parliamentary government developed during the
first half of the period, which means that the majority
of the Parliament creates the conditions for the government. Englands foreign policy position after the
Spanish War of Succession was delicate, to say the
least. The country was a great naval power with large
but scattered colonial possessions. However, it
lacked an army that could really challenge any of the
continental great powers. This would lead to a twopronged foreign policy. On the one hand England
worked to preserve peace and to maintain the balance of power in Europe, and on the other hand they
worked aggressively in America and India to expand
at the cost of the other colonial powers, which was a
very difficult balancing act.
In 1739 the colonial conflicts had reached crisis
level, and England and Spain went to war, the "War
of Captain Jenkins Ear." Spain defended itself well,
and England was not able to gain much. The next
year the Austrian War of Succession broke out, where
Austria and Russia were fighting against Prussia,
Spain, France, and a number of smaller states. England did not get involved until 1742, when the kings
German principality of Hanover was drawn into the
conflict on the side of Austria and Russia. Right in

the middle of the war, in 1745, "Bonnie Prince

Charlie," the son of the Stuart pretender to the
throne, landed in England and tried to retake the
country in a lightning campaign. The Stuarts won
battles at Prestonpans, Penrith, and Falkirk Moor
but suffered a devastating defeat at Culloden. This
was the last attempt of the Stuarts to regain the
throne.
In 1748 the peace was signed at Aachen without
any major changes, other than Frederick of Prussia
gaining Silesia from Austria. The war managed to
keep the balance of power in Europe, but the conflicts in the colonies continued to simmer. The 1750s
saw a number of serious border conflicts in North
America and India between the French and the English. England was in fear of a large-scale war and began to increase the armies in America and India.
When the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 broke out
England had seven times more troops in North
America than France, and with the advantage also in
India. The war began with an exchange of letters between England and France, which quickly escalated
into war. Prussia, the ally of England, declared war
on France. Austria and Russia had long wanted to expand at the expense of Prussia and decided to side
with the French. The double strategy of England in
principle meant that they would fight France and
Spain (from 1762) at sea and in the colonies, while
militarily abandoning Europe. However, England financed the Prussian army with enormous subsidies,
without which the country would have succumbed
in no time at all. The Prussians very skillfully waged a
defensive war, which also included tactical offensives,
and managed to keep the armies of the three great
powers at bay. In 1762, when Prussia was on the
verge of extinction, the country was saved by a
change of ruler in Russia, when the new Czar, who
was a great admirer of Prussia, immediately signed a
separate peace treaty. The balance shifted in such a
way that the enemies of England had to accept peace
negotiations, and the peace treaty was signed in
1763. England gained Florida from Spain, and
Canada and all of the territories east of the Mississippi, and Senegal in Africa from France. France also
had to leave the Louisiana Territory to Spain as compensation for Florida. The French trading posts in
India were returned, but France had still lost all power in the area, as its alliance with the local Indian
princes was broken indefinitely. There were no
changes in Europe, which meant that Prussia kept
Silesia and its status as a great power. England was
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portant colonial power. The struggle was not over,
though. The Seven Years War had created a sense of
self-determination with the American colonists, and
as Englands policy in America was harsh and humiliating, the American War of Independence started in
1775 and continued until 1783. Initially England
did well, but when France entered the war in 1778,
everything turned around, and in 1783 they were
forced into negotiating peace. The end result was an
independent United States, and France regained a
few islands in the West Indies and Senegal. Spain regained Menorca and Florida. After the War of Independence England turned to a more peace-oriented
foreign policy and became busy with interior improvement. During the period from 1780 to 1792
the country was right in the middle of the process,
which would lead to industrialization. This would be
followed by an economic and technological strength
which would turn England into the most powerful
nation on Earth, but that would happen in another
age.

France
1492-1588
In 1492 France was a strong but divided country. It
was large with a relatively large population, but a
hundred years of war and strong feudalism comprised a difficult inheritance to overcome. Recovery
did happen, but at the same time France was challenged by all of the countries surrounding it. Spain,
Austria, and England all wanted a place in the sun.
Strategically France was not ready for the task, and
the neglect of the interior problems would create
harsh after-effects during the later half of the period.
A few years before, a terrible war began between
France on one side, and Spain and Austria on the
other. This was to be the first settlement of the "Burgundy Inheritance"the remains of the Duchy of
Burgundy, whose ruling house had died out on the
male side. In all practical matters France won the first
in a series of wars for these provinces in the Netherlands and Franch-Comte, but they definitely lost
when it came to peace, which resulted in a status quo
peace, in which the young French king believed he
was given a free hand in southern Italy. When France
attacked southern Italy, Spain declared war on
France, and France became involved in an evil spiral
of wars with Spain and Austria. These were wars
without any real victors, as Spain and Austria managed to defend their provinces.
England was also an opponent. The Hundred Years
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War (1339-1453) was fresh in minds on both sides of

the Channel. France had very good connections with
Scotland, and this country behaved as a front for
France, threatening England from behind. France itself never tried to attack England during the period,
as it was busy with the fight over the Netherlands and
Italy, and during the second half of the period with a
civil war for both dynastic and religious reasons. In
the middle of the 16th century France was highly intolerant in religious matters, as the country tried to
remain Catholic. The policy rebounded in a series of
bloody civil wars with dynastic allusions. The struggle continued unceasingly and French foreign policy
was paralyzed. The fighting did not stop until 1594,
when France was seriously exhausted and tolerance
was victorious. The Huguenots received great religious freedom, but the state religion remained
Catholicism, or to quote Henry IV: "Paris could be
worth a mass or two."

1589-1648
During the greater part of the period France was too
weak to really want to challenge its neighbors. The
earlier wars against the Hapsburgs and the internal
religious wars had undermined the economic
strength and self-confidence of France. Diplomatically France was also seen as the biggest robber baron
of Europe. Under Henry IV, Sully, and later under
the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu, France recovered and laid the foundation for the later autocracy
under Louis XIV. The country was at peace, both internally and externally, and the countrys foreign policy was to improve relations to any possible partners.
The goal had never changed, as Spain and Austria
were the enemies, only the means had changed.
Until 1635 France only took part in limited wars
with little or no gains. The only war of any consequence was an isolated conflict with Spain concerning the existence of the Duchy of Mantua, but the affair was resolved to the satisfaction of France in 1659.
In 1636 France had waited a long time for an opportunity to attack its enemies, Spain and Austria, and
now everything was right. Both of them were exhausted, as were all potential rivals, while France had
enjoyed peace and prosperity. France stepping onto
the scene provided the turning point of the war.
French weapons and ducats cut the Hapsburgs down
to size during the last decade of the war. Commanders such as the prince of Cond and Turenne defeated Spaniards, Austrians, and Bavarians in battles such
as those at Rocroi, Freiburg, and Zumarhausen. In
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tinued the reforms of centralization and in 1648 negotiated an excellent peace treaty for France in the
Westphalian towns of Osnabrck and Mnster. As a
consequence of the Peace of Westphalia France became the most powerful nation of Europe.

1649-1721
The period started with a violent uprising among the
nobles and burghers called "The Frond," which continued for twelve years. The civil war was a reaction
to the work to centralize government performed by
Sully, Richelieu, and Mazarin during the past fifty
years. When the Frond had been beaten completely
(in 1661) France could once more have an active foreign policy under the rule of Louis XIV, the Sun
King. During the remainder of the period France was
more or less continually at war. The goals were
twofold: the first was breaking the Hapsburg band
encircling of France, and the second was increasing
the honor of the king, and honor was not the less important of the two. Louis XIV had excellent men at
his command. Louvois, the minister of war, created a
war machine the likes of which had never been seen
before; Colbert, the minister of finance, created a
navy that was equal to the navies of England or the
Netherlands; and marshal Vauban built a chain of defensive works along the border to the Spanish
Netherlands and the Rhine. Until 1696 there were
almost a dozen wars against the Netherlands, Spain,
and Austria, where France managed to push its positions forward further and further. Once again
Turenne was one of the greatest commanders.
And then suddenly the world became aware of the
curious position of Spain. The Spanish king was dying and without heirs, and a violent bickering of how
to divide the inheritance ensued. The dying Spanish
king, Charles II, decided to leave the entire kingdom
undivided to the grandson of Louis XIV, if he renounced all claims to the French throne. Louis XIV
broke all previous agreements and accepted the testament. This in turn resulted in France entering into
a war of alliances. France, Bavaria, Cologne, Spain,
and Savoy went to war against Austria, England, the
Netherlands, and most of the small kingdoms and
principalities of the Holy Roman Empire. The
French army was definitely the best, but the allies had
better commanders. The duke of Marlborough
(England) and prince Eugene of Savoy (Austria) beat
French generals such as Villeroi, Villars, Boufflers,
and Catinat, and only the brilliant Vendme lived up
to expectations. The war could be said to have ended
in a draw due to exhaustion. It is difficult to say who

actually won, but history shows that England gained

the most. France was able to keep Spain and its
provinces in the New World, but the French and the
Spanish crowns were to be kept apart. This meant
that the goals of Louis XIV could not be met. France
was still the most powerful nation in Europe, but was
not immune to wars of alliances, which the Spanish
War of Succession had demonstrated. The French
navy could no longer compete with either the English or the Dutch navies when the period neared its
end.

1722-1792
The aftermath of the Spanish War of Succession was
severe. The national finances were in disarray and the
national debt was astronomical. To top it all off the
state carried out a highly insecure banking operation,
which crashed totally, and the population lost all confidence in the administrative abilities of the government.
In 1726 the peace-mongering reformist Fleury was
appointed prime minister and began a series of
changes. Foreign policy changed focus to that of
keeping the balance in Europe instead of a policy of
aggression, and the finances of the country were
drastically improved. Certain things could not be
avoided, though. Politics had become more convoluted after the Spanish War of Succession, which was
primarily due to a leveling of power between the major powers of Europe. This led to a delicate game of
diplomacy, where the clever ones won small victories,
while the dull ones received nothing. The inappropriate mistake of annulling a Spanish royal marriage
in 1725 and instead marrying the daughter of the
lord of Lorraine had serious consequences in 1733,
when the father of the bride, Stanislaus Leszczynski,
was elected king of Poland-Lithuania. Austria and
Russia wanted to see the son of August the Strong as
king of Poland-Lithuania, and this led to the Polish
War of Succession of 1733-1738. The war was quite
successful for France in Germany, the Austrian
Netherlands, and in northern Italy, but not in
Poland-Lithuania, where Russia was in control. Because of this Frances demands were quite modest.
The son of August became king of Poland-Lithuania
and Austria had to accept certain small adjustments
to its borders. However, the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilys was created out of the Austrian provinces of
Naples and Sicily, under the rule of a Spanish prince.
In the last years of his life, quarrelsome nobility
forced Fleury into war. For France this war, the Austrian War of Succession of 1740-1748, meant only a
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chance of lessening the power of Austria on behalf of
its own. In an alliance with Prussia, Spain and a number of smaller German states France fought with Austria, England and Russia. The war did not solve any
problems and the only real change was that the robber baron Frederick II was able to keep Silesia, which
he had taken from Austria. The real explosion came
after the death of Fleury. The battle for the world
outside of Europe combined with the classical continental conflict. The Seven Years War of 1756-1763,
as it came to be called, had its origins in the American
border conflicts between England and France, but
also turned out to be about a revision of the previous
war of succession. France promoted a continental
strategy and invested all its strength into crushing
Prussia, Englands ally. England promoted a global
strategy and quickly occupied all of Frances non-European possessions. The war against Prussia went
frighteningly badly, if one considers the fact that for
all practical purposes Prussia stood alone against
France, Russia, and Austria. When the war-torn and
exhausted Europe signed the peace treaty in 1763
England had become Europe's strongest power,
even if the country needed alliances in order to make
any impact on the continent. France had to cede all
its colonies in North America and Senegal in Africa.
After the war France was ravaged, and there was recovery, as the country was expanding economically.
In 1775 the first battles of the American War of Independence started and in 1778 France saw a chance to
lessen the colonial power of England by aiding the
freedom fighters. French money and troops helped
the way to independence, but the French gains at the
peace treaty of Paris in 1783 were small. The
Louisiana Territory was restored, and a few islands.
Afterwards the French economy was in total shambles, requiring some public participation to solve it.
This political participation in conjunction with a
heavy discontent with the government, with its
source in the liberal ideas of the age of enlightenment, were a few of the basic reasons for the revolution of 1789. France became a Nation, and then the
wars of the revolution began, but all of that happened in another age.

The Ottoman Empire

1492-1588
At the close of the 15th century the Ottoman Empire consisted of practically all of the former Byzantine Empire, which it had totally crushed and then
annexed. Constantinople fell in 1453. The popula110

tion consisted mainly of Turks, Greeks, and Arabs,

but also of various southern Slavs. The first ruler of
the Turkish tribal confederation that had crossed the
border into Byzantium was named Osman (Arabic:
Uthman), which is why the nation was called the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were warlike in nature,
but skillfully mixed the Byzantine and Arabic heritage with Turkish culture. The result was a politically harmonious country with Islam as the uniting ideology. The political system had three interwoven
parts, the tribal system, the old imperial system from
the old Roman Empire, and the Turkish custom of
the ruler more or less governing from the back of his
horse. This created a flexible system, which worked
as long as the sultan and the administration had
enough of competence and diplomatic skills. Religiously the Ottoman Empire was the most tolerant
of all of Europe, and only Poland-Lithuania was able
to compete in any way.
During the first years of the 16th century a Persian
dynasty had risen to power in Persia and had kicked
out the former Mongol rulers. The rulers were Shiite
Moslems and inevitably came into conflict with the
Sunni Moslems of the Ottoman Empire. When the
Ottoman Empire became embroiled in a civil war between two brothers during the 1510s, the Persians
had supported the losing brother. The victor, Selim I
Yavuz turned against Persia in a bloody war and conquered places including Kurdistan and Armenia.
Soon Egypt joined with the enemies of the Ottoman
Empire, but Selim rode out the storm and conquered Syria. The Mamelukes of Egypt refused to
make peace, and the next year Selim renewed his offensive, which brought him all the way to Cairo, and
Egypt was annexed. A short time later he united with
Chair-Eddin (Barbarossa), a pirate chief in Tunis.
The chief was appointed Ottoman pasha and grand
admiral, which turned the Ottoman Empire into the
strongest naval power of the Mediterranean. In 1520
Suleyman the Magnificent was put on the throne,
and he immediately reformed both the army and the
financial system. Suleyman then started an offensive
against Christian southeast Europe, and conquered
Rhodes from the Knights of Saint John (1522). The
great offensive was directed against enormous Hungary, which was defeated at Mohacs in 1526. Ludvig
II, the king of Hungary, was slain in the battle. The
Ottomans took Budapest and annexed most of Hungary. Following a war of succession concerning the
remaining parts of Hungary between the Austrian
emperor and the prince of Siebenbrgen, Suleyman
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all the way to the gates of Vienna. After a few months
of siege he was forced to retreat, as his supply lines
were in shambles, but Christianity had firmly learned
to fear the Ottoman Empire. In 1533 Ferdinand of
Austria signed a peace treaty with Suleyman and Johan Zapolya of Siebenbrgen. Siebenbrgen became
an Ottoman vassal and Austria had to pay an annual
tribute to Rum (Constantinople). The Ottoman
Empire was probably the most powerful force in Europe at this time. During the 1530s and 1540s Suleyman continued his offensive in the Mediterranean.
All of Northern Africa all the way to Morocco was
conquered, and all of southern Italy was plundered
and destroyed, and the Ottomans held several Italian
towns for many years. The Pope was lived in fear in
Rome. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Venice
and conquered Cyprus and Crete. The Ottoman
fleets continued to win victories until the catastrophic defeat at Lepanto in 1571, and then things went
downhill. There are several reasons why the Ottoman navy never recovered after Lepanto. The naval
shipyards were simply not effective enough, but also
Ottoman naval warfare had centered on boarding,
where courage and skill with the sword were the decisive factors. The development of weapons technology never reached the Ottoman navy, and it remained a pale shadow of its former greatness. The
failed storming of Malta is another example. The art
of fortifications had evolved during the period, and
warfare turned more and more into the art of besieging. The Christian neighbors of the Ottoman Empire built numerous forts and avoided pitched battles
until the Ottoman armies wore out due to attrition.

1589-1648
There were a lot of changes in the Ottoman Empire
during this period. The ruling system becomes more
of an oligarchy than an autocracy and in the future
the power was residing in the hands of a small number of ministers and advisors in the circle around the
grand vizier. On the other hand the Empire had
grown so large that power had to be decentralized.
The provincial governors had to take the clans and
the powerful families living in each province into
consideration. The ability to wage war with any
grand strategies and clear-cut goals became compromised when the country grew too large.
The Christian nations started to pass the Ottoman
regarding tactics. The relationship with Spain became surprisingly good from the 1580s, and there
were no more wars between the countries. The two
great enemies were instead Austria, Venice, Poland-

Lithuania, and Persia, particularly the latter. Even

though wars were quite common during the period,
the greatest blow against the technological and military development of the Ottoman Empire came from
the numerous rebellions. Between 1596 and 1604
three very extensive rebellions started in three separate parts of the country, and the last one was not
crushed until 1635. At the same time the Ottoman
Empire got in a war with Austria and Poland-Lithuania (The Long War of 1593-1606), which ended
with some minor Ottoman victories, and Austria had
to pay a tribute to the sultan. At the same time Persia
had attacked in the Far East (1603-1611). Except for
a war with Poland-Lithuania in 1615-1621, in which
nothing was gained, the country continued the
struggle against Persian in 1616-1618 and once
again in 1623-1629, which resulted in rendering
Persia harmless for all eternity and putting Georgia
and Azerbaidjan under Ottoman rule. Considering
the sultan murders during the 1620s and the
Mameluke uprisings during the 1630s, the Ottoman
Empire had kept and defended its empire well, although they were not able to expand to any greater
extent. When the period neared its end the Ottoman
Empire was more the equal of its neighbors, and no
longer as superior as it once was.

1649-1721
When the Christian world had ended its Thirty Years
War a new wave of sultan murders swept over the Ottoman Empire. The professional army of the Empire
was no longer of any use in real warfare, but occupied
themselves with trade, manufacture, and politics. As
the Ottoman navy slowly degenerated, the Ottoman
Empire gradually lost control over the Barbary States
(Tripolis, Tunis, and Alger), which became autonomous in the 1650s, and fully independent in the
early 18th century. The country suffered subversive
rebellions during the 1660s and during the first
decade of the 18th century, and these occurred at the
same time as major wars. During the period the
country was constantly at war with two or more
countries at the same time, and the fact that they
managed to defend the country as well as they did
was a miracle. The Ottoman Empire was at war with
Venice in 1645-1670 and regained Crete, which they
had lost during the wave of sultan murders. Siebenbrgen was fought successfully in 1658-1660, and
Austria in 1663-1664, without any loss of land. Then
the struggle became more and more unequal. The
Ottoman Empire lost a war with the Polish-Lithuanian warrior king Jan Sobieski in 1672-1676, and
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lost the few provinces they had initially gained. When
they later attacked Austria and besieged Vienna for a
few months, for the second time in history, PolandLithuania, Venice, the Papal State, and Russia came
to the aid of the Hapsburgs. This was a war that
could not be won in the long run, even if they managed to pull off some excellent counter offensives in
1690 and 1695. The war ended with the Ottoman
Empire ceding Kaminiecz to Poland, Azov to Russia
and Hungary, Siebenbrgen and Croatia all the way
to the river Sava to Austria, and Morea to Venice.
The Ottoman Empire lost about a third of its European territory. Palace revolts ran rampant, but the
country still managed to take Russia by surprise in a
short war in 1711-1712 and regain Azov. And when
Christianity had been fighting over the inheritance of
Charles II, the Ottoman Empire was attacked by
Austria and Venice in 1716-1718. The country was
no longer able to defend itself after the recent catastrophic war, and Austria gained the Banate, northern
Serbia, and parts of Wallachia in the peace of Passorowitz in 1718. The return of Morea from Venice
was small consolation. When the period was nearing
the end the Ottoman Empire was still a great power,
but a power on the decline. Without some quick
changes everything would be lost.

1722-1792
During the 18th century the Ottoman Empire
lagged more and more behind the Christian countries economically. Efficiency of production increased much faster in Western Europe than in the
Ottoman Empire, which struck at the manufacturing
of goods when the countrys competitiveness decreased. There was also an explosive population
growth, which doubled the population. The country
could no longer feed the people, who flocked to the
cities. When the industrial sector stagnated an enormous proletariat was created, which in turn led to violent uprisings during the century. The Ottoman
Empire was not able to avoid wars. Russia in particular had decided to expand at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. During the first half of the period the
Ottoman army performed fairly well against its
Christian neighbors, but during the second half the
armed forces were hopelessly backward. The main
reason for the military decline was the rigid political
system. When the wars went badly this was interpreted in religious terms, explaining that the leadership
was not righteous enough and was lacking in the
confidence of God, and did not want to see the technological backwardness of the country. Naturally the
112

government understood the problem, but did not

dare do anything about it, fearing that any reforms
would break up the social system of the country.
Persia was fought in 1723-1727, leading to a conquest of the Tabriz area. In the footsteps of the Polish War of Succession of 1735 the Ottoman Empire
attacked Russia, Persia, and Austria. The Ottomans
were victorious everywhere, except against the Russians, particularly because of the long supply lines to
the Crimea. In 1739 there was peace and the Ottoman Empire regained everything that had been
lost to Austria at the peace of Passorowitz in 1718,
which was a great victory. The Ottoman Empire,
however, again lost Azov to Russia. Four years later
Persia attacked and the war in the east went badly, especially since it was impossible to send reinforcements to the front because of numerous rebellions.
The war lasted between 1743-1747, and Persia regained the Tabriz area, but Persia was then threatened by dissolution and Russian influence. Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1768-1774 in the
middle of a serious civil war in which Egypt became
an independent nation for a few years. The peace did
not result in any greater ceding of land, but the
Crimea Khanate became a Russian protectorate and
was annexed together with Georgia in the 1780s.
Russia was also recognized as the protector of all of
the Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia, which
meant that the country could intervene in the interior affairs of the country. Austria grabbed Bukovina.
The Ottoman Empire had fallen far, but the worst
had yet to come, when Russia and Austria again attacked during the period from 1787 to 1792. The
Ottomans lost all of the pitched battles, but were
saved by the Polish nationalist rebellion, and only
had to cede the area between Dniepr and Bug. The
existence of the Ottoman Empire was as threatened
as that of Poland-Lithuania at this time, but the
Napoleonic wars and the resulting politics of balancing the powers saved the Ottoman Empire. The
countrys economy and technological development
never caught up with the Christian speed of development, and in another 123 years the country was dissolved, but all of that happened during another age.

Poland-Lithuania
1492-1588
In 1492 the Jagellonian dynasty ruled one of the
largest areas of Europe, namely Poland-Lithuania,
Bohemia and Hungary. This period has often been
called the "golden age" of Poland-Lithuania, with

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the country stretching from Danzig in the north, to
Smolensk in the east, and Odessa in the south by way
of the Black Sea. The land was rich, the army skillful,
and culture was flowering, but the weakness of the
political system was also established in this period.
The Jagellonian dynasty died out in 1572, which
turned Poland-Lithuania into an elected kingdom.
This would not have been a problem, if the country
at the same time had not been a republic of nobles
(since the union at Lublin in 1569), which was governed completely by shortsighted rationality. The
freedom and privileges of the nobility quickly affected the welfare of the general populace. This was also
one of the reasons why the Polish-Lithuanian
monarchs always were lacking adequate funds.
Militarily the country was definitely a great power.
The Polish-Lithuanian army combined the best of
both western and eastern European war craft and
tactics, which meant that the country was able to
beat opponents from both spheres. Bohemia and
Hungary were lost already in 1526, when the Jagellonic federation lost the battle of Mohacs. This was
not a question of Polish-Lithuanian weakness, but
rather a question about the right of inheritance after
king Ludwig II, who was killed in the battle. For
Poland-Lithuania there were primarily two fronts
during the period - north and south. To the north
the country used the breakdown of the Teutonic order and took on East Prussia and Courland as vassals.
Poland-Lithuania also annexed Livonia and Polotsk,
and for many years the country fought a war of attrition with Russia, and was also engaged in battle with
the Ottomans along the Hungarian border.
If the Spaniards and Ottomans had the best infantry of the period, then Poland-Lithuania had the
best cavalry. Approximately two-thirds of the army
consisted of cavalry and the rest of firearm equipped
infantry providing fire support when the heavy armored units of hussars swept across the battlefields.
Some of the best commanders in Europe of the time
worked in the country and improved the PolishLithuanian army and its tactics. The army was the
most flexible war machine in all of Europe and it
could be fighting on the steppes outside Moscow,
while at the same time it could be fighting in the
mountains of Transylvania. Poland-Lithuania was
the strongest country in northern and eastern Europe during the period.

1589-1648
In 1587 Sigismund was elected king and in 1592 he
succeeded his father as king of Sweden. This did not

solve any of the problems in the Baltic region. Pretty

soon Sigismund was deposed as king of Sweden and
a long and violent war started in 1598 between
Poland-Lithuania and Sweden, and lasted until
1629. At the same time the great unrest began in
Russia, and both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania tried
to put their own princes on the throne of Russia
without success. The fortune of war varied. During
the first two decades of the war Poland-Lithuania
was victorious, but the odds evened out at the end,
and in 1629 Poland-Lithuania needed peace, as it
had been attacked from several directions, by Crimea
Tartars and Ottomans (1615-1621) among others,
and it had suffered a civil war in 1606-1608. Sweden
was able to keep Livonia and received custom payments from a number of Polish ports. The ports returned to Polish ownership in 1635.
During the war the Russians had unsuccessfully
tried to penetrate the border and a number of rebellions broke out and were squelched. During the entire period there was a protracted contest between
the king and the Sejm about the division of power.
Even if Sigismund, and his son Vladislav, managed to
gain some small advantages, the power of the nobility was strengthened, to the great sorrow of PolandLithuania. In 1632-1634 Poland-Lithuania was
again attacked by Russia, but they failed to take
Smolensk and the Polish-Lithuanian army was victorious. After two decades of peace and reforms
Poland-Lithuania would once again be shaken at its
very foundations. A huge uprising started among the
Zaporogian Tartars under the leadership of the infamous Bogdan Chmelnicki, heavily supported by the
Russian Czar. At the end of the period PolandLithuania was a great power under siege, attacked
from all directions by countries wishing to expand at
her expense.

1649-1721
In 1649 a period in the history of Poland-Lithuania
known as the "Deluge" began, when the entire
country was shaken by rebellion, civil war, and invasions. The aforementioned Chmelnicki rebelled in
the Ukraine in 1649-1667, and a few years later Russia attacked (1654-1667). The opportunity was
seized by Sweden, Prussia, and Siebenbrgen, all of
them attacking in 1655. Add to this the serious
Lubomirski rebellion in 1665-1667, which forced an
expensive peace with Russia in Andrusovo in 1667,
where Russia gains the Ukraine south of Dniepr, and
the Smolensk area. Poland-Lithuania endured,
stamped out the rebellions, and finally expelled all of
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its enemies, but at a very high cost. Large parts of the
country were depopulated, the total population of
the country went from 11 to 8 million people, and
towns and fields were burned. The important grain
trade had been damaged in such a serious way that it
never really recovered. Prussia had also become an
independent nation, which would lead to very uncomfortable consequences for Poland-Lithuania later on. The magnates had also managed to receive a
"Liberum Veto," which meant that a single senator
could sink any suggestion, even if all of the rest approved of it. This paralyzed the ability of the
monarch and the government to renew and reform
anything as long as the republic existed.
In the 1670s another war with the Ottoman Empire started, which meant great victories for PolandLithuania, and the country regained what had been
lost at beginning of the war. The country was slowly
recovering from the "deluge," both economically
and in terms of population, but it would take a very
long time before the lost years had been regained.
Early on during the 1680s the Ottoman Empire carried out its last great offensive and laid siege to Vienna. Jan Sobieski, the warrior king, came to the aid of
the Austrians with a large army. As commander of the
armies of the allies he totally crushed the Ottomans.
His name flew across Europe as "the man who saved
Europe." Unfortunately Jan Sobieski continued to
wage war against the Ottoman Empire as commander of the Holy League. The war went well, but
Poland-Lithuania gained very little. At the same time
the northern and eastern parts of the kingdom were
neglected, which would bring serious consequences
later on. Sobieski is seen as the last great king of
Poland-Lithuania, and carried out a number of reforms throughout the country, but when he tried political reforms the nobility immediately stopped him.
The military reforms made the army strong and efficient again, but with the anarchistic form of government that he neither could nor had the strength to
fight, Poland-Lithuania would face serious problems
when competing with its neighbors. This would become obvious after the death of Jan Sobieski in 1696.
In 1700, the year before the Spanish War of Succession began, the Great Nordic War started. Russia,
Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony
had decided to regain what had been lost and, if possible, divide Sweden among themselves. In principle
it was king August of Saxony, who had managed to
persuade the parliament of Poland-Lithuania to go
to war, using all kinds of bribes and threats. The war
went very badly for Poland-Lithuania. August was
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unpopular and a number of the nobility supported

the Swedes. August was expelled, but returned when
Sweden could not handle the might of the allies.
When peace was signed Poland-Lithuania gained
nothing. Augusts rule of Poland-Lithuania was
maintained only through Russias support, and from
1717 the "silent parliament" came into being, which
meant that bribed senators made sure that no issues
of harm to Russia could be handled by the government of the country. This war was a catastrophe for
the country, which lost much of its independence.

1722-1792
After the Great Nordic War, August the Strong and
in turn Poland-Lithuania was dancing to the Russian tune. Russian weapons and Russian money were
already infiltrating the already quite decentralized
parliamentary rule. The Russian goal was to totally
obliterate all non-Russian influence and turn PolandLithuania into a Russian protectorate, which was the
goal also in Sweden and Persia. When August II died
in 1733 the Polish War of Succession began and ended in 1738. Russia and Austria wanted to put the son
of August II on the throne, while France wanted to
put the former king Stanislaus Leszczynski there.
Frances war was successful, but it still could not
threaten the Russian position in Poland-Lithuania,
so August III was crowned king. The Polish-Lithuanian army fell into disarray and the body of officers
was transformed from proud warriors to cunning
cabinet politicians. A dozen magnate families became powerful enough to decide the future of
Poland-Lithuania through their own bartering. During the Austrian War of Succession in 1740-1748
and the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 August
milked the country of as much money as possible in
order to carry out his own Saxon politics. PolandLithuania became a deployment and supply area for
the Russian and Prussian armies. The situation was
catastrophic. Economically Poland-Lithuania had a
great time, with an increase in production, with the
establishment of a number of factories. Culturally
Poland-Lithuania was flowering and a number of
Polish thinkers made important advances. In 1763
the former lover of Catherine the Great of Russia,
Stanislaus Poniatowski, was elected king. The Czarina had expected a very obedient slave in Warsaw, but
instead found a reformer who was intelligent, energetic, and incorruptible. The king and sections of the
nobility initiated a political process with the goal of
reforming and modernizing Poland-Lithuania.
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and finally the vote was carried through, but by then
it was too late. From the 1760s Russia had increasing
difficulties in keeping its control of Poland-Lithuania. The cooperation between the king and a large
party of nobles, and a growing Polish nationalism resulted in several efforts at reforming the country, and
a number of rebellions and civil wars. This was used
by the Ottoman Empire, Austria, but primarily by
Prussia. That country saw an opportunity to gain
several large territories, which were controlled by
Russia, and using every means of persuasion managed to talk Russia into dividing Poland-Lithuania
between them. "A nation which cannot defend itself
has no right to exist," the Prussian ambassador von
Eschl said. This was of course an effective form of
propaganda. The whole issue really boiled down to
the fact that no one wanted to see a reawakened
Poland-Lithuania based on the liberal new ideas of
the times, like an eastern European version of the
United States. The reforms were implemented at a
very fast pace, which prompted quick action. The
country was divided and obliterated on three different occasions, in 1772, 1793, and 1795. PolandLithuania then ceased to exist as an independent
country, but would reappear 123 years later in another age entirely.

Portugal
1492-1588
In 1492 Portugal was not one of the great powers,
but rather a country of quite subordinate importance. The wars for the crown of Castile had failed in
the 1470s, and Portugal stood in the shadow of
Spain. The geographical position of Portugal totally
prevented any expansion in Europe. Its position,
however, was perfect for expansion outside of Europe, which Portugal turned to during the period.
The Portuguese had reached the Cape of Good
Hope and had colonized several important stops
along the route to India, like the Azores and Cap
Verde and had also established a trading post in
Guinea. In 1494 the Pope Alexander VI arranged the
Tordesillas treaty, which divided the non-European
world between Portugal and Spain.
Then came a wave of discoveries and conquests until the 1530s. In the years between 1497 and 1503
Madagascar, Brazil, and India were discovered. A
support base in India, Cochin, was established, and
Zanzibar was annexed, which meant that the Portuguese now had bases along the entire naval route.
In 1504 Portugal slashed the price of pepper in half,

which resulted in a heavy increase in European consumption of spices, from which the Portuguese merchants made a tidy profit. This was a blow in the trade
war against Venice and Genoa, and the decisive reason why the trade across the Levant was crushed.
Under the leadership of the admirals Almeida and Albuquerque in 1505-1515 a number of areas around
the Indian Ocean were conquered. Goa, the Malayan
peninsula, Hormuz, and Mombasa were conquered
after gaining total naval superiority in the Indian
Ocean in 1509. The Portuguese also discovered the
Moluccans, China, and the Philippines, and Ferno
de Magelhes sailed completely around the globe in
1519-1522. The circumnavigation of the Earth
meant enormous prestige, but was not of any practical use, as the "new western route to India" was not
financially viable. During the 1520s and 1530s Portugal gained footholds on Java, conquered Diu in India, sighted the Australian continent, and started to
colonize Brazil in earnest. In 1529 East Asia was divided between Spain and Portugal as an extension of
the Tordesillas treaty. The border was set between
the Philippines and the Moluccans. During the
1550s Portugal bought Macao from China and, as
the first European nation, had started to trade with
Japan.
At this point Portugal had been transformed into the
richest nation of Europe, and Lisbon was the most
important center of trade in Europe. Unfortunately
enough Portugal never managed to strengthen its
position. The strict social system of Portugal never
changed, and almost all of the contacts with the
colonies went through state monopolies. These two
factors explains why the country never developed the
necessary large middle classes, which could handle
trade and create a vigorous production of goods. The
government of the country and its colonies stood
and fell with the quality of the monarch, and the Aviz
dynasty was not able to produce kings as able as Joo
II and Manuel the Great. When Joo III died in
1557, Sebastio inherited the throne. This king was
not mentally sound and developed a manic dream of
a crusade against the Moslems of Northern Africa, a
dream that was realized in 1578, when the 24 year
old king led an army of 24,000 men to certain doom
in the Moroccan sand dunes. After the war Portugal
was without leadership, had an empty treasury, and
had almost all of its nobility wiped out. An older relative of Sebastio, Henrique, was put on the throne,
but he died already in 1580. At this time there were
many pretenders to the throne, but no one could
compete with Flipe II of Spain, and no one had any
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better arguments than the duke of Alba, and an army
to match. Portugal was simply annexed to Spain.

1589-1648
When Filipe I (Flipe II of Spain) had been appointed king, the country was ruled by a council with six
members. Everything else was kept intact, the military, the legal system, et cetera. Filipe I relied on the
Jesuits and the Inquisition to unite the two kingdoms naturally. The Portuguese nobility accepted
the incorporation of Portugal in the "Iberian
Union," but the countryside saw a growing resistance to Spanish rule, centered in a cult of Messianic
character around "the lost prince." The members of
the cult were of the opinion that Sebastio had not
died in Morocco, but would return and liberate Portugal from the Spanish grip. The cult spread wide
and far and was the basis many years later for the numerous rebellions against the presence of the Spanish
crown in Portugal.
After the death of Filipe his sons carried out an anti-Portuguese policy in Portugal. Spaniards were
placed in the council, and the Portuguese were treated like second-rate citizens. The Thirty Years War resulted in heavy taxation and levies on the army in
Portugal, making the Spanish crown lose the final
shreds of credibility in the country. In 1637 Portugal
rebelled and duke Joo of Bragana was elected king
as Joo IV (1641-1656). Spain was at war in the
Netherlands, in Germany, against France, and a serious rebellion in Catalonia, and had no real strength
to deal with Portugal, but had to accept the new conditions. An important problem with the "Spanish
imprisonment" had been the English and the Dutch,
who had both declared war on Spain and had taken a
number of Portuguese colonies and trading posts.
When its independence was restored Portugal had
lost a third of its possessions. A time of reconstruction was at hand, and Portugal allied itself immediately with France, and created better relations with
England and the Netherlands.

1649-1721
When Joo IV died in 1656 the monarchy was restored and the country was at peace. It was no longer
any great power, however, and was solidly among the
second rank and had to fight to keep its colonies. In
the long run it turned out to be impossible, but they
had temporarily regained some of the lost possessions, and they had prevented Spain from retaking
Portugal. But the country still had a few dark years
ahead. The king, Alfonso VI (1662-1667) was ill and
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could not rule the country properly, and they were

again attacked by Spain. The independence was skillfully defended and the battle of Ameixial decided the
matter. Spain recognized the independence of Portugal three years later.
In 1667 Alfonso abdicated in favor of his brother,
who was crowned as Pedro II. Under his firm leadership Portugal developed and under his minister of finance, Ericeira, mercantilism was introduced to Portugal. Ericeira reformed the economy and stimulated
production of primarily wool and silk. Portugals major problem remained the lack of a broad production
base. After losing most of its possession in Asia, Portugal focused on developing vast Brazil. They took
control over all of the colonies along the coast and
sent explorers to discover the interior of the country.
At the end of the 1660s gold and diamonds were discovered in Brazil, which created a gold rush. The
population grew, but farming was suffering. The
Portuguese crown could use the income, though, to
maintain its balance of trade, as Portugal needed to
import a large number of finished products from primarily England. Militarily and politically the country
had reached the very bottom. In 1698 all of the support bases in East Africa were lost, except Moambique, to the sultan of Oman.
And then suddenly the world became aware of the
peculiar position of Spain. The Spanish king was dying without any heirs, and a wild bartering for the division of the inheritance started. The dying Spanish
king Charles II chose to leave the crown undivided
to the grandson of Louis XIV, but only if he renounced all claims to the French throne. Louis XIV
broke all previous agreements and accepted the
agreement. This in turn put France into a war of alliances. France, Bavaria, Cologne, Spain and Savoy
went to war against Austria, England, the Netherlands, and most of the small principalities of the Holy
Roman Empire. In 1703, after having been the ally
of France, Portugal entered the game on the side of
England. The fortunes of war varied, but Portuguese
and English troops took Madrid, which showed that
the armed forces of Portugal still had some bite.
Originally the allied goal had been to divide the nonIberian provinces of Spain, but when Portugal entered the war they wanted to protect the country and
tried to put a younger Austrian prince on the throne.
This did not come about, when the same prince was
elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and a
restored Hapsburg empire was not what either Lisbon or London wanted to see. Portugal did not win
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England were strengthened enormously, to the great
benefit of Portugal. At the end of the period it was
quite clear that Portugal had dropped even further,
relatively speaking, and was now merely a third rate
power.

1722-1792
During the years after the Spanish War of Succession
Portugal was a country with potential, and could
have taken a few steps up the ladder of power if it had
made the right investments. The opportunity was
wasted on needless luxuries and shortsighted profits.
One after the other the country lost its possessions
and for a while it had only Brazil left. During the first
half of the period enormous sums were spent building palaces and centers of culture. Joo V (17061750) was an energetic and classically autocratic
monarch, who copied the ideology and the style of
the court of Louis XIV. The period of Joo V has
been called "the second renaissance" in the history of
Portugal.
When Joo V was nearing the end of his life he
turned his power over to the marquis of Pombal. He
was a reformer of great measure, and was imbued
with the ideas of the enlightenment. His goal was to
develop Portugal, a backward, third rate power, into
a "modern," secularized nation. Economic, political,
and social reforms were initiated. In 1755 Portugal
suffered a terrible disaster, when an earthquake laid
waste to the all of Lisbon, and thousands of people
perished in the fires and the tidal wave. Pombal immediately went to work and directed the relief work
and later the recovery. He quickly became very popular when, after a failed attempt on his life, he exiled
all of the Jesuits and imprisoned the nobility, many of
whom were executed. Pombal had become a dictator. His economic reforms were slowly beginning to
take effect, and a sector of production without the
privileges of the nobility started to appear. After the
death of the king his daughter Maria I came into
power. She was favored the clerical and was conservative, and exiled Pombal. Soon the old society was
back in the reins and the nobility once more ran the
country inefficiently. When the French Revolution
broke out Maria immediately joined with the allies.
The queen was mortally terrified of new ideas.
There had once been a time when the Portuguese
proudly proclaimed that: "God gave the Portuguese
a small country to live in, but a whole world in which
to die." The day would soon arrive when the Portuguese no longer had a whole world to die in, but all
of that happened in another age.

Russia
1492-1588
In 1492 Russia was a weak country. Actually it was
not called Russia, but the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
It was not until 1547 that Ivan IV could style himself
as "Czar of all the Russians" During the first half of
the period Russia was a weak country. They had recently conquered Novgorod, but were lacking in
technology and able warriors. The country had the
resources in both money and men, but the great
problem was being located too far from Germany to
effectively recruit mercenaries, and it had not yet
fought enough wars against its European neighbors
in order to learn the most modern tactics. The country was also totally feudal, and there was a violent
struggle between the grand dukes of Moscow and
their vassals. The vassals fell, one after the other. This
did not prevent them from fighting wars with Sweden along the Finnish border and against PolandLithuania along the entire border between the two
countries. The wars against these two countries went
badly, but they only had to cede land to the Poles.
Russia was also at war with the Kazan Khanate, which
they also failed to subdue. The goals during the entire period were to expand in all directions, but they
did not manage that during the period. During the
second half of the period Ivan IV came into power,
and the first modernization of Russia began, which
was largely made possible by crushing the political
basis of the feudal army. The army and the judicial
system were modernized, the political rule was centralized, and the powerful nobles were forced to acknowledge the Czar. At the end of the 16th century
there was also an ideological change. The Czar took
control over the Orthodox Church and proclaimed
Moscow the "Third Rome," which meant that all
Orthodox confessors were subordinated under him
and the patriarch of Moscow. Orthodox confessors,
which did not submit to the authority of the czar,
were seen as traitors. The borders between an Orthodox confessor, a Russian, and a subject of the Czar
started to blur. Naturally Poland-Lithuania did not
accept the situation, as it had a number of Orthodox
subjects, and antagonism increased tremendously. At
the beginning the Russian wars went fairly well. They
managed to keep the Swedes at bay, and annexed the
Kazan Khanate, crushed the remains of the Golden
Horde and annexed the Astrakhan Khanate. Then
Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, and the Crimea Khanate
attacked them from three directions. They suffered a
terrible defeat, which stopped Russian expansion for
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a long time. At the close of the period Ivan IV died
and the autocracy lost its heart. Various political
groups fighting for power broke the land into pieces.
"The Time of Troubles" had begun.

1598-1648
His son Theodor followed Czar Ivan IV on the
throne, but he died in 1598, starting a period of violent civil war, which totally paralyzed the country.
Russia had never been closer to being obliterated as a
nation. The period has been called "the time of troubles" (1598-1613) and was characterized by fighting
between various groups of nobles, between Swedes
and Poles in Russia, and by rebellions and bandits.
Both Poland-Lithuania and Sweden tried to put their
own princes on the throne, but never succeeded, and
in 1613 Michail Romanov sat himself on the throne.
The aftermath led to the cessation of land during the
wars of the subsequent years. Sweden was given Ingermania and Kexholm, and Poland-Lithuania received Smolensk and Livonia. Then a thorough reform work was initiated. The interior political order
was organized, the economy was reformed, and the
power of the Czar was strengthened. In 1632 they
thought they were strong enough to attack PolandLithuania in order to retake the Smolensk area, but
the Polish-Lithuanian forces were far better, forcing
the Russians to retreat. Instead they were biding
their time, looking for their opponents weaknesses.
At the end of the period, when the rest of Europe was
busy with the peace treaties at Mnster and Osnabrck, Russia was a country on the rise. It was not
quite yet ready to start competing with great powers
like Sweden and Poland-Lithuania, but that time
would come.

1649-1721
In 1645 Alexis replaced his father on the throne of
the Czars, and the rulers saw an opening for change.
A few years later a violent Zaporogian Cossack uprising took place in Polish-Lithuanian Ukraine, which
was closely watched. When these Cossacks then
turned to Russia for help they attacked PolandLithuania from the east. The next year Sweden,
Brandenburg-Prussia, and Siebenbrgen attacked
the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and chaos
soon spread far and wide. Czar Alexis saw an opportunity when the entire Swedish army was deeply involved in Poland and marched toward Ingermania,
Estonia, and Finland with a large army. This twofront war did not turn out quite as expected, and
they also suffered internal problems. Because of an
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initiative of the patriarch of Moscow the Orthodox

Church was split and a large number of peasant uprisings occurred throughout the country. Peace was
signed with Sweden in 1661 with no gains, but the
peace with Poland-Lithuania in 1667 gave Russia the
Ukraine east of Dniepr and the Smolensk area, which
was plentiful booty. But Russia had something new
to think about. A violent Cossack uprising under
Stephan Rasin (1667-1671) broke out and at times
threatened Russian control over the entire southern
part of the realm. In 1677 Russia became involved in
a war with the Ottoman Empire for the first time.
Russia won a number of victories, although the
country had the disadvantage of numbers. Peace was
signed in 1681, which gave Russia the Ottoman (or
rather the Crimean) part of the Ukraine. In 1695 the
Ottoman Empire was at war with Poland-Lithuania,
Venice, and Austria, which Czar Peter, who came to
power in 1685, used to his advantage by declaring
war on the Ottomans. The war (1695-1699) was not
very fortunate, but because of the fatigue of the Ottomans, Russia was given the town of Azov and the
surrounding area, which gave Russia its first port, although on the coast of the Black Sea.
In 1700, the year before the start of the Spanish
War of Succession, the Great Nordic War began.
Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Poland-LithuaniaSaxony had decided to retake everything that had
been lost, and if possible to cut up Sweden among
themselves. The war began in a badly for Russia. At
first the brothers of the alliance were kicked out of
the war one by one, which was followed by an invasion of the Ukraine. The winds of war turned after
the glorious victory against the Swedes at Poltava in
1709. Russia quickly occupied all of the Baltic region
and Finland and at the end forced Sweden into signing a peace treaty, even if war fatigue was also high in
Russia. The results were fabulous. The country had
its own modern army and an excellent navy in the
Baltic Sea. Russia gained the entire Baltic area and
Kexholm. The best thing of all was the fact that neither Sweden nor Poland-Lithuania were great powers anymore, and that Russias influence over
Poland-Lithuania through August the Strong meant
that they had in effect chained the Polish-Lithuanian
throne. When the peace was signed in 1721 Russia
was the only great power in the eastern and northern
part of Europe, and all its borders were secured.

1722-1792
During this period Russia pursued a highly skillful
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Poland-Lithuania were governed by parliaments
dominated by the nobility, and by bribing members
they created parties friendly to the Russians in each
country, striving to decentralize all decision-making
even more. In 1733 the French pretender, Stanislaus
Leszczynski, was elected king of Poland-Lithuania.
This was unacceptable to Russia, which initiated the
Polish War of Succession in 1733-1738. The war
turned into a major conflict, but for Russia it was only a question of Poland-Lithuania. They quickly
gained control of the kingdom and put their own
pretender, August III, on the throne. At the same
time Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire. The goal
was the Balkans, but after heavy fighting the Austrian
ally pulled out, and Russia only received Azov in the
peace of 1739. The next year the great Austrian War
of Succession started in 1740-1748, and Russia
fought alongside Austria and England against Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and Sardinia. In
1741, Russia was betrayed by Sweden, but Elizabeth,
the daughter of Peter the Great, used this opportunity to grab power and defeat the Swedes. From the
Swedes she received a couple of provinces in the eastern part of Finland, but she also prevented DenmarkNorway and Sweden from restoring the Calmar
Union, by forcing the Russian pretender Adolphus
Fredrik of Kiel onto the throne. The war on the continent went badly, and Russia was not able to prevent
Prussia from increasing its power in Germany. The
revenge was thought to arrive during the Seven Years
War in 1756-1763, when Russia, together with
France, Austria, Saxony, and Sweden once again
fought it out with Prussia. They failed to crush Prussia, and in 1762 Russia pulled out of the war, because
the new Czar, Peter III, was a fanatical friend of Prussia. Shortly afterwards he was murdered by his wife,
who took over the throne under the name of Catherine the Great. In 1763 the former lover of Catherine
the Great, Stanislaus Poniatowski, was elected king
of Poland-Lithuania. The Czarina had expected an
obedient slave in Warsaw, but found a reformer instead, who was not at all very obedient. The king immediately began a process of reformation and modernization of Poland-Lithuania, and Russia had to
send its troops into the country on several occasions
to retain control, which among other things meant
direct involvement in a regular civil war in 1768. This
also turned into a domestic problem, as real reforms
in Russia also could legitimate the independence
movement in Poland-Lithuania. From the 1760s
Russian control of Poland-Lithuania was slowly beginning to slip. When Frederick II of Prussia then

suggested dividing the country Catherine the Great

was quite accommodating. The first partitioning
happened in 1772, and large parts of the country
were given to Russia, Prussia, and Austria. At the
same time Russia totally lost its grip on Sweden,
when Gustavus III, with some French financial aid,
succeeded with a non-bloody coup when Russia was
busy dividing Poland-Lithuania. The problems with
Poland-Lithuania did not end with the first partitioning. Instead the country continued with its competently implemented political and economic reforms. When the country then abolished the Librum
Veto, which had paralyzed the country for nearly 200
years, the neighbors acted immediately. Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided and obliterated the country
on two occasions in 1793 and 1795. The Ottoman
Empire, the third neighbor of Russia, was attacked in
the two great wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1792.
Russia was clearly superior, but did not manage well
at the peace treaties, because the country always had
other wars or violent rebellions to handle.
In 1773-1774 Russia was shaken by the greatest
uprising of the century, the Pugachov Uprising,
which was extremely serious and difficult to quash.
Sweden waged war against Russia in 1788-1790, giving Russia a two front war. Russia managed to secure
its southern border by annexing the Crimea
Khanate, Georgia and large parts of the Caucasus.
The country also had a great influence on the Christians on the Balkan. When the period was nearing its
end Russia was one of the most powerful of all of the
nations of Europe, but was not able to free itself from
the new politics of alliances, blocking expansion.
They could not even prevent the ideas of the French
Revolution from spreading. Russia became the most
reactionary of all nations and struck at every manifestation of equality. Finally the people became liberated from its shackles and yokes, but that story belongs
to another age.

Spain
1492-1588
In January of 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella entered
Granada. The age of the Moors of Spain had passed.
Spain was the union of Castile and Aragon, which also included the Netherlands, Franch-Comte, Sardinia, Malta, Sicily, and southern Italy. The country
was facing a constitutional upheaval, but was clearly
the strongest power of Europe. During the 16th century the attention of Spain was divided between its
European grand politics and expansion in the New
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World discovered by Christopher Columbus the
night of the 11th and 12th of October 1492.
A dynastic alliance between Spain and Austria was
created at the beginning of the 16th century, which
gave the two countries the same monarch, but they
were still two different countries. This relationship
gave both countries a shared foreign policy, resulting
in serious military tests with both France and the Ottoman Empire. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire resulted in a victory against the Ottomans, when
naval superiority in the Mediterranean was wrested
from the hands of the Ottomans forever at the battle
of Lepanto. The Austrian ally had to bow in part to
the power of the Ottomans on land, as Spain was not
involved on that front.
The wars against France provided great victories,
and France was also prevented from conquering
southern Italy, and instead had to withdraw in order
to secure its northern provinces and the Spanish border. The war against France gave a meager result, as
both countries had great resources. Spain definitely
had the best soldiers of the period, and this may have
been the result of the country constantly being at war
somewhere, which gave the troops lots of experience
and ample opportunities to hone their tactics. Everything was not bright and golden, though. Spain had
a very intolerant religious policy and regarded itself
as the protector of Catholicism at a time when
Protestantism and the Reformist teachings appeared.
They expelled the Spanish Jews from the country,
which would seriously damage the Spanish economy
during later periods. In the Netherlands they fought
a general uprising, which they never were able to
crush. Spain also got into fights with England because of religious matters, and the failed invasion
when the Armada went under in 1588 hinted at
Spains military limitations. The attempt of the Spanish monarchs to keep the European Catholic church
intact also failed, and the country was forced to accept the religious peace at Augsburg in 1556. In
1580 Portugal was annexed, and at the end of the period Spain had crushed the Aztecs and the Incas and
had conquered all of Central America and Florida, all
of South America (Brazil was ruled by the annexed
Portuguese), as well as the Philippines in the Far
East. Spain was the country where the Sun never set,
and it was also the strongest country in western and
southern Europe at the end of the period.

1589-1648
At the end of the 16th century the inner strength of
Spain was beginning to wane. Spain was lacking a
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strong, productive middle class, the Moors and the

Jews had been exiled, and crises in farming and the
failures in investing in production undermined the
economic power of the country. The state went
bankrupt on a number of occasions and it became
more and more difficult to obtain international
loans. To top it all off the production of gold and silver in America dropped, and exports to America
dropped by 60% toward the end of the period. Spain
was viewed as one of the major powers, contributing
to its costly and not particularly victorious wars,
which in time undermined its position in Europe.
Spain was waging war almost continuously against
the rebellious Netherlands up until 1648, without
winning. Spain waged another prolonged and catastrophic war against France in 1628-1659, which definitely marked the end of the Spanish era as a major
power. During the same time as the war with France,
Spain was drawn into the Thirty Years War on the
side of Austria, and the country was not victorious
here either. All of these wars, combined with gradual
economic destitution, created a wave of serious rebellions in both Portugal and Catalonia in 1640. The
Catalonian rebellion was put down, but in Portugal
they failed and the country could once again become
independent. In many ways the nobility lived in the
past. The same strategies that had been successful in
the 16th century were still used in the 17th, and the
idea that Spain was the most powerful nation in the
world, even though it lost battle after battle and
could not even put down rebellions within its own
borders, had not died. The rulers also refused to introduce new mercantile ideas and scientific methodology, as they were inventions of heretic nations. After the peace of Westphalia, Spain had definitely lost
the Netherlands and Portugal and Portugals overseas possessions. Spanish weapons were no longer
the best in Europe, and Spain was passed by France in
terms of power, and by the Netherlands economically.

1649-17211
The peace of Westphalia did not bring peace to
Spain, nor was it a time of much needed domestic reforms and development. Instead, the weak monarchs
of Spain let their favorites run the country. Politics
was characterized by party feuds and intrigue, which
brought neither peace and order nor continuity. The
government kept abusing the economy, and no serious reforms were made in the area of the military. Instead culture was flourishing, although it did not improve the political situation. France was the greatest

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victor of the Thirty Years War, and was not only
stronger than Spain was; it also tried to continue its
expansion, and this time at the expense of Spain. The
entire period was marked by a prolonged defensive
war, where France conquered the remaining part of
the Spanish Netherlands and Franch-Comte, including some borderland along the Pyrenees. In
1700 the last Hapsburg on the throne, Charles II,
died childless. He had willed the whole Spanish
realm to Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, on the
condition that Philip renounced all claim to the
French throne. This was probably the most intelligent move Charles could have done. This would
keep Spain intact, and it ensured that Spain would
not become a French vassal, and also that the French
wars of conquest would end with a Bourbon on the
throne. Things did not turn out exactly as Charles intended, since Louis XIV refused to let his grandson
renounce the French crown. The result was the
Spanish War of Succession of 1701-1714, where
Spain fought on the side of France against England,
the Netherlands, and Austria. France did not win the
war, and instead the whole issue was settled in the
peace treaty. Spain did not get a very good deal. England took Gibraltar and Menorca, and Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands
were ceded to Austria. This was difficult to swallow,
and in 1717 the Spanish government under Alberoni
launched an offensive against southern Italy. It began
fairly well, but Spain had Austria, England, and
France as enemies, and in1720 they signed a treaty,
where Spain received nothing back, although the
map was slightly redrawn. Following this peace treaty
Spain became a second rate power in the politics of
Europe.

1722-1792
The aftermath of the Spanish War of Succession was
not entirely negative for Spain. Of course, Spain was
no longer one of the great powers of the continent,
but her colonial realm consisted primarily of one
large connected area, which was easy to defend. The
country also developed close political cooperation
with France, as there were Bourbons on both
thrones. The main enemy of Spain during the period
was without doubt England. Spain was a relatively
poor country at the beginning of the epoch. The previous economic policy had been disastrously inhibiting and had caused the economic center of Europe to
move
from
SevilleCadizBarcelona
to
LondonAmsterdamAntwerp. The centralized
control of colonial production also inhibited produc-

tion at home and trade profits from America. In two

sweeping reforms, the first in the form of trading
companies at the beginning of the 1720s to the
1750s, and the second regulating free trade of 1767,
the economic situation in both Spain and its colonies
changed. They simply stimulated each other. As a
consequence Spain was able to hang on to its
colonies during the entire 18th century, and also able
to give a good bite whenever any of the colonies were
"besieged" by the English economic and territorial
lust for expansion. From 1726 to 1729 there was a
sort of "pretend war" between Spain and England,
which was expressed in the form of naval operations.
The origin of the conflict was Englands unlawful
trade with the Spanish colonies, including capturing
of Spanish ships. The economy of Spain naturally suffered, which made the colonies partly dependent on
England, which could not be allowed.
Following some diplomatic complications France
managed to get its representative elected Polish king,
which neither Austria nor Russia could accept. Spain
fought on the side of France in the Polish War of Succession (1733-1738), and managed to assert itself on
the continent. The Russian pretender was finally put
on the throne, but a Spanish prince, Don Charles, received the Two Sicilys, consisting of Naples and Sicily, as his own kingdom, which in a way meant that the
former Spanish domain had been returned to the
family. In 1739 the "War of Captain Jenkins Ear"
between England and Spain broke out, and soon became a part of the Austrian War of Succession, which
started the following year. The conflict consisted of a
totally failed English attack on the Spanish colonies.
Although England ruled the high seas, the Spaniards
easily won each battle on land. The war did not solve
any of the existing conflicts, and there was peace in
1748 based on the status quo. After the war Spain
was quite exhausted. The costs for the two wars
could not be recovered for a long time. When the real discharge came, the Seven Years War of 17561763, the main players were England and France,
and Spain did what it could to stay out of it, but with
little success. In 1762 England attacked Spain in a
lightning offensive that Spain was not able to
counter. At the peace of 1763 Spain had to cede
Florida, but received all of the former French land
west of the Mississippi as compensation. The most
important effect of the war was the realization that
Spain was no longer a great power, but a country that
had to act defensively in order to preserve the nation.
This is why the government under the marquis of
Floridablanca initiated the previously mentioned
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"second program of reformation" in order to unite
the European and non-European parts of Spain economically. During this period Spain also brings order
to its empire by creating a structured political hierarchy. In 1775 the American Revolution began, and
Spains joined the rebels, primarily to expel the English from Gibraltar. As England acquired more enemies they were forced to sign a peace treaty in 1783.
Spain received Florida and Menorca, but not the
coveted Gibraltar. Spain was saved and you could say
that this was a small victory even for the normally inferior weapons of Spain. But the independence of the
United States would soon provide the Spanish
colonies with a dangerous example, and they would
soon rise in rebellion against the Spanish crown, but
that story belongs to another age.

Sweden
1492-1588
In 1492 Sweden was a poor and backward little
country on the outskirts of Europe. Sweden consisted of two integrated parts: Sweden and Finland. The
population spoke two different languages, but had a
lot in common regarding both religion and culture.
The real power in Sweden was in the hands of the
high nobility, who either ruled in the name of a Danish or a Swedish king. On several occasions during
the period of 1492 to 1521 the nobility had renounced the Danish king and had elected a king of its
own, only to return to the Danish king after a few
years. Between each occasion a few royal mansions
naturally switched ownership, but when Christian
the Tyrant executed a number of Swedish nobles
Gustavus Eriksson Vasa started a rebellion, which
created an independent Sweden.
During the first half of the period Sweden tried to
recover from the civil wars and create a functioning
government. The foreign policy was tentative, but
not isolationist. A small but victorious war against
the Hanseatic League on the side of Denmark-Norway resulted in Sweden being able to write off the
enormous debt that was created during the struggle
for independence.
During the second half of the period problems
were heaped on the country. The Danish-Norwegian
effort to re-conquer Sweden was a constant danger,
and Sweden was not strong enough for any strategic
offensives. War came anyway and resulted in a plundered country and empty coffers, although the peace
was fortunate. Sweden was still a free and independent country.
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Russia, or the Grand Duchy of Moscow had obliterated the old rival in the East, the Republic of Novgorod, as it was sometimes called. Sweden had also
managed to annex Estonia after the fall of the Teutonic order in the area. The situation did not improve much, as the Russians just inherited the old
claim of Novgorod on the eastern parts of Finland
and of Estonia. Beginning in 1570 Sweden fought a
25-year long war with Russia over these areas.
Gustavus Vasa, founder of the Vasa dynasty, drew
up a rather anachronistic will leaving large areas of
land to each of his four sons. These areas then became a strong source of conflict, but also resources
for the sons in conflict with the oldest. The whole affair led to a limited civil war and eventually three of
the four sons sat on the throne at one time or the
other. There was also a dynastic alliance with PolandLithuania, which later on turned out to be more of a
problem than an asset during the next period. When
this period approached its end Sweden was still a fairly weak country in Europe, but no longer just a territory defended by peasant levies.

1589-1648
The economy improved gradually under the Vasa
sons, and large areas of the forested expanses were
populated and farmed. Initially Sweden waged war
against Russia, which resulted in a border being draw
up and confirmed between the countries. In 1592
Sigismund, the son of Johan III, came into power.
Sigismund was a Catholic and had been raised in
Poland-Lithuania. A very unpleasant struggle quickly developed between Sigismund and the Catholic
nobility on the one hand and his uncle duke Charles
and the Protestant part of the nobility on the other.
The fight was primarily about religious intolerance,
as both king Sigismund and duke Charles were quite
intolerant. The struggle developed into a short war,
in which Sigismund lost and then returned to
Poland-Lithuania. The fighting did not end there, as
both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania had expanded
into the Baltic region, and a violent war between
them and Russia erupted in a triangular drama with
the Baltic ports as the great prize.
These wars continued almost unceasingly until
1629, and the fortune of war varied immensely.
Poland-Lithuania was the most victorious country
initially, but Sweden got the upper hand at the end.
During these wars the Great Mess engulfed Russia,
which resulted in interventions from both PolandLithuania and Sweden, when they tried to put their
own puppets on the throne for short periods. During

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the fighting Sweden also became involved in a war
with Denmark-Norway, which Sweden lost, although no provinces were ceded. When the fighting
slowed down in 1629 both Poland-Lithuania and
Russia went into a slow period of recovery, but Sweden rushed headlong into the Thirty Years War. During the wars in the northeastern corner of Europe
Sweden had managed to rake Ingermania, Kexholm,
and Livonia out of the fire. Sweden was also able to
finance its "German war" with the income from
eight Polish ports. Sweden entered the Thirty Years
War in 1630. Its fortunes varied, but Sweden managed to retain the initiative, in order to make it one of
the main players during the entire period, much the
result of having an excellent army and brilliant commanders like Gustavus II Adolphus, Banr, Torstensson, Bernhard of Weimar, Knigsmarck, and
Wrangel. In conjunction with this war Sweden attacked Denmark-Norway and defeated the country
in a quick and fairly risky campaign in 1643-1645.
Sweden gained Jmtland, Hrjedalen, Gotland,
sel, and Halland for 30 years. At the peace of Westphalia the Swedish negotiators also managed to grab
Vorpommern, Bremen-Verden, Stettin, and Wildeshausen, turning it into a brilliant peace. This marked
Sweden as a major power, and its star rose above that
of Denmark-Norway on the Nordic sky.

1649-1721
The newly gained status as a great power forced Sweden to expand in order to keep that position, just like
Spain half a century earlier. During the 1650s the
warrior king Charles X Gustavus attacked PolandLithuania. The war went well initially, but resistance
increased, and finally Brandenburg, the Swedish ally,
joined the opposition. The king was practically expelled from the country and the best retreat would
be across Denmark, a country Sweden wanted to castigate once more. Following a quick march across all
of northern Germany the army took Jutland from
the south, and then performed a daring march across
the frozen sound to Zealand. Denmark-Norway
faced disaster. In the ensuing peace the country was
forced to cede Halland, Blekinge, Scania, Bohusln,
Bornholm, and Trondheim. The king was not satisfied and struck once more, but not as successfully, as
the neighbors of Denmark-Norway did not like
avaricious robber barons, and Sweden lost Bornholm
and Trondheim. Somewhat later, during the French
war against Spain and the Netherlands (1672-1679),
Sweden once again went to war against DenmarkNorway. No adjustments were made, but it became

clear that the empire of Sweden was threatened.

In 1700, the year before the Spanish War of Succession, the Great Nordic War began. Russia, DenmarkNorway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony had decided
to retake everything that had been lost, and if possible, divide Sweden among them. Sweden began the
war brilliantly, defeating the Russian army, kicking
Denmark-Norway out of the war, occupying all of
Poland-Lithuania and Saxony, and finally marching
to the Ukraine. But the Swedish resources and lack of
allies resulted in its victories resting on a shaky
ground. After the loss at Poltava the fortunes of war
changed, and countries like England-Hanover, Prussia-Brandenburg, and Austria declared war on Sweden. In 1721, after a number of peace treaties, Sweden lost all of the Baltic part of the country, all the
German provinces except Vorpommern, and the
Russian navy ruled the Baltic Sea. The short period
when Sweden was a great power had ended.

1722-1792
Swedens position after the end of the Great Nordic
War was not enviable. Swedens status as a great power had been broken and all of the neighbors of Russia
were going down the drain. Economically Sweden
prospered during the period and a basic tradition of
manufacturing was founded, which would develop
later into an export industry. For its foreign policy
Sweden had to rely on one of the major powers in order to wage war successfully. Arvid Horn, the president of the parliament, governed Sweden until 1738.
He had focused on peace and domestic development, but in 1740 the pro-French party came to
power and immediately went to war with Russia. The
war was disastrous and Sweden had to cede a strip of
land in eastern Finland to Russia. Sweden suffered
very little when it accepted the Russian Czarinas
candidate for the Swedish throne. Sweden did not
elect its kings, but the previous king, Frederick I, was
childless. They had actually wanted the Danish
crown prince as heir to the throne, but the unfortunate war dictated otherwise. As a result of the peace
Sweden found itself in a very awkward position. Sweden was almost regarded as a third rate power, and it
was close to turning into a Russian vassal, or at least a
nation whose politics were completely affected by
foreign bribes. The two parties, one pro-French, and
the other pro-Russian, struggled for power. The situation was quite similar to the one in Poland-Lithuania. In 1757 it was again time for another ill-conceived Swedish war, the Seven Years War of 17561763. This time Prussia was attacked, and Sweden
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fulfilled its obligations as an ally to France, and for a
change Sweden was actually on the same side as Russia. The war went badly for several reasons, primarily
because of a lack of funds, the old-fashioned army,
and the fact that most of the officers were dilettantes,
spending more time at parliament than at the front.
Still the Swedes won more skirmishes than the Prussians, but no real battles took place. When the proPrussian Peter III succeeded Elizabeth of Russia,
Sweden was immediately forced into signing a peace
treaty based on the status quo.
The 1760s was a terrible time for Sweden. The proFrench party wanted to restore royal power, while
the pro-Russian party wanted to decrease executive
power, and would preferably drive Sweden in the
same direction as Poland-Lithuania. The Czarina
went as far as to encourage separatism in Finland. In
1772-1773 Gustavus III carried out a bloodless
coup and became an enlightened despot. Russia was
fully occupied with the Pugachev uprising, a war
against the Ottoman Empire, and the first partitioning of Poland-Lithuania, and so let the action pass.
In 1788 Gustavus III had managed to ruin the finances of the country, although the navy and the
army had been reformed, and culture was flourishing. Large sections of the nobility were also in rebellion, as they remembered the previous years as "the
Age of Freedom." Gustavus III needed to increase
his popularity and attacked Russia in 1788-1790.
The war went very well on the tactical level, but there
was absolutely no strategic leadership, and the majority of the officers were rebellious dilettantes who
wanted to be politicians rather than soldiers. The victories at land and at sea lead nowhere, and the peace
was signed as a matter of status quo. Swedens independence from Russia was secured and the country
was intact, but during the Napoleonic wars people
learned that the Swedish officers was not up to par
with their continental counterparts, and Finland
would be lost; however, all of that happened in another age.

Austria
1492-1588
Austria began the period as a relatively weak power.
In 1492 Austria was at war with Spain against France.
The major advantage and disadvantage of Austria
was its strategic location in the middle of Europe.
The advantage was that the country could exert influence and could expand in any direction, but the
124

disadvantage was that the country was subjected to

attacks from every direction. During this period the
country was fortunate to have its dynastic alliance
with Spain. Austria became involved fairly early in the
conflict with France and the Ottoman Empire, and
the smaller states of the Holy Roman Empire. The
wars with France were primarily handled by Spain,
but Austria often had to support the efforts in northern Italy, the "back pocket of Vienna."
During the 1510s the Ottoman Empire directed a
huge offensive against the core of Christian Europe.
The Ottomans were almost impossible to stop. They
were better organized; they had better equipment,
morale, and greater numbers. Within a few decades
they had conquered all of Hungary and swept the
armies of Christianity off the floor, and were suddenly standing outside the walls of Vienna. Earlier at
Mohacs the Hungarian-Bohemian crown army had
been wiped out and the Hungarian-Bohemian king
fell in battle. Austria inherited Bohemia and Hungary, although there was precious little left of Hungary, just a small strip of land. Anyway they had to be
satisfied with this, and try to make peace with the Ottoman sultan. The Ottoman offensives did not stop,
but they were not as successful toward the end of the
period, as the Austrians and Venetians had heavily
fortified their borders. The Austrian archduke and
emperor still had to keep an eye on that direction.
At the same time the Austrian monarch tried to secure his position in the Holy Roman Empire. The
goal was to transform it into a universal realm with a
hereditary emperor, preferably himself. This goal
went counter to the interest of the numerous principalities, resulting in a violent civil war. Austria could
not win it even with the aid of Spain, and had to accept the religious peace at Augsburg, which severely
restricted the powers of the emperor. Later Austria
tried to put a Hapsburg prince on the throne of
Poland-Lithuania, as the kingdom elected its kings,
but too many of the Polish and Lithuanian magnates
opposed the effort, which failed.
Everything was not bad, though. The situation was
actually pretty good. In 1556 Austria and Spain went
separate ways. Their alliance was still intact and the
ties of kinship were still very strong, but the almost
bombastically grandiose plans of European dominion were gone, as they had encountered such heavy
opposition. Austria had also seen to it that France
had vainly butted against the Hapsburg walls with
very little success, at the same time that Austria had
more than doubled because of the annexation of Bohemia and "Little Hungary." Finally, Austria and

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Venice had been able to keep the Ottoman army at
bay, even though it was only a temporary situation.

1589-1648
After stopping the Ottoman grand offensive, the
Austrian emperors turned their attention northwards. Consolidating the political hold on Bohemia
and Hungary became an important political goal,
which they tried to achieve through efforts of spreading Catholicism. Another goal was to achieve dominion over the confusion of small semi-independent
states of the Holy Roman Empire. The goal was simply to create a universal power right in the middle of
Europe.
Already during the first decade of the 17th century
the Austrian emperor became involved in a conflict
with both the native Protestant population of Bohemia and the Protestant principalities of the Empire. The principalities created the "Union," a loose
confederation opposing the efforts at spreading
Catholicism, and the ambitions of the emperor. The
Catholic League was created in opposition to the
Union, and this in turn supported the emperor. In
connection with a local uprising in Bohemia, where
they elected Philip of Pfalz as king, the Thirty Years
War began. The conflict quickly developed into a
major war, which primarily was fought on German
soil. Austria and Spain fought on one side against
countries such as the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark-Norway, and France. The German principalities were divided and often changed allegiances due
to the shifting fortunes of war. The conflict was a war
of attrition with no real victors. Although Austria
had won a great number of victories under commanders such as Tilly, Wallenstein, Gallas, and Piccolomini, the peace at Westphalia made several things clear:
Protestant Sweden had become a major power;
France was the strongest country in all of Europe;
Spain was no longer a contender in the struggle for
European hegemony; and finally the emperor had for
all time lost his power over the Holy Roman Empire.
For Austria the war was naturally a setback, but it still
had managed to consolidate its inherited provinces
and had begun a process of reforms and investments,
which would make the country quite powerful in the
future.

1649-1721
In 1649 the Austrian kingdom was devastated, but
after a decade of peace the country recovered. The
consolidation process aimed at gaining full control of
Austria, Styria, Tyrolia, Moravia, Silesia, and Bo-

hemia, and only Hungary was left to humble. During

the entire period Austria waged a war of low intensity against France and Sweden in order to prevent
them from expanding. Things started to move along
the southern border around 1660. The Ottoman
Empire had returned in full force after a century and
a half of chaos and stagnation and was about to unleash a number of offensives against its neighbors.
Except for a short war in 1663-1664 the Ottomans
attacked Austria on a broad front in 1682. Austria
had been trying to quash the Protestants of Hungary, but had failed, and they then turned to the Ottomans for help. In 1683 Vienna was once again under siege, but help arrived in no time, as Bavaria,
Baden, Lothringen, and even France sided with Austria, although the most important trump on hand
turned out to be Jan Sobieski of Poland-Lithuania.
He was one of the most brilliant commanders of the
period, and arrived with a very large relief force. He
was given the command of all of the forces and drove
out the Ottomans in the terribly bloody battle of
Kahlenberge, breaking the power of the Ottoman
Empire. An offensive was mounted, in which the
Austrian troops went all the way to Bulgaria, Serbia,
and Siebenbrgen, but the Austrians were repelled.
At the same time Austria went to war with France in
Western Europe and had to fight with a divided
force. In 1697 Austria and France signed a peace
treaty, which made it possible for Austria to strike out
properly against the Ottomans. The war went well
and at the peace of Karlowitz in 1699 Austria gained
Hungary, Siebenbrgen, and Croatia all the way to
the Sava River. The Ottoman Empire had lost more
than a third of its European territory.
At the same time the Spanish king was dying and
had no heirs to the throne. A violent bickering of the
inheritance started. The dying Spanish king Charles
II decided to leave the entire realm undivided to the
grandson of Louis XIV, if he would renounce all
claims to the French crown. Louis XIV broke all previous agreements and accepted the terms of the will.
Austria opposed, partly because it thought the
throne should go to a Hapsburg, and also because it
was unacceptable that France would become even
more powerful. In the Spanish War of Succession of
1701-1714, Austria sided with England and the
Netherlands against France and Spain. No one was
able to win any decisive victories, resulting in a peace
of compromises. Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily, but it also
inherited Spains previous problems with the French
desire for expansion. At the very end of the period
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Austria attacked the Ottoman Empire, winning a
couple of decisive victories, letting Austria gain the
Banate, Northern Serbia, and parts of Wallachia at
the peace of Passorowitz in 1718. When the period
ended Austria was a major power in both western and
eastern Europe.

1722-1792
Regardless of its status as a major power, Austria had
problems as soon as the 18th century began. All of
the newly conquered provinces provided a stronger
economy, but the country had no real population
majority to base its rule on; instead, Austria was a
country of minorities, making it difficult to govern
and heterogeneous. Austria constantly had to wage
defensive wars. In the 1730s it became embroiled in
the Polish War of Succession (1733-1738) with Russia against France, Spain, and other countries. The
war did not go very well. Although the Russian pretender, August, was elected king of Poland-Lithuania, Austria lost Naples and Sicily, which became an
independent kingdom under a Spanish prince. One
reason for the poor fortunes was the fact that they
had to fight a war against the Ottoman Empire at the
same time (1735-1739), in which they lost everything that had been gained by the peace of Passorowitz in 1718. In 1740 emperor Charles VI died
and turned the country over to his daughter Maria
Theresia. Frederick II of Prussia, who immediately
attacked and seized Silesia, leading to the Austrian
War of Succession in 1740-1748, seized the opportunity. The fortunes of war varied, but after many
years of fighting Austria was forced to cede Silesia to
Prussia, which then became stronger at the expense
of Austria. A few years of recovery was all that Austria
was given, and then it was time for the great global
explosion called the Seven Years War from 1756 to
1763. Together with Russia, France, Saxony, and
Sweden, Austria attacked Prussia and later England.

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In spite of the great superiority of its enemies Prussia

was not defeated, and when the Russian throne was
passed on, the country signed a separate peace treaty
with Prussia. Austrias situation became disastrous
and the country had to sign a status quo peace agreement, and Prussia kept Silesia. After the war Austria
turned to domestic reforms and concentrated on
strategic defense militarily. They watched with some
concern how the Russian influence over PolandLithuania and against the Ottoman Empire was increasing. In 1774, after the Russian war against the
Ottoman Empire, they annexed Bukovina, which the
Ottomans had to accept. Following a Polish-Lithuanian attempt at reforming the country in 1772 Russia quickly intervened with troops. Austria quickly
sided with Prussia and managed to convince Russia
to divide Poland-Lithuania among them, which led
to the first partitioning of Poland-Lithuania. IN
1778-1779 the Bavarian War of Succession was
fought between Prussia and Austria. The conflict was
resolved at the negotiating tables and Austria had to
be satisfied with a narrow strip of land in Bavaria, not
the entire area, as the plan had been.
In 1789 the French Revolution started, which
united Austria, Prussia and Russia ideologically. Austria had to attend to nationalistic problems in the
Austrian Netherlands, but the uprising was effectively quashed. From 1789 to 1791 Austria and Russia
waged a successful war against the Ottoman Empire,
but they only gained a narrow strip of land in Serbia,
as they quickly had to re-deploy the army for the second partitioning of Poland-Lithuania the next year.
Soon Europe would be shaken by the revolutionary
wars and the rise of nationalism, which would seriously undermine Austrias status as a great power.
Nationalism made Austria carry on a careful defensive policy aimed at keeping the status quo throughout Europe, but that story belongs to another age.

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Index
15th century, 9798, 110
16th century, 98100, 108, 110, 119120
17th century, 99, 101, 120, 125
18th century, 101102, 111112, 121, 126
95 Theses, 32, 99

A
Aachen, 107
abbreviated, 8
abdicated, 84, 87
abilities, 25, 77
ability, 23, 25, 32, 3536, 40, 43, 45, 48, 58, 61,
6667, 69, 73, 75, 77, 80, 82, 95
abolished, 65
abolishing, 88
abolition, 86
abroad, 12, 71, 74, 79
absolute, 95
absolutely, 77
abstract, 22, 56
abused, 68
academics, 82
academies, 82
academy, 82
accept, 15, 29, 32, 38, 4647, 67, 71
acceptable, 3, 37
accepted, 40, 47, 64, 86
accepts, 3940, 47
access, 5, 8, 25, 35, 37, 73, 76
accessed, 95
accessing, 49
accomplish, 86
accomplished, 92
accomplishments, 86
accordance, 76, 88
account, 63, 79
accounting, 71
accredited, 35
accurate, 3
accused, 85
achieve, 15, 55, 82
achieved, 52, 58, 60, 7173
achieves, 62
acquire, 71, 7576
acquired, 85, 94
acquisitions, 91
act, 3, 16, 3741
acted, 3132
action, 47, 55
actions, 7, 24, 37, 46
active, 39, 85
activities, 10, 17, 32, 45, 59, 83, 95
activity, 4
actor, 48
acts, 23, 3637, 40
actual, 3, 11, 31, 34, 37, 46, 49, 56, 76
acute, 90
add, 22, 50, 95
added, 68, 72, 76, 83, 92
addition, 9, 21, 23, 25, 3536, 48, 55, 57, 72
additional, 89, 2223, 2932, 36, 41, 56, 73

adequate, 64
adjacent, 1213, 27, 54, 7576
administration, 8394
administrative, 25, 44, 71, 73, 7980, 83, 95
administrator, 8385, 88, 93
administrators, 25
admiral, grand, 110
admirals, 50
admittedly, 46
Adolphus Frederick of Kiel, 105, 119
Adolphus (see Gustavus II Adolphus)
advance, 80
advanced, 3, 22, 51, 56, 6970, 80, 82, 88, 91, 93
advancement, 49, 79
advancements, 80
advances, 71, 80, 94
advantage, 6, 11, 16, 19, 38, 4850, 52, 55, 7577
advantages, 8, 11, 19, 22, 31, 4243, 5152, 58, 63,
75, 82, 96
adventure, 43, 91
adventurers, 85
adversaries, 28, 89
adverse, 20, 41
adversely, 41, 4950
advertising, 63
advisable, 4, 54
affair, 44
affairs, 34, 67, 89
Africa, 21, 61, 6465, 70, 7577, 79, 99, 102, 110,
116
African, 20
age, 8, 45, 74, 83, 86, 8889, 9192
Age of Enlightenment, 29, 102, 110
agenda, 32
ages, 22, 28, 39, 42, 79
aggression, 7677
aggressive, 74
aggressively, 41
agreed, 87
agreement, 60, 94
agreements, 23
agricultural, 102
Ahmed the Righteous, 88
aid, 8, 37
aided, 93
aimed, 36, 60, 88
Alba, Duke of, 116
Albania, 88
Alberoni, Guilio, 91, 121
Albuquerque, admiral, 97, 115
alcohol, 66
alcoholic, 82
Alexander VI, Pope, 98
Alexandria, 65
Alexeievitch, Piotr, 88 (see also Peter I of Russia)
Alexis of Russia, 118
Alfonso VI of Portugal, 116
Alger, 111
Algeria, 84
alleged, 65
allegiance(s), 57, 125
alliance, 1516, 23, 28, 36, 3844, 47, 86, 90, 92,
102104, 120, 122, 124
alliances, 15, 36, 3839, 41, 44, 4647, 84, 96, 105,
109, 119

allied, 18, 22, 50, 53, 84

allies, 6, 14, 16, 33, 41, 50, 5657, 114, 123
allocate, 8
allocated, 8
allow, 38, 41, 58
allowed, 9, 17, 27, 31, 51, 60, 74
alloys, 64
ally, 55, 119120
Almeida, Admiral Francisco de, 97, 115
alpine, 97
al-Nabulsi, Abd al-Ghani, 102
al-Simani, Yusuf, 102
alternate, 3
alternative, 35, 4647, 68, 73, 76, 89
Alvarez (see Pedro Alvarez Cabral)
always, 3, 9, 11, 15, 26, 36, 38, 4347, 4950, 52, 58,
62, 64, 67, 75, 78, 87, 89
ambassadors, 35
ambition, 46
ambitious, 91, 93
Ameixial, battle of, 116
America, 34, 12, 6365, 68, 70, 77, 79, 90, 97, 105,
107108, 120121
American, 39, 6465, 71, 100, 103, 108, 110
American War of Independence, 108, 110, 122
Americas, 99
Amerigo Vespucci, 97
ammunition, 45
amortized, 67
amount, 9, 11, 13, 3435, 6162, 68, 96
amounts, 35
amplifying, 68
Amsterdam, 100, 121
amuck, 56
anarchic, 38
anarchistic, 114
anarchy, 85
Anastasia, 85
Anatolia, 88
ancient, 42
Andrea Doria, 83
Andrusovo, peace of, 113
anew, 23
Anglican Church, 106
Angola, 102
Angoulme (see de Valois-Angoulme)
animals, 64
animosity, 84
Anjou, King Henri de, 93, 98
Ann Boleyn, 85
annex, 24, 47, 68, 122
annexation, 24, 36, 3840, 42, 4647, 124
annexations, 36, 4041, 47
annexed, 28, 3940, 42, 44, 47, 110, 113, 115117,
120, 126
annexing, 28, 41, 119
annual, 11, 2425, 3032, 41, 4344, 5961, 66,
7576
annually, 43
annul, 38
annulling, 23
anti-Catholic, 32
anti-French, 90
anti-Portuguese, 116
anti-Protestant, 89

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antibiotics, 65
antiquity, 6465
Anton (see Wenzel-Anton)
Antonius Hensius, 90
Antwerp, 40, 121
anxiety, 82
apart, 46, 64, 70
appear, 910, 60, 76
appearance, 8, 32
appeared, 28
appearing, 75
appears, 26, 60
appease, 23
applied, 36, 44, 89
applies, 19, 23, 36, 39, 43, 69
apply, 27, 41, 47
applying, 80
appoint, 9, 12, 17, 6465, 69
appointed, 8, 26, 42, 69, 87, 9091, 94
appointing, 11, 18, 26, 44, 60, 69
appointment, 29, 69, 96
appointments, 11
approach, 4, 46
appropriate, 77, 79
approve, 69
Arabic, 110
Arabs, 110
Aragon, 28, 97, 119
arbitrarily, 45
arbitrary, 35
arbitrator, 83
archduke, 124
archenemies, 40
arches, 82
architects, 102
archive, 67, 9596
Arctic, 101
ardent, 93
area, 4, 9, 12, 14, 1920, 37, 40, 51, 75, 79, 8283,
96
areas, 6, 8, 11, 19, 21, 28, 32, 40, 56, 6061, 6971,
77, 7980, 83, 88, 90, 94, 95
argument, 35
arid, 64
Ariosto, Ludovico, 98
Armada, Spanish, 48, 86, 106, 120
armament, 49, 105
Armand Jean du Plessis (Cardinal Richelieu), 86
armed, 6, 11, 4445, 49, 80
Armenia, 110
armies, 15, 45, 48, 50, 55, 75, 79, 83, 87, 94, 96, 111
armor, 64
armored, 79, 113
arms, 8, 15
army, 49, 1213, 1621, 2627, 3031, 40, 4245,
4751, 5458, 6061, 67, 6869, 7680, 88,
9091, 9396, 106107, 109, 111114,
116118, 124
arrange, 33, 37
arranging, 39
arrays, 80
arrival, 66
arrives, 55
arrow, 9, 95
art, 39, 59, 64, 86, 91

128

artillery, 13, 44, 4851, 56, 80, 96

artists, 82, 102
arts, 64, 82, 85, 89
Arvid Horn, 123
ascended, 8586, 93
ascension, 95
ashore, 77
Asia, 64, 66, 75, 79, 97, 99, 101102, 116
Asia, East, 115
ask, 46, 76
asked, 39
aspect, 22
assault, 16, 5556, 61
assaulted, 55
assaulting, 56
assaults, 5556, 58, 66
assembled, 19, 58, 96
assembly, 45
assessed, 59
assessment, 46, 95
assets, 12, 60, 63, 6768
assign, 56
assigned, 5051
associate, 88, 93
associated, 22, 45, 92, 95
associations, 88
assume, 31, 42, 50
Astrakhan Khanate, 117
astronomical, 64
atmosphere, 82
atrocities, 92
attack, 12, 15, 22, 51, 58, 75, 84, 94
attacked, 1516, 39, 42, 5355, 75, 9293
attacker, 39
attacking, 38, 41, 55, 75, 94
attacks, 23, 75, 124
attempt, 44, 51, 56, 68, 7678
attempted, 52, 56, 59
attempting, 60
attempts, 7577, 87
attend, 32
attention, 6, 94
attitude, 40
attitudes, 81
attract, 82
attributed, 89
attrition, 7, 9, 13, 16, 18, 40, 45, 47, 50, 54, 5658,
75, 7779, 96, 111, 113, 125
Augsburg, 120, 124
August II "the Strong" of Saxony and Poland-Lithuania,
103, 114, 118
August III of Poland-Lithuania-Saxony, 114, 119, 126
Australia, 21
Australian continent, 115
Austria, 36, 40, 42, 45, 8384, 90, 9394, 98100,
102, 107112, 115116, 118121, 123126
Austrian(s), 83, 91, 102, 104, 108, 114, 116, 119,
124125
Austrian Netherlands, 109, 126
Austrian War of Succession, 105, 107, 114, 119, 121,
126
autarchies, 71
authority, 12, 30, 69, 86, 88, 93, 97
authors, 102
autocracies, 86, 101

autocracy, 86, 89, 101, 106, 108, 111, 118

autocrat, 89
automatic, 23, 4647, 79
automatically, 8, 13, 15, 19, 26, 28, 3132, 46, 50,
5455, 60, 63, 67, 72, 7475, 83
autonomous, 75, 111
available, 8, 1112, 14, 25, 35, 40, 42, 44, 76
Aviz dynasty, 115
avoid, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 38, 6769
avoided, 67, 91, 94
avoiding, 28
Axel Oxenstierna, Count, 87
azam, 85, 88
azams, 88
Azerbaijan (Azerbaidjan), 83, 111
Azores, 77, 115
Azov, 112, 118119
Aztec empire, 97
Aztecs, 120

B
Bach, J. S., 102
background, 8
backlash, 89
backward, 85, 93
backwards, 3
Bacon, Sir Francis, 100
bad, 11, 2425, 34, 36, 44, 92
Baden, 125
badly, 37, 44, 47
Baghdad, Caliphate of, 28
bailiff, 26, 69
bailiffs, 2425
balance, 31, 46, 60, 6769, 71, 78, 88, 92
balance of power, 22, 36, 106107
balanced, 62, 88
balancing, 6
Balkans, 5, 98, 119
Baltic, 13, 4849, 58, 85, 88, 93, 97, 99, 103104,
113, 118, 122123
Banate, the, 112, 126
band, 54
bandit(s), 118
bands, 18
Banr, 123
banished, 9192
bank, 6, 6768
banking, 80
bankrupt, 23, 60, 6768, 120
bankruptcy, 23, 6768, 89, 94
bans, 15
Baptiste (see Jean-Baptiste Colbert)
Barbarossa (Chair-Eddin), 110
Barbary States, 84, 111
Barcelona, 121
barley, 64
baroque, 79, 102
barter, 6768
base, 910, 25, 44, 56, 58, 63, 71, 76, 79, 9596
based, 49, 5960, 68, 71, 73, 87, 90
bases, 19, 57, 7475, 115116
basic, 1819, 23, 48, 55, 64, 79
basics, 4
basis, 12, 38, 48, 64, 7879

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Batory, Stefan, 93
batteries, 48
battery, 51
battle, 9, 13, 16, 27, 43, 4748, 5056, 58, 71, 75,
80, 83, 85, 8788, 92, 9496, 121
battlefield, 48, 7980, 8284, 91
battlefields, 56
battleground, 48
battles, 3, 7, 9, 16, 19, 43, 4648, 50, 52, 54, 58, 77,
80, 8889, 9294
battling, 50, 52
Bavaria, 102, 109, 116, 119, 125126
Bavarian War of Succession, 126
Bavarians, 108
bay, 9394
Bayard, 84
Bayle, Pierre, 102
bear, 64
beat, 92
beautiful, 36
bedchamber, 90
beer, 6566
beginning, 34, 6, 9, 23, 34, 37, 48, 74, 86
behave, 22, 40
behavior, 3, 22, 35, 85
beheaded, 106
Belgium, 84
beliefs, 77, 81
belong, 5, 12, 1415, 1718, 26, 51, 57, 59, 75, 77
belonged, 1617, 26
belonging, 9, 1618, 20, 46, 56, 77
belongs, 9, 1213, 1819, 71, 75, 81
beloved, 8485
Bender, 92
benefit, 71
Berkeley, George, 102
Bernhard of Weimar, 123
besiege, 56
besieged, 56, 61
besieging, 111
best, 11, 15, 31, 43, 63, 67, 78, 86, 8990
better, 45, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 41, 43, 63, 7577, 80,
87, 90, 94
beverages, 66, 82
big, 24, 32, 75, 84
biggest, 39
bill, 89
binding, 23, 47
bindings, 38
birth rate, 101
bit, 37, 67, 71
bitter, 84
Black Death, 97
Black Sea, 13, 4849, 58, 88, 113, 118
blamed, 87
Bleckinge, 104, 123
blink, 95
blockade, 5254, 57, 74
blockaded, 51, 5354
blockades, 51, 5354
blockading, 54
blood, 38
bloody, 56, 83
blows, 52
blue, 10

board, 5
boarding, 50, 53, 111
boastful, 63
bodied, 44
body, 50
Bogdan Chmelnicki, 113
Bohemia, 40, 42, 47, 84, 90, 100, 112, 124125
Bohusln, 104, 123
bold, 92
Boleyn, Ann, 85
bone, 10, 14
"Bonnie Prince Charlie", 107
bonus, 3031, 4041, 5055, 58, 77, 79, 8283
book, 95
bookkeeping, 80
boost, 3637, 65
border, 8, 17, 40, 51, 58, 104, 107, 110, 113, 115,
117, 120, 122
bordering, 50, 54
borders, 5, 18, 31, 33, 42, 68, 7273, 75, 77, 118
Borgia, Rodrigo (Pope Alexander VI), 98
born, 85, 8788, 9091, 9394
Bornholm, 104, 123
borrow, 60
borrowed, 60, 67
borrower, 67
borrowing, 67
Bosphorus, 52
botanical, 82
bothered, 34
Boufflers, 109
bought, 37
boundaries, 6
boundary, 45
Bourbon, 91, 121
Bourbons, 101
Bourgogne, 98
boxes, 95
boy, 88
boys, 88
Brabant, 97
Bragana, duke Joo of (= Joo IV of Portugal), 116
branch, 48, 50, 96
branches, 4849, 51, 96
Brandenburg, 31, 94, 123
Brandenburg-Prussia, 118, 123
brass, 64
Brazil, 65, 77, 97, 102, 115117, 120
breaches, 22
bread, 64
break, 3, 32, 56, 68
breaking, 23, 38, 43, 4647
breaks, 39, 44
breathing, 87
Bremen-Verden, 107, 123
breweries, 65
bribes, 123
bribing, 119
brief, 94
brilliance, 88
brilliant, 86, 94
bring, 43, 87
bringing, 64
brings, 11
British, 65

Brittany, 28
broad, 25, 68
broaden, 10
broke, 22, 86
broken, 70, 95
brokenhearted, 94
brother, 23, 44, 8485, 8889, 93
brotherhood, 45
brothers, 36, 83, 92
browsing, 95
Buckingham, Duke of, 100
Budapest, 110
budget, 4, 8, 1112, 23, 8788
budgeting, 87
Bug, 112
build, 4, 8, 10, 14, 1718, 20, 4445, 49, 6869,
7576, 79, 8182, 89
building, 8, 4445, 49, 56, 60, 69, 75, 82, 88
buildings, 89, 11, 20, 64, 81
builds, 49
built, 26, 49, 6466, 69, 82, 90
Bukovina, 112, 126
Bulgaria, 125
bull, 58
bullet, 92
bulwark, 83
burdens, 23
bureaucracies, 39
bureaucracy, 80, 83
burghers, 109
Burgundy, Duchy of, 98, 108
"Burgundy Inheritance", 108
burn trading post, 76
burned, 20, 44
burning, 45
busily, 88
business, 14, 25, 39, 41, 59
busy, 44
button, 710, 1215, 33, 51, 56, 76
Buxtehude, 102
buy, 69
buying, 60
Byzantine (Empire), 28, 110
Byzantium, 110

C
Cabots, 85
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 97
Cadiz, 121
Cairo, 110
calculate, 72
Calderon, 86
caliber, 76
California, 102
Caliphate of Baghdad, 2829
Calmar, Union of, 99, 105, 119
Calmar War, 104
calming, 82
Calvin, Jean [John], 3132, 34
campaign, 3, 47, 9293
campaigns, 83, 94
Canada, 88, 100, 102, 107
canalizing, 51
canals, 88
cane, 65

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caned, 91
cannons, 48, 64, 98
canvas, 64
capacity, 1213, 32, 4445, 50
Cape of Good Hope, 97, 115
Cape Province, 102
Cape Verde, 77, 115
capital, 8, 11, 20, 24, 26, 4647, 61, 72, 7677, 82,
96
capitalism, 70, 82
capitalist, 68
capitals, 20
captains, 64
capture, 16, 19, 93
capturing, 16, 75
caravan, 56
cardinal, 86, 91
Cardinal Richelieu, 86, 108109
care, 9, 12, 43, 57, 84
career, 58, 8788, 9091
careful, 11, 67
carefully, 34
Carelia, 34, 43
Caribbean, 65, 99, 102
Carl von Clausewitz, 35
carpets, 64
carrack, 51
carriage, 11, 37
carries, 59, 69, 74
carry, 15, 55
carrying, 26, 72
cases, 64
cash, 60
Cassel (see Hessen-Cassel)
Castile, 28, 97, 115, 119
castles, 82
casualties, 55
Casus Belli, 1617, 2223, 36, 39, 4142, 67, 96
Catalonia, 28, 86, 116, 120
catalyst, 82, 86
catastrophes, 12
catastrophic, 41, 58
catastrophically, 41
Catherine II "the Great" of Russia, 36, 9293, 114, 119
Catholic (Church), 23, 2829, 3234, 41, 84, 93,
98100, 108, 120, 122
Catholic League, 99, 125
Catholicism, 23, 2832, 34, 36, 42, 87, 93, 106, 108,
120, 125
Catholics, 3133, 76, 106
Catinat, 109
Caucasus, 92, 119
cause, 1617, 23, 37, 42
causes, 23, 26, 68
causing, 25
cavalry, 13, 44, 4851, 5556, 96, 113
cease, 3, 21, 87
ceases, 47, 67, 77
cede, 4647, 68, 104, 117, 121123, 126
ceded, 31, 103104, 123
ceding, 20
celebrate, 23, 66
Census Tax, 59
center, 44, 61

130

center of trade, 1213, 4041, 61, 7176, 95, 101,

115
centers, 44, 6466
centers of trade, 7, 12, 23, 25, 4041, 43, 5960, 69,
7173, 75, 79, 95
central, 64, 88
Central America, 39, 64, 70, 120
Central Europe, 102
centralization, 101, 109
centralize, 71
centralized, 39, 69, 117, 121
centuries, 25, 41
century, 3, 22, 26, 34, 45, 48, 6365, 70, 75, 87
cereals, 64
Cervantes, Miguel de, 100
Ceylon, 102
Chair-Eddin (Barbarossa), 110
challenge, 69
challenging, 5, 69
chambers, 38
chance, 3, 23, 2627, 46, 52, 57, 7578, 83, 87, 92,
94
chances, 8, 19, 44
change, 34, 8, 23, 25, 27, 3134, 36, 43, 4546, 49,
52, 62, 67, 8081, 95
changed, 27, 37, 68, 70, 81, 96
changes, 4, 10, 25, 3234, 37, 39, 52, 5455, 61, 80,
90, 95
changing, 5, 8, 12, 2324, 34, 81
Channel, the English, 51
channeling, 59
chaos, 85, 9394
chaotic, 86, 94
chapter, 95
chapters, 95
characteristic, 63, 86
charged, 59
Charles II of Spain, 101, 106107, 109, 112, 116, 121,
125
Charles V of Austria (= Charles I of Spain), 30, 8485
Charles VI of Austria, 126
Charles VII of France, 98
Charles X Gustavus of Sweden, 56, 87, 104, 123
Charles XI of Sweden, 83, 101
Charles XII of Sweden, 92, 101, 103
Charles, Don, 121
Charles, Duke, 122
Charles the Great [Charlemagne], 42
Charpentier, 102
chart, 63
chased, 52
cheap, 75, 78
cheaper, 14, 4950, 76, 80
cheapest, 4849
cheaply, 47
check, 16, 7677, 9596
checked, 5657, 95
checking, 25, 95
cheese, 63
chess, 5
chest, 14
chief judges, 6465, 69
chief minister, 91
childhood, 91
China, 6465, 115

chinaware, 6364
chivalrous, 84
Chmelnicki, Bogdan, 113
choice, 35, 38, 76
choices, 3, 15, 39, 76
choleric, 87
choose, 34, 811, 13, 33, 3738, 41, 49, 53, 6768,
72, 7879, 96
chooses, 39, 46
choosing, 3, 89, 4546, 49, 68
chose, 22, 33, 4142, 49, 55, 68
chosen, 9, 30, 77, 95
Christian, 22, 28, 31, 33, 3738, 42, 81, 83, 88, 97,
110111, 124
Christian II "the Tyrant", king of Denmark-Norway, 103,
122
Christian IV of Denmark-Norway, 104
Christian Wolff, 102
Christianity, 22, 2829, 9798, 111112, 124
Christianize, 70
Christians, 31, 33, 41, 76, 112, 119
Christopher [Batory], 93
Christopher Columbus, 120
Christopher Marlowe, 100
chronological, 31, 95
church, 89, 23, 25, 2932, 34, 40, 57, 61, 77, 92
churches, 29, 82
cinnamon, 65
circle, 9
circling, 9
circulating, 68
circumnavigation of the Earth, 115
cities, 6, 10, 17, 1920, 2425, 47, 59, 61, 6465, 84,
99, 101, 112
citizens, 11, 40
city, 8, 1011, 1721, 26, 56, 62, 68, 76
civil, 89
civil war(s), 108109, 110, 112113, 115, 118119,
122, 124
Civil War, English, 86, 99, 106
civilization, 22
civilized, 22, 35, 56, 79
claim, 37, 75, 78
claimed, 37, 93
claims, 37
clan, 17, 88
clans, 10, 88, 111
class, 64, 90
classes, 25, 65
classic, 35
classical, 9
classified, 11
clauses, 90
Clausewitz, Carl von, 35
click, 710, 1216, 25, 33, 51, 5657, 9596
clickable, 7
clicked, 9
clicking, 5, 79, 15, 25, 61, 71, 77, 95
climate, 58, 77, 99, 101
climates, 75
clock, 34, 8
close, 19, 40, 7475, 95
closed, 40
closing of Japan, 74
cloth, 63, 82, 84

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clothes, 63
clothing, 64, 66, 100, 102
Cloyne, 102
co-operate, 3
co-regent, 88
coalition, 90
coalitions, 45, 90
coast, 19, 48, 5152, 58, 65, 106
coastal, 7, 1819, 30, 49, 5253, 5758, 72, 7576
coastlines, 51
coasts, 75, 79
coat of arms, 15
coats of arms, 8
Cochin, 115
coin, 45
coinage, 68
coins, 11, 16, 64, 68
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 40, 8788, 109
cold, 77
collapse, 44, 58
collected, 88
College, Trinity, 102
Cologne, 28, 109, 116
colonial, 67, 10, 20, 62, 7678, 86, 96, 100, 107,
121
colonial power(s), 74, 7677, 107108, 110
Colonial map, 7, 10
colonies, 67, 10, 12, 14, 1921, 2425, 32, 44, 47,
59, 6465, 71, 7579, 82, 96, 101102, 105,
107, 115116, 121122
colonist, 1011, 3031, 34, 45, 61, 7576
colonists, 8, 1012, 14, 18, 21, 3031, 34, 6062,
7578
colonization, 1011, 14, 34, 70, 7578, 100
colonization button, 10, 14
colonizations, 14
colonize, 10, 18, 68, 76, 78, 99, 115
colonized, 14, 6465, 115
colonizing, 4, 34, 69, 76, 106
colony, 1011, 1314, 1621, 45, 54, 57, 6162,
7579, 96
color, 14, 17, 52, 54
colored, 14, 45
colors, 9, 58
Columbus, 9798, 120
column, 95
combat, 31, 55, 58, 67, 70
combatants, 52
combination, 37
combined, 31
command, 50, 96
commander, 9, 50, 5253, 5556, 58, 83, 89, 125
commanders, 43, 50, 52, 58, 77, 83, 96, 125
commanding, 55
commerce, 80
commodity, 6465
common cold, 77
commonwealth, 48, 94, 98, 118
communication, 36
communications, 25
community, 30
compact, 94
companies, 8081, 86, 121
company, 12, 89
comparative, 63

compare, 15, 39, 96

compared, 7, 14, 26, 4445, 49, 52, 7578, 80, 95
comparison, 9596
compensation, 39
compensations, 45
compete, 25, 71
competence, 23, 88
competent, 89
competing, 73
competition, 7273, 95
competitive, 1112, 71, 73, 75
competitiveness, 12, 73, 80
competitors, 46
complement, 64
complete, 11, 51
components, 47
composition, 9, 49, 60
comprised, 82
comprises, 21, 5960, 80
compromised, 91
compromises, 125
computed, 44
computer, 72
computerized, 79
concentrate, 78
concept, 22, 39, 57, 71
concessions, 24, 28
Cond, prince of, 108
conditions, 45, 20, 25, 3334, 39, 5355, 76, 79, 82
confederation(s), 10, 110, 125
confessed, 28
confessors, 117
confidence, 23, 68, 90, 93
confiscated, 32
conflict, 31, 8687, 102
conflicts, 84, 101
conforms, 46
conjunction, 39
connected, 12, 35, 69
connecting, 12
connection, 13, 25, 84
connections, 23, 96
conquer, 3, 5, 9, 27, 68
conquered, 27, 32, 34, 42, 44, 83, 88, 92
conquering, 5, 28, 43, 88, 93
conqueror, 42, 70, 83
conquerors, 70
conquers, 33, 61
conquest, 5, 86, 93
conquests, 97, 115
Corpus Christianorum (Christian Body), 97
Conquistador, 9, 21, 7678
Conquistadors, 50, 58, 65, 77
conscription center(s), 44
consecutive, 80
consequence, 34, 56, 89
consequences, 32, 34, 43, 45, 51, 67, 69, 74, 78
consequent, 92
consider, 6, 16, 22, 36, 4446, 76
considerable, 41, 52, 64, 88
considered, 18, 34, 41, 57, 6465, 86, 88
considering, 58
consistent, 74
consolidation, 125
Constantinople (Rum), 98, 110, 111

constituted, 22, 64, 66

constitutional, 119
constricted, 52
construct, 5, 18
constructing, 44
construction, 9, 96
consulting, 39
consume, 61
consumption, 1112, 25, 60, 63, 68
contact, 70
contain, 53, 82, 95
containing, 89, 5456, 80
contains, 3, 68, 61, 7677, 8182, 9596
context, 52
continent, 12, 78, 86, 9697
continents, 18
continuation, 35
continuous, 83
contrast, 4
contribute, 45
contributed, 40, 64
contributes, 44, 61
contribution, 45
contributions, 45, 80
control, 7, 1620, 2629, 31, 3334, 40, 4647,
5051, 5357, 59, 62, 6869, 71, 7172, 77,
83, 87, 96
controlled, 1719, 24, 2627, 30, 46, 5557, 61, 75,
87
controlling, 4, 19, 46, 5152
controls, 19, 32, 47, 53, 55, 71
conversion, 3334
convert, 30, 3234
"convert" button, 33
converted, 63
converting, 3234, 9293
convictions, 92
convince, 85
cook, 88
coordinating, 80
Copenhagen, 56, 104
Copernicus, 100
copper, 6364, 68, 82
core, 1718, 24, 26, 42, 72
corn, 64, 70
Cornelis de Witt, 89
corners, 66
cornerstones, 10
coronation, 87
corporate, 71
corporations, 71
corps, 36
corruption, 88
Cortez, 97
Cossack(s), 9394, 118
cost, 2325, 3637, 45, 4850, 55, 58, 60, 68, 73,
7677, 7980, 95
costlier, 49
costly, 6, 85
costs, 8, 12, 23, 3637, 49, 51, 60, 67, 71, 76, 95
cotton, 6366, 82
council, 86, 116
Council of Trent, 3132
counsel, 69, 86
counselor, 87

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Europa Universalis
Count, 8687, 9091
counts, 103
counter, 3, 23, 30, 3234, 36, 42, 90, 93
counterattack, 55
countering, 80
counterpart, 67
counties, 85
countries, 3, 57, 1112, 1415, 1719, 2124, 28,
3044, 4647, 4950, 53, 56, 58, 60, 64,
6769, 7173, 7576, 7880, 82, 89, 96
country, 38, 1012, 1451, 5355, 5761, 6669,
7180, 8396
county, 5, 46
coup, 83, 88, 92, 124
Couperin, 102
courage, 77
Courland, 100, 113
course, 12, 19, 31, 4041, 4546, 52, 5657, 59, 63,
66, 93, 95
court, 2425, 84, 91, 102
courtly, 88
courts, 35
cousin, 84
cover, 3, 24, 60, 67
covered, 67, 9, 45, 48
covering, 12, 80
covers, 6
coveted, 64
cowardice, 39
crafts, 64
craftsmen, 64
create, 15, 23, 32, 3839, 76, 79, 87, 94
created, 32, 38, 40, 63, 87
creating, 19, 41, 69, 79, 88
credit, 71, 80
Crete, 111
crews, 19
Crimea, 9293, 112113, 118
Crimea Khanate, 117, 119
Croatia, 112, 125
Cromwell, Oliver, 106
crop, 80
crossbows, 79
crosses, 37
crown, 37, 39, 42, 86, 9294, 115
crown prince, 93, 105, 123
crowned, 84, 87, 94
cruise, 5153
cruising, 52, 75
Culloden, 107
cult, 116
cultivated, 65
cultural, 77, 81
culturally, 98, 102, 114
culture, 22, 8586, 89, 91, 100, 113, 117, 120, 122,
124
cumulative, 23
cunning, 86
cure, 11
Curia, 32
Curland, 7374, 76
currencies, 8, 64
currency, 68
current, 13, 9596
currents, 90

132

cushions, 36
custom, 83, 113
customize, 9
customs, 8687
cut, 51, 6768
cynical, 37
Cyprus, 111
czar, 85, 9293, 107, 113, 118119
"Czar of all the Russians" (Ivan IV), 117
czarina, 114, 119, 123124
czars, 85, 88

D
Dag, 104
daily, 65
dally, 64
damages, 17, 20, 34, 46
damaging, 41
Damascus, 88
Danes, 37, 101
danger, 94
dangerous, 34, 41
Danish, 87, 92, 99, 103105, 122123
Danzig, 113
dark, 10, 14
darker, 25
dashing, 48
data, 95
date, 8, 38, 67
dates, 9496
daughter, 85, 87
day, 69, 84, 94
days, 84
de Anjou, 93
de facto, 40
de Fleury, 91, 110
deMedici, 86
de Seignelay, 88
de Valois-Angoulme, 84
de Witt, 89
dead, 84, 87
deal, 4, 19, 25, 95
dealing, 27, 47, 94
dealings, 94
death, 83, 8588, 9091, 9395
decade, 28, 66, 85
decades, 86
decentralize, 119
decentralized, 2930, 32, 42, 69, 71, 111, 114
decentralizing, 99
decide, 5, 11, 23, 28, 34, 67
decided, 78
decides, 74
deciding, 15
decision, 15
decisions, 3, 23, 40, 86, 92
decisive, 48, 52, 70
deck, 51
decker, 51
declaration, 16, 22, 3637, 41, 43, 45
declarations, 15, 22, 4144
declare, 1516, 2223, 25, 3536, 3942, 44, 67, 75
declared, 16, 19, 41, 60, 67, 89, 93
declares, 28, 36, 3839, 47, 6667
declaring, 16, 43, 68

decline, 4647, 67
declines, 25, 78
decrease, 16, 25, 27, 30, 62, 68
decreased, 58
decreases, 24, 27, 58, 61
decreasing, 2425, 45
decree, 77, 86
deducted, 60, 67, 72
deep, 15, 48, 91
defeat, 74
defeated, 48, 55, 84
defeating, 16, 27, 75
defeats, 32
defend, 3, 6, 15, 35, 38, 43, 51, 69, 7879
defended, 6, 122
defending, 52, 56, 78
defends, 54
defense, 39, 69, 103, 126
defenses, 6, 56
defensive, 38, 92, 126
defined, 22, 3839
defines, 17
defining, 44, 87
definite, 82
definitely, 22, 33, 91
degenerate, 22
degree, 11, 41
degrees, 35
deliver, 35
"Deluge", the, 113, 114
demand, 12, 17, 32, 44, 4647, 6266, 69, 71, 8182
demanded, 48
demands, 27, 4647
dementia, 85
democratic, 33
Denmark, 4, 38, 47, 76, 87, 92, 99101
Denmark-Norway, 101105, 114, 118119, 122123,
125
debt, 122
depend, 37
dependable, 93
depended, 87
dependence, 40
dependent, 18, 39, 49, 60, 62, 69, 77, 85
depending, 3, 9, 12, 4950, 55, 72, 76, 78
depends, 19, 26, 36, 43, 46, 4849, 52, 5859, 63,
7173, 7678
deployed, 79
deploying, 12
depopulated, 25
deposit, 6
deposits, 64
depots, 56
derived, 60
descendants, 88
described, 8, 10, 22, 38, 66, 74, 83, 96
describes, 96
description, 23, 63, 83
desert, 7, 51, 57
designs, 49
desirable, 64
desire, 87
desired, 35
desperate, 45
despite, 90

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Sida 133

Europa Universalis
despot, 9192, 124
destabilize, 15
destabilizing forces, 98
destination, 50
destroy, 76, 94
destroyed, 55
destroying, 39
destruction, 86
detach, 51
detaching, 51
detail, 45, 37, 56
detailed, 63
details, 46
deteriorate, 22, 33, 3637, 4041
deteriorated, 25, 37, 40
deteriorates, 33
deteriorating, 41
deterioration, 34
determine, 5, 25, 31
determined, 81
determines, 10, 53, 55
determining, 49
deterred, 43
deterrent, 38
devastated, 44
develop, 8, 11, 21, 2728, 76, 7879
developed, 14, 17, 2122, 29, 34, 3839, 44, 62,
8587, 9192, 95
developing, 37, 77
development, 6, 11, 20, 25, 33, 39, 4344, 60, 62, 67,
69, 7880, 83, 93, 9596, 123
developments, 80
develops, 10, 20, 76
devsirm, 88
diamonds, 116
Diaz, Diego, 97
dictator, 106, 117
die, 50, 83
died, 84, 8790, 94
Diego Diaz, 97
dies, 50
diet, 57, 6465
differ, 49
difference, 1718, 20, 37, 41, 51, 53, 5556, 60, 63,
67, 70, 78, 81
differences, 11, 31, 3738, 75
different, 3, 7, 20, 2526, 2829, 31, 3537, 39,
4546, 4849, 51, 57, 59, 6364, 66, 6869,
71, 73, 8182, 86
differentiated, 49, 68
differently, 3, 49, 67
difficult, 45, 15, 33, 44, 46, 6263, 93
difficulties, 4, 25
diminishes, 49
diplomacy, 11, 1416, 32, 3435, 38, 40, 46, 67, 79,
8396, 97
diplomat, 5, 15, 30, 3337, 42, 84, 9192
diplomatic, 4, 7, 15, 17, 23, 25, 3140, 83, 8687,
9091, 95, 121
diplomatically, 108
diplomatic corps, 36
diplomats, 8, 1415, 2930, 3233, 3537
direct, 4, 2526, 48, 61, 68, 79
directed, 89, 96
direction, 9, 23

directly, 36, 3940, 43, 46, 61, 71, 75, 79, 84, 92
disability, 34
disadvantage, 38
disadvantages, 15, 31, 43, 75
disappear, 27, 67, 7677
disappeared, 85
disappears, 4041
disapproval, 90
disaster, 89
disastrous, 51
disband, 9, 4950
disbanded, 56
disbandment, 96
discipline, 48
disclosed, 9
discover, 89, 14, 21, 66, 7677
discovered, 9, 19, 21, 51, 70
discoverers, 70
discoveries, 37, 97, 115
discovering, 6
discovery, 6, 12, 64
discuss, 4, 33, 35
discussed, 45, 66, 81, 94
discussion, 32
discussions, 36, 38
disease, 77, 99
diseases, 57, 99
disembarking, 55
disinterested, 88
dislike, 75
dismay, 89
dismissed, 86, 93
display, 36, 95
disposable, 68
disposal, 37, 59
disproportionately, 68
dissoluble, 40
dissolve, 39, 76
dissolves, 27
dissolving, 13, 23
distance, 72, 77, 79
distant, 43, 66
distasteful, 39
distillery, 82
distinguish, 59
distinguished, 50
distributed, 43, 60, 71, 73
distribution, 80
disturb, 36
Ditmarch, republic of the, 99
Diu, 115
diverse, 84
divide, 69, 80, 91, 126
divided, 3, 8, 12, 19, 22, 29, 42, 52, 55, 73, 77, 96,
115, 119
dividing, 33, 77, 115, 119
divine, 38
division, 22
Dniepr, 112113, 118
documents, 37
dogma, 85
dollars, 6
domestic, 22, 25, 33, 8689, 9394
domesticated, 64
dominance, 94

dominated, 92
domination, 51
dominion, 85, 125
Don Charles, 121
door, 74
Doria, Andrea, 83
dragoon, 80
drags, 15
Drake, Sir Francis, 85
drastically, 64
drawbacks, 75
drill, 48, 79
drilled, 79
drive, 72
driven, 72
driving, 34, 70
drop, 20, 2223, 39, 44, 68
dropped, 68
dropping, 67
drops, 28, 34, 43, 67, 72
drought, 70
drug, 69
dry, 57
du Plessis, 86
dubbed, 84
dubious, 23
Dublin, 102
ducats, 8, 12, 17, 24, 32, 3637, 43, 4647, 55, 59,
67, 72, 7475, 7980
Duchy of Burgundy, 98, 108
Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, 103
Duchy of Mantua, 108
due, 23, 6768
duke, 91, 98, 100, 107
dukes, 86
duration, 42, 44
Dutch, 26, 40, 84, 98, 100101, 103, 106, 116
duties, 102
dutiful, 90
duty, 35, 52
dwellers, 68
dyed, 84
dyes, 97
dynamic, 6, 71
dynamics, 76, 83
dynastic, 96, 98, 120, 122, 124
dynasties, 37
dynasty, 42, 84, 8687

E
earliest, 39
early, 25, 48, 64, 70, 85, 87, 89
earthquake, 117
earn, 60, 72
earned, 88
easier, 12, 14, 33, 42, 44, 48, 7576
easiest, 12, 76
easily, 15, 41
east, 29, 48, 6465, 77, 8586
East Asia, 115
East Africa, 116
eastern, 28, 65, 77
Eastern Europe, 126
eastward, 65

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Sida 134

Europa Universalis
easy, 3, 5, 41, 43, 7879, 96
eating, 64
ebony, 64
economic, 3, 68, 1011, 44, 51, 58, 60, 6566,
6971, 74, 78, 81, 84, 87, 89, 95, 108, 117,
120121
Economic map, 7
economical, 12, 48, 9495
economically, 15, 97, 100, 102, 110, 112, 114,
122123
economics, 3
economies, 12, 71, 76
economy, 912, 5960, 63, 6671, 7576, 80, 83,
87, 95, 106, 110, 116, 118, 120, 122, 126
Edict of Tolerance, 3132, 77
edicts, 32
Edward VI of England, 85
effect, 22, 32, 38, 4144, 48, 50, 55, 57, 67, 71, 77,
80
effective, 13, 25, 3435, 41, 47, 55, 6768, 70, 80,
8687
effectively, 67, 95
effectiveness, 11, 81
effects, 7, 12, 23, 3233, 41, 4344, 66, 6869, 80,
82, 88
efficiency, 48, 80, 88
efficient, 20, 26, 48, 69
efficiently, 48, 53
effort, 40, 44, 94
efforts, 42
Egypt, 31, 98, 110, 112
eight, 23, 85
El Greco, 86
elder, 90
elected, 29, 42, 93
electing, 94
election, 42
elector, 42
electors, 42
element, 57
Elena, mother of Ivan IV of Russia, 85
Eleonora, Ulrika, 92
eligible, 42
eliminate, 75
eliminating, 89
elimination, 86
elite, 47
Elizabeth I of England, 8586, 106
Elizabeth of Russia, 119, 124
Elizabeth Farnese, 91
elongated, 9
embargo, 4041, 7274, 79
embargoes, 96
embellished, 8
embroidered, 36
embryos, 39
emerged, 29, 39
emerging, 64
emigration, 88
eminence, 3, 83
Emperor (of the Holy Roman Empire), 18, 2830, 42,
86, 97, 116, 124125
Emperor Mathias of Austria, 100
Emperor Maximillian II of Austria, 93
emphasis, 30, 32, 48

134

empire, 34, 6, 18, 22, 2831, 37, 39, 42, 4748, 69,
79, 81, 8385, 88, 90, 9294, 97
empires, 76, 85
employed, 48
employment, 49
empress, 93
emptied, 76, 86
empty, 89, 14, 60, 68
encounters, 54
encourage, 88
encouraged, 88
end, 34, 12, 2223, 25, 32, 3940, 42, 48, 61, 79,
85, 90
ended, 91, 93
ending, 22, 33, 83
endless, 92
ends, 79
enemies, 14, 16, 27, 38, 44, 46, 55, 59, 66, 79, 92, 94
enemy, 4, 1617, 1920, 24, 41, 4448, 5056, 69,
76, 79, 92
enforce, 35
enforcer, 34
engage, 3, 87
engagement, 19
engagements, 16
engages, 26
England, 5, 40, 42, 4748, 51, 74, 76, 8486, 8992,
97110, 116117, 119121, 123, 125126
English, 3, 37, 40, 8485, 90, 100, 103, 106, 116,
121122
English Channel, 51
enjoy, 60, 79
enjoyed, 86, 9091
enjoys, 59
enlightened, 9192, 124
enlightenment, 29, 90, 102, 110, 117
enmity, 42
enter, 15, 33, 3839, 43, 86
entered, 6, 25, 86, 88, 91
entering, 36, 38, 87
enterprises, 69
entrance, 54
entry, 95
environment, 82
environments, 65
envoys, 35, 38
epic, 94
epidemics, 57, 70, 99, 101
epithet, 85, 91
epitome, 40
epoch, 8, 22, 45
epochal, 83
equal, 48, 56, 75, 79, 94, 97
equality, 45, 119
equipment, 4849, 80, 82, 96
equipped, 85, 96
era, 12, 45, 52, 60, 68
eradicated, 52
Erasmus of Rotterdam, 98
erect, 55
Ericeira, 116
Erik XIV of Sweden, 37, 39
Erlach, Fischer von, 102
erupt, 12
escalated, 37

escaped, 57
Eschl, von, 115
establish, 11, 14, 20, 31, 44, 7578
established, 10, 14, 18, 20, 48, 85
establishes, 75
establishing, 7, 13, 18, 68, 7678
establishment, 6, 88
Estonia, 39, 104, 118, 122
Estonian, 39
ethics, 30, 32
Eugene, prince, of Savoy, 109
Europe, 3, 6, 10, 17, 22, 2829, 3132, 39, 48,
6366, 68, 74, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 8890,
92, 94, 97, 101
European, 3, 9, 12, 14, 17, 20, 22, 29, 3132, 36, 45,
48, 6465, 7071, 75, 81, 83, 8586, 88
European, eastern, 115
Europeans, 29, 70, 74, 77
evaded, 25
evaporation, 64
event, 3132, 34, 40, 74, 77
events, 20, 2324, 31, 36, 50, 60, 62, 67, 7677, 83,
87, 94
evolved, 70
exception, 9, 1819, 22, 34, 37, 46, 65, 71
exceptional, 83, 86
exceptions, 19, 33, 42, 56
exchange, 15, 37, 60, 70, 90
exchanged, 12, 55, 70, 92
exchanging, 35
exchequer, 87, 92
exclusion, 89
exclusive, 65
exclusively, 12
excuse, 37
excused, 85
executed, 69, 83
execution, 92, 106
executive, 124
exempt, 31
exhausted, 86, 89
exhaustion, 16
exiled, 117
existence, 28, 48
exotic, 12, 6364, 75, 81
expand, 15, 76, 79, 85, 88, 117, 123124
expanding, 15, 43, 85, 125
expansion, 14, 6970, 8687, 90, 9293, 98, 101,
115, 117, 119, 121
expedition, 11
expelled, 36, 120
expenditure, 12
expenditures, 8
expense, 43, 67, 89, 95
expenses, 45, 49, 5960, 67, 69, 95
expensive, 1213, 49, 65, 7172, 80
experience, 56, 58, 61, 64
experienced, 5556, 70, 89
experiences, 10, 61
experts, 96
expiration, 9596
expires, 38
exploit, 75
exploitation, 64
explorations, 65, 95

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Sida 135

Europa Universalis
explore, 6, 7678
explored, 21, 77
Explorer, 9, 21, 7677
Explorers, 50, 70, 77, 85
exploring, 50
export, 82, 123
exported, 84
exports, 88
exposed, 57
expressed, 8
expression, 89
expulsion, 102
extend, 67
extended, 16, 56, 60, 67
external, 12, 66
extract, 68
extracted, 64

F
fabric, 97
fabrics, 63
facilities, 82
faction, 31
factor, 15, 36, 39, 44, 4849, 58, 78, 80
factories, 18, 20, 44, 60, 6466, 6869, 8182, 114
factors, 12, 22, 26, 35, 49, 5658, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73,
78, 8081, 83, 85
factory, 26, 6061, 8182
fail, 25, 56
failed, 34, 42, 56, 76, 8485, 88, 91, 9495
failing, 90
faith, 3334, 38, 67, 92
Falconnet, 102
Falkirk Moor, 107
fall, 3, 15, 27
fallen, 84
falling, 34
falls, 27, 56, 58, 76
fame, 45
familiar, 6
families, 36
family, 3, 3536, 89
fanaticism, 31
Far East, 64, 86, 100101, 111, 120
farmed, 122
farmers, 85
farming, 44, 97, 101, 116, 120
farmland, 99
Farnese, Elizabeth, 91
fashion, 9, 32, 86, 89
fashionable, 65
fast, 8, 48, 78, 83
faster, 48, 65
fastest, 15, 48, 81
fatal, 4344
fate, 47
father, 42, 8485, 8889, 91, 9394
fatigue, 29, 3233, 44, 46
favorite, 89, 93
fear, 85
feasible, 75
feature, 36, 65
fed, 57
federal, 98

fee, 59
fees, 5961, 80
Flipe II (see Philip II of Spain)
fell, 22
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 31, 98, 119
Ferdinand of Austria, 111
Ferno de Magelhes (Magellan), 115
Ferrara, Duke of, 98
feta, 63
feud of the counts, 103
feudal, 69, 85, 98, 117
feudalism, 39, 108
few, 9, 17, 2526, 28, 4647, 5657, 59, 63, 68, 71,
78, 86
fewer, 25, 80
fief, 42
field, 27, 48, 56, 79, 85, 9194
fields, 8, 79, 81
fifteen, 93
fight, 3, 9, 25, 33, 42, 5657, 7273, 79, 93
fighters, 69
fighting, 27, 29, 31, 43, 54, 82, 84, 89, 92
figure, 14, 16
figures, 95
Filipe I of Portugal (= Philip II of Spain), 116
filled, 70, 73
final, 37, 94, 73, 7577, 80, 86, 9596
finance, 16, 69, 88, 116
financed, 37, 59
finances, 23, 36, 67, 85, 124
financial, 67, 71, 76, 80, 85, 95, 104, 110, 119
Financial Summary, 8, 11, 25, 49
financing, 59, 68, 83, 101
find, 4, 69, 11, 13, 17, 20, 43, 51, 54, 63, 70, 78,
8283, 9596
finding, 19
finds, 28
fine, 82, 89
finished, 9, 44
Finland, 85, 118119, 122124
Finnish, 117
Fiorenzuela, 91
fire, 48, 5556, 87
firearms, 7980, 85, 113
firepower, 11, 48, 80
fires, 45
firing, 50, 53
first, 45, 89, 11, 1314, 19, 23, 29, 32, 35, 37,
4447, 53, 57, 59, 61, 65, 67, 6871, 76, 79,
84, 87, 90, 92, 9596
Fischer von Erlach, 102
fish, 12, 6364, 71, 82, 97
fishermen, 64
fishing, 64, 70
five, 78, 2223, 34, 47, 58, 60, 67, 81, 89
fixed, 12, 59
flag, 16, 1819, 26, 53, 55, 80
Flanders, 97
flank, 48
flare, 89
flattery, 92
flax, 82
fled, 92
fleece, 63
flees, 53, 55

fleet, 1213, 19, 44, 4955, 5758, 75, 88

fleets, 46, 8, 1213, 15, 19, 3031, 40, 4345,
4754, 56, 58, 60, 64, 67, 69, 75, 77, 7980,
83, 96
Flemish, 84
Fleury, Hercule de, 91, 110
flexible, 39
flighty, 23
flocks, 66
flood, 37
Florence, 98
Florida, 102, 107108, 120122
Floridablanca, marquis of, 121
flourished, 57, 86
flow, 3
fluid, 45
fly, 19, 26
flying, 19
focus, 45, 48
foe, 96
fog, 67
foggy, 87
fold, 32
follow, 3, 46, 87
followed, 8, 40, 4849, 68, 85
following, 8, 29, 51, 58, 76, 9596
follows, 51
Fontainebleau, 38
food, 6465
foothold, 70, 86
forbade, 88
force, 22, 2728, 32, 38, 53, 5556, 70, 9394
forced, 4, 29, 3132, 34, 39, 54, 56, 60, 70, 90,
9394
forces, 11, 2627, 34, 44, 48, 56, 76, 7980, 85, 93
forcing, 30, 51, 56
foreign, 7, 2223, 25, 3536, 44, 47, 60, 67, 8283
foreign policy, 22, 32, 42, 105109, 118, 120,
122123
forest, 7, 95
forests, 55, 97
forgery, 68
forget, 27, 40, 47
forgetfulness, 85
form, 11, 29, 39, 46, 59, 64, 70
formal, 2223
formalized, 35, 77
format, 8, 96
formations, 80
formula, 73
formulate, 46
formulated, 22
forts, 111
fortification, 9, 48, 51, 92
fortifications, 910, 19, 4344, 55, 75, 96, 111
fortified, 26, 50, 55
fortress, 5556
fortresses, 55, 60, 69
fortune, 69, 93
fortunes, 46, 86
forward, 3, 71
fought, 85, 88, 94
found, 13, 63, 92
foundation, 6364, 8485
founded, 61

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founder, 84
foundered, 48
founding, 86
foundries, 64, 82
four, 15, 31, 46, 73, 77, 7981, 86, 9596
fourth, 23
fourthly, 53, 58, 68
fox, 64
frail, 91
frame, 30
framework, 22
Franois I of France, 8385
France, 3, 28, 38, 45, 47, 51, 7677, 8387, 8991,
94, 97103, 105110, 116, 119121, 124126
Franch-Comte, 98, 108, 119, 121
Francis Bacon, Sir, 100
Francis Drake, Sir, 85
Francisco de Almeida, 97
Frederick I of Sweden, 123
Frederick II "the Great" of Prussia, 3536, 45, 9091,
107, 110, 119, 126
Frederick of Hessen-Cassel, 92
Frederick William I of Prussia, 8991
Fredrikshald, 92
free, 55, 79, 86, 121
freedom, 24, 29, 45, 84
freedom of religion, 100
freely, 18, 39, 42, 50
freezing, 64
Freiburg, 108
French, 4, 25, 32, 34, 37, 40, 84, 87, 8991, 100,
102103, 105, 107, 108110, 116, 119, 121,
125
French Revolution, 110, 117, 119, 126
French Guyana, 102
frequency, 25
friction, 45, 57
friend, 91, 96
friendship, 23, 3738
frigate, 80
fringes, 3, 10, 28
"Frond, The", 109
front, 33, 38, 84
froze, 104
frozen, 22, 40
fulfilling, 93
fulfills, 40
full, 8, 67, 90
fully, 9, 14, 17, 42, 58
function, 50, 68, 94
functional, 80
functioning, 56
functions, 8, 31, 44, 50
funds, 14, 59, 67, 124
fur, 63
furnaces, 82
furniture, 64
furs, 36, 6364, 70, 82, 97
Fyodor (Theodor) I of Russia, 118
Fyodor III of Russia, 88

G
gain, 17, 20, 25, 34, 4243, 46, 83, 85, 92
gained, 3, 6, 43, 83, 95

136

gaining, 5, 18
gala, 37
Galileo Galilei, 100
Gallas, 125
galleon, 51
galley, 49
galleys, 1213, 49, 51, 58
gardener, 91
gardens, 82
garrison, 26, 48, 56, 103
garrisons, 9
gate, 32
gather, 40, 47, 70
gathered, 35
gave, 31, 8688, 91, 9394
Geert Geertsz (Erasmus), 98
gems, 64
general, 50, 91
generals, 50
generate, 27, 69
generated, 10, 73
generates, 8, 94
generations, 84
generic, 32, 45, 71, 80, 82
generous, 46
Genoa, 97, 115
Genovese, 83
gentleman, 87
geographic, 20
geographical, 7, 15, 17, 20, 76, 115
geography, 7
George II of England, 90
George Berkeley, 102
Georgia, 111112, 119
German, 92, 99100, 104, 107, 110, 123, 125
Germany, 32, 84, 87, 97, 99, 106, 116117, 119, 123
"Germans", 103
gestures, 36
giant, 48, 89
giants, 89
Gibraltar, 52, 107, 121122
gift, 3637
gifts, 15, 3537, 60
gilded, 37
ginger, 65
give, 4, 6, 8, 17, 3638, 46, 5051, 55, 75
given, 40, 42, 46, 63, 71, 85, 95
gives, 30, 56, 74, 96
giving, 9, 12, 3637, 50, 67, 90, 96
global, 12, 69, 71, 90
globally, 64, 71
glorious, 83
Glorious Revolution, the, 106
glowing, 90
Goa, 115
goal, 45, 22, 32, 35, 4546, 75, 84, 8689, 9394
goals, 40, 4546, 69, 87
God, 3, 33
gods, 77
gold, 1112, 45, 6364, 68, 70, 95, 98, 116, 120
golden age, 74, 83, 89, 112
Golden Horde, 117
Golitsyn, Vasilij, 88
good, 4, 10, 1415, 2223, 26, 3233, 3641, 43,
45, 50, 56, 64, 68, 7679, 84, 88, 91, 95

goods, 3, 7, 1213, 59, 61, 6364, 7071, 7576,

8182
Gothenburg, 104
Gotland, 104, 123
govern, 33
governing, 35
government, 3, 23, 2528, 3031, 3334, 4142, 59,
61, 6768, 71, 86, 90, 92, 114
governmental, 25, 80, 8283
governments, 3, 22, 38, 60, 68
governor, 11, 69, 88, 90
governors, 11, 6465, 69, 111
grain, 12, 6364, 97, 102, 105, 114
Granada, 119
grand admiral, 110
Grand Campaign, 3, 47, 85
Grand Duchy of Moscow, 98, 117, 122
grand dukes, 117
grand vizier, 85, 88, 111
grandfather, 85, 87
grandson, 8990
grandsons, 42
grants, 24
graph, 9596
graphic, 20
graphs, 9596
gray, 83 (see also grey)
great, 3, 1415, 25, 30, 32, 3537, 42, 44, 46, 55, 58,
63, 75, 79, 81, 8396
Great Nordic War, 88, 90, 101, 104105, 107, 114,
118, 123
great power(s), 46, 97, 101, 103126
greater, 45, 1113, 2426, 32, 37, 4446, 57, 64,
68, 71, 73, 7576, 83, 9091, 96
greatest, 43, 46, 8486, 8892, 94
Greeks, 110
green, 910, 14, 23, 58
Gregorij Orlov, 93
grey, 3, 58 (see also gray)
grip, 25, 8687
Grotius, Hugo, 100
ground, 20, 86
grounds, 60, 70
group, 8081
groups, 2224, 8081
grow, 70, 72, 78
growing, 94
grown, 46, 62
grows, 10, 78
growth, 11, 2021, 25, 4445, 6062, 7778, 81
guard, 51, 56, 85
guards, 89
guidance, 31
guild, 72
guilds, 80
Guilio Alberoni, 91
Guinea, 115
Gulf of Persia, 49
Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden, 45, 50, 83, 87, 123
Gustavus III of Sweden, 36, 119, 124
Gustavus Eriksson Vasa of Sweden, 25, 33, 87
Gustavus (see also Charles X Gustavus)

H
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Europa Universalis
half, 3, 26, 28, 34, 67, 69, 77, 85, 88
Halland, 104, 123
halt, 69
Handel, 102
handle, 33, 39
handled, 23, 30, 38, 44
handling, 23, 33, 82
hang, 16
Hanover, 91, 107, 123
Hanseatic League, 97, 100, 103, 122
happy, 33
Hapsburg (dynasty), 42, 8384, 86, 98, 109, 116, 121,
124125
Hapsburgs, 100, 108, 112
Haram, 22
hard, 86, 95
harder, 75
Hrjedalen, 104, 123
harsh, 82, 91
harvest, 70
harvests, 101
hate, 41, 85
hated, 41
hates, 43
hatred, 39
Hats, Party of the, 45
healed, 94
healing, 65
health, 90
heart, 6, 5960, 88
heat, 48
heathenism, 34
heathens, 29
heavily, 15, 26, 30, 39, 49, 77, 80
heavy, 31, 45, 48, 87
hegemony, 22, 83, 89, 125
height, 22, 89
heir, 50, 84, 123
heirs, 87
held, 56
help, 23, 38, 96
helped, 91, 93
helps, 6
hemp, 64, 82
Henri de Anjou, King of Poland-Lithuania, 93, 98
Henrique, king of Portugal, 115
Henry IV of France, 86, 108
Henry VII of England, 84
Henry VIII of England, 8485, 98, 106
Hensius, Antonius, 90
Hercule de Fleury, 91, 110
hereditary, 124
heretic, 34, 84
heretics, 31, 84
Hessen-Cassel, 92
heterogeneous, 126
hidden, 7
hierarchy, 122
high, 11, 21, 2527, 31, 36, 41, 4345, 50, 56, 58,
6264, 71, 7376, 79, 8283, 87, 92
higher, 11, 14, 16, 23, 2526, 30, 4041, 43, 45,
4950, 55, 58, 6163, 6769, 71, 7172,
7576, 78, 80, 8283
highest, 4, 35, 50, 69
Hildebrandt, von, 102

hindered, 94
hindrance, 92
historians, 82
historic, 3, 43, 74
historical, 3, 89, 31, 37, 39, 50, 64, 70, 77
historically, 3, 12, 14, 21, 31, 33, 37, 41, 50, 56, 60,
63, 81
history, 3, 5, 50, 83, 8889, 91, 9394
hoist, 53
hold, 42, 48, 73
holding, 24, 93, 96
holdings, 9293, 96
Holland, 30
Holstein, 105
Holstein-Gottorp, duchy of, 103, 105
holy, 38, 86
Holy League, 114
Holy Roman Empire, 18, 2930, 42, 109, 116,
124125
home, 42, 6465, 74, 82
homespun, 63
honest, 91
honor, 2223, 3839, 4142, 4445, 70
honoring, 16, 39
Hormuz, 115
Horn, Arvid, 123
horse, 11
hostile, 46, 5455, 96
house, 84, 89, 91
House of Commons, 90
houses, 82
Hudson Bay, 107
huge, 23, 34, 37, 82
Hugo Grotius, 100
Huguenots, 34, 86, 89, 102, 108
humanitarian, 89
humans, 64
humiliated, 85
humorless, 94
hundred, 65
Hundred Years War, 105, 108
Hungarian, 97, 113
Hungarian-Bohemian, 124
Hungary, 3940, 47, 81, 8384, 98, 110112,
124125
hunt, 70
hunting, 70, 97
Huron nation, 100
husband, 92
hussars, 113
Hussein Pasha, 88
Hutten, Ulrich von, 32
hygiene, 57

I
Iberian Peninsula, 28, 99
"Iberian Union", 116
ice, 7
icelocked, 58
icon, 77, 9596
icons, 95
ideal, 38
ideals, 84
ideas, 45, 88
ideological, 22

ideology, 29, 110

Ignatius of Loyola, 98
ill, 88, 92
illustrated, 70
immaculate, 82
immeasurably, 73
immediate, 12, 80
immobile, 48
immoral, 22
impact, 11, 36, 43, 50, 62
impacted, 68
Imperator at Rum, 98
imperfections, 50
imperial, 110
implementation, 90
importance, 10, 12, 39, 55, 79, 81
important, 89, 12, 1416, 18, 22, 26, 28, 3138,
4246, 48, 5051, 53, 55, 5759, 6265, 71,
73, 7784, 88, 94
importantly, 68, 75
imports, 88
impossibility, 68
impossible, 25, 33, 40, 69
impression, 24
imprisoned, 89
improbable, 33
improve, 15, 31, 33, 3637, 44, 88
improved, 14, 37, 45, 7980, 90
improvement, 36, 41
improvements, 4, 58, 95
improves, 26
improving, 36, 42, 44
impulses, 79
Inca empire, 97
Incas, 120
incense, 97
incentive, 25
incited, 89
income, 8, 1012, 19, 2327, 3031, 34, 3941, 43,
45, 5961, 6669, 71, 7376, 7882, 87, 95,
97, 99, 102
incomes, 5961, 75
incompetent, 37
incorporated, 23
incorporates, 3, 26
incorporation, 83
incorrect, 58
increase, 9, 1113, 20, 2327, 34, 41, 4345, 59,
6162, 6869, 71, 73, 75, 7778, 8081, 88
increased, 8, 12, 16, 23, 26, 30, 32, 45, 48, 57,
6364, 66, 68, 82, 86, 88, 93
increases, 8, 11, 24, 36, 4445, 5758, 6169,
7879
increasing, 11, 23, 25, 44, 46, 64, 71, 77
incrementally, 58
incurred, 60
independence, 2728, 38, 43, 48, 90, 103, 106, 116,
119, 122, 124
independent, 1718, 24, 28, 31, 36, 40, 42, 54, 56,
76, 86, 111, 115, 120, 126
index, 95
India, 6365, 77, 79, 86, 90, 97, 101, 107, 115
Indian Ocean, 115
Indian princes, 107
indicated, 9

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Europa Universalis
indicates, 13, 20, 58
Indies, West, 86
indirect, 60
indispensable, 48, 94
individual, 33, 47, 86
individualism, 30, 99
individuals, 3, 68
Indonesia, 65, 102
indulgent, 36
industrial, 112
Industrial Revolution, 80
industrialization, 82, 108
industries, 81
industry, 64, 88
inexpensive, 64
infantry, 13, 44, 4851, 85, 96, 113
infantrymen, 48
infidel, 84
inflamed, 31
inflation, 11, 22, 55, 60, 64, 6769, 80, 95
inflicted, 94
influence, 10, 19, 32, 50, 5253, 55, 57, 75, 7980,
83, 87, 89, 114, 124, 126
influenced, 36, 45, 53, 79, 85
influencing, 35
influential, 89
informal, 22, 35, 60
information, 37, 55, 96
Information window, 5, 810, 13, 1516, 20, 23, 49,
51, 5658, 61, 71, 7677, 95
infrastructure, 45, 11, 5960, 66, 69, 7980, 8283,
95
Ingermania, 101, 103, 118, 123
ingredients, 64
inhabitant, 41, 59
inhabitants, 10, 14, 20, 28, 34, 45, 6163, 71, 7576
inherit, 84
inheritance, 113, 125
inherited, 84, 8789
inheriting, 84
inheritor, 28
inhospitable, 61
initiate, 56
injustice, 22
injustices, 25
inland, 70
inner lines, 91
innocent, 15
innovation, 80
innovations, 71, 80
Inquisition, 100, 116
insecure, 23
inseparable, 32
insignificant, 8
institutions, 60, 67
instruments, 64
insult, 37, 45
insults, 15, 35, 37
insurance, 71, 80
intact, 66
integrity, 88
interaction, 3
intercepted, 51
intercepting, 52
interception, 5152

138

interceptions, 52
interest, 6, 25, 60, 67, 95
interests, 35, 38, 83, 93
interior, 21
internally, 67
international, 15, 22, 24, 43, 60, 71
interpretation, 29, 3132
interpreted, 11, 23, 38
intervals, 13
intervene, 87
intolerance, 122
intolerant, 108, 120, 122
intoxicating, 82
intrigue, 25, 91, 120
introduced, 69, 88
introducing, 80, 88
introduction, 3, 3637, 69, 80, 88
invaded, 84
invader, 55
invasion, 92, 120
invasions, 92, 113
invent, 37
invest, 3, 5, 10, 15, 44, 60, 66, 69, 7981
invested, 14, 23, 43, 80
investing, 12, 23, 3031, 44, 69, 81
investment, 43, 7980, 83
investments, 8, 1112, 24, 60, 7980, 117, 125
invisible, 12
invite, 38
involved, 6, 22, 25, 31, 3638, 47, 56, 81, 83, 86, 90
involves, 41, 47, 74
involving, 47
Iraq, 83, 98
iron, 6364, 82
irrigation, 97
irritation, 23
Isaac Newton, 102
Isabella, queen of Spain (see Ferdinand and Isabella)
Islam, 110
islands, 65, 77
isolated, 22
isolation, 74
isolationist, 122
issue, 75
issued, 40, 67
issuer, 22
issues, 33
Istanbul, 37
Italian, 42, 85, 97, 100, 111
Italy, 4, 84, 91, 97100, 102103, 108, 111,
119121, 124
item, 36
items, 70
Ivan IV "the Terrible" of Russia, 37, 85, 93, 117118
Ivan V of Russia, 88
ivory, 12, 6364, 71, 82
Iyemitsu, Shogun Tokugawa, 74

J
Jagellonian dynasty, 112113
James Edward Stuart (James I), king of England and
Scotland, 103
James II of England, 106107
Jamestown, 100
Jmtland, 104, 123

Jan de Witt, 89
Jan III Sobieski of Poland-Lithuania, 83, 94, 111, 114,
125
Jan Zamoyski, 93
Janitchars, 47
Japan, 74, 115
Japanese, 74
Java, 115
Jean [John] Calvin, 3132, 34
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 87
Jesuits, 116117
jewelry, 64
Jews, 120
Joan the Mad, 84
Joo II of Portugal, 115
Joo IV of Portugal, duke of Bragana, 116
Joo V of Portugal, 117
Johan III of Sweden, 93, 122
Johan Zapolya of Siebenbrgen, 111
John Knox, 32
John Locke, 102
join, 38
joined, 39, 64, 83
joint, 71
Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 36
judge, 26
judges, 6465
judicial, 26
Juel, Niels, 104
jumble, 49
junker, 90
justice, 45, 69
justified, 45, 69
Jutland, 104, 123

K
Kahlenberge, battle of, 125
Kaminiecz, 112
Kara Mustafa, 88
Karlowitz, peace of, 125
Katarina II (see Catherine II)
Kaunitz, Count Wenzel-Anton of, 90
Kazan (Khanate), 85, 117
keep, 4, 9, 12, 25, 31, 3334, 39, 43, 46, 5152, 56,
7778, 93
keeping, 38, 4243, 6869, 85, 9596
kept, 13, 66, 94
Kexholm, 118, 123
key, 33
keyboard, 95
keys, 95
keyword, 69
killed, 92
kinds, 4850
king, 3, 40, 8384, 8687, 8990, 9294, 105, 113
kingdom, 39, 45, 74, 86
kingdom, elected, 113
kings, 37, 39, 94
knight, 48, 84
knighthood, 39
knightly, 84
knights, 39, 79
Knights of Saint John, 110
knowledge, 8, 15, 21, 94

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Europa Universalis
known, 21, 25, 36, 5051, 65, 74, 8384, 8889, 93
Knox, John, 32
Knigsmarck, 123
Kprl, Mehmet and Ahmed, 88
Koran, 31
Krakow, 93
Kristina (Queen of Sweden), 87
Kurdistan, 110

L
label, 95
labeled, 7
labor, 64
lack, 10, 17, 25, 31, 42, 45, 60, 64, 7475
lacked, 48, 68, 71, 88
lacking, 19
lacks, 58, 67, 76
lagged, 44
lags, 6
land, 4, 6, 89, 15, 21, 24, 28, 42, 45, 51, 58, 60, 77,
7980, 8283, 85, 9091, 96
landing, 51
lands, 85, 88
landscape(s), 97, 99
lanes, 10, 51
language, 8
large, 45, 14, 18, 2223, 35, 37, 41, 46, 4951, 66,
73, 80, 90
larger, 8, 4445, 55, 62, 70, 80
largest, 13, 43, 60
last, 7, 32, 35, 40, 44, 67, 84, 87, 89, 9496
lasting, 76
lasts, 44
late, 22, 48, 79, 90
lateen, 51
later, 46, 8, 10, 12, 14, 17, 22, 25, 37, 39, 41, 4344,
56, 60, 62, 64, 67, 70, 74, 77, 80, 8490, 92
latest, 38
Latin, 8, 16, 42, 81
latitudes, 64
launch, 56
launched, 8384, 9293
launching, 56
law, 23, 39, 71, 100
lawful, 42
lawmaker, 83
laws, 24, 40
lawyer, 26
lay claim, 37
layman, 32
lead, 3, 5, 16, 29, 34, 50, 6465, 69, 77
leader, 11, 3839, 47, 74, 83, 93
leaders, 25, 31, 38, 40
leadership, 85, 93, 124
leading, 5, 12, 43, 8485, 89, 95
leads, 26, 50
learn, 76
learned, 82, 91
learning, 3, 89
least, 9, 11, 13, 20, 41, 4344, 49, 68, 72, 78
leave, 23, 3839, 56, 90
leaving, 23, 54, 75
led, 32, 39, 64, 86, 88, 9091, 94
left, 5, 89, 41, 56, 70, 85, 87, 89, 93, 95

legal, 6869
legal system, 116
legendary, 84
legends, 21, 94
legislative, 34
Leibniz, G. W. von, 102
Leiden, 100
lend, 37, 67
lender, 67
length, 52, 54
lengthy, 51
Leonardo da Vinci, 98
Lepanto, 85, 111, 120
less, 11, 1516, 23, 2526, 34, 36, 39, 4142,
4850, 56, 58, 6162, 65, 6768, 71, 74, 76,
79, 85, 89, 92
lessen, 41, 69, 81
lessened, 82
lessening, 39
lessens, 69, 75
lesser, 33, 41, 68, 70, 74
Leszczynski, Stanislaus, 114, 119
letters, 92, 107
letter(s) of introduction, 3637
Levant, 97, 115
level, 812, 18, 2021, 23, 2527, 3031, 3334,
3637, 4144, 49, 5152, 54, 5460, 6667,
69, 7177, 7980, 8283, 95
levels, 8, 1011, 14, 20, 2325, 27, 31, 33, 36,
4041, 49, 5253, 58, 62, 66, 71, 7175, 79,
9596
level of development, 62
levies, 22, 24, 116, 122
levying, 60
liable, 40
liberal, 110, 115
liberate, 116
liberated, 28
liberation, 25, 2728, 40
"Liberum Veto", 114, 119
lies, 49, 73
lifted, 56
light, 10, 14, 89
lighter, 48
lightly, 22, 34
likely, 4748, 61, 67
limit, 44, 50, 56, 67
limitation, 44
limitations, 44, 87
limited, 3, 19, 4244, 69, 76
limiting, 44, 89
limits, 44, 75
line, 8, 14, 16, 23, 39, 45, 47, 5658, 77
linen, 63, 66
lines, 9, 35, 56, 76, 91, 95
linked, 80
liquid, 12, 60, 63, 6768
liquor, 82
Lisbon, 115117
list, 4, 83
listed, 81, 96
literature, 86
Lithuania (see Poland-Lithuania)
Lithuanian, 124
little, 5, 8, 37, 6768, 91

live, 61
lived, 28, 45, 51, 85, 89
lives, 10, 56, 74
living, 2526, 70
Livonia, 93, 103, 113, 118, 123
Livonian, 93
load, 13
loaded, 13
loading, 13
loan, 23, 42, 6768, 95
loans, 11, 23, 25, 40, 5960, 6668, 95
local, 12, 15, 19, 44, 7576, 88
locals, 76
located, 17, 47, 51, 53, 5659, 61, 72, 75, 78, 81, 96
location, 77
locations, 76, 79
Locke, John, 102
locked, 4
London, 90, 100, 116, 121
long, 9, 11, 14, 25, 3132, 4041, 4345, 48, 52,
5456, 59, 65, 76, 8485, 88, 9294
Long War, the, 111
longer, 11, 18, 23, 25, 28, 40, 42, 44, 4849, 55, 67,
77, 83, 86
longest, 4849, 91
loose, 10, 44
lord, 3940, 87, 92
Lorraine, 28, 84, 98
lose, 3, 6, 20, 22, 3334, 40, 4244, 46, 50, 56, 58,
67, 72, 75, 86
loser, 53
loses, 38, 42, 5253, 55
losing, 4344, 47, 53, 85, 90
loss, 16, 28, 3941, 4345, 47, 5556, 69, 85
losses, 6, 12, 16, 27, 4344, 52, 57, 91, 96
lost, 23, 2728, 32, 43, 66, 83, 87, 9192, 94, 96
"lost prince", cult of the, 116
Lothringen, 125
Louis XII of France, 84
Louis XIII of France, 86, 89, 100
Louis XIV of France, 45, 87, 89, 103, 106109,
116117, 121, 125
Louis XV of France, 91
Louisiana, 107, 110
Louvois, 109
low, 1112, 21, 24, 27, 31, 33, 3637, 41, 56, 58,
6263, 66, 71, 73, 7577, 82
lower, 78, 1112, 2226, 28, 34, 38, 41, 43, 50, 58,
7678
lowered, 2223, 25, 31, 34, 3839, 4142, 44, 56,
58, 64, 75
lowering, 2224, 34, 38, 41, 69
lowers, 2223, 25, 30, 34, 4344, 69
lowest, 9, 42, 58
loyal, 85, 88, 91, 93
loyalties, 88
loyalty, 36
Loyola, 98
Lublin, 113
Lubomirski rebellion, 113
luck, 52
lucky, 74
lucrative, 75
Ludovico Sforza, 98
Ludvig (Ludwig) II of Hungary, 110, 113

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lukewarm, 33
Luther, Martin, 32, 9899
Lutheran, 32
Lutter am Barenberge, 104
Ltzen, 87
luxuries, 82, 117
luxury, 64, 70
lynched, 89

M
Macao, 115
Machiavelli, 98
Machiavellian, 91
machinery, 90
Mad, Joan the, 84
Madagascar, 97, 115
Madras, 90
Madrid, 116
Magelhes (Magellan), Ferno de, 115
Magellan (see Magelhes)
magnates, 102, 114, 124
magnificence, 24
magnificent, 8283, 87, 90
main, 10, 19, 32, 40, 51, 6566, 71, 88, 9495
mainly, 51, 64, 74, 76, 86, 88
maintain, 1214, 35, 41, 56, 58, 71, 75, 86, 88
maintained, 18, 93
maintaining, 39, 41, 60, 92
maintenance, 19, 45, 4950, 58, 71, 75, 80, 95
majesty, 89
major, 92
majority, 29, 31, 52, 6768
Malaya, 115
Malebranche, Nicholas, 102
Malta, 111, 119
Mamlukes, 31
Mameluke, 111
Mamelukes, 98, 110
manage, 3, 11, 19, 2627, 67, 69, 75, 87, 94
managed, 24, 31, 6768, 77, 8487, 89, 9294
management, 80
managing, 12, 59, 69
maneuverable, 48
maneuvering, 5253, 80, 96
manpower, 8, 4344, 64
Mantua, Duchy of, 108
manual, 34, 25
Manuel the Great of Portugal, 115
manufacture, 64, 82, 86, 111
manufactured, 64
manufacturing, 88, 123
map, 510, 1215, 1718, 20, 25, 56, 71, 7778, 96
maps, 9, 21, 37, 40
march, 9, 51, 90
marched, 57
marching, 9, 13, 50, 79
Maria I of Portugal, 117
Maria Theresia, Empress of Austria, 90, 126
Marie deMedici, 86
Marignano, 84
marked, 1718
market, 6163, 7172
markets, 65
marking, 55

140

Marlborough, Duke of, 107, 109

Marlowe, Christopher, 100
marriage, 15, 2223, 3639, 41, 98
marriages, 6, 15, 33, 35, 3739, 96
married, 38, 84, 9192
marry, 37
marshal, 9294
marshals, 91
Martin Luther, 32, 9899
Mary I, Queen of England, 85, 106
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, 106
massacre, 62
masses, 68
massive, 28, 40, 47
material, 6364, 66
materials, 6364, 80
matrimony, 38
Mathias of Austria, 100
Maximilian of Austria, 45, 84
Maximilian I of Austria, 98
Maximillian II of Austria, 93
maximize, 31, 33, 67
maximum, 9, 12, 46, 58, 60, 72, 7980
Mayflower, 10
mayor, 69
mayors, 11, 69
Mazarin, 108109
mead, 65
measles, 77
measure, 45
measurement, 71
measurements, 80
measures, 86
meat, 64
medical, 57
Medici, 86
Mediterranean, 13, 49, 58, 65, 8385, 110111, 120
medium, 14, 56
Mehmet Sokullu, 85
Mehmet Kprl, 88
Melanchton, 32
member, 3536, 3839, 43, 90
members, 3536, 3839, 47, 96
Menorca, 107108, 121122
mentally, 88, 92
menu, 8, 1516
mercantile, 120
Mercantile era, 60
mercantilism, 40, 88
mercenaries, 99, 103, 117
merchant, 12, 14, 25, 59, 7172, 75, 88, 95
merchants, 8, 1012, 14, 18, 20, 25, 30, 4041, 43,
5960, 64, 68, 7173, 7576, 80, 85, 100101,
115
merge, 9
merged, 13
merging, 13
metal, 64, 68
metals, 64, 106
meters, 89
method, 34, 37, 60
methods, 3637, 69, 80
Mexico, 4, 99
Michail (Michail Romanov), czar of Russia, 94, 118
Michel de Montaigne, 100

Michelangelo Buonarroti, 98
middle, 33, 64, 124125
middle classes, 115, 120
Middle Ages, 22, 28, 39, 42, 74, 79, 9798
Middle East, 29, 48, 65
Miguel de Cervantes, 100
Milan, 121, 125
militant, 30
militarily, 113, 126
military, 3, 6, 89, 1112, 21, 35, 3941, 4344,
4749, 55, 58, 60, 64, 7677, 79, 7980,
8296, 111, 114, 116, 120
mind, 30, 90
mine, 95
mineral, 64
mines, 1112, 64, 82
minimize, 31, 33, 51
minimized, 44
minimum, 56, 58
mining, 64
minister, 86, 8993, 116
ministers, 86, 111
ministry, 88
mink, 64
minor, 60
minorities, 31, 33, 44, 126
minority, 41
minting, 11, 16
misery, 84
misfortunes, 86
mission, 5, 15
Mission window, 9
missionaries, 31, 34, 75
missionary, 34
missions, 5, 95
Mississippi, 107, 121
mixed, 51
Moambique (see Mozambique)
mobile, 48
mobility, 70
mode, 4
models, 55
modern, 25, 33, 39, 55, 63, 68, 87
modernization, 94, 117, 119
modernized, 83, 117
modest, 45
Mohacs, 110, 113, 124
Moldavia, 81, 83, 112
Molire, 102
Moluccans, 115
Mombasa, 115
monarch, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 17, 2223, 2526, 2831,
33, 3639, 4142, 50, 67, 73, 79, 8385,
8789, 9195, 114, 120
monarchies, 38
monarchs, 3, 22, 3538, 83, 95
monastery, 84
monetary, 64, 68
money, 6, 1112, 35, 37, 41, 45, 47, 60, 6769, 71
moneys, 45
Mongol(s), 98, 110
monopolies, 41, 69, 88, 115
monopolistic, 40, 7174
monopolizing, 4041
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Montaigne, Michel de, 100
Montesquieu, 102
month, 9, 11, 23, 26, 36, 51, 5658, 61, 67, 72, 80, 96
monthly, 1112, 2324, 30, 43, 49, 5961, 6769,
75, 7882, 95
months, 4, 9, 16, 39, 42, 4546, 51, 5556, 67
Moors, 34, 102, 119120
moral, 3
morale, 9, 1112, 27, 3031, 4850, 5255, 58, 67,
80
morally, 3
morals, 29
Moravia, 125
Morea, 112
Morocco, 111, 116
Moroccan, 115
mortal, 37
Moscow, 113
Moscow, Grand Duchy of, 98, 117, 122
Moslem, 22, 2829, 31, 3334, 42, 58, 65, 81
Moslems, 22, 29, 31, 33, 37, 76, 84, 88, 110, 115
most, 810, 14, 1718, 22, 26, 32, 35, 3739, 44,
4849, 53, 57, 6364, 68, 72, 7577, 80,
8386, 88, 90, 9394
mother, 8485, 88
motion, 6
motivational, 70
mountain, 51, 55
mountains, 7, 51, 55
mouse, 9
move, 5, 9, 1819, 27, 42, 48, 5051, 53, 5556, 90
moved, 9, 16, 48, 51, 55, 70, 77
movement, 7, 9, 27, 34, 39, 4748, 5051, 55, 58
movements, 20, 2728, 58
moves, 51, 54
moving, 4, 9, 16, 21, 45, 5051, 96
Mozambique, 102, 116
MP (movement points), 51
Mughal, 81
multiple, 15, 66
multiplied, 73
Mnster, 109, 118
murders, 111
Murillo, 86
Muscovite, 97
museums, 36
music, 102
Mustafa, Kara, 88
Mustafa Pasha, 88
mustering, 71
myths, 77

N
nailed, 32
name, 6, 35, 45, 96
names, 50, 96
Naples, 37, 98, 121, 125126
Napoleonic wars, 105, 112, 124
narrow, 5152, 58
Narva, 92
nation, 3, 6, 9, 31, 4243, 45, 7679, 8182, 8586,
8889, 92, 9496, 110
national, 23, 29, 36, 50, 60, 6768, 80, 88
nationalism, 26, 115, 126
nationalist, 112

nationalistic, 126
nations, 3, 9, 31, 3536, 3840, 81, 83, 86, 89,
9596
native, 18, 7071
natives, 17, 50, 54, 7677, 99
natural science, 80, 102
nature, 6, 23, 94
naval, 89, 16, 21, 4346, 4855, 58, 60, 6366,
7577, 7980, 8283, 85, 95, 96, 111, 121
naval power, 107, 110
naval route, 115
naval superiority, 115, 120
navies, 79
navigation, 40
navigational, 80
navy, 50, 86, 88, 9596, 109, 111, 118, 123124
nearest, 54
necessarily, 66, 68
necessary, 28, 46, 51, 64, 6869, 71, 77, 82
necessities, 45, 56, 82
necessity, 68
need, 3, 56, 9, 13, 15, 21, 36, 38, 46, 51, 77, 7980,
95
needed, 45, 64, 69, 71, 88, 95
needlessly, 40
needs, 6, 44, 68
negative, 11, 20, 22, 25, 30, 34, 36, 41, 43, 45, 55,
6061, 67, 69, 72, 74, 77, 79
negatively, 22, 42
negotiate, 67
negotiated, 83, 94
negotiating, 77
negotiation, 37
negotiations, 16, 1920, 38
negotiator, 9091
neighboring, 14, 50, 61, 68
neighbors, 6, 12, 14, 23, 36, 44, 46, 79, 8687
Netherlands, 42, 76, 79, 84, 86, 8990, 98104, 106,
108109, 116, 119121, 123, 125
Neuomann, 102
neutral, 14, 36, 56, 76, 105
never, 3, 11, 18, 27, 34, 3738, 42, 4647, 5051,
53, 56, 6263, 6768, 70, 75, 7577, 79, 81,
84, 86, 9394
new, 4, 6, 810, 1213, 2728, 38, 4344, 50,
5960, 6263, 6971, 76, 7981, 84, 8687,
90, 9495
New Foundland [Newfoundland], 107
New World, 119120
newly, 9, 58
Newton, Isaac, 102
next, 67, 27, 44, 48, 61, 75, 77, 85
Niccolo Machiavelli, 98
Nicholas Malebranche, 102
Niels Juel, 104
Nijemen, 90
no, 6, 13, 18, 20, 31, 40, 42, 46, 5051, 5456, 58,
60, 67, 71, 76, 78, 83, 86, 87, 89, 92
nobility, 2325, 40, 48, 8990, 9394, 103105,
113117, 119120, 122, 124
nobles, 85, 89, 93, 103, 109, 113, 117118
non-Catholic, 106
non-European, 14, 17, 71, 81, 86, 115, 122
non-historically, 33
non-monarchies, 38

non-occupied, 9
non-player, 46
non-Russian, 114
non-violent, 35
Nordic (see Great Nordic War)
normal, 57, 1011, 24, 41, 61, 63, 77, 89
normally, 9, 14, 2021, 23, 25, 38, 42, 56, 61, 63, 66
norms, 30
North America, 4, 6465, 7071, 77, 79, 90,
102103, 107, 110
North American, 106
North Sea, 97
northern, 4, 21, 63, 65, 84, 92
Northern Africa, 111, 115
Norway, 28, 92, 101105 (see also Denmark-Norway)
Norwegian, 92
notes, 68
nourishment, 64
Nova Scotia, 107
Novgorod, Republic of, 43, 7374, 98, 117, 122
Nubians, 81
number, 35, 1112, 1416, 18, 2728, 31, 3639,
4246, 49, 5152, 57, 5961, 64, 67, 69, 71,
7377, 79, 8183, 8788, 9192, 9496
numbers, 36, 95
nutmeg, 65
nutrition, 57
Nystad, 43

O
oats, 64
obedience, 90
obey, 38
obeyed, 25
object, 64
objects, 8, 64
obliged, 39
observed, 31
obstacle, 7
obstinate, 90, 94
occasions, 60
occupation, 20
occupied, 910, 15, 1718, 4546, 73, 90
occupies, 10
occupying, 9
occurrences, 24
ocean, 51, 79
oceangoing, 49
oceans, 74, 79, 85
odds, 53, 55
Odessa, 92, 113
offensive, 86, 92, 125
offensives, 91, 122, 124
offer, 15, 17, 3637, 3940, 67 (see also peace
offer(s))
offered, 46, 67, 70
offering, 16, 4647
offers, 4, 1516, 3537, 47, 56
office, 2930, 42, 9293
officers, 50, 124
offices, 60
official, 38, 60, 69
officials, 89, 11, 1718, 34, 44, 60, 69
old, 9, 29, 31, 34, 69, 8586

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Oleg Potemkin, 93
Olesko, 94
oligarchy, 111
Olivares, Count of, 8687
Oliver Cromwell, 106
Oman, sultan of, 116
Onega, 43
open, 78, 13, 19, 46, 49, 51, 63, 95
openly, 37
opens, 15, 46, 95
opera houses, 82
operation, 34, 55
operational, 48
opinion, 28, 88
opponent, 16, 43
opponents, 83, 90, 95
opportunity, 3, 40, 56
opposed, 17
opposing, 80
opposite, 16, 36, 41
opt, 9
optimize, 11
option, 15, 30, 45, 47
options, 56
Orania [Orange], house of, 8990
orchestra, 35
order, 34, 69, 1213, 1521, 25, 2729, 31, 33,
3643, 46, 50, 5556, 59, 74, 75, 7981, 84,
8789, 92, 9596
ordered, 94
orders, 50, 52, 89
ordinary, 83
ore, 82
organism, 42
organization, 32, 69, 88
organizational, 83
organizations, 31
organized, 25, 32, 34, 48, 90, 95
organizer, 85, 89
organizing, 17
Orient, 97
oriental, 82
origin, 50, 82, 85, 92
original, 19
originally, 26, 32, 39, 53, 6465, 90
origins, 42
"Orlando Furioso", 98
Orlov, Gregorij, 93
ornaments, 64
orthodox, 5, 28, 3334, 37, 41, 76, 81, 92
Orthodox Church, 31, 117118
Orthodoxy, 34
sel, 104, 123
Osman (Uthman), 110
Osnabrck, 109, 118
Ottoman (Empire), 3, 28, 31, 37, 39, 4748, 69, 83,
85, 88, 9294, 9799, 101102, 110112,
114115, 118120, 124126
Ottomans, 92, 94, 98, 110113, 120, 124125
outbreak, 45
outcome, 5, 48, 53, 55
outright, 37
outside, 5, 17, 48, 52, 58, 75, 92
outskirts, 85
overall, 45

142

overestimated, 55
overrated, 10
overtime, 79, 96
overtones, 29, 40
overview, 5, 11
overwhelming, 92
owe, 67
own, 6, 9, 12, 16, 18, 22, 31, 36, 3943, 47, 5055,
60, 6667, 7275, 77, 91, 93
owned, 60
owner, 19, 41, 45
ownership, 46
owning, 90
Oxenstierna, Count Axel, 87
Oxford, 91

P
pace, 5, 9, 68
Pacific, 77
pacify, 93
pacifying, 80
packaging, 82
Pact[a] Sunt Servanda, 23
page, 9596
pages, 9596
paid, 49, 60, 6768, 80
painfully, 36
pains, 65
pairing, 89
palace, 8889
palaces, 82, 117
panic, 27
panics, 27
Papal bureaucracy, 97
Papal State, 30, 38, 112
pariah, 15, 22, 41
Paris, peace of, 90, 110
Parliament(s), 45, 86, 94, 99, 101, 106, 107, 114, 119,
123124
parliamentary government, 107
parliamentary rule, 114
parliaments, 89
Parma, Duke of, 91
part, 3, 8, 1922, 2425, 28, 30, 32, 3436, 3942,
47, 51, 5758, 60, 64, 67, 68, 7071, 74,
7677, 82, 86, 89, 92
partially, 85
participant, 86
participants, 96
participated, 94
parties, 3637, 42, 46, 119, 123
partitioning, 6, 80, 90, 124, 126
partitions, 92
parts, 34, 69, 21, 61, 75, 83, 93
party, 45, 55, 90, 120, 124
pasha, 85, 88, 110
pass, 77
passage, 51
passages, 5152
passed, 43, 45
passes, 36, 4344
Passorowitz, peace of, 112, 126
pastureland, 99
paths, 10

patriarch of Moscow, 117118

patrol, 54, 74
patrols, 19
pause, 4, 8
pause mode, 4
pauses, 95
Pavia, 84
pay, 3, 6, 4546, 4950, 5859, 6768
payment, 49, 60, 68
payments, 49, 67
pays, 59
peace, 3, 1520, 2223, 28, 3235, 3744, 4647,
50, 56, 60, 68, 76, 8687, 90, 9095, 108, 120,
123124
peace offer(s), 1617, 28, 34, 4647
peace treaty, 104105, 109110, 113, 121, 126
peace treaties, 118119, 123
peaceful, 33, 66
peacefully, 32
peasant, 25, 103, 118, 122
peasants, 24
Pedro II of Portugal, 116
Pedro Alvarez Cabral, 97
penetrated, 70
penicillin, 65
Peninsula, Iberian, 28
Penrith, 107
people, 11, 2325, 28, 3132, 61, 68, 7071, 82,
9293
peoples, 70
pepper, 65, 115
per, 3132, 59
perceive, 4
perceived, 45
percent, 45, 49, 69
percentage, 25, 95
percentages, 95
perennial, 4
perfect, 79
perform, 7
performed, 15, 34, 36
performing, 16, 35
period, 3, 12, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 33, 36, 3842, 44,
48, 50, 60, 63, 6670, 74, 78, 79, 8394
periodically, 78
periods, 3, 25, 45
perishables, 38
permanent, 21, 32, 42, 44, 77, 86, 94
persecution, 34
Persia, 29, 31, 39, 49, 64, 83, 98, 101, 111112, 114
Persian, 110
person, 22, 56, 63
personal, 34, 3637, 77, 91, 93
personality, 85
perspective, 3
Peter I "the Great" of Russia, 37, 88, 92, 103, 118
Peter III of Russia, 92, 107, 119, 124
Peter Paul Rubens, 100
petrified, 74
Pfalz, Philip of, 125
phase, 39, 56
phases, 5253, 55
phenomena, 25, 29, 41
phenomenon, 22, 26
Philip II of Spain, 45, 84, 106, 115116

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Philip IV of Spain, 86
Philip V of Spain (grandson of Louis XIV), 91, 101, 107,
109, 116, 121, 125
Philip of Pfalz, 125
Philip "the Good", 84
Philippines, 4, 77, 102, 115, 120
philosophers, 82, 102
philosophy, 29, 36, 102
physical, 22
physically, 51
Piccolomini, 125
picture, 8, 20, 25
Pierre Bayle, 102
pillaged, 45, 5657, 66
pillager, 45
pillaging, 45, 56
Piotr Alexeievitch of Russia, 88 (see also Peter I)
Piotr III of Russia (see Peter III)
piracy, 74
pirate, 75, 110
pirates, 7475, 79, 106
pitched battle(s), 43, 46, 48, 50, 5456, 77, 80,
111112
Pitt, William, 90
Pizzaro, 97
place, 3, 8, 41, 48, 5051, 5456, 59, 66, 71, 73
placed, 59, 71, 82, 88
placement, 72
places, 3, 8, 18, 30, 61, 82
placing, 12, 14, 75, 94
plague, 101
plagues, 25
plains, 97
plan, 16, 33, 43, 46, 91, 93
planned, 69
planning, 6, 67
plans, 93
plantations, 63, 65
planted, 64
plants, 64
play, 35, 17, 47, 58, 76, 83
played, 6, 17, 22, 48, 86
player, 35, 17, 31, 40, 4647, 5556, 75, 78, 95
players, 5
playing, 3, 5, 43, 76, 83, 94
plays, 57, 71, 77
pledges, 38
Plessis, Armand Jean du, (Cardinal Richelieu), 86, 108
plundered, 4445, 61
Po Valley, 97
poetry, 86
point, 8, 22, 25, 51, 80
pointer, 8, 14
points, 45, 27, 32, 34, 4243, 51, 79, 92, 95
Poland, 104, 118
Poland-Lithuania, 3, 6, 29, 31, 4748, 69, 81, 87,
9094, 97104, 110115, 117119, 122126
Poland-Lithuania-Saxony, 104, 114, 118, 123
Poles, 101, 104, 118
police, 26
policies, 33, 42
policy, 22, 32, 74, 92, 120
Polish, 37, 87, 94, 112115, 121, 123124
Polish-Lithuanian, 83, 113, 126
Polish War of Succession, 112, 114, 119, 121, 126

political, 3, 7, 1718, 2223, 26, 29, 31, 35, 3841,

47, 60, 6870, 74, 8081, 83, 84, 87, 8990,
9394, 102, 117118, 122
political structure, 98
political system, 110113
Political map, 7, 1718
politically, 15, 40
politician(s), 84, 91, 124
politics, 3, 3235, 8689, 9194, 99, 111, 114,
119120
Polotsk, 93, 113
Poltava, 88, 92, 118, 123
Pombal, marquis of, 117
Pomerania, 37, 45, 90
Poniatowski, Stanislaus, 114, 119
pool, 25, 50, 71
poor, 6, 37, 40, 57, 59, 70, 77, 87
poorly, 59, 68
Pope, 2830, 32, 34, 77, 9798, 106, 111
Pope Alexander VI, 115
popular, 30
populated, 17, 29
population, 3, 8, 1011, 2026, 31, 3334, 38, 42,
4445, 56, 6062, 66, 6971, 75, 7678, 81,
9697, 99, 101, 108, 112, 114, 126
populations, 3, 31, 45, 76, 78
porcelain, 64
port, 13, 18, 45, 5154, 5758, 79, 118
ports, 18, 5153, 75, 85, 87, 104, 113, 122123
Portugal, 4748, 7677, 79, 86, 9798, 100, 102,
115120
Portuguese, 65, 97, 101, 105, 115120
position, 34, 39, 78, 8788, 9093
positive, 11, 3031, 61, 72, 88
positively, 36
possess, 50, 5253
possesses, 49
possessions, 17, 20, 29, 7778, 117
possibilities, 47, 68
possibility, 40, 44
possible, 35, 9, 1415, 18, 38, 4142, 48, 56, 58,
68, 75, 78
post, 92 (see also trading post)
post-Lutheran, 32
posterity, 83
postponing, 67
posts (see trading posts)
potatoes, 64
Potemkin, Oleg, 9293
potential, 16, 59, 66
pots, 14
pouring, 68
power, 34, 12, 15, 22, 25, 2829, 32, 3536, 40,
4243, 4546, 71, 77, 83, 86, 8687, 8995,
101, 124125
Power Struggle, 4, 106
powerful, 23, 38, 40, 4647, 79, 8586, 88, 93
powers, 7476, 97 (see also great power(s))
practical, 75, 88
practice, 31, 41
praying, 84
pre-capitalist, 68
precaution, 38
precious metals, 64
predecessors, 88

predestination, 32
predetermined, 45
preferable, 79
preferably, 13, 55
preference, 50
preferred, 31, 89
prematurely, 83
prepare, 15
prepared, 16
preparing, 38, 56
prerequisites, 71
preservation, 65
preservative, 65
preserving, 64
prestige, 2224
Prestonpans, 107
pretend, 3
prevent, 3940, 46, 51, 54, 86
prevented, 71
preventing, 84
prevents, 28, 79
previous, 15, 31, 95
prey, 15, 41
price, 45, 55, 6263, 6869, 71, 78, 82
prices, 1112, 60, 63, 7071
pricing mechanism, 63
priests, 11, 22, 29
primarily, 25, 60, 63, 6566, 7071
primary, 5, 64
prime minister, 86, 8990, 9293
prince, 3435, 39, 45, 90, 93, 95, 108, 109
princes, 22, 32, 36, 86, 99, 107
princess, 92
principal, 48
principality, 107
principalities, 99, 116, 124125
principle, 9, 23, 33, 38
printing press, 68
priorities, 6
priority, 4, 90
privateers, 103
privileges, 86
Privy Counsel [Council], 86
pro-French, 106, 123124
pro-Prussian, 92, 124
pro-Russian, 123124
probability, 85
problem, 56, 19, 33, 39, 56, 6768, 78
problematic, 68
problems, 37, 41, 46, 84, 87, 9293
procedure, 34
process, 51
processing, 82
proclaiming, 28
produce, 3, 13, 61, 6365, 71, 75, 82
produced, 7, 61, 63, 65, 7576, 91
producer, 12
produces, 11, 68
producing, 13, 63, 68, 71, 82
product, 63, 71, 95
production, 1011, 2021, 2526, 30, 34, 45, 57,
6063, 66, 6869, 71, 7576, 78, 82, 84, 88,
95, 97, 99, 101102, 106, 112, 115117,
120121
productive, 35

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products, 9, 60, 63, 69, 71, 75
professional, 39, 111
proficient, 71
profit, 12, 68, 75, 115
profitability, 12
profitable, 39, 43, 68, 72, 75, 7880
profitably, 87
profiteering, 70
profits, 1112, 30, 60, 71, 74, 117, 121
progress, 8, 14, 32, 44, 74, 86
prohibited, 75
proletariat, 112
prominent, 25
promises, 23, 38
promote, 92
proofs, 38
propaganda, 89, 115
proper, 22, 42
properly, 22, 25, 44
properties, 65
property, 32
proportion, 2526, 43, 54, 58, 61, 71
proportional, 71
proportionally, 11
proportions, 94
prospect, 43
prospects, 14
prosperity, 84
protgs, 38
protect, 38, 41, 69, 74
protected, 35, 7475
protecting, 79
protection, 38, 79
protectionist, 86
protective, 74
protector, 41, 85, 120
protectorate, 114
protectors, 41
Protestant, 3034, 72, 84, 87, 89, 99, 122, 125
Protestant Union, 99100, 125
Protestantism, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 120
Protestants, 29, 3134, 76, 84, 99, 106, 125
proto-capitalism, 70
proto-companies, 81
proto-industries, 81
Provence, 28
provide, 6, 8, 1213, 30, 39, 45, 7579, 8184
provided, 3, 30, 50, 53, 64, 69, 8790
provides, 34, 912, 21, 2932, 36, 45, 68, 71, 75,
79, 8283
providing, 3, 13, 31, 40, 53, 82
province, 414, 1621, 2427, 3034, 39, 42, 4447,
5051, 5358, 61, 63, 69, 71, 7172, 7579,
8182, 88, 9596, 111
provinces, 3, 57, 910, 1221, 2328, 3034,
3947, 4953, 5557, 5961, 6466, 6869,
72, 7580, 82, 87, 9596, 103, 112, 125126
provincial, 9, 26, 29, 3132, 34, 61, 79, 9596, 111
provisions, 92
Prussia, 36, 45, 8991, 94, 107, 110, 113115, 119,
123, 126
Prussia-Brandenburg (see Brandenburg-Prussia)
Prussia, East, 113
Prussian(s), 5, 92, 107, 114115, 124
public, 1112, 30, 6869

144

Pugachov (Pugachev/Pugatchev) Uprising, 92, 119,

124
punished, 22, 45
punishment, 37
Purcell, 102
Puritans, 106
purpose, 23, 3839, 71
purposes, 39, 48, 51, 89
pursue, 55
Pyrenees, 121

Q
qualified, 8
qualitative, 11
qualities, 83, 91, 94
quality, 19, 49, 64, 68
quantities, 82
quantity, 49
quarantine, 41
quarter, 24, 52
quash, 34
Quebec, 100
queen, 45, 8687, 90
question, 16, 23, 3233, 36, 38, 5354, 73, 78
questions, 76
quick, 5, 8, 55, 65, 79, 93
quicker, 33, 36
quickest, 76
quickly, 5, 13, 48, 57, 65, 6870, 75, 86
quiet, 66
quota, 25

R
race, 95
Racine, 102
Radnick, 88
Rafael Santi, 98
raging, 87
raise, 1718, 20, 2324, 69, 76, 91
raised, 12, 22, 32, 90
raising, 24, 44
ramblings, 92
rampant, 33
random, 5, 20, 2324, 34, 36, 50, 60, 62, 67, 76, 83,
94
randomly, 94
range, 48
rank, 35, 96
ranking, 50
rapidly, 79, 86
rarely, 11, 45, 76
Rasin, Stephan, 118
rat, 101
rate, 3, 11, 24, 5658, 6768, 77, 79, 81
rates, 77
rating, 11
ratio, 95 (see also ultima ratio regum)
rationalistic, 102
raw, 6364, 66
re-conquest, 86
reach, 4, 75, 82, 84
reached, 21, 23, 32, 44, 46, 54, 76, 79, 82, 87, 92
reaches, 10, 27, 58, 62, 77, 80

reaching, 32, 35, 51

reacted, 22
reacting, 83
reactionary, 106, 119
reactions, 22
read, 3, 89, 25
"Read more" button, 9
reading, 3
reads, 73
ready, 14, 96
real, 3, 20, 77, 80, 89
realistically, 3
reality, 3, 25, 38, 59
realize, 46, 95
realized, 36
realm, 42, 8385, 93
realpolitik, 98
reason, 23, 3132, 36, 40, 42, 55, 65, 68, 7072, 79,
96
reasonable, 82
reasons, 22, 25, 39, 4345, 63, 68, 77, 87
rebel, 2627, 34, 76
rebelled, 116
rebellion, 3, 12, 1516, 23, 2527, 31, 3334, 44, 46,
64, 69, 81, 86, 94, 122, 124
rebellions, 11, 20, 23, 25, 2728, 31, 34, 43, 101,
111113, 115116, 118120
rebellious, 89
rebels, 19, 2528, 45, 61, 104, 122
rebuild, 41
recaptured, 86
recapturing, 87
receive, 45, 8, 11, 14, 1819, 30, 3233, 36, 3943,
4647, 5052, 5455, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73,
7679, 89
received, 4, 34, 5960, 64, 79, 95
receives, 11, 3233, 4143, 47, 60, 71, 73
receiving, 72
receptacles, 64
recess, 90
recession, 91
reclaim land, 97
recognize, 36, 93
recognized, 22
recommend, 89, 75
reconciled, 91
reconnaissance, 48
reconstruct, 85
recover, 45, 55, 58
recovered, 58
recovery, 44
recruit, 810, 44, 48, 68, 75, 79
recruited, 3, 9, 45, 49, 58, 88
recruiting, 44, 49, 60, 69
recruitment, 4445, 48, 6466, 9596
recruitment centers, 6466
rectangle, 9, 52, 54, 58
rectangles, 54
red, 9, 19, 26, 49, 58
reduce, 4950, 56, 5859, 66, 86
reduced, 36, 58, 66
reduces, 56
reducing, 42
reestablish, 42
refer, 61

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reference, 79
referred, 57, 68
refined, 82, 87, 92
refinement, 80
refineries, 82
refinery, 82
reform, 32, 69, 118
reformation, 119, 122
Reformation, the, 29, 3132, 34, 93
Reformed, 23, 2930, 3234, 36, 42, 58, 76, 83, 85,
106
reformer, 32, 83, 85, 114, 117, 119
reformers, 32
reforming, 32, 115, 126
Reformist, 30, 3234, 36, 72, 99, 120
Reformists, 29, 3234, 76, 99
reforms, 88, 94, 105, 114115, 119121, 125126
refusal, 4041
refuse, 23, 42, 96
refused, 32
refuses, 28, 42
regain, 27, 94
regained, 42, 9091
regaining, 45
regains, 55
regarded, 3, 2223, 35, 50, 83, 89, 93
regardless, 19, 40, 42, 57
regency, 50, 83
regent, 88
regiment, 89
region, 22, 78, 84, 96
regions, 79, 81, 96
regretting, 16
regular, 13, 2627, 3233, 65, 79
regularity, 60
regularly, 38, 91
regulating, 29
reign, 30, 39, 8395
reigned, 85
reinforce, 93
reinforcement, 64
reinforcing, 93
related, 39, 46, 61
relation, 31, 36, 39, 41, 66
relations, 7, 15, 2223, 3142, 44, 47, 83, 96
relationship, 23, 31, 33, 41, 67
relative, 4, 11, 43, 49, 5253, 5557, 68, 73, 8081
relatively, 45, 9, 4344, 47, 63, 66, 69, 71, 74, 76, 88
relevance, 38
relief, 48, 65
relieved, 94
religion, 3, 9, 11, 17, 2223, 2634, 3637, 3942,
58, 72, 76, 81, 87, 99, 122
religions, 15, 25, 3032, 34, 3637, 41, 76, 81, 93
religious, 25, 29, 3134, 41, 44, 81, 84, 86, 92, 94,
108, 112, 120, 124
religious freedom, 108
religious wars, 108
religiously, 29, 110
reliquaries, 64
remain, 22
remainder, 34
remained, 42
remains, 47, 62

remember, 4, 11, 34, 3738, 41, 44, 62, 6566, 73,

78
remind, 36
reminiscent, 37
remove, 95
Renaissance, 22, 79, 85, 89, 95
renegotiate, 46
renew, 67
renewed, 67
renewing, 32
reorganize, 9
reorganized, 83, 87, 90
reorganizing, 13
repaid, 67
repair, 41
repay, 23, 42, 67
repayment, 60, 6667
repeat, 38
repeated, 23
replaced, 70
replacing, 24
reply, 36
represent, 3, 35, 46, 49, 6364, 71, 81
representation, 20
representative, 3334, 90
represented, 9, 29, 38
representing, 47, 49
represents, 10, 17, 21, 32, 44, 46, 64, 77
republic, 38, 83, 93, 9899
republic of nobles, 113114
Republica Christianorum (Christian Republic), 97
republics, 38
repudiated, 32
reputation, 2223, 88, 94
requesting, 39
requests, 38
require, 9, 37
required, 25, 37, 39, 45, 67
requires, 34
requiring, 37
requisitioned, 45
rescue, 38
research, 8, 1011, 15, 41, 60, 66, 69, 7983
researching, 40
reset, 9, 80
reside, 75
residence, 89
residing, 74
resistance, 45, 71, 86, 93
resources, 3, 6, 1011, 19, 31, 59, 66, 69, 71, 80, 86
respect, 15, 41, 92
response, 22, 37
responsible, 3, 31, 33, 53
restored, 30
restrictions, 50
result, 4, 11, 17, 22, 2426, 31, 3941, 43, 46,
5657, 5960, 67, 72
resulted, 85, 87, 89
resulting, 25
results, 4, 11, 16, 26, 40, 47, 56, 68, 80
resume, 5556
resumes, 4, 42
retake, 27, 86
retaliating, 70
retire, 27, 50, 53, 93

retires, 53
retiring, 48, 55
retreat, 53, 5556, 118
retreats, 58
return, 19, 27, 32, 7475, 78, 94
returned, 65, 84, 89, 92
revealed, 83
revenge, 22, 87
revenue, 6, 9, 11
revenues, 9, 1112, 14, 76, 78, 80, 95
reverse, 72
reverts, 55
review, 15, 25
revolt, 66, 92
revolution, 23, 25, 80, 106
revolution, (French), 110, 117, 119, 126
revolutionary, 126
reward, 91
rewards, 95
Rhine, 109
Rhodes, 83, 110
Richelieu, Cardinal, 8687, 108109
richer, 59
richest, 68
richness, 57
rid, 27, 40, 75
Riga, 37, 102
rigging, 80, 82
right, 6, 8, 29, 32, 41, 52, 54, 80, 87, 9596
righteous, 85, 88
rightful, 93
rights, 24, 36, 41
rise, 3, 12, 3031
risen, 66
rises, 58
rising, 84
risk, 3, 12, 1516, 34, 38, 40, 4344, 46, 5051, 56,
7475, 92
risk of rebellion, 2527, 31, 34, 44, 69, 81
risking, 38
risks, 15, 44
Rittberg-Kaunitz, Count Wenzel-Anton of, 90
rituals, 89
river, 51, 55
rivers, 7, 51
roads, 25, 88
Robert Walpole, 91
Rocroi, 108
Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI), 98
role, 32, 48, 70, 88
Roman, Holy, 18, 2930, 42
Roman (not Holy Roman), 2223, 42, 98, 110
Romanov, Michail, 94, 118
Rome, 3032, 87, 111
rope, 82
ropes, 64
roping, 80
Roses, War of the, 84, 98
rotation, 80
rotten, 65
Rotterdam, 98
rough, 63
roughly, 42, 69
round, 94
roundheads, 106

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route, 22, 43
routes, 21
royal, 32, 36, 60, 86, 8890, 9395, 124
royal marriage(s), 6, 15, 2223, 33, 3539, 41, 96
royalists, 106
royalty, 37, 89
Rubens, Peter Paul, 100
ruin, 5
ruined, 44
ruinously, 44
rule, 9, 23, 42, 8889, 9495
rule of thumb, 33, 49, 68, 76
ruled, 38, 79, 8586, 8889, 92
ruler, 83, 85, 88, 9293
rulers, 29, 34
rules, 22, 35, 38, 80
ruling, 42, 86
Rum (Constantinople), 88, 98, 111
run, 34, 59, 78
running, 4, 38, 45
runs, 17
Russia, 5, 31, 3334, 3638, 41, 43, 4648, 64, 76,
85, 8788, 9294, 9799, 101102, 104105,
107, 110, 112115, 117119, 121124, 126
Russian, 33, 8788, 94, 105, 114, 117119, 121,
123, 126
Russians, 9293, 103104, 119
rye, 64

S
sable, 64
sack, 23
sadr-i azam, 85, 88
sail, 51, 79
sailed, 85
sailing, 11, 52
sailors, 3, 8, 82
sails, 82
salary, 68
sale, 60
salt, 60, 6364, 82
same, 36, 1113, 17, 2223, 25, 2728, 31, 3341,
43, 46, 5054, 57, 63, 66, 6869, 71, 76, 78,
80, 83, 8586, 8990, 94
San Yuste, 84
sappers, 56
Sardinia, 119, 121, 125
Sava River, 112, 125
save, 45, 48, 72
saved, 90
saving, 68
Savoy, 102, 109, 116
Saxon, 105, 114
Saxony, 103104, 114, 119, 123, 126
saying, 9, 69
scale, 22, 31, 33, 58, 74, 76
scales, 45
scandals, 91
Scandinavia, 64
Scania, 52, 103105, 123
Scanian, 37
Scarlatti, 102
scenario, 3, 89, 17, 40, 4243, 47
scenarios, 3

146

scepter, 83
science, 8, 80
scientific, 120
scientifically, 79
scientist, 102
scope, 25, 45
Scotland, 30, 40, 99, 106108
scourge, 66
scouting, 55
screen, 5, 8
scruples, 84
scrupulous, 68
sea, 67, 910, 1213, 19, 21, 4855, 5758, 64,
7577, 80, 83, 85, 8788, 90, 9697, 104, 107
seafarers, 85
seas, 19, 49, 51, 74, 121
seasoning, 65
seaworthy, 45, 49
Sebastio, king of Portugal, 115116
second, 3, 5, 12, 26, 34, 3637, 47, 50, 71, 76, 84
secondary, 6
secondly, 42, 49, 5358, 6769, 76
secret, 31, 94
secretary, 95
sectors, 30
secularized, 117
secure, 69
secured, 69
see, 4, 6, 89, 1314, 1620, 2226, 2930, 3235,
40, 4247, 4955, 57, 60, 6063, 67, 69,
7172, 7677, 89, 9596
seeing, 94
seen, 2223, 33, 35, 4041, 56, 6263, 70, 77, 86
Seignelay, Colbert de, 88
seize, 19, 93
Sejm, 94, 113
select, 40
selected, 9, 13, 5758
self-determination, 108
self-interest, 38
self-sufficient, 71
Selim I (Yavuz) of the Ottoman Empire, 83, 110
semi-feudal, 69
semi-governmental, 82
semi-independent, 125
semipublic, 12
senator(s), 114
send, 1015, 18, 34, 3637, 40, 43, 5356, 61,
7172, 7577
"Send merchant" button, 14
sending, 14, 21, 27, 3435, 37, 41, 48, 60, 62, 7273,
75, 78, 93
Senegal, 107108, 110
senile dementia, 85
sent, 13, 7173, 7576, 90
sentiment, 32
separate, 7, 11, 30, 35, 38, 44, 47, 95
separatism, 124
Serbia, 83, 112, 125126
serfs, 24
serve, 31, 45, 57, 89
served, 28, 48
serves, 56
service, 87, 91
serviceable, 48

services, 36, 91
settle, 33, 72
settled, 38, 47
settlements, 9596
settlers, 76
setup, 48
seven, 22, 76, 9091, 96
Seven Years War, 105, 107108, 110, 114, 119, 121,
123, 126
Seville, 98, 121
shade, 25
shading, 25
shadowed, 8
Shakespeare, William, 100
share, 15, 73
shares, 7172
sharing, 3839, 41
shatter, 48
shattering, 48
sheep, 66
Shia, 29, 31, 33, 58, 76 (see also Shiite Moslems)
shield, 9, 20
shields, 8, 18
shift, 43, 48
shifted, 48
shifting, 43
Shiite Moslems, 110 (see also Shia)
ship, 1013, 45, 49, 52, 75
shipbuilding, 64, 88, 96
shipped, 65
shipping, 10, 51, 105
ships, 1213, 1721, 44, 52, 54, 58, 75, 7980, 82,
96, 121
shipyard, 45, 76
shipyards, 44, 6466, 111
shock, 48, 50, 55, 80, 92, 96
Shogun Tokugawa Iyemitsu of Japan, 74
short, 11, 70, 8687
shorter, 3, 78
show, 6, 8, 10, 36, 81, 84, 9596
showed, 63
showing, 7, 9, 25, 44, 84, 9596
shown, 78, 1314, 20, 44, 5758, 91, 95
shows, 69, 20, 52, 54, 63, 9596
shut, 74
Siberia, 21, 85
Sicily, 119, 121, 125126
sick, 3, 89
side, 5, 39, 44, 5153, 55, 63, 86, 88
sides, 5255
Siebenbrgen, 93, 110113, 118, 125
siege, 16, 19, 26, 48, 50, 5556, 61
sieges, 43, 48, 55, 58, 66, 79, 96
Sigismund III of Poland-Lithuania and Sweden, 93, 113,
122
sign, 14, 23, 34, 47
signaling, 80
signed, 19, 40, 43, 92
significantly, 56, 62, 64, 69
signing, 47
signs, 84
"Silent Parliament", 114
Silesia, 107, 110, 125126
Silesian, 105
silk, 36, 64, 97, 116

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silver, 64, 68, 97, 100, 120
similar, 22, 28, 37, 54, 56, 6364
simple, 6, 33, 68, 9192
simplicity, 8
simplify, 48, 69
simply, 3, 8, 25, 2729, 39, 45, 48, 53, 57, 67, 71
simulate, 3
simulated, 3
simulates, 4, 83
simultaneously, 6768
singers, 82
single, 39, 42, 4748, 94
sink, 3
Sir Francis Bacon, 100
Sir Francis Drake, 85
situated, 20, 75
situation, 15, 34, 86
situations, 33, 45
six, 10, 14, 39, 72, 75, 84, 93
sixth, 11
size, 3, 12, 16, 40, 42, 49, 52, 5457, 5962, 67, 69,
71, 7678, 96
sizes, 49
skill, 50, 53, 58, 73, 79, 8394, 96
skilled, 52, 83, 85, 88, 9193
skillfully, 84
skills, 25, 50, 55, 83, 88, 91
skull, 13, 58
slave, 6465
slave trade, 6465, 102
slaves, 12, 6365
Slavs, 110
slow, 4, 89, 79
slower, 44, 48
slowest, 50, 81
slowly, 3, 36, 50, 55, 68, 70, 92, 94
small, 45, 1013, 15, 18, 3639, 44, 47, 5051, 56,
71, 73, 77, 7980, 88, 95
smaller, 8, 19, 28, 45, 56, 78, 80, 82
smallest, 17
smallpox, 77
smithies, 82
smoke, 65
Smolensk, 113, 118
Sobieski, Jan III, of Poland-Lithuania, 83, 94, 111, 114,
125
social, 25, 30, 74, 8082, 88, 90, 94
social system, 115
societies, 17
society, 2225, 2930, 6869, 80, 91, 94
Sokullu, Mehmet, 85
soldier, 9, 54, 89, 92
soldiers, 3, 5, 8, 44, 5457, 62, 82, 89, 92, 96, 120
son, 42, 8385, 88, 9091, 9394
sons, 42, 84
Sophia, half-sister of Peter I of Russia, 88
sort, 95
sorted, 95
sound, 53, 55, 58
Sound, the, 102, 104, 123
sounds, 71
source, 6465
sources, 5960
south, 85
South Africa, 102

South America, 64, 70, 102, 120

southeast Europe, 110
southern, 63, 65, 84, 93
sovereigns, 97
sovereignty, 27
Spain, 45, 26, 28, 3031, 33, 4041, 45, 4748, 51,
68, 74, 7677, 84, 8687, 91, 97102,
106110, 115116, 119126
Spaniards, 97, 106, 108, 113, 116
Spaniola, 94
Spanish, 3334, 37, 40, 8687, 89, 91, 94, 97, 102,
105, 107, 116, 120121, 125126
Spanish Netherlands, 103, 109, 121, 125
Spanish Armada, 48, 86, 106, 120
Spanish realm, 101
Spanish War of Succession, 101, 104105, 107, 114,
117118, 121, 123, 125
special, 17, 26, 31, 3536, 42, 45, 47, 50, 58, 60, 63,
77, 86
specialist, 90
specialists, 50, 77, 96
specialized, 8, 48, 8182
specific, 5, 36, 63
specifies, 9596
speed, 4, 9, 13, 43, 45, 50, 78
spend, 12, 79
spending, 30
spent, 79, 84, 89
Spice Islands, 65
spices, 12, 63, 65, 82, 97, 115
spider king, 84
spinoff, 69
spirit, 85, 90
spiritual, 31, 33
splendor, 84
split, 9, 29, 50, 84
splitting, 13
spread, 17, 27, 68, 77, 79, 82, 86
spreading, 24, 83
squares, 79
stability, 8, 1112, 1516, 2228, 3031, 3334,
3840, 4245, 47, 60, 62, 6667, 7273, 75,
77, 80, 8283
stable, 36
stage, 9, 23, 39, 43, 85
standard, 4, 26
standardized, 80
standing army, 18, 45
Stanislaus Leszczynski, king of Poland-Lithuania, 114,
119
Stanislaus Poniatowski, king of Poland-Lithuania, 114,
119
star, 17, 46, 84
stars, 1617, 43, 4647, 5657
start, 46, 9, 13, 1718, 25, 2728, 36, 4044, 46,
50, 59, 75
started, 89, 32, 37, 3940, 42, 47, 63, 7071, 8688
starting, 5, 22, 41, 68
starts, 9, 11, 23, 26, 28, 47, 58, 72, 79
starve, 56
state, 3642, 45, 48, 50, 5860, 7981, 85, 8791
state budget, 8, 1112, 23, 88
state church, 106
state religion, 11, 17, 23, 2634, 3637, 3942, 58,
72, 76, 81, 108

states, 18, 39, 4243, 84, 90, 125

statesman, 8591, 93
statesmen, 83
stathouder (stadthouder) 89
static, 37
station, 71, 79
stationed, 50, 56, 60
stationing, 71
status, 3, 17, 22, 3940, 45, 48, 57, 63, 69, 7174,
8182, 92, 96
status quo, 29, 32, 4647, 124, 126
stealing, 75
Stefan Batory of Poland-Lithuania, 93
step, 2224, 29, 3839, 4445, 56, 79, 93
Stephan Rasin, 118
steppe, 97
steppes, 101, 113
steps, 2223, 34, 42, 47
sterile, 65
Stettin, 123
Steyn, 98
stimulating, 83
Stockholm, peace of, 107
stop, 10, 27, 45, 50, 52, 87, 9394
stopped, 9394
stopping, 6
stops, 4
stored, 95
storm, 19, 58
storms, 7
strategic, 51, 57, 76, 7980, 85, 87, 103, 124, 126
strategically, 33, 43
strategies, 78
strategy, 56
Strelstser, 85
strength, 3, 6, 9, 16, 49, 5355, 66, 76, 80, 88, 9596
strengthen, 35, 38, 45
strengths, 96
stricter, 31
strife, 87
strong, 12, 23, 32, 4445, 48, 6970, 83, 8587, 90,
9293
stronger, 12, 25, 43
strongest, 3839, 87
strongly, 9, 30, 32, 38, 62, 75
struggle, 4, 10, 22, 29, 40, 82, 84, 89
Stuart (dynasty), 86, 103, 107
Stuarts, 106
style, 78, 85
Styria, 125
subject, 40
subjected, 23, 41
subjects, 2224, 29, 3334, 36, 41, 60, 6768
submitted, 39
subordinate, 39
subordination, 39
subsidies, 37, 86, 106107
subsidize, 60
subsidized, 88
subsidy, 105
subsisted, 70
substitute, 64
subtracted, 95
succeed, 19, 32, 50, 52, 69, 8889, 93

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succeeded, 27, 32, 52, 64, 70, 75, 77, 8485, 88, 92,
9495
succeeding, 83
succeeds, 5, 47, 51
success, 26, 35, 72, 7677
successes, 77
successful, 4, 16, 25, 28, 34, 39, 52, 5556, 78, 83,
8586, 92
successfully, 5152, 54, 61, 64, 91, 9394
succession, 84, 91, 105
successor, 48
suffer, 7, 13, 1516, 18, 23, 40, 4344, 47, 52, 54,
56, 58, 61, 67, 78
suffered, 38, 58, 94
suffering, 18
suffers, 66
sufficient, 71
sufficiently, 39, 44, 51
sugar, 6365, 82
suggesting, 38
suggestion, 93
suggestions, 83
suitable, 70, 76
Sleyman I "the Great" (or "the Magnificent") of the
Ottoman Empire, 83, 85, 110111
Sully, 108109
sultan, 37, 42, 83, 88, 98, 110111, 116, 124
sultan murders, 111
sum, 23, 31, 44, 49, 5960, 67, 80, 95
summary, 95 (see also Financial Summary)
summer, 6
sums, 41, 64
Sun King, the (Louis XIV of France), 89, 109
Sunni (Moslems), 29, 31, 3334, 37, 76, 110
Sunnis, 28
superior, 5455, 92
superiority, 19, 55, 115
supervise, 90
supervision, 40
supplies, 45, 56, 6364, 70
supply, 12, 32, 6265, 68, 71
supply line(s), 5658, 111112
support, 39, 80, 9293
supported, 31, 84, 86, 88
supporting, 88, 92
suppress, 68
supranational, 42
supremacy, 15, 5152, 90
supreme, 83, 89
Surinam, 102
surprise, 67
surprised, 51
surrendered, 1920
surrendering, 56
surround, 44
surrounding, 33, 86, 89, 92
surroundings, 15, 41
surrounds, 9
survival, 5, 14, 84
survive, 6
surviving, 37
susceptibility, 57
sustains, 55
swamp, 7, 51
swamps, 51, 55, 57, 97

148

Sweden, 34, 3034, 3640, 4243, 4547, 71, 76,

83, 87, 89, 9294, 97, 99105, 107, 113114,
117119, 125126
Swedes, 94, 101, 105, 114, 118119
Swedish, 3739, 45, 47, 83, 8687, 90, 92, 94, 99,
101, 103105, 122
switch (religion), 28, 34
switching (religion), 27
Switzerland, 28, 30, 42, 71
symbol, 45, 71
symbolized, 5
symbolizing, 52, 54
symbols, 89
system, 2526, 2829, 34, 3839, 60, 64, 6871, 80,
83, 85, 88, 90
systematic, 87
systematically, 89, 95
systems, 17, 39, 7071, 80, 87

T
table, 37, 51, 9596
tables, 9596
Tabriz, 112
tactic, 77
tactical, 47, 52, 80, 91, 124
tactically, 53, 55, 58
tactics, 70, 92, 94, 111, 113, 117, 120
take, 11, 19, 2627, 46, 56, 68, 76
taken, 23, 45, 47, 60, 63, 6768, 83, 96
takeovers, 96
takes, 9, 11, 41, 48, 54, 7172, 77
taking, 11, 27, 43, 4546, 55, 59, 68, 73
talent, 37
talented, 86, 91
talents, 91, 93
talks, 46
Tangiers, 52
tar, 64
target, 79
targets, 94
tariff, 59
tariffs, 59, 88
Tartars, 94, 113, 118
task, 5, 9, 55, 85, 92
tasks, 8, 35
taught, 94
tax, 2526, 30, 5962, 69, 71, 7576, 95
tax collector, 26, 69, 91
taxation, 26, 31, 87, 116
taxes, 3, 910, 16, 2225, 30, 45, 5961, 66, 69, 71,
75, 78, 80
tea, 36
teacher, 87, 91
teachings, 32
tech, 44
techniques, 80
technological, 12, 43, 71, 8083, 108, 111112
technologies, 25
technology, 3, 89, 1112, 21, 4041, 4344, 49,
5155, 5860, 66, 69, 7173, 77, 79, 7983,
85, 88, 9596, 111, 117
telescope, 100
temporary, 24, 3940, 42, 61, 94
ten, 6, 24, 73
tender, 68

tenders, 40
tenfold, 4445
tension, 32
tent, 44
term, 25, 32, 38, 67, 7071, 80, 82
terminology, 63
terms, 6, 25, 31, 46, 60, 6768, 71, 73, 76, 94, 96
Terra Incognita, 6, 8, 21, 77
terrain, 67, 9, 51, 5657
Terrible, Ivan the, 37, 85
territorial, 19
territorially, 43
territory, 10, 39, 96
terror, 34, 83, 85
tested, 56
Teutonic Order, 36, 113, 122
text lines, 9
textbooks, 3
textile, 64
textiles, 64, 106
"The Prince", 98
theaters, 82
Theodor (Fyodor) I of Russia, 118
theological, 31
theories, 87
theorists, 87
Theresia (see Maria Theresia)
Theses, 32
third, 56, 12, 23, 31, 3637, 42, 46, 92, 9596
"Third Rome", the, 117
thirdly, 49, 53, 55, 5758, 6869, 76
thirteen, 83
thirty, 33, 96
Thirty Years War, 3, 32, 8687, 99, 104, 106, 111,
116, 120121, 123, 125
thought, 6, 2829
thousands, 8, 96
threat, 45, 51, 92
threatened, 23, 86, 89
threatening, 41
three, 89, 1112, 15, 2223, 25, 3637, 4649, 51,
55, 6162, 67, 69, 72, 85, 92, 95
throne, 50, 8386, 8889, 9394
thumb, rule of, 33, 49, 68, 76
tidal wave, 117
tie, 36
tied, 31, 41, 71
Tiepolo, 102
ties, 12, 2223, 36, 38, 41, 69
Tilly, 104, 125
timber, 6364, 105
time, 34, 6, 812, 15, 2021, 25, 27, 31, 33, 3644,
46, 4849, 5157, 6163, 6569, 72, 75,
7780, 8384, 8687, 8990, 9496
"Time of Troubles" (the "Great Mess"), 93, 101, 118,
122
times, 11, 18, 21, 2324, 39, 42, 45, 4950, 52,
6061, 66, 68, 84, 92, 95
tin, 64
tip, 95
tips, 3, 8
tobacco, 6365, 82
today, 12, 37, 45, 57, 63, 6566, 68, 70, 74, 88
tokens, 15
Tokugawa Iyemitsu, Shogun of Japan, 74

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tolerance, 2629, 3134, 3637, 41, 77, 100, 108
tolerant, 93, 110
tolls, 59, 88
tomatoes, 64
tombstone, 17, 4647
tombstones, 16, 43, 4647
took, 48, 65, 84, 8789, 94
tool, 31, 3435, 75, 79
tools, 1415, 64
top, 8, 57
Tordesilla(s), 19, 32, 42, 77
Torstensson, 123
total, 4, 1213, 43, 45, 47, 60, 68, 71, 7374, 76, 90,
9596
totally, 32
town, 16, 37, 45, 5657, 61, 7679
towns, 44, 7679, 97
townsmen, 2425
track, 43
trade, 3, 7, 9, 1114, 23, 25, 37, 4042, 5966,
6976, 7880, 82, 86, 88, 9596, 97, 101,
103105, 111, 114116, 121
Trade map, 7, 71
Trade tariffs, 59
trade (/trading) technology, 12, 41, 7173, 80, 83
traded, 63
trader, 70
traders, 60, 70
trading, 1214, 21, 24, 4041, 43, 7576, 83, 86, 88
trading post, 14, 1618, 2021, 54, 61, 7578, 96
trading posts, 67, 1214, 1821, 44, 47, 57, 59, 62,
68, 7576, 7879, 96, 102, 107, 116
traditionally, 38, 57, 60
traditions, 3, 49
train, 48
trained, 79, 90, 94, 96
training, 4950
traits, 87
transatlantic, 79
transferred, 28, 76, 79
transformation, 23
transformed, 71
translate, 39
transport, 1213, 58, 79
transportation, 9, 50, 71, 80
transported, 59
transporting, 13
transports, 49, 51
Transylvania, 93, 113
travel, 74, 77
treasury, 8, 12, 2324, 33, 45, 5960, 6768, 72, 79,
86
treat, 15
treated, 37, 82
treaties, 17, 20, 22, 3234, 3839, 4243, 4647,
68, 76, 95
treaty, 17, 1920, 2223, 32, 38, 4043, 4647, 77
Treaty of Tordesilla(s), 19, 32, 42, 77, 98, 115
trenches, 56
trends, 63
Trent, Council of, 3132
trials, 57
tribal, 17, 110
tribe, 70
tribes, 10, 71

tribute, 1617, 46, 105, 111

tributes, 60
Trinity College, Dublin, 102
Tripolis, 111
triumphal, 82
Trondheim, 104, 123
troop, 12, 20, 51
troops, 4, 910, 1213, 42, 45, 49, 68, 79, 86, 92
tropical, 58, 61
tropics, 20
trouble, 15, 68
troubles, time of, 93
trust, 67, 91
Tudor (dynasty), 8485
Tunis, 84, 110111
Turenne, 108109
Turkish, 42, 94, 110
Turks, 84, 110
turn, 3, 7, 12, 32, 34, 41, 56, 6970, 7577, 90, 95
turnaround, 38
turned, 4, 10, 37, 40, 8487, 90, 9293
turns, 23, 81
twenty, 6
twice, 24, 49
two, 6, 810, 1719, 22, 25, 27, 31, 3339, 42,
4648, 5052, 5455, 6667, 69, 7172, 76,
8990, 92, 9496
Two Sicilys, the, 121
type, 6, 13, 60, 8394, 96
types, 7, 12, 17, 35, 45, 49, 57, 59, 68, 80, 95
typical, 9192, 94
tyrannical, 91
Tyrolia, 125

U
Ukraine, 28, 48, 92, 94, 113, 123
Ulrich von Hutten, 32
Ulrich Zwingli, 32
Ulrika Eleonora, 92
Ulster, 89, 12
ultima ratio regum, 35
un-Christian, 22
unable, 23, 25, 27, 37
unacceptable, 36, 40
uncalled for, 22
uncertain, 4
uncertainty, 23
uncheck, 95
unchecked, 95
unchecking, 95
undefeatable, 43
underestimated, 12, 43
undermine, 56
undermining, 94
understandable, 45
understanding, 68
understood, 85
undeveloped, 10
undiplomatic, 37
undiscovered, 9, 14, 21
unfortified, 50
unfriendly, 37
unhappy, 33
uniform, 87, 90
uniforms, 80

unimaginable, 12
union, 40, 87, 119
union at Lublin, 113
Union of Calmar, 99, 119
unique, 32, 50, 64, 77
unit, 7, 9, 1213, 1620, 22, 2627, 4445, 48,
5051, 5458, 61, 76, 96
unite, 37, 93, 122
united, 22, 25, 39
United Provinces, 40, 100
United States, 3839, 90, 102, 108, 115, 122
uniting, 25, 28
units, 49, 11, 13, 1618, 2021, 2627, 3031, 40,
4245, 4751, 5457, 60, 6769, 7580, 93,
9596
universal, 29, 125
universalism, 99
universities, 82
unknown, 6, 89, 65, 77
unlimited, 69
unload, 13
unloaded, 13
unloading, 13
unpacking, 14
unpaid, 67
unpleasant, 44, 67
unpredictability, 39
unprotected, 74, 79
unrest, 11, 2425, 42, 66, 68
unsuitably, 75
untouchable, 36
upgrade, 6, 11, 20, 55, 69
upgraded, 8, 10
upgrading, 44, 60, 69, 85
uphold, 39
upholding, 39
upkeep, 8, 12
upper, 23, 6465
uprising(s), 2526, 3031, 64, 113, 118, 120,
125126
upset, 22, 80
Urbino, 98
use, 7, 15, 20, 27, 31, 3436, 39, 41, 48, 55, 5758,
6769, 71, 77, 80, 90, 96
used, 10, 1415, 27, 29, 3537, 45, 48, 51, 5657,
6366, 68, 71, 75, 84, 8992
useful, 47
useless, 13
using, 4, 7, 10, 21, 32, 3435, 38, 40, 47, 5556, 58,
63, 71, 95
usually, 3, 5, 9, 1415, 25, 43, 45, 48, 52, 5556,
6263, 68, 82
usurper, 37
utensils, 64
Uthman (Osman), 110
utilized, 48, 53
utilizing, 54
utmost, 79
Utrecht, peace of, 107

V
vaisseaux, 51
valid, 77

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Valois-Angoulme, Franois de (Franois I) of France,
84
value, 1214, 21, 25, 30, 36, 41, 44, 50, 53, 5864,
6869, 71, 7377, 9495
values, 26, 41, 50, 6163, 71, 75, 77
variable, 60
variants, 29
varied, 25, 50, 6364
varies, 25, 27, 48, 60, 76
variety, 28
various, 35, 78, 10, 16, 22, 2425, 36, 38, 4041,
52, 60, 6364, 7981
variously, 71
vary, 4, 22, 36, 49, 59
varying, 9, 12, 35
Vasa, 25, 33, 37, 87, 93
Vasa dynasty, 122
Vasilij Golitsyn, 88
vassal(s), 2223, 3940, 48, 111, 113, 121, 123
vassalage, 3839, 42
vassalized, 40
vassals, 3940, 50, 96, 117
vast, 19, 42
Vauban, marshall, 109
vegetables, 64
veins, 60
Velasquez, 86
Vendme, Duke of, 91, 109
Venetian(s), 47, 124
vengeful, 12
Venice, 3839, 47, 88, 9798, 111112, 115, 118,
125
verbal, 46
Verde, Cape, 77
Versailles, 8990, 102
Vespucci, Amerigo, 97
vessel, 49, 80
vessels, 1213, 4950, 5253
veterans, 104
vicinity, 75
victim, 34
victories, 91, 94, 125126
victorious, 16, 24, 55
victory, 24, 69, 84, 88, 90, 92, 94
victory conditions, 45
victory point(s), 45, 27, 34, 4243, 95
Vienna, 48, 94, 98, 111112, 114, 124
view, 3, 7, 14, 17, 23, 25, 29, 33, 36, 69, 93, 95
viewed, 22, 33, 89, 95
views, 32, 38
village, 44, 88
Villars, 109
Villeroi, 109
violence, 29, 35, 37
violent, 33, 35, 85
Virginia, 100
virtue, 68
visible, 9, 63
visit, 37
visiting, 58
vizier, 85, 88, 111
Vladislav, king of Poland-Lithuania, 113
vodka, 65
Volga, 85
Voltaire, 9192, 102

150

volumes, 82
voluntary, 55
von Erlach, Fischer, 102
von Eschl, 115
von Clausewitz, 35
von Hildebrandt, 102
von Hutten, 32
von Leibniz, G. W., 102
Vorpommern, 123
vulnerable, 55, 75

W
wage, 4, 33, 38, 43
wages, 8
waging, 5
wagons, 56, 92
wait, 36, 38, 58
Wallachia, 81, 112, 126
Wallenstein, 125
walls, 56
Walpole, Robert, 91
war, 34, 7, 10, 12, 1520, 2225, 28, 3148, 50, 53,
5657, 5960, 6669, 74, 7576, 84, 8694,
96, 101
war craft, 113
War, English Civil, 86, 99, 106
War, Great Nordic, 88, 90, 101, 104105, 107, 114,
118, 123
"War of Captain Jenkins Ear", 107, 121
war of independence, American, 108, 110
war of independence, Swedish, 103
war of alliances, 104, 109, 116
war of succession, 110
War of Succession, Austrian, 105, 107, 114, 119, 121,
126
War of Succession, Bavarian, 126
War of Succession, Polish, 112, 114, 119, 121, 126
War of Succession, Spanish, 101, 104105, 107, 114,
117118, 121, 123, 125
War of the Roses, 84, 98, 105
War, Seven Years, 105, 107108, 110, 114, 119, 121,
123, 126
War, the Long, 111
War, Thirty Years, 3, 32, 8687, 99, 104, 106, 111,
116, 120121, 123, 125
wars against the Netherlands, 106
Warsaw, 114
ward off, 79
warfare, 48, 51, 80, 85
warlord, 74
warning, 37
warrior, 88, 91, 94
warriors, 88
wars, 5, 1516, 22, 25, 2829, 32, 36, 39, 43, 46, 48,
8586, 9394, 96, 101102
warship, 49
warships, 5, 1213, 49, 51
watch, 51, 56, 80
water, 46
waters, 19, 51, 70
waterways, 40
way of thinking, 45
weak, 12, 76
weaker, 37

weakly, 75
weakness, 23, 88
weaknesses, 6
wealth, 10, 20, 95
wealthy, 64
weapon, 35, 41, 64
weaponry, 77, 80
weapons, 25, 64, 70, 82, 111, 114, 120
weather, 67, 19, 57
weddings, 24
weight, 13
Weimar, Bernhard of, 123
welcome, 65
well-armed, 6
well-executed, 69
well-known, 50
well-trained, 79, 94
Wenzel-Anton, Count of Rittberg-Kaunitz, 90
west, 77, 8486, 92
West Indies, 86, 108
western, 39, 70, 88
Western Europe, 98, 100, 102, 112, 125, 126
Westphalia(n), 109, 120, 123, 125
Whig, 90
whipped, 91
white, 810, 14, 53, 55, 58
whole, 50
widespread, 32, 34
widowed, 86
wife, 85
Wildeshausen, 123
Wilhelmine, sister of Frederick II of Prussia, 91
William I, king of England and the Netherlands, 106
William II of Orania [Orange], 90
William Pitt the Elder, 90
William Shakespeare, 100
William (see Frederick William I of Prussia)
willing, 46
willingly, 34
win, 5, 16, 27, 43, 46, 53, 5556, 76, 9192
wind, 5254
window, 5, 811, 13, 1516, 20, 23, 31, 33, 38, 46,
49, 51, 5658, 61, 67, 71, 76, 77, 95
windows, 8
winds, 80
wine, 63, 6566, 82
wing, 48
winner, 45
winners, 29
winning, 45, 43, 46, 48, 69
wins, 43, 50
winter, 67, 16, 57, 64
wipe out, 55, 75
wiped out, 56
wise, 12, 7980
wish, 5, 7, 9, 1314, 17, 3334, 3637, 42, 49, 53
withdraw, 55, 68
withdrawals, 60
withdrawing, 55, 68
withdrawn, 60
withdraws, 5455
Witt, Jan de, 89
Wittenberg, 32, 99
Wladyslaw IV Vasa of Poland-Lithuania, 9394
wolf, 64

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Wolff, Christian, 102
women, 44, 84
won, 28, 44, 4748, 80, 92, 94
woods, 24, 51
wool, 12, 6364, 66, 84, 86, 116
work, 8, 14, 30, 32, 34, 44, 69, 84, 96
worked, 50, 74, 86
working, 61
workings, 87
works, 9, 67
workshops, 82
world, 3, 68, 10, 12, 17, 21, 29, 31, 35, 38, 41, 46,
6566, 6869, 71, 7477, 79, 8485, 115
world wars, 101
worn out, 57, 79
worse, 84, 86
worsen, 15, 37, 47
worsening, 37, 41
worth, 43
Wrangel, 123
wrath, 22, 31
writers, 102
written, 37
written off, 40, 67

Y
yacht, 37
year, 67, 18, 2932, 36, 45, 55, 59, 67, 72, 76, 79,
90, 9396
yearly, 12, 39
years, 3, 56, 22, 25, 28, 33, 3738, 44, 47, 51, 58,
65, 67, 74, 83, 8587, 8991, 93
yellow, 9, 58
yield, 68
young, 44, 88, 91
younger, 93
youngest, 92
youth, 86, 94
Yuste, San, 84
Yusuf al-Simani, 102

Z
Zamoyski, Jan, 93
Zanzibar, 115
Zaporogian, 113, 118
Zealand, 52, 104, 123
zero, 20, 31, 58
zinc, 64
zone, 13, 19, 5155, 58, 7576, 79
zones, 67, 910, 19, 21, 5051, 54, 58, 75, 77, 96
Zumarhausen, 108
Zwingli, Ulrich, 32

151

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Paradox Entertainment:
PRESIDENT Nils Gulliksson EXECUTIVE PRODUCER Fredrik Malmberg PRODUCER Henrik
Strandberg ASSISTANT PRODUCER Klas Berndal LEAD PROGRAMMER Johan Andersson
PROGRAMMERS Linus Blomberg Che Lalic Niklas Smedberg ASSISTANT PROGRAMMING

Benjamin Abraham Erik Jonsson Roger Karlsson Jon Kgstrm Emil Norrman Richard
Lwgren Viktor Blomberg Patrik Backlund LEAD ARTIST Daniel Nygren ARTISTS Tony Bagge
Stefan Jalke Claes Wikdahl FMV SEQUENCES Nils Gulliksson Henrik Holmberg Hannes Rhodin
ADDITIONAL ART Fredrik Lundberg Jonni Teittinen Tony Warfvinge PROJECT LEAD Henrik
Strandberg DESIGN Klas Berndal Johan Andersson Henrik Strandberg Philippe Thibaut BASED
ON BOARDGAME BY Philippe Thibaut SCENARIO DESIGN Johan Andersson Joakim Bergqwist
Philippe Thibaut ADDITIONAL SCENARIO DESIGN Klas Berndal Heiko Brendel Matthew Wallhead
Michael Czerkawski MUSIC Lieblich Sound Design MANUAL Joakim Bergqwist TRANSLATION
Heiko Brendel Joakim Bergqwist Henrik Strandberg Bo Abrahamsson COVER DESIGN Nils
Gulliksson Daniel Nygren Dick Sjstrm Gustav Fogelstrm TEST MANAGER Johan Andersson
TESTERS Alain Neuvens Alvaro Prada Andy Moroff Anthony Wardlow Brad Burton Buzz
Pounds Carlos E Palau Chad Peterson Christian Denizon Christian Nilsson Christopher
E.Johnsson Craig Richardsson Dan Waldeck Daniel Belovic Daniel Beswick Dave Smith David
Lopez Edward Kendrick Elia Morling Elio Padoano Emmanuel Doussot Eric Piatysek Erik
Iversen Eskil Swahn Etienne Lescanne Fabrice Perolla Frank Thein Gabriele Bianchini
Graham Dodge Gunnar Bylund Hakan Bernefors Heiko Brendel Henrik Rothn Henrik
Staffas James Gemmill Jason Townsend Jean-Francois Courco Jeff Bogenschneider Jeff
Canha Jeff Vitous Jens Kullenius Jerome Trift Joakim Bergqwist Johan Ristrand Jon Pessano
Jonas Hasselrot Jonas Oxgaard Jean-Philippe Duflot Julian Barker Justin Tefft Jrgen
Andreasson Ken Waters Kent Nrling Kevin Pankhurst Lawrence Durham Lynn Williams
Marc Buytendijk Marcus Maunula Mark Wilkinsson Martin Hinves Mathias Larsson Mats
Bjrnlund Matthew Wallhead Mattias Ohlsson Maurice Northey Michael Treasure Michael
Czerkawski Mikael Hagman Mike Strong Nathaniel Gousset Nicholas Chazottes Niklas Goop
Olle Tidblad Olof Hllqvist Paolo Ciarlo Paul Lee Paul Tittle Per Ekman Per-Arne Hansson
Peter Juhl Phil Charlot Pierre France Pierre Toulouze Robert Miller Rodney Ebersole Scott
Braley Sebastien Bachet Step Lindqvist Stephane Adamiak Stephane Baubillier Stephane
David Stephen Schoenberger Stephen Szymanski Sukhvinder Branas Tobias Magnusson
Tom Bernandy Tom Wallach Tom van Sant Trevor Schmidt Tyler Penfield Ulf Strm Vaios
Triandafilis Wilhelm sterberg Ville Virrakoski William Bliss Vladimir Pavic Yann Denoual
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS Fredrik Malmberg Frederick U. Fierst Bruno de Scoraille Magnus
Nedfors Tom Olsson Andres Rocabado Christopher Sundberg Stefan Thulin Steve Pillinger

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