Conference Proceeding BMIC-2015 - All

Message from Dean of Faculy of Management and Tourism
Dear Conference participants

On behalf of the Conference Organizing Committee, I am delighted to welcome you to Thailand
and to the 3rdBusiness Management International Conference (BMIC) 2015 which to take place
in Pullman Pattaya, Thailand between 5 6 November, 2015, under the theme Moving towards
Business and Economic Sustainability.
The faculty of Management and Tourism has held the Business Management International
Conference for the second time with the great cooperation from six well-known academic
institutes. The conference would not be as successful without the great support from our cohosts;Far East University, IAE University of Montpellier II, Shenyang Aerospace University,
University of Malaya, Trisakti Institute of Tourism and Yunnan Normal University.
This years theme of the conference is taking a close look at Business and Economic
sustainability. In terms of business, sustainability management is about incorporating social,
economic and environmental factors into your business decisions. It involves placing an
emphasis on future, long term goals for your business rather than focusing on short term profits.
I strongly believe that the success of the conference depends ultimately on the Conference
Committees who havecontributed hard work in planning and organizing the conference. In
particular, I would like to appreciate the effort of the committee for their time reviewing the
papers and selecting the best papers that address the theme of the conference.
I would like to also thank the authors who trusted BMIC-2015 with their remarkable work. The
conference has truly become an international and multi-disciplinary event with researchers from
various nations. Last but not least, I would like to thank all attendants who have interest in the
significant of Global Business Management.
Sincerely,
Asst. Prof. Patchanee Nontasak

Dean of Faculty of Management and Tourism
Page I
Keynote Speaker
Recipes for sustainable creative tourism
Greg Richards
Introduction
In order for tourism to be sustainable in the future, we need to find new ways to ensure that the needs of all
stakeholders are met, including residents, visitors, tourism operators and policy makers. This is a major challenge,
particularly as the needs of these different groups often seem to be diametrically opposed. However, there are signs
that in some places the needs of tourists and their hosts and the places that they come together in are now starting to
converge.
For one thing, the divisions that we used to see between hosts and guests, or producers and consumers are
rapidly eroding. Instead of clearly identifiable tourism companies making and distributing products to tourists or
consumers, there is now a dispersed network of individuals and organisations involved in the co-creation of tourism
experiences. These experiences are more holistic, involving all of the senses, and are more complex to construct
than traditional tourism products, such as a beach holiday.
In particular, intangible culture has become more important. In terms of cultural tourism, for example, there has
been a shift away from tangible sites related to built heritage, towards intangible culture and creativity, such as the
lifestyles and atmosphere attached to the destination.
Rather than thinking about the tourism industry as a collection of major corporations, we are now increasingly
confronted with an extension of tourism into new spaces for example into peoples homes via Airbnb and Uber
and Eat with Locals. This paper considers how these changes are affecting tourism, and the potential for creative
tourism in particular. The development of creative tourism in a Thai context is then outlined, with particular
attention being paid to the development of gastronomic experiences as part of the Kitchen of the World strategy.
New spaces and localities of tourism.

Tourism has moved out of the dedicated, homogenised spaces that is has occupied in recent decades
hotels, tourist attractions, entertainment centres. It is now present in a wide range of different spaces and localities,
and these are increasingly integrated into everyday life. In these new locations, control is no longer exercised by
clearly identified tourism producers. Instead, the experience is negotiated between the tourist and a range of
different local actors who collaborate (directly or indirectly) in the co-creation process. These actors include:
Local residents
Cultural intermediaries
Creative producers
Architects and designers
Local guides and experience producers
The different actors and elements of the tourist experience are less often controlled by a distinct tourism supply
chain, and more often by a dispersed network linked by new technology and dependent on disembedded trust. For
example, the gastronomic experience of a destination is no longer solely represented by official eating
establishments regulated by the state or identified in tourist guidebooks. Today, we are seeing the rise of eat with
the locals experiences, which are provided by individual residents on the basis of their own culinary skills and the
Page II
stage represented by their own homes. In this type of experience the aim is no longer to sample national dishes or
haute cuisine, but rather to see how ordinary people live and eat.
These developments are being fed by two complimentary trends the desire of many tourists to integrate themselves
into everyday life and live like a local, and the growing openness of local culture facilitated by networking and
new technology.
The new spaces of tourism are therefore linked to consumers by new technology, and consumers can directly access
these without the intervention of traditional intermediaries. This allows the suppliers in the destination to get much
closer to consumers who were traditionally kept at a distance by the tourism industry. These new relationships imply
a re-distribution of risk in the tourism value chain, because the activities of travel agents and tour operators have
increasingly migrated online.
The consumer who decides to book for themselves online is now taking some of the risk that was previously
assumed by the travel industry. This sometimes has a payoff in terms of lower prices or more choice, but it requires
more time to be invested by the consumer in information search in an effort to find those lower prices or to reduce
the risk of uncertainty. The need to reduce the increased risk of the new distribution systems is leading to a more
important role for user generated content. Travel reviews and rating systems are becoming a vital source of
information for the Internet traveller who is visiting a destination or location for the first time. They can no longer
rely on the tacit knowledge that was gathered by travel professionals, so the experiences of many tourists are turned
into codified knowledge that can be transmitted to others through review and rating systems. So the tourist becomes
not just the consumer of travel information, but also a generator of information.
This emerging value network, centred on the consumer, is blurring the roles previously ascribed to the different
actors in the tourism system, and bringing new actors within the tourism production chain, including local residents
and the tourists themselves.
Implications of networked tourism

The changing structure of tourism has important implications for the way in which experiences are
produced, distributed and consumed.
New intermediaries and producers emerge, facilitated by the ease of access to consumers and other parts of
the network. So the largest network of accommodation provision is today Airbnb, which with around a million hosts
worldwide has outstripped the largest hotel chain in the world. At the same time every individual in the destination
has the opportunity to turn themselves into a supplier or intermediary for tourism services, by offering their homes,
their kitchens or their knowledge to the tourist.
This more distributed supply network has disrupted the traditional value chain and its control mechanisms.
The ability of the tourist to communicate directly with suppliers in the destination allows them to circumvent the
conventional value chain, and this is making it increasingly important to get close to the consumer and to understand
their desires and needs. The erosion of the hierarchical value chain places more emphasis on network power,
which is exercised not through economies of scale but through the volume and quality of contacts in the network. It
becomes important to establish yourself as a hub in the network rather than a node.
The new structure of the value network also implied changes in the distribution of risk between actors. In the
traditional tourism value chain, risk is negotiated between principles and agents, with the largest players usually
able to minimise their risk at the cost of the smallest. In the value network, the risk is more evenly
distributed, with the consumer in particular assuming more risk as they surf the Internet and encounter products
offered by people they dont know in places they have never been.
Page III
The new landscape of creative tourism

It is against this background of systemic change that the new concept of creative tourism has emerged. The
seeds of the idea were sown in the late 1990s, as part of a project on the development of crafts tourism in Europe
(Richards, 2005). In the EUROTEX project the value of craft products was emphasised by bringing visitors into
direct contact with craft producers, enabling them to appreciate their skills and the amount of work involved in the
production process. The success of this concept stimulated the realisation that holistic experiences had more value
than staged or unidimensional tourism products involving sightseeing or passively watching cultural performances.
The creative tourism concept was first formulated by Richards and Raymond (2000), who defined it as:
tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active
participation in learning experiences which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are
undertaken.
In the past 15 years the creative tourism concept has developed and expanded around the world. The
emergence of creative tourism was contemporaneous with the identification of the experience economy (Pine and
Gilmore, 1998), and many analysts have likened creative tourism to experiential tourism. However, there are
important features of creative tourism that make it more than a simple tourism experience.
Active engagement
Skill and tacit knowledge
Embedding in the destination
The creative tourism system creates a more active role for both tourist and host. They are both focussed on
a creative activity that involves the transfer and development of creative knowledge and skills. Because this
knowledge is tacit knowledge, it can only be passed from one person to another through direct contact, so physical
co-presence between host and guest is an important pre-requisite as well as an outcome of the process. This direct
contact has important implications:
it allows the visitor to appreciate local skills and creativity
it enables skills and knowledge to be transferred
this in turn make it possible for co-creation to take place
it puts the visitor and host on an equal footing
These features of creative tourism mean that it is a particular type of experience, one that emphasises
relationships rather than economic transactions and producing (making and doing) rather than just consuming.
We can contrast creative tourism with the long standing model of cultural tourism. In particular, cultural
tourism tends to be based on exploiting the past as a resource. Museums and monuments form the backbone of the
cultural tourism industry in most countries, presenting different elements of national or local culture as objects to be
photographed and consumed through the passive tourist gaze. This tends to concentrate tourism in specific places
where these resources are found, and also in particular locations with important cultural sites. There is sometimes
little link between these traces of the past and contemporary society and everyday life. In some cases contemporary
residents end up reproducing their former selves, acting as their ancestors did for the benefit of authentic tourist
experiences.
In creative tourism experiences the emphasis lies not so much on the resources of the past, but on the
contemporary use of cultural knowledge and skills in order to develop future creative potential. Creative resources,
unlike heritage resources, are renewable. Through education we can increase or knowledge and creative potential.
Through creative tourism we can not only share knowledge and skills, but creativity can be applied to develop new
knowledge and skills, to innovate and develop new cultural and social potential.
These principles bring creative tourism very close to the elements of smart development, as formulated by
the Dutch development organisation SNV:
Page IV
Activities tailored to the local context that address the real needs of people (contextualised solutions)
Change the underlying systems that that inhibit change (systemic change)
Give people the tools to guide their own development (local ownership)
Forge connections and relationships between different ideas, experiences and people (inclusion)
In particular, creative tourism promotes local ownership and inclusion, because the creativity is rooted in
place. But it is also important to recognise that creativity is dynamic it may be rooted in the local context, but this
does not negate the possibility for change. In fact, creative tourism may become a driver for change, because it can
provide people with new skills and new ideas. If we want to develop Creative, smart and sustainable tourism, as
the title of this conference suggests, we therefore have to think not just in terms of tourism innovation, but in terms
of changing places, changing people and changing minds.
There are a number of key steps that destinations can take if they want to develop creative tourism in a proactive
way:
Identifying creative resources
Finding creative switchers, or people who can link the local and global levels
Developing platforms to link with creative people elsewhere
Creating events and other engaging content
Making creativity visible
Creative resources involve a much wider range of factors than cultural resources. Creative resources
include the obvious elements of the creative industries or the creative economy, but importantly it includes the
ability to apply creative thinking to the use of traditional tourism, cultural or social resources. One good example of
this process is found in the Dutch city of Den Bosch, which has effectively used a lack of resources as a creative
stimulus. Although the city is the birthplace of the famous medieval painter Hieronymus Bosch, the city has none of
his paintings. But the city has cleverly positioned itself at the hub of a network of the cities that have Bosch
paintings, and has developed a research and restoration project to link the cities together. This network has enabled
Den Bosch to compile the biggest ever exhibition of works by Bosch, a feat which the Guardian newspaper (2015)
recently called achieving the impossible. In this case, the main creative resource was ideas, stemming largely from
the cultural and creative community in Den Bosch itself.
The Den Bosch example also underlines the important role played by what Castells (2009) calls
switchers, people who are capable of linking different networks together. By combining people working in
different fields and different contexts, switchers provide the essential link that enable places to increase their
bridging capital, as Putnam terms it. Bridging capital, based on the ability to link with and exchange with different
groups, brings new ideas and flows of information and resources that can power development and change. In Den
Bosch, a small group of these switchers have been able to pull together networks of businesses, cultural
organisations, academics, diplomats and even royalty. The opening of the Bosch exhibition in February 2016 is
expected to be attended by the royal families of both the Netherlands and Spain. Such links have given the leverage
necessary for august institutions such as the Prado to lend works to an unheard of small regional city in the southern
Netherlands.
Having switchers is important in order to make these kinds of contacts, but it is also important to
consolidate the links that have been forged. The recent report on Tourism and the Creative Economy from the
OECD (2014) points out that the growth of creative tourism has been encouraged by the development of both
creative content (experiences and activities) and platforms. Just like any other form of content, creative tourism
requires platforms to distribute and promote its creative content. Some of the most obvious platforms are the many
local, national and international networks that have grown up around the provision of creative tourism experiences.
Almost all of these provide links between the local creative producers and the (inter)national tourism market. But
these platforms are also gradually become more creative themselves, adding informative content to engage with
Page V
specific audiences. Creative Tourism Austria, for example, specifically targets what they term the creative class
through a mix of quirky stories and newsbites from the creative cities of Austria.
Developing such content obviously requires a creative mind, but it also needs appropriate framing to make
it engaging for potential audiences and to make the creative message stand out in the increasingly crowded
mediascape. In thus sense events have become a particularly important device that is being applied in the
development of creative tourism. Events are effective tools for focussing attention, because the concentrate and
frame time, squeezing experiences into a temporal spotlight that can allow even relatively small places to stand out
for a while.
This also links to the issue of visibility. One of the basic challenges in developing creative tourism is to
make the creative process visible. In contemporary society the visual realm has become the privileged source and
carrier of information and meaning. In tourism, the rise of visual culture has been marked by the emergence of
tourism icons, such as the Guggenheim Bilbao. Striking and accessible structures such as monuments and
museums have therefore also gained in importance as tourism markers. The Flickr map of Barcelona, for example, is
dominated by the architecture of Gaudi, famed for its eccentricity, iconic value and cultural significance (Donaire
and Gal, 2011). In contrast to such highly visible cultural signs, creativity is often hidden from view, occupying
interstitial spaces in the city and involving processes with little visual excitement. In terms of the creative industries,
for example, much of the value production process takes place in offices where products are designed with the help
of computers, such as the work of fashion designers or architects.
Strategies for increased visibility include:
Clustering
Guiding
Framing
Narrating
Co-creation
The actors involved in these processes are different from those we might associate with the traditional
tourism system. The new intermediaries of creative tourism include storytellers, musicians, switchers, local people,
policy makers, designers, architects. The creative sector (and the creative class) becomes important in terms of the
production of creative tourism. This integration of tourism and creativity is clear in recent developments such as
design hotels and new-style 4D attractions.
Creative tourism in a Thai context

If we take the starting point that creative tourism involves creativity that is characteristic of the destination,
then we should not be surprised that creative tourism is also different in each location. This has been recently
underlined by the publication of the Creative Travellers Handbook (Paschinger, 2015), in which Elena Paschinger,
one of the pioneers of creative tourism development and marketing in Europe, takes us on a round-the-world journey
to discover how creative tourism works in different places. She finds that creative tourism everywhere is
underpinned by the same principles, even though the experiences offered may be very different. Thailand also offers
a unique cultural, social and economic context in which these same principles can be applied.
Thailand has already identified Thainess as part of this unique context. Thainess includes many elements
of Thai culture, which include not just high and traditional culture, but also the Thai way of life and creativity.
Perhaps most importantly it also represents a link between these elements, and as such provides a clear embedding
of creativity in place. The landscape becomes not just a visual backdrop to be photographed, but creativity can be
made visible by demonstrating how landscape, culture and creativity are linked. The Creative Villages designated
Page VI
through the Thai creative tourism programme can act as hubs that frame creativity, linking it to the landscape and
therefore embedding it in particular places. In the case of Thailand this can also be a strategy for spreading tourism
beyond the major gateways. The development of creative tourism in rural areas is one strategy that often works
because of the direct link between the community and the landscape, and also because of the relative lack of
alternative development opportunities. But can creative tourism also work in existing tourist centres like Pattaya?
The experience of other areas suggests that this might be possible. One of the first creative tourism developments
took place on the Greek island of Crete, which is a mass tourism destination. The driver of this programme was a
major hotel group, which was concerned about the degradation of local culture through tourism. One potential
solution to this was to take elements of local culture that were under threat, such as hand-made textiles, and turn
these into creative tourism experiences. By enabling tourists to get actively involved in craft production, it also
allowed then to appreciate the value and importance of the objects they were making.
Another area that holds a lot of creative tourism potential for Thailand is gastronomy. Thailand is a major
food producer, and Thai cuisine is famous the world over. Recognising this, the Thai government has implemented a
national food strategy, called Kitchen of the World. According to the Bangkok Post, the program aims to develop
the countrys food industry. Ambitious goals include putting Thailand among the worlds top five major exporters of
food, promoting the use of Thai ingredients and condiments to produce authentic Thai dishes, and to increase the
number of Thai restaurants worldwide. There are currently about 5,500 Thai restaurants abroad, and this network
helps to promote exports of Thai food and products such as dining utensils, furniture, and handmade products.
Creative tourism provides an opportunity to develop knowledge and experience exports related to Thai
food, which are much more high value than even processed food sales abroad. There are now a large number of
cooking schools in Bangkok as well as others in major tourist centres such as Chang Mai that offer various courses
related to Thai cuisine. There is also apparently growing demand for these:
Jarrett Wrisley, responsible for two restaurants in Bangkok Soul Food Mahanakorn, a Thai fusion
restaurant, and Appia, an Italian eatery (thinks) Westerners will keep flocking to Bangkok to try their hand
at cooking Thai food. Wrisley says that Westerners are looking for the freedom thats lost back home
(Lisotte, 2014).
What is important in developing creative experiences around Thai cuisine is embedding them in Thai
culture, and helping those who want to learn about Thai gastronomy appreciate the strong links between the culture
and the food. This may often be easier in places such as Chang Mai, where the agricultural roots of the food
products is not so far away, than it might be in cosmopolitan Bangkok. But on the other hand Bangkok may also be
the place to think creatively about the relationship between Thai food and Asian fusion gastronomy, teaching people
about the potential for being creative across cultural boundaries as well as within them.
References
Donaire, J.A. and Gal, N. (2011) Barcelona tourism image within the Flickr community. Cuadernos de Turismo, n
27, (2011); pp. 1061-1062 Universidad de Murcia.
Guardian (2015) Dutch museum achieves the impossible with new Hieronymus Bosch show. Guardian, 15 th
October.
Lizotte,
C. (2014) Bangkok: Thai food is on top of the world; why does it feel
different?http://o.canada.com/travel/bangkok-thai-food-is-on-top-of-the-world-why-does-it-feel-sodifferent
so
Paschinger, E. (2015) The Creative Travellers Handbook. Full Flight Press.

Richards, G. (2005) Textile Tourists in the European Periphery: New Markets for Disadvantaged Areas? Tourism
Review International, Volume 8, no. 4, pp. 323-338.
Page VII
Contents
Page
Message from Dean of Faculty of Management and Tourism
Keynote Speaker
II
1. Islamic Business Ethics From The Perspective of External Environment Factors towards
Housing Project Performance in Malaysia
Adi AnuarAzmin, Abdullah Abd Ghani and Azizi Abu Bakar
2. The antecedents of virtual team creativity

Autcharaporn Somsing and Nassim Belbaly
3. Manpower Forecasting and Strategies for Sustainability for the Indian Banking Sector
Mahesh Prabhu and Asish Oommen Mathew
27
4. Analysis of Lead Time Delay on the Manufacturing Firm Inventories: A System Dynamics
Approach
Rajesh R. Pai, Sunith Hebbar and Lewlyn L. R. Rodrigues
38
5. Urbanization and Its Impact on Environmental Sustainability in the City Of Bangalore:

A System Dynamics Approach
Sunith Hebbar, Rajesh Pai and Lewlyn L. R. Rodrigues
46
6. The Understanding of Islamic Banking System: Analysis of Selected Banking Institutions Staff
Azizi Abu Bakar, Fadzil Mohd Husin and Mohd. Sollehudin Shuib
54
7. Impact of Time to Adjust Capacity on the Performance of a Manufacturing System:

A System Dynamics Approach
B. Giridhar Kamath, Sunith Hebbar and Lewlyn L. R. Rodrigues
62
8. Cultural Tourism in Naga Village, West Java Province, Indonesia (an actor network the approach)
Arief Faizal Rachman and Amalia Mustika
73
9. Fund Flows and Asset Allocation Behavior of Mutual Fund Investors

Bhutorn Sukwanitch
82
10. Vendor Performance Management to Maintain Sustainability for the Manufacturing Firms
Lidwin Kenneth, Mahesh Prabhu and Giridhar Kamath
97
11. How Sustaining ERP Project Legitimacy? Two Cases of Successful Implementations
Rgis Meissonier and Emmanuel Houze
106
12. Utilizing In-house Residents to Enhance the Performance of the EDC-UUM: A Supply
Chain Model
Engku Muhammad Nazri Engku Abu Bakar and Masnita Misiran
115
13. A study of customer loyalty towards Caltex gas station in Thailand

Phorphan Chanprasert and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
123
14. A Relationship between Satisfaction, Attitude, Service Quality, Trust, Social Influence
and IPhone Repurchase intention, in Bangkok, Thailand
Phanuthat Dilokwilas and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
130
Page VIII
15. An Antecedence of Repurchase Intention towards TARAD.COM Online Shopping

Prakaymars Phornpromsri and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
140
16. Competitive Benchmarking of Penang Beach Hotel Service Quality using Analytic
Hierarchy Process
Engku Muhammad Nazri, Ku Ruhana Ku-Mahamud and Muharis Mohamed
147
17. A study of repurchase intention in the context of organic food in Bangkok, Thailand
Kanokkwan Fleur-Marie Amornsin, Kriengsin Prasongsukarn and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
159
18. Path Analysis of Psychological and Situational Factors on Trust in the Government
Naksit Sakdapat, Duangjai Kaewmali and Pornpong Sakdapat
170
19. A Comparison Study of Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction and Word of Mouth
between Thai and Cambodian Customers towards a Coffee shop
Sothean Phorn and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
179
20. A study of Factors Affecting Customer loyalty towards XYZ steak restaurant at ABAC
Huamark branch, Bangkok, Thailand
Ying Wang
190
21. The Impact of Trust, Customer Satisfaction, Service Quality and Perceived Value on
Repurchase Intention towards Apple iPhone users in Bangkok, Thailand.
Vishakha Rai and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
199
22. Smart Money Effect of RMF and LTF Flows

Paween Praweenwongwut
206
23. Free Float Effect on Stock Performance with Divergence of Opinion Hypothesis
Chuenbunluesook Yudhavee
218
24. Factors affecting customer loyalty: A case study of BCEL bank in Lao PDR
Lathtanaphone Thykeo, Kriengsin Prasongsukarn and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
235
25. Measuring Investors Behavioral Bias from the Movement of Currency Forward Rate
Busakorn Wongwanit
244
26. Tourist Motivation Visiting Bangnampheung Floating Market And Their Satisfaction Based
On The Destinations Cultural And Heritage-Based Attributes
Naphinya Rassamitat
259
27. Relationship between strategic sourcing techniques and profitability for competitiveness
a proposed model
Pisoot Thankdenchai
269
28. Lecturers satisfaction towards hard skills and soft skills of Indonesian Students at
Burapha University
Agus Riyadi and Regina Maria Prista
287
29. Aggregate Liquidity for the Malaysian Stock Market: New Measure and Time-Series
Behaviour
Ping-Xin Liew, Kian-Ping Lim and Kim-Leng Goh
298
30. Examination of Tourism-led Growth Hypothesis in Thailand

Karoon Suksonghong
312
Page IX
Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

5-6 November 2015, Chonburi, Thailand
The Islamic Business Ethics Practices AmongHousing Developers

in Malaysia.
Adi AnuarAzmin, Abdullah Abd Ghani and Azizi Abu Bakar
Abstract
Ethical business practices among housing developers can be a catalyst to control the attitude and
behavior of the stakeholders involved in the management of housing projects. Ethic practice will be an asset
to all parties fairly and impartially. Ethics in fact provides important support to maximize the short and long
term business.The development of housing projects also depends on how the business ethics, practiceof the
developers influencing the decision making of housing project progress. Therefore, business ethic, practice
among housing developer plays an important role in reducing the problems arise during housing project
implementation. However, business ethics can be viewed from the perspective of Islamic and conventional.
In the Islamic system, an ethical dealer is required because of the ethical values of trustworthy, honest,
compassionate and wise is an exemplary example of the prophet Muhammad. From the point of Islamic
business ethic research is seen covering the whole conventional wisdom.Islamic business ethics are based on
ethical norms and moral codes of the verses of Al-Quran and Hadith.Thus, Islam emphasizes the
relationship between business and religion. Therefore, this paper will discuss the issues related to the
concept of business ethics in the Islamic perspective among housing developers in Malaysia. Furthermore,
this research also explains how housing developers can customize the system of Islamic business ethics in
the activities of their daily business.
Keywords: concept of Islamic business ethics, Housing Project.
1. Introduction
Overview of Housing Project in Malaysia
Housing and Local Government Departmenthave received many complaints about the abandoned
housing project. That situation had affected the buyer in terms of the financial burden, including the
repayment of loan installments and rental payments occupied home buyers. In addition to home buyers
likely will be blacklisted by the financial institutions, if they fail to settle outstanding debts will lead to
difficult connected home buyers to obtain loan facilities are second (Abu Bakar, 2009). Refers to the
statistical category of blacklisted developers, Ministry of Housing and Local Government is shown in table
1 below:
Table 1: Status of private housing development project
No
Unethical Case
Total Developer
1.
Failure to pay the compound
349
2.
Pain project
158
3.
Homebuyer claims tribunal cases
283
4.
Involved installed projects
117
5.
Found without license
83
Total case unethical:
990
BMIC 2015| page1

Source:Division of Abandoned Housing Projects Private National Housing Department
(Updated on December 31, 2013
Based on the above table, it shows that among housing projects,there are 349 developer fails to pay
the compound, 158 developers have been blacklisted because of pain project, 283 developers have been
blacklisted for homebuyer claims tribunal cases (tribunal), 117 developers have been blacklisted involved
installed projects and 83 developers have found without a license.This practice, in fact, have revealed
evidence of the lack of business ethics practices among housing developers in Malaysia.
As was discussed by Hanafi and Sallam (1997) pointed out that modern era debate about business
ethics among academics, professional associations, public authorities and other relevant organizations, has
found the key.In principle organizational arrangements that are beneficial in both indoor and outdoor
environments involving rational and imaginative thought about human behavior among housing project
developers. With a good business, they are able to perform the work ethic by specific norms, moral
standards, and the principles of honorable impartial, honest, dignified and with integrity in the performance
of work activities implementation of housing projects.
This paper aims to study the concept and approach ofIslamic business ethics perspective focuses
primarily on housing project. It is important to qualitatively analyze the importance of business ethics for
housing projects. When business is a clear purpose and core values and aligning the brand, it is more likely
to attract and keep talented people, reduce inefficiencies and stress caused by conflicting messages and also
to attract more clients, customers and suppliers who deliver goods to the same high standards. Perhaps more
clearly the importance of business ethics will help business leaders to implement and practice of business
ethics and management. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to discuss the concept of business ethics in
order to develop Islamic business ethic practices among housing developers in Malaysia.
2. Literature Review
The idea of business ethics of housing developers is usually discussed in the framework of the
rights of clients and good housing, project management (McMahon & Harvey, 2007; Trevino & Victor,
1992). In theory, there are a lot of ethical principles in Islam that originated from the Qur'an and the Hadith
of the Prophet Muhammad (peace upon him). However, for the purposes of this paper, the Islamic business
ethics that only correlate with housing project are discussed as follows;
True (Sidqun)
Truthfulness is the foundation of Islamic ethics. Islam is, by the way, another name is right. He
speaks the truth, and enjoins Muslims to be straight forward and right in the business and their speeches.
Islam condemns falsehood and deceit in any form (Ahmad, 1991).
Allah said: "Oh who believe, fear Allah and say the right things." (33:70).
Here is an excerpt from the Hadith as in truth:
The Prophet (peace is upon him) said:
"Anyone who has been to strengthen the truth with his tongue, his punishment will
continue to grow until the Day of Judgment in which God will pay the full
reward." The Prophet (peace is upon him) said:
"Residents of Paradise are of three types: those that wields authority and is just
and equitable; truthful and has been endowed with the power to do good deeds,
and those of compassion and kindness toward his brother, and to every pious
Muslim , and that does not lend a hand despite having a large family to support.
"(Sahih Muslim)
BMIC 2015| page2

Moreover, Islam wants to control the human tendency to greed and love of possessions (Beekun,
1997). Instead, Islam totally rejects the practice of cheating and laziness that led to injustice in the work
place (Ali, 1992). In work and business activities, Islam requires to work, truthfulness, not an exception in
the non-preferred.
Equilibrium (Adl)
Islam strongly recommends doing justice in trade and prohibiting unfair or unjust to do. The
Prophet sent by Allah to build justice. Woe to those who do cheat, even to those who, when asked for
consideration of other people to be met, while they are contemplating if they will lose weight. Dishonesty in
business presage the destruction of the business, the key to success in business is trust. The Qur'an
commands the Muslims to weigh and measure the right way and not to commit fraud in the form of reduced
size and weight. This means:
"And give full measure when you measure the, and weigh with the true. That is
more important (for you) and a better result. "(Surat al-Isra ': 35).
In this verse, Allah clearly stressed the need for equilibrium and fair when he labeled Islam as ummatun
wasatun1.In the context of its application in the activities of housing project, the principle of fairness applies
both literally and figuratively. The relationship between housing developer, project managers and their
project team members, then the principles of justice implies that projects managers should conduct fair and
equitable to all project team members regardless of sex, race, physical differences, religious and political
beliefs. In fact, the skills, experience and attitude will determine the properties of the potential project work.
As reported by Hasanuzzaman, (2003), the absence of fairness in all business dealings with housing
developers to bring harm and disturb the peace and harmony, but in the absence of benevolence are not
hurting anyone. This is in accordance with (firman Allah swt) in which mean:
"O you who believe, you shall be the ones who always uphold the (truth) because
Allah, bearing witness with justice. And let not hatred of a people once prompted you
to be unfair. Be just as fair closer to piety ". (Surat Al-Maidah: 8)
Benevolence (Ihsan)
Benevolence reflects proficiency and fineness in dealing with others and also defined as an act
which benefits persons other than those from whom the act proceeds without any obligation. Benevolence is
also frequently repeated in the Quran and the Hadith. Allah says:
Spend your wealth for the cause of God, and be not cast by your own hands to
ruin;and do good. Lo! God loves those who behave with ihsan. (2:195).
The inmates of Paradise are three types: one who wields authority and is just
and fair; one who is truthful and has been endowed with power to do good deeds;
and the person who is merciful and kind-hearted towards his relatives and to
every pious Muslim, and who does not stretch out his hand in spite of
having a large family to support. (Sahih Muslim)
Thus thebenevolence practices are the essential elements to establish a corporate culture that
emphasize on achieving physical and spiritual need for employees (Shaharuddin, 2005).
Union(Tawheed)
Understand the heart as the chosen people and the best, most honorable people and the main, the people
who uphold justice(Alhabshi, S.O. (2001)
BMIC 2015| page3

Union is another fundamental ethical principles of Islam. The essence of union is a sense of
accountability that implies a sense of need to appear before Allah and account for one's actions (Manan,
2012).Unions are as liaison to the concept of faith that guided all aspects of Muslim life in the economic,
political, social, cultural and emphasizes the concept of homogeneous consistency and regularity
comprehensive. From this concept, then Islam offers religious, economic, and social culture by forming a
union. On the basis of this view about the ethics and business into integrated, vertical and horizontal
formsvery important similarities in the Islamic system. The importance of unitywidely acknowledge by
Scholars and practitioners. According to the study by McKnight and Chervany, (1996) unity or trust enables
collaboration happenand main positive interpersonal relationships. Indeed, trust is emphasized in the Quran
and Hadith.
"Verily, Allah commands you to make over trusts to their owners it is caused, and
that when you judge between mankind, that judge with justice: verily how good is
the teaching which He giveyou! Allah is Hearing, Seeing". (4: 58).
Therefore, each housing developers responsible for housing project team members and other
resources with which he was entrusted. Union is very important because of the need to make a profit and the
temptation to enhance the properties of their products or services in a sales pitch (Ali, 1992). All sources of
housing business shall be treated as a sacred trust by housing developers.
Freedom(Free Will)
Freedom is an important part of the business ethics of Islam, but freedom is not detrimental to the
interests of society. There are no income limits or restrictions for someone and Islam encourage people to be
active, creative works, and works with all its potential. Human tendency to continue to meet the personal
needs of the infinite must be handled with the utmost responsibility of each individual and the community
through charity and alms infak.Housing developers need to practice the philosophy of doing business by
being freedom from simulation, hypocrisy, disguise, or false pretense and secureness. Islam has emphasized
this code of ethics, as we see in the Quran and Hadith.
Allah said:
"So woe to the worshipers, who are neglectful of their prayers, those who (want
but) seen (of men), But refuse (to people) (too) neighborhood needs". (107: 4-7).
There is no room for cheating, swearing too much, lying and false advertising within the
framework of Islam in the business. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the Islamic principles of truth
and honesty should be followed as matters of policy or business strategy of housing developers. Here is an
excerpt from the Hadith as in sincerity:
"Actions are but by intention and every man shall have but that which he intended.
Whoever fugitive unto Allah and His Messenger, and he whose migration was to achieve
some worldly benefit or to take some woman in marriage, his migration was for what he
migrated. "
Therefore, Islam attaches great importance to the freedom of the intentions and actions in every
walk of life. Two benefits can be obtained by employing the freedom in business transactions.
First, it helps to increase worker efficiency implementation. Second, because employees can
contribute to a high rate of productivity by speeding up production. In addition, the code of ethics does not
encourage the manipulation or exploitation of others for personal reasons (Ahmad, 1991, McClaren, 2012).
For that reason, a genuine housing developers are not expected to cheat, harm and take advantage of by
others.
BMIC 2015| page4

Welfare (Khairat)
The welfare is defined as actions that benefit others from the result of the act without any
obligation. It also means refinement, efficiency or absolute in dealing with others. Along with the concept of
justice, the concept of welfare is often repeated in the Qur'an and Hadith.
Allah said:
"Those who spend in ease and adversity, who restrain anger and pardon men;
Allah loves those who do nothing compassionate" (3:134).
Therefore, housing developers should make use of the most effective and socially desirable of
business resources. Housing project implementation activities should aware not to destruction or harm
society or the natural environment. Indeed, Islam emphasizes the role of man on the environment by making
him responsible for the environment as the vicegerent of Allah.
3. Conclusion, Future Studies and Research Implications

Previous research has explored attitudes towards ethical business practices in several other
countries in the west and find some traditional beliefs about work practices in different cultures have
rejected (Ali & Al-Kazemi, 2007).Islamic perspective on housing business code of ethics has been presented
as a sample from the Quran and Hadith related to the five axioms, namely true, equilibrium, union, freedom
and compassion or welfare. It is beyond the ability of researchers to have a comprehensive and all-inclusive
coverage of the field of ethics. Therefore, the objective of this study is to present the Islamic business ethics
from the perspective of a housing project. Overall, this study seeks to provide an explanation of how the
practice of housing projects to be implemented within the framework of ethical business ethics of Islam.
Therefore, Islamic business ethics are necessary for the housing project. It is a valuable business tool, it is
important to identify and resolve the question of business conduct. In terms of research implications, the
discussion of this study can provide insight into the suitability of Islamic ethics in the practice of housing
developers. However, this study is an eye-opener for practitioners and academics on the importance of
Islamic business ethics practices among housing developer in Malaysia. It will at least provide a guideline in
promoting how housing project should look like according to Shariah.
References
Abeng,T.(1997),'BusinessEthicsinIslamicContext:PerspectivesofaMuslimBusinessLeader,'
BusinessEthicsQuarterly,7 (3),47-54.
Ahmad,SF.(1991),'TheEthicalResponsibilityofBusiness:IslamicPrinciplesandImplication,'JournalofObjecti
veStudies,3 (1),23-43.
Ali, A. J. (1992), Islamic work ethic in Arabia. Journal ofPsychology, 126(5), 507-520.
Ali, A. J., & Al-Kazemi, A. (2007). Islamic work ethic in Kuwait. Cross Cultural Management: An
International Journal, 14(2), 93-104.
Alhabshi, S.O. (2001),Social Responsibility of the Corporate Sector, Institute of Islamic
UnderstandingMalaysia, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 1-5.
Al-Quran, Tafsir Pimpinan al-Rahman. Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM), Putrajaya,
Malaysia.
Beauchamp,TL.andBowie,NE.(2004),EthicalTheory andBusiness,(7thed.),PrenticeHall,New Jersey.
Beekun,RI.(1997),IslamicBusinessEthics,TheInternationalInstituteofIslamicThought,Virginia.
BMIC 2015| page5

Beekun, RI.and Badawi, JA. (2005), 'Balancing Ethical Responsibility Among Multiple Organizational
Stakeholders: The Islamic Perspective,' Journal of Business Ethics, 60,131-145.
Fulop,G., Hisrich,RD. and Szegedi,K. (2000),'BusinessEthicsand Social
TransitionEconomies,'JournalofManagementDevelopment,19(1),5-31.
Hanafi,AA.andSallam,H.(1997),Business
Ethics:AnIslamicPerspective,
BusinessOrganisation andManagement, Kuala Lumpur.
Responsibilityin
IslamicPrinciples
of
Hartman,LP.(2005),PerspectivesinBusinessEthics,(3rded.),McGrawHill,NewYork.
Hasanuzzaman,SM.(2003),IslamandBusinessEthics,InstituteofIslamicBankingandInsurance, London.
https://ehome.kpkt.gov.my/main.php?Content=vertsections&SubVertSectionID=177&VertSectionID=116
&CurLocation=119&IID=&Page=1
http://www.hmetro.com.my/articles/Belanjawan2014_Subsidiperumahanmesrarakyatakandiperkenalkan/A
rticle/
Kamaluddin, N. and Manan, SK.(2012), The Conceptual Framework of Islamic Work Ethics (IWE),
Malaysian Accounting Review, 9(2), 57-70.
McClaren,N.(2012),'ThePersonalSellingandSalesManagement
EthicsResearch:Managerial
Implicationsand ResearchDirectionsfrom
a ComprehensiveReviewof the
Empirical
Literature,'JournalofBusinessEthics,1-25
McKnight,DH.andChervany,NL.(1996),'TheMeaningofTrust,'[Online],[RetrievedSeptember
23,2012],http://misrc.umn.edu/wpaper/WorkongPapers/9604.pdf
McMohan and Harvey (2007), The effect of Moral Intensity on Ethical Judgement, Journal of Business
Ethics, 72 (4):335-357.
Shaharuddin, A. (2005), 'Islamic Business Ethics: A Managerial Perspective,' Proceedings of The
Malaysian Finance Association 7th Annual Conference, 9-10 May 2005, Kuala Terengganu.
Trivino, L.K., & Victor, B. (1992), Peer reporting of unethical behavior: A social context perspective.
Academy of Management Journal, 35(1):38-64.
BMIC 2015| page6

The antecedents of virtual team creativity

Autcharaporn Somsing and Nassim Belbaly
Abstract
The virtual team becomes progressively essential in nowadays and it represents as one of the
important way for sustainability. Many researchers identified various challenges for virtual team
performance. Yet, little is known about the determinants of virtual team members to be creative. Drawing
from transactive memory systems (TMS), which consist of expertise location, knowledge coordination, and
trust, we suggest that these three factors have mutual relations and support for virtual team creativity. We
further suggest that goal learning orientation and task interdependence are positively support knowledge
sharing which is the main determinants for the development of TMS. The results from 477 virtual team
members, which are young managers in France, support our hypotheses. The discussion and
recommendation for future research are provided.
Keywords: Creativity, Virtual team, Transactive memory systems, Knowledge sharing
1. Introduction
Due to the greater globalization and increasing de-centralization, many organizations interest in
introducing virtual teams (VTs), where they are geographically dispersed and communicate via modern
computer-driven technologies (Hertel et al. 2005; Leenders et al. 2003; Piccoli and Ives 2003). There are the
remarkable studies focused on VTs in the past decade (Ayoko et al. 2012). Moreover, Virtual teams work
for different operations (Majchrzak et al. 2000; Maznevski and Chudoba 2000) including new product
development (Leenders et al., 2003), which require the high level of creativity in order to create new product
and/or services. Moreover, many agree that the future success of business depends on the extent to which
team is able to be creative (Florida & Goodnight, 2005; Rego et al., 2007). Creativity is important not only
for product innovation development but it is also the key determinants on sustainable development (Lozana,
2014). Having limited resources, creative ability allows individuals, teams, and organizations to perform
successfully. Hence, the comprehension on how to promote virtual team creativity, which is the new
practices of organization, could be beneficial for sustainable development. However, the practices of virtual
team have gone far beyond the literature in order to understand whether and how virtual team can stimulate
creativity. Current literature is too far to have comprehensive view of virtual team creativity (Martins et al.
2004; Thatcher and Brown 2010).
While previous studies on virtual team focused on technical aspects of software to improve
communication efficiency (Malhotra and Majchrzak 2014; Stewart and Gosain 2006); other researchers have
emphasized on the various antecedents of virtual team performance (Hoch and Kozlowski 2014; Lin et al.
2008, 2012; Malhotra and Majchrzak 2014; Turel and Zhang 2010). Many researchers agree that virtual
team performance require team cognition such as Transactive Memory System (TMS) in order to perform
task successfully (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Lewis 2004). TMS becomes critical in explaining team
performance. However, little is known whether TMS may have positive impact on virtual team creativity.
Some argue that TMS is critical in virtual team. TMS composes of expertise location, trust, and knowledge
coordination (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Lewis 2003). Having information on who knows what within
teams may facilitate the integration and coordination of knowledge as well as increase their creativity.
Trustworthiness within virtual team may allow team member to believe in knowledge acquired from other
team members and more willing to exploit and coordinate such knowledge, which may also support for
BMIC 2015| page7

creativity. Also, coordinating different ideas and knowledge and generating new association of ideas to offer
the new solutions (Harrison and Rouse 2013), are the key role of creativity. Therefore, three components of
TMS may have positive impact on virtual team creativity.
Furthermore, one of the challenge in virtual team studies is knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing
is considered as the important antecedent for virtual team performance (Suh and Shin 2010; Zakaria et al.
2004). Previous studies considered knowledge sharing in virtual team as the outcome of TMS (Chen et al.
2013; Choi et al. 2010). However, we argue that knowledge sharing may represent as the antecedent of
TMS. Probably, when team members start working together, they may be able to have information on which
team member is specialize in each field (expertise location) through the observation of knowledge sharing.
By communicating, and exchanging information within the team, virtual team members can judge whether
their team member is reliable and trustable (Kramer and Goldman 1995). Also, knowledge sharing allows
team members to acquire new knowledge and provide the new connection of knowledge, which may
increase their capability in coordinate knowledge. Therefore, these may provide new insights that
knowledge sharing may also influence on TMS.
Knowledge sharing is important in team performance and it is likely to influence on TMS;
therefore, it is beneficial for the organization that willing to exploit virtual team to understand how to
motivate and encourage virtual team members to share and exchange information, knowledge, and ideas.
Even though literature has identified several factors that can influence on traditional team creativity and
knowledge sharing, it would be unwise to assume that factors influencing face-to-face team effectiveness are
valid for virtual teams (Potter and Balthazard 2002). Therefore, we also focus on two main factors that may
motivate virtual team to exchange knowledge. The first one is team goal learning orientation( or called as
learning orientation). Having learning orientation, individuals are willing to learn and motivate for
challenging task (Alexander and Knippenberg 2014). Teams with learning orientation may facilitate
knowledge sharing. The second factor is task interdependence. Since virtual teams are difficult to control for
the work of other team members, having task that require knowledge and information from different experts
may increase the possibility to communicate and exchange knowledge in order to achieve such task.
Researchers agree that task interdependence can influence communication in team (Staples and Webster
2008). It may also enhance knowledge sharing in virtual team. Overall, as pointed out, our understanding on
virtual team creativity is still insufficient (Martins et al. 2004). We are interested to understand the roles of
main antecedents in virtual team. This paper investigates on whether TMS can influence on virtual team
creativity and whether knowledge sharing can influence on TMS. The corresponding research questions
(RQ) are:
RQ1: Does transactive memory system have an impact on virtual team creativity?
RQ2: Is knowledge sharing able to develop and influence transactive memory system?
RQ3: Does virtual team members share more knowledge when they are goal learning orientation
and having task interdependence?
In order to answer these research questions, first, we provide the background of the study regarding
virtual team creativity, TMS, knowledge sharing, learning orientation, and task interdependence. Second, we
outline our methodology including our research design, data collection, and analysis. Third, the results are
provided in term of table and figure. Finally, we discuss our research findings, the contributions to research
and practices, the limitation and future research, and followed by the conclusion.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Virtual Team Creativity

Creativity is defined as the creation of a valuable, useful new product and idea by individuals
working together in a complex social system (Woodman et al. 1993). Teams are information processing
units where they encode, store, and retrieve it (Brauner and Scholl 2000). Team can create new knowledge
and ideas from effective communication and from the knowledge of the various team members (Leenders et
al. 2003; Tiwana and Mclean 2005). Thus, interaction within the team is important for their creative
performance. While traditional team studies investigate on how face-to-face interaction can influence on
BMIC 2015| page8

team creativity (e.g., Gong et al. 2013; Jia et al. 2014; Shalley and Gilson 2004), VT studies have scare
knowledge on this relation (Martins et al. 2004). Many researchers defined virtual team as the teams that
rely their interaction and communication through technology media by crossing different boundaries
especially geography, time and organization (Bell and Kozlowski 2012; Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999).
Geographical and organizational dispersion indicates that team members are situated in different locations
and rarely meet face-to-face. Therefore, they tend to rely mainly on computermediated communications.
Communication through computer also enables the effective communication for collaboration across
different time of team members (Kayworth and Leidner 2000). Some studies also argue that virtual team is
temporary meaning that team members do not share past history and may not have the possibility to work
together in the future (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999; Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007).
Previous studies identified the various antecedents of virtual team performance (Hoch and
Kozlowski 2014; Lin et al. 2008; Turel and Zhang 2010); the relationships between virtual team and team
performance (Hoch and Kozlowsk 2014; Lin et al., 2012; Malhotra and Majchrzak 2014). Numerous
determinants have been explored such as the roles of information technology (Majchrzak et al. 2000;
Malhotra and Majchrzak 2014; Stewart and Gosain 2006); leadership (Kristof et al., 1995); conflict (Ayoko
et al. 2012; Massey et al. 2001; Suh and Shin 2010); trust (Bierly et al. 2009; Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999;
Jarvenpaa et al. 2004; Paul and McDaniel 2004; Piccoli and Ives 2003; Robert et al. 2009); culture
(Jarvenpaa et al. 1998; Massey et al. 2001); knowledge sharing (Chen et al. 2013; Zakaria et al. 2004); and
creativity (Chamakiotis et al. 2013; Leenders et al. 2003). Yet, creativity literature is too far to have
comprehensive view of virtual team (Martins et al. 2004; Thatcher and Brown 2010).
2.2. Transactive Memory System

A TMS is defined as a specialized division of cognitive labor developing within a team with respect
to the encoding, storage, and retrieval of knowledge from different domains (Wegner 1987). According to
our review on creativity literature, there is no study conceived TMS to explain team creativity neither in
traditional team nor virtual team. On the contrary, TMS has been utilized to explain team performance
(Hollingshead 2000; Liang et al. 1995; Moreland 1999; Moreland and Myaskovsky 2000) and discussed its
development within virtual context (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Lewis 2004). The development of
TMS on virtual team is debated from various researchers (Faraj and Sproull 2000; Griffith and Neale 2001;
Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Maynard et al. 2012). The recent studies found that virtual team could
build TMS (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007). Effective TMS also includes three dimensions of behavioral
expertise location, trust, and coordination of knowledge among team members (Brandon and Hollingshead
2004; Lewis 2003). Prior researchers agree that communication can lead to understanding of the expertise of
team (Maynard et al. 2012) building trust within team (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999; Jarvenpaa et al. 2004;
Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2002) and coordinating diverse knowledge and these three factors are important
to explain team performance. Expertise location refers to team members awareness of who knows what
within the team (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007); trust refers to team members beliefs about team
members knowledge and abilities to carry out the task (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2002; Lewis 2003); and
knowledge coordination refers to teams ability to effectively coordinate tasks and knowledge among team
members (Liang et al. 1995; Wegner 1987). Even though TMS has been explored from various researchers
to explain team performance for both traditional (Hollingshead 2000; Liang et al. 1995; Moreland 1999;
Moreland and Myaskovsky 2000) and virtual team (Faraj&Sproull 2000; Griffith and Neale 2001;
Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Maynard et al. 2012), there is a lack of studies on the impact of TMS on
creativity, especially, virtual team creativity.
3. Development of Hypotheses
3.1 Transactive Memory Systems on VTC

Previous creativity scholars identify that team creativity is the outcome of the interaction among
group of individuals (Gilson et al. 2005; Jia et al. 2014; Perry-Smith and Shalley 2003). However, for which
reason communication may lead to the creativity of team is still unclear. Different phenomena has been
identified as the outcome of communication such as increase shared value (Malhotra and Majchrzak, 2004),
BMIC 2015| page9

group cohesion (Lurey and Raisinghani 2001; Maznevski and Chudoba 2000), and TMS (Akgn et al. 2005;
Maynard et al. 2012). TMS within team refers to team members specialize in remembering different aspects
of expertise location, trusting each others expertise, and coordinating their knowledge more effectively
(Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Lewis 2003).
Literature claims that TMS is effective in predicting virtual team performance (Kanawattanachai
and Yoo 2007; Lewis 2004). However, there is the lack of studies regarding the relation between TMS and
team creativity or VTC. Studies on the relationship between TMS and virtual team performance
conceptualize TMS as the outcomes of three factors: Expertise location, Credibility, and Knowledge
coordination (Maynard et al. 2012; Yoo and Kanawattanachai 2001). However, the previous studies failed to
examine the relationships among these three behavioral abilities (Lewis 2004; Liang et al. 1995). The
studies have found that simply expertise location cannot ensure team performance, but it is coordination of
knowledge that is the most important to explain team performance (Faraj and Sproull 2000). Also, trust
could enhance team to utilize, integrate and coordinate knowledge which is positively support for creativity.
This paper agrees with Kanawattanachai and Yoo (2007) that not all dimensions of TMS can influence on
virtual team creativity.
Specifically, TMS could be developed and exist within virtual team because team members exploit
their own individual meta-knowledge from others knowledge in order to perform a given task
(Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007). Hence, in order to develop team members meta-knowledge, team
members should have information on where they could acquire knowledge when they need. Past research
revealed that awareness of expertise location can heighten team performance (Faraj and Sproull 2000; Henry
1995; Littlepage and Silbiger 1992). However, the greater understanding of who knows what within virtual
team allows for the higher possibility to integrate and coordinate the pool of knowledge and to create novel
solutions. The ability to identify expertise location enhances the better access diverse knowledge from
various domains which ultimately increase the ability to coordinate and integrate different sources of
knowledge and to be creative (Tiwana and Mclean 2005). Hence, we can hypothesize that:
H1: Expertise location will positively influence knowledge coordination within virtual team.
H2: Expertise location will positively influence virtual team creativity
In addition, to awareness on expertise location, team members should also have trust in others
expertise (Moreland 1999). Robert et al. (2009) claimed that trust is very important in virtual teams, where
there is computer-mediated communication and often geographically dispersed. The role of trust is still
inconsistent in the concept of TMS (Ren and Argote 2011). It has been conceived as antecedents (Akgn et
al. 2005), dimension (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007), and moderator (Rau 2005) between TMS and
performance. We posit that trust is one of the dimensions of TMS (Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007; Lewis
2003). Researchers found that team members have more willingness to share, integrate, and coordinate
knowledge from other team members when they trust one another (Sarker et al. 2005). Having trust within
team can reduce uncertainty as well as increase team productivity (Dirks and Ferrin 2001). Therefore, trust
within VT is important for team performance through acquiring and manipulating various knowledge
(Weick and Roberts 1993) and support for creativity (Barczak et al. 2010) Whitener et al. 1998). We thus
hypothesize:
H3: Trust will positively influence knowledge coordination within virtual team.
H4: Trust will positively influence virtual team creativity
Finally, TMS also compose of the ability of team to integrate and coordinate different knowledge
from their team. Studies suggest that knowledge coordination is challenging in virtual team (Cramton 2001;
Faraj and Sproull 2000; Griffith and Neale 2001; Hollingshead 1998; Qureshi and Zigurs 2001). Researchers
agree that TMS increase the ability of team to integrate knowledge and team member meta-knowledge of
others knowledge enable team to solve problem (Alavi and Tiwana 2002; Lewis et al. 2005; Rico et al.
BMIC 2015| page10

2008). Indeed, since team creativity embraces the ability to coordinate and integrate various information and
knowledge from team members (Chen 2006), coordinate numerous knowledge to the novel solutions can
have a significant positive impact on team creativity (Tiwana and Mclean 2005). Integrating different ideas
and generating new association of ideas to offer the new solutions require the ability of knowledge
coordination (Hackman 1987; Harrison and Rouse 2013). Thus, we propose that:
H5: Knowledge coordination will positively influence virtual team creativity.
3.2 Knowledge Sharing

The knowledge sharing in virtual teams plays the key roles in explaining their performance
(Griffith and Neale 2001; Malhotra and Majchrzak 2014; Pinjani and Palvia 2013). Knowledge sharing can
be defined as the provision or receipt of task-relevant ideas, information, feedback, and suggestions
(Cummings 2004). Researchers investigate on difference aspects of knowledge sharing in virtual team such
as knowledge sharing in different cultures of virtual team (Zakaria et al. 2004); the antecedents of virtual
team knowledge sharing(Chen et al. 2013; Suh and Shin 2010); and the impact of virtualization degree on
knowledge sharing (Griffith et al. 2003). Virtual team is considered as the beneficial source of knowledge
since it often includes people with different backgrounds, expertise and perspectives to work
together(Staples and Webster 2008). However, the empirical research suggests that there is still a need on
the study of knowledge sharing in virtual team (Hertel et al. 2005; Martins et al. 2004), although research
shows its significant role on team performance (Cummings 2004; Staples and Webster 2008). Similarly, in
creativity literature, knowledge sharing is considered as one of the important impediments for team
creativity (Perry-Smith and Shalley 2003; Perry-Smith 2006). To be more creative, teams are less likely to
rely on prior competencies, knowledge, and experience (Song and Montoya-Weiss 1998; Veryzer 1998).
This means that teams should share knowledge among their team members.
Numerous researchers found that TMS can enhance knowledge sharing (Chen et al. 2013; Choi et
al. 2010; Moreland and Argote 2004). These studies indicated that a team with a well-developed TMS will
share knowledge effectively. However, our paper argues that since VT are often temporary and team
members might not have been working together before. Hence, it tends to be difficult to develop TMS
before having knowledge sharing. On the opposite of previous studies, we suggest that knowledge sharing
can also enhance the development of TMS. Specifically, share knowledge will lead to inform other team
members on who knows what. Within a team, each members represents different function of tasks
(Hambrick 1994). The effectiveness of integration is determined by the teams capacity to sense required
knowledge, to know the location of knowledge, to know how to access it and to be able to integrate various
perspectives of knowledge (Robert et al. 2008). Generally, virtual team members are not likely to know each
other very well. Hence, in order to develop team awareness of who know what within the team, it is
necessary for team members to share information, idea, and knowledge. By sharing knowledge, team
members are able to identify the specific expertise and skills of their members from their interactions, so we
hypothesize that:
H6: Knowledge sharing will positively influence expertise location within virtual team.
Many researchers claim that trust increase the possibility to share knowledge (Lin 2006; Nonaka,
1991; Staples and Webster 2008). However, trust is considered as the result of individual judgment of
others past behaviors (Kramer, 1999; Wilson et al., 2006) and trust can be developed overtime (Robert et al.
2009). Trust exists when individuals perceive that their team members possess such qualities of
trustworthiness when they share knowledge with others (Nonaka 1991). This implies that trust can occur
where information has been exchanged. Commonly, virtual team members have little past history, and may
not share common cultures and these factors can limit the development of trust (Cascio , 2000). However, a
climate of trust can develop through the interaction and exchange of information among team members,
(Wilson et al., 2006). Also, the frequency of communications that encourage the sharing of task outputs can
alter the development of trust in virtual team (Jarvenpaa and Leidner 1999). Thus we propose that:
BMIC 2015| page11

H7: Knowledge sharing will positively influence trust within virtual team.
Srivastava et al. (2006) found that knowledge sharing in teams improves team performance due to
the higher team coordination. Knowledge sharing allows team mebers to acquire new knowledge from their
team members. Knowledge given by one team memberm could represent as the cue for other members to
retrieve relevant but different knowledge from own memory (Wegner et al. 1985). Knowledge sharing can
improve collective knowledge of team members (Cabrera et al. 2006; Grant 1996) because it enhances
knowledge coordination and integration which become novel insights. Numerous researchers found that the
interaction of individuals within the group allows for the sharing of knowledge, expertise, and ideas that
ultimately creates the new insights and novel combination of knowledge (Baer et al. 2010; Grawitch et al.
2003; Johnson et al. 2006). Integrating and coordination different forms of knowledge generate new
knowledge that is surpass the sum of what each of members can do on his or her own (Chen et al. 2013; Liu
and Phillips 2011). Knowledge sharing allows individuals to connect previously unconnected knowledge or
recombine previously connected ideas and finally create new knowledge (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).
Hence, we hypothesize that:
H8: Knowledge sharing will positively influence knowledge coordination within virtual team.
3.3 Team Goal Learning Orientation

Goal orientations are defined as goal preferences in achievement settings (Button et al. 1996; Payne
et al. 2007). The goal orientations, in general, are considered as cognitive frameworks for interpreting
feedback, reacting to challenges, and responding to performance outcomes (Farr et al. 1993; VandeWalle et
al. 2001). Specifically, learning orientation (GLO) refers to the dedication and interest in developing one's
competences (Dweck and Leggett 1988). Actually, individuals who are learning goal-orientated tend to
prefer challenging tasks and search for the possibilities to develop their abilities, to become skillful in their
tasks (Alexander and Knippenberg 2014; Dweck and Leggett 1988; Hirst et al. 2009). LGO could enhance
team creativity by the fact that it provokes the development of domain-relevant skills (Hirst et al. 2009).
Indeed, team LGO fosters systematic information search, exchange, and processing (De Dreu et al., 2008).
This implies that LGO is positively impact on information exchange (Gong et al. 2013). Teams with LGO
are likely to share their knowledge and skills in order to learn from others and success in team performance.
Team LGO is likely to motivate seeking information and feedback from others (Alexander and Knippenberg
2014; Gong et al. 2009; Hirst et al. 2009). In other words, LGO can motivate virtual team members to
involve in sharing and acquiring new knowledge and skills. Thus, we hypothesize that:
H9: Goal learning orientation will positively enhances knowledge sharing in virtual team.
3.4 Task Interdependence

The extent to which team members need to rely on one anothers knowledge, expertise, and skills
to accomplish task is considered as task interdependence (Jehn 1995; Staples and Webster 2008). According
to the higher complexity and novelty of tasks, there is the demand for expertise coordinationthat is, team
interactions to manage knowledge dependencies in order to perform task effectively (Faraj and Sproull
2000). Hence, it is interesting to explore the role of task interdependence within team (Edmondson 2002;
Langfred 2004). Previous studies found that task interdependence play an important role in team
performance (Goodman et al. 1987; Staples and Webster 2008; Wageman 1995). Complex task may require
information from different perspectives. The distribution of interdependent information leads team members
to be in a better position to understand the meaning of these pieces of knowledge (Mell et al. 2013). Gilson
and Shalley (2004) found that more creative teams are those who perceive that they are working on high
interdependent task. However, the roles of task interdependence and virtual team performance are still
shortage. Under high task interdependence, individuals are performing tasks where they work together, and
BMIC 2015| page12

may have discussed roles, expectations and deliverables. Task interdependence requires stronger interaction
since team members tend to rely on each other, and thus enhance knowledge sharing (Staples and Webster
2008). Specifically, working with task interdependence, team members are encouraged to communicate,
share, and exchange resources (Wageman 1995). Thus, we hypothesize that:
H10: Task interdependence will positively influence knowledge sharing within virtual team
Figure 1. Research Model
4. Methodology
The model was tested with young managers contacted through the executive education at a top ten
business school in France. These young managers between 23 to 27 years old were coming from all over
France within different regions, industries and responsibilities in their firms.
4.1 Measurement
In this paper the measure were adapted from prior research. The items were Likert-type 7- point
scales with 1 indicating total disagreement and 7 indicating complete agreement with the statements. The
Measures for virtual team creativity were operationalized as team perceive their creative ability adapted
from Rego et al. (2007). Measures for TMS were adapted from Lewis in 2003. We were taking into
consideration the roles ofthree distinct dimensions: expertise location, trust, and knowledge coordination.
Knowledge sharing were measured using items from both (Choi et al. 2010) and (Suh and Shin 2010).
Measures for learning orientation were adapted from (Bunderson and Sutcliffe 2003) and those for task
interdependence from (Van der Vegt and Janssen 2003). The development procedure followed prior
literature on scale development procedures, including conceptual definition, measure development, and
refinement through pilot-testing. The measurement items are included in Table A1 in Appendix A.
BMIC 2015| page13

4.2 Analysis and Results
In this section, we detail the pre-analysis and data validation procedures undergone to establish
construct validity and reliability of the measurement items used. After establishing these necessary preconditions, we proceed to evaluate the proposed model using structural equation modeling (SEM). All data
validation and model testing was completed using SPSS and AMOS part the IBM SPSS statistics package
20.
Sample Characteristics
The sample consisted of 477 usable responses (after filtering out incomplete responses). This
sample was 56% female, 44% male. They were young managers (Mage = 24.6, SD = 2.0) with a majority of
them holding a bachelor or master degrees. The participants have already been working in condition of
virtual team; over 35% reported to be involved on weekly basis with virtual team, and 65% reported that
they spend at least 1 hours a month in virtual team meetings.
Establishing Construct Validity
A first step in establishing factorial validity is to determine which constructs are formative and
which are reflective (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001). Previous methodologists have suggested
examining how constructs were formed and validated in other literature and modeling constructs
accordingly (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001; Petter et al. 2007). Following these guidelines, we note
that all measures adapted for this study have been previously modeled and measured as reflective, first-order
constructs (Choi et al. 2010; Suh and Shin 2010; Van der Vegt and Janssen 2003). Measures developed for
this study were likewise theorized and intended as reflective measures. We thus follow prior literature and
validate the measures using guidelines established for reflective construct measurement.
After data collection, the measures were subjected to a purification process to assess their reliability
and validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1984; Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The validity of the measures was
examined in the two-step approach recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, an exploratory
factor analysis was conducted to assess the underlying factor structure of the items that measured each
construct. The exploratory factor analysis was conducted including 25 measured items of eight variables,
using a principal component with a Promax rotation and an eigenvalue of 1 as the cutoff point. The Kaiser
MeyerOlkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.880, and the Bartlett test of sphericity was significant at
p <.001 ( (231) = 5043,96), indicating the suitability of this data for factor analytic procedures. A single
factor was extracted for each multiple-item scale in this analysis. The items, and their factor loadings after
exploratory factor analysis, eigenvalue, and percentage of variance explained, appear in Table 1.
BMIC 2015| page14

Table 1: Discriminant Validity of Construct Measures Factor Rotation
Constructs
Creativity (F1)
Knowledge Coordination (F2)
Task Interdependance (F3)
Goal Learning Orientation (F4)
Knowledge Sharing (F5)
Trust (F6)
Items
F1
F2
F3
Cre1
Cre2
,814
,051
,017
,895
-,013
,027
Cre3
,869
-,010
-,049
Cre
,885
-,012
-,019
TMSb1
,010
,911
,008
TMSb2
-,046
,887
,002
TMSb3
,048
,821
-,002
TID1
-,073
,018
,813
TID2
-,005
-,003
TID3
,047
GO1
,076
GO2
GO3
F4
F5
F6
F7
,014
,013
-,077
,073
-,006
-,003
-,023
-,021
-,029
,030
,012
-,046
,003
-,060
,014
,021
-,015
,028
-,050
-,013
,064
,008
-,015
-,058
-,044
-,020
,104
,076
-,036
,133
-,089
,030
,838
,077
-,040
,039
-,046
-,006
,888
-,035
-,084
,037
,035
,047
,060
,857
-,079
-,064
-,035
-,104
-,013
-,103
,902
,061
-,031
,093
,025
-,027
,062
,804
-,003
,080
-,062
KS1
-,069
,029
-,107
,010
,907
-,031
,078
KS2
,016
,007
,029
,003
,906
-,032
-,066
-,021
KS3
,074
-,030
,144
-,044
,738
,058
TMSc1
-,027
,031
-,015
-,054
-,085
,953
,031
TMSc2
-,082
,010
,024
-,003
,011
,919
-,012
TMSc3
,202
-,037
-,048
,107
,162
,580
-,021
TMSa1
,083
-,003
-,025
,064
,076
-,038
,734
TMSa2
-,022
,029
-,047
-,053
-,049
,003
,896
TMSa3
-,022
-,040
,117
,024
-,002
,051
,786
Eigenvalue
7,248
2,301
1,697
1,408
1,319
1,226
1,088
Percentage of variance explained
32,947
10,460
7,715
6,399
5,994
5,571
4,943
Expertise Location (F7)
The next step in the pre-analysis was to establish factorial validity and the reliability of the
measures used. Since most constructs and many relationships hypothesized in the model are derived from
prior literature, we chose to use confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to validate the measurement model.
CFA is appropriate in situations where strong theory suggests known relationships among the indicators and
their intended factors (Brown 2006), as in our case. Upon fitting the proposed measurement structure of the
model, measurement items that loaded poorly onto their respective factors and reduced reliability were
dropped. The refined model exhibited acceptable fit to the data (Chi-sq = 362,98, dfModel= 188, p = 0.00,
Chi-sq/df= 1,981, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.044). Satisfied that the model was a good fit to the
data, we could then calculate correlations, reliabilities, and AVEs to further aid in establishing factorial
validity. These metrics are summarized in Table 2.
In order to demonstrate factorial validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) for a construct
should be > 0.5 (convergent validity) (Hair et al. 2010). In addition, discriminant validity is demonstrated
when the square root of a constructs AVE is higher than the correlation between that construct and all other
constructs in the model (Hair et al. 2010). As shown in Table 2, the constructs in the model meet all of these
criteria. To establish reliability, the composite reliability value should be 0.7 (Fornell and Larcker 1981;
Nunnally and Bernstein 1994). The computed reliability values shown in Table 1 indicate sufficient
reliabilities.
Table 2. Construct correlations, reliabilities, and AVE for the structural model
Constructs
C
1
F
2
0
,646
0
, 803
,879
,854
0
,663
0
,100*
0
,814
Creativity (F1)
Knowledge
coordination (F2)
F
3
F
4
BMIC 2015| page15
F
5
F
6
F
7

Task
interdependence (F3)
Goal
orientation (F4)
0
,586
0
,375**
0
,014
0
,765
,808
0
,590
0
,472**
0
,128**
0
,293**
0
,768
,812
0
,614
0
,509**
0
,170**
0
,420**
0
,399**
0
,783
,826
0
,592
0
,475**
0
,045
0
,325**
0
,417**
0
,453**
0
,769
,813
, 772
0
,532
0
,431**
0
,102*
0
,344**
0
,310**
0
,441**
0
,356**
0
,729
learning
Knowledge
sharing (F5)
Trust (F6)
Expertise location
(F7)
CR: Compostite Reliability AVE: Average Variance Extracted

**
*
p<0.01two tailed
p<0.05 two tailed
The diagonal shows the square root of AVEs

Evaluating Common-Methods Bias
Because all survey items were measured using the same method (an online survey), the possibility
exists that some of the shared variance among the constructs is due to the common method rather than the
underlying relationships among the constructs. Though precautions were implemented to reduce this
likelihood (e.g., randomizing the order of survey items) (Straub et al. 2004), it is necessary to test for
common-methods bias in the measurement model. We first note that no correlations shown in Tables 2 and
3 are above 0.90. Correlations above this threshold may indicate a common-methods bias (Pavlou et al.
2007). A more stringent approach to testing common-methods bias is the common latent factor method
(Podsakoff et al. 2003), wherein the influence of a common latent method factor on each individual
indicator is modeled, noting any large changes to the loading of each indicator on its corresponding
construct. If large changes (i.e., > 0.2) are observed, the method factor is retained in the structural model
in order to remove the methods influence from the estimated parameters in the structural model (Podsakoff
et al. 2003). Upon adding the common method factor to the measurement model, no changes in standardized
item loadings larger than 0.05 in magnitude were observed. We thus conclude that the common method used
for measurement did not significantly impact our results.
Having established the validity and reliability of the constructs measured, we now proceed to
describe the SEM analysis of the full model.
Model Testing Results
We tested the theoretical model shown in Figure 2 using SEM. Fitting the structural model to the
data produced generally acceptable indications of fit (Chi-sq = 540.52, dfModel= 262, p = 0.00, Chi-sq/df=
2.06, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.047) (Hair et al. 2010). Hypothesized relationships shown in the
theoretical model in Figure 1 were tested in conjunction with the SEM analysis. The tested hypotheses,
along with their corresponding path estimates and significance levels, are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Hypothesis Testing Results
Hypothesis
Path Est.
Support?
H1. Expertise location
Knowledge coordination
0.144
Yes
H2. Expertise location
Creativity
0.258
Yes
0.280
Yes
H3. Trust
BMIC 2015| page16

H4. Trust
Creativity
0.310
Yes
Creativity
0.188
Yes
H6. Knowledge sharing
Expertise location
0.468
Yes
Trust
0.495
Yes
0.296
Yes
H9. Goal learning orientation
Knowledge sharing
0.285
Yes
H10. Task interdependence
Knowledge sharing
0.356
Yes
H5. Knowledge coordination
5. Discussion
Our model explains the relations of TMS and virtual team creativity together with considering other
determinants: knowledge sharing, team learning orientation, and task interdependence. As several factors of
this model have been formerly explored, the key contributions of this research are our focus on TMS within
virtual team creativity and consider the roles of knowledge sharing as the antecedent of TMS rather than the
outcomes a previously tested (e.g., Chen et al. 2013; Choi et al. 2010). As such, the finding of this paper
provides the important and novel insights for virtual team operation. This section includes an overview of
the model testing results, implication for theory and practices, and finally the limitation and future research.
The roles of TMS on virtual team creativity were found to be important in our model. Precisely, the
three dimensions of TMS proposed by Lewis (2003): expertise location, trust, and knowledge coordination
influenced on virtual team creativity (H3, H4, H5). Moreover, the awareness of expertise location is
positively impact on the ability to coordinate diverse knowledge from team members (H1). We also found
that trust has a positive impact on the ability to coordinate knowledge (H2), which confirms the finding of
Kanawattanachai and Yoo (2007).
In addition, the model includes other key factors. Knowledge sharing is the antecedent of expertise
location, trust, and knowledge coordination (H6, H7, H8). This provides the novel support that knowledge
sharing could be also the antecedents of TMS rather than the outcomes. Finally, team LGO and ask
interdependence had significant and positive influence on knowledge sharing (H9, H10). Figure 2 and Table
2 provided a tested model and a summary of hypothesis results, respectively.
BMIC 2015| page17

5.1 Implication for Research
Our research contributes to the virtual team literature by providing theoretical explanation for the
effects of virtual team creativity. Drawing from previous literature in both traditional and virtual team
creativity, we proposed that team learning orientation and task interdependence would increase the
knowledge sharing within virtual team and the findings support these hypothesizes. The outcomes indicate
that these two factors encourage team members to exchange information and knowledge as in traditional
team.
While previous researchers investigated the roles of knowledge sharing as the outcome of TMS, or
as the antecedent of trust which is one of the dimension of TMS, our model proposed differently by
suggesting knowledge sharing as the antecedent of TMS (expertise location, trust, and knowledge
coordination). Precisely, we argued that since virtual team has little knowledge on other team members
history, it is needed for them to start working together by exchanging information, knowledge, and ideas
before knowing other expertise location; developing trust within team, and coordinate various knowledge.
Also, whether TMS could be developed in virtual team is still debate and few researchers found the positive
results. The results reveal that knowledge sharing is the antecedent of TMS within virtual team and confirm
that TMS could be developed within virtual team. Moreover, we also provide the relationships between
expertise location, trust, and knowledge coordination. Expertise location which refers to the awareness of
know who knows what is significant for knowledge coordination. The knowledge of where team members
could find the necessary information is important for the capability to integrate and coordinate knowledge.
We also found the significant of the impact of trust on knowledge coordination as previous research
(Kanawattanachai and Yoo 2007). These outcomes confirm the relations of the three factors of TMS.
In addition, the other key contribution of this paper is to explain virtual team creativity via TMS.
Neither tradition nor virtual team creativity literature has considered TMS as the outcome of individuals
interactions. Our paper provides the novel and new insights on virtual team creativity literature and extends
the understanding of TMS. The results reveal that TMS is a significant and positive impact on virtual team
creativity. Specifically, expertise location, trust, and knowledge coordination increase virtual team
creativity. Overall, our model testing results indicate that virtual team creativity could be explained through
TMS and other key influencing factors such as knowledge sharing, LOG, and task interdependence is play
critical roles in virtual team setting. However, there remains much to learn on what motivate team members
to engage in virtual team as well as to be creative. Further work can build on this specific concept for further
insights in virtual team literature.
5.2 Implication for Practice

This research provides practical implication for virtual team members as well as organization that
need to work with virtual team that requires creativity in their works. First, creativity can be encouraged
within virtual team even if they need to interact through computer. Some organizations may afraid of
adopting virtual work since it might impact on the performance. Our paper indicates that virtual team could
be creative and the antecedents to support their work is similar to traditional team such as providing task that
need interactions as well as select the people that are willing to learn. It is important for the organization to
choose the right person and provide the interdependence task in order to motivate their communication and
knowledge sharing.
Second, knowledge sharing can enhance TMS (trust, expertise location, and knowledge
coordination). This suggests that even though encouraging team members to share knowledge and
communicate frequently is important for virtual team performance as well as creativity. The frequency of
communication and knowledge sharing may be influenced by other factors such as the characteristics of
information technology or the capability to use computer and understanding the software of team members
(Bell and Kozlowski 2002; Griffith et al. 2003,). Hence, it is important for an organization to consider
different factors to encourage team members to communicate and share knowledge.
Third, our model suggested that trust expertise location, and knowledge coordination are important
for virtual team to be creative. Generally, virtual team members are not likely to know each other before or
have little occasion to meet face-face. Researchers agree that virtual team members that have known each
other before working through computer has a positive impact on building trust and awareness of other
BMIC 2015| page18

expertise (Hertel et al. 2005). Therefore, the organization that would adopt virtual team for their project or
task should allow team members to know each other face-to-face before starting to work.
5.3 Limitations and Future Research

As any research endeavor, also our research has some limitations. As pointed out, our samples are
various in term of their virtual team participation, which may create the different perceptions from one to
another. Nonetheless, they are adequate target samples for our study. Our model views TMS as the
compositions of three distinct factors; expertise location, trust, and knowledge coordination following the
suggestion of Lewis (2003) rather than one variable. Also, since the roles of virtual team creativity is still
new for literature, it would be more fruitful to test other key variables such as the roles of information
technology, the impact of experiences on virtual team, the roles of organizational culture, or the influence of
absorptive capacity. However, these limitations provide the fruitful directions for future research to explore.
Conclusion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the positive effect of transactive
memory system (TMS) on virtual team creativity. Our paper highlights on the antecedents of virtual team
creativity by integrating key factors from both traditional and virtual team literature. Our findings provide a
valuable contribution to TMS literature, virtual team literature as well as creativity literature. Our theory
also has an important implication for virtual team members and organization that adopt virtual team for their
work. Virtual team is desirable in many organizations for sustainability as well as convenience since it
reduces cost of travelling that could produces pollutions and damage environment and safe time whereas
some argued that it could be an obstacle for creativity. Our paper identified factors that influence on virtual
team creativity and propose that virtual teams are appropriate for sustainability and they can be creative to
generate new ideas for sustainable development.
Appendix A : Measurement Items
Table A1. Measurement Item Detail
Construct
Code
Items
Composite
Reliability
Creativity
Cre1
My team members come up with new and practical ideas to

improve performance.
0.879
Cre2
My team members have new and innovative ideas.
Cre3
My team members promote and champion ideas to others.
Cre4
My team members exhibit creativity when given the opportunity

to
TMSa1
Each team member has specialized knowledge of some aspects of

our project.
TMSa2
I have knowledge about an aspect of the project that no other

team member has.
TMSa3
Different team members are responsible for expertise in different

areas.
TMSc1
Our team had very few misunderstandings about what to do.
TMSc2
Our team did not need to backtrack and start over a lot.
TMSc3
We accomplished the task smoothly and efficiently.
KS1
Our team members provide their manuals and methodologies for
(Rego et al. 2007)
Expertise Location
(Lewis 2003)
Knowledge
coordination
0.772
0.854
(Lewis 2003)
Knowledge Sharing
BMIC 2015| page19
0.826

(Choi et al. 2010;
Suh and Shin 2010)
other team members.

KS2
Our team members share their experience or know-how from

work with other team members.
KS3
The knowledge shared by team members is helpful to complete

my tasks.
Goal learning
orientation
GO1
My team likes challenging and difficult assignments that teach

new things.
(Bundersonand
Sutcliffe 2003)
GO2
My team likes to work on things that require a lot of skill and

ability.
GO3
My team sees learning and developing skills as very important.
TID1
I need information and advice from my colleagues to perform my

job well.
TID2
It is necessary for me to coordinate or cooperate with team

members.
TID3
I need to collaborate with my colleagues to perform my job well.
TMSb1
I was comfortable accepting procedural suggestions from other

team members.
TMSb2
I trusted that other members knowledge about the project was

credible.
TMSb3
I was confident relying on the information that other team

members brought to the discussion.
Task
interdependence
(Van der Vegt and
Janssen
2003)
Trust
(Lewis 2003)
0.812
0.808
0.813
References
Akgn, A. E., Byrne, J., Keskin, H., Lynn, G. S., and Imamoglu, S. Z. 2005. Knowledge Networks in New
Product Development Projects: A Transactive Memory Perspective, Information & Management
(42:8), pp. 11051120.
Alavi, M., and Tiwana, A. 2002. Knowledge Integration in Virtual Teams: The Potential Role of KMS,
Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (53:12), pp. 1029-1037.
Alexander, L., and Knippenberg, D. V. A. N. 2014. Team in Pursuit of Radical Innovation: A Goal
Orientation Perspective, Academy of Management Review (39:4), pp. 423438.
Anderson, J. C., and D.W. Gerbing. 1988. Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: Areviewand
Recommended Two-Step Approach, Psychological Bulletin (103:3), pp. 41123.
Ayoko, O. B., Konrad, A. M., and Boyle, M. V. 2012. Online work: Managing conflict and Emotions for
Performance in Virtual Teams, European Management Journal (30:2), pp. 156174
Baer, M., Leenders, R. T. A. J., Oldham, G. R., and Vadera, A. K. 2010. Win or Lose the Battle for
Creativity: The Power and Perils of Intergroup Competition, Academy of Management Journal
(53:4), pp. 827845.
Barczak, G., Lassk, F., and Mulki, J. 2010. Antecedents ofTeam Creativity: An Examination of Team
Emotional Intelligence, TeamTrust and Collaborative Culture, Creativity and Innovation
Management (19:4), pp. 332345.
Bell, B. S., and Kozlowski, S. W. J. 2012. Three Conceptual Themes for Future Research on Teams,
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (5), pp. 4548 (doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2011.01403.x).
BMIC 2015| page20

Bierly, P. E., Stark, E. M., and Kessler, E. H. 2009. The Moderating Effects of Virtuality on the
Antecedents and Outcome of NPD Team Trust, Journal of Product Innovation Management (26),
pp. 551565.
Brandon, D. P., and Hollingshead, A. B. 2004. Transactive Memory Systems in Organizations: Matching
Tasks, Expertise, and People, Organization Science (15:6), pp. 633644.
Brauner, E. and Scholl, W. 2000. The Information Processing Approach as a Perspective for Group
Research, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations (3), pp. 11522.
Brown, T.A. 2006. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford Press.
Bunderson, J. S., and Sutcliffe, K. M. 2003. Management Team Learning Orientation and Business Unit
Performance., Journal of Applied Psychology (88:3), pp. 552560
Button, S. B., Mathieu, J. E., and Zajac, D. M. 1996. Goal Orientation in Organizational Research: A
Conceptual and Empirical Foundation, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(67:1), pp. 2648
Cabrera, A., Collins, W., and Salgado, J. (2006). Determinants of Individual Engagement in Knowledge
Sharing, International Journal of Human Resource Management (17:2), pp. 245264.
Cascio, W. 2000. Managing a virtual workplace, Academy of Management Executive (14:3), pp. 8190.
Chamakiotis, P., Dekoninck, E. a., and Panteli, N. 2013. Factors influencing Creativity in Virtual Design
Teams: An Interplay BetweenTechnology, Teams andIndividuals, Creativity and Innovation
Management (22:3), pp. 265279.
Chen, M.-H. 2006. Understanding the Benefits and Detriments of Conflict on Team Creativity Process,
Creativity and Innovation Management (15:1), pp. 105116 (doi: 10.1111/j.14678691.2006.00373.x).
Chen, X., Li, X., Clark, J. G., and Dietrich, G. B. 2013. Knowledge Sharing in Open Source Software
Project Teams: ATransactive Memory System Perspective, International Journal of Information
Management (33:3), Elsevier Ltd, pp. 553563.
Choi, S. Y., Lee, H., and Yoo, Y. 2010. The Impact ofInformation Technology and Transactive Memory
Systems on Knowledge Sharing, Application, and Team Performance: A Field Study, MIS
Quarterly (34:4), pp. 855870.
Cramton, C. D. 2001. The Mutual Knowledge Problem and its Consequences for Dispersed Collaboration,
Organization Science (12:3), pp. 346-371.
Cummings, J. 2004. Workgroups, Structural Diversity, and Knowledge Sharing in a Global Organization,
Management Science (50:3), pp. 352364.
De Dreu, C. K., Nijstad, B. A., and van Knippenberg, D. 2008. Motivated Information Processing in Group
Judgment and Decision Making, Personality and Social Psychology Review (12:1), pp. 2249.
Diamantopoulos, A., and Winklhofer, H.M. 2001. "Index Construction with Formative Indicators: An
Alternative to Scale Development," Journal of Marketing Research (38:2), pp. 269-277.
Dirks, K. T., and Ferrin, D. L. 2001. The Role of Trust in Organizational Settings, Organization Science
(12:4), pp. 450467.
Dweck, C. S., and Leggett, E. L. 1988. A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation andPersonality,
Psychological Review (95:2), pp. 256273.
Edmondson, A. C. 2002. The Local and Variegated Nature of Learning in Organizations: A Group-Level
Perspective, Organization Science (13:2), pp. 128146 (doi: 10.1287/orsc.13.2.128.530).
Faraj, S., and Sproull, L. 2000. Coordinating Expertie in Software Development Teams, Management
Science (46:2), pp. 1554-1568.
BMIC 2015| page21

Farr, J. L., Hofmann, D. A., and Ringenbach, K. L. 1993. Goal Orientation and Action Control Theory:
Implications for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, in International review of industrial
and organizational psychology , C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), New York: Wiley, pp. 193
232.
Florida, R. and Goodnight, J. 2005. Managing for Creativity, Harvard Business Review (83:7/8), pp. 124
31.
Fornell C, Larcker DF. 1981. Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and
Measurement Error, Journal of Marketing Research (18:1), pp. 3950.
Gilson, L. L., Mathieu, J. E., Shalley, C. E., and Ruddy, T. M. 2005. Creativity andStandardization:
Complementary or ConflictingDrivers of Team Effectiveness?, Academy of Management Journal
(48:3), pp. 521531.
Gong, Y., Kim, T., Lee, D., and Zhu, J. 2013. A Multilevel Model of Team Goal Orientation, Information
Exchange, and Creativity, Academy of Management Journal (56:3), pp. 827851.
Grant, R. M. 1996. Toward a Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm, Strategic Man- agement Journal
(17), pp. 109122.
Grawitch, M. J., Munz, D. C., Elliott, E. K., and Mathis, A. 2003. Promoting Creativity in Temporary
Problem- Solving Groups: The Effects of Positive Mood and Autonomy in Problem Definition on
Idea-Generating Performance, Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, (7:3); pp. 200
213.
Griffith, T. L., and Neale, M. a. 2001. Information Processing in Traditional,Hybrid, and Virtual Teams:
From Nascent knowledge to Transactive Memory, Research in Organizational Behavior (23), pp.
379421.
Griffith, T. L., Sawyer, J. E., and Neale, M. A. 2003. Virtualness and Knowledge in Teams: Managing the
Love Triangle of Organizations, Individual, andInformation Technology, MIS Quarterly (27:2),
pp. 265287.
Hackman, J. R. 1987. The Design of Work Teams, in Handbook of Organizational Behavior J. W. Lorsch
(Ed.), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 315342.
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., and Anderson, R. 2010. Multivariate Data Analysis. Upper Saddle River,
NJ:Prentice-Hall.
Hambrick, D. C. 1994. What if the Academy Actually Mattered?, Academy of Management Review (19:1),
pp. 11-16.
Harrison, S. H., and Rouse, E. D. 2013. Lets Dance! Elastic Coordination in Creative Group Work: A
Qualitative Study of Modern Dancers, Academy of Management Journal (57:5), pp. 12561283.
Henry, R. A. 1995. Improving Group Judgment Accuracy: Information Sharing and Determining the Best
Member, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (62:2), pp. 190-197.
Hertel, G., Geister, S., and Konradt, U. 2005. Managing Virtual Teams: A Review of Current Empirical
Research, Human Resource Management Review (15:1), pp. 6995.
Hirst, G., Van Knippenberg, D., and Zhou, J. 2009. A Cross-Level Perspective on Employee Creativity:
Goal Orientation, Team Learning Behavior, and Individual Creativity, Academy of Management
Journal (52:2), pp. 280293.
Hoch, J. E., and Kozlowski, S. W. J. 2014. Leading Virtual Teams: Hierarchical Leadership , Structural
Supports , and Shared Team Leadership, Journal of Applied Psychology (99:3), pp. 390403.
Hollingshead, A. B. 1998. Retrieval Processes in Transactive Memory Systems, Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology (74:3), pp. 659671.
Hollingshead, A. B. 2000. Perceptions of Expertise and Transactive Memory in Work Relationships,
Group Processes and Intergroup Relations (3:3), pp. 257-267.
BMIC 2015| page22

Jarvenpaa, S. L., and Leidner, D. E. 1999. Communication andTrust in Global Virtual Teams,
Organization Science (10:6), pp. 791815.
Jarvenpaa, S. L., Knoll, K., and Leidner, D. E. 1998. Is anybody Out There? Antecedents of Trust in Global
Virtual Teams, Journal of Management Information Systems (14:4), pp. 29-64.
Jarvenpaa, S. L., Shaw, T. R., and Staples, D. S. 2004. Toward Contextualized Theories of Trust: The Role
of Trust in Global Virtual Teams, Information Systems Research (15:3), pp. 250267.
Jia, L., Shaw, J. D., Tsui, A. S., and Park, T. 2014. A social-structural perspective on employeeorganization relationships and team creativity, Academy of Management Journal (57:3), pp. 869
891.
Jehn, K.A. 1995. A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict,
Administrative Science Quarterly (40:2),pp. 256282.
Johnson, M. D., Hollenbeck, J. R., Ilgen, D. R., Humphrey, S. E., Meyer, C. J., and Jundt, D. K. 2006.
Cutthroat Cooperation: Asymmetrical Adaptation of Team Reward Structures, Academy of
Management Journal (49:1), pp. 103120.
Kanawattanachai, P., and Yoo, Y. 2002. Dynamic Nature of Trust in Virtual Teams, Journal of Strategic
Information Systems (11:3-4), pp. 187-213.
Kanawattanachai, P., and Yoo, Y. 2007. The Impact of KnowledgeCoordination on Virtual Team
Performance Over Time, MIS Quarterly (31:4), pp. 783808.
Kayworth, T. R., and Leidner, D. E. 2000. Leadership Effectiveness in Global Virtual Teams, Journal of
Management Information Systems (18:3), pp. 7-40.
Kim, G.S., Park, S.-B., and Oh, J. 2008. "An Examination of Factors Influencing Consumer Adoption of
Short Message Service (Sms)," Psychology & Marketing (25:8), pp. 769-786.
Kramer, R.M. 1999. Trust and Distrust in Organizations: Emerging Perspectives, Enduring Questions,
Annual Review Psychology (50:1), pp. 569598.
Kramer, R.M., and Goldman, L. 1995. Helping the Group or Helping Yourself? Social Motives and Group
Identity in Resource Dilemmas, in Social Dilemmas, D.A. Schroeder (ed.), Westport, CT: Praeger,
pp. 4967.
Kristof, A. L., K. G. Brown, H. P. Sims, Jr., K. A. Smith. 1995. The Virtual Team: A Case Study and
Inductive Model. in Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams: Knowledge Work in
Teams, M. M. Beyerlein, D. A. Johnson, S. T. Beyerlein (eds), JAI Press, pp. 229-253.
Langfred, C. W. 2004. Too Much of a Good Thing? Negative Effects of High Trust and Individual
Autonomy in Self-Managing Teams., Academy of Management Journal (47:3), pp. 385399.
Leenders, R. T. A. ., van Engelen, J. M. ., and Kratzer, J. 2003. Virtuality, Communication, andNew
Product TeamCreativity: A Social Network Perspective, Journal of Engineering and Technology
Management (20:1-2), pp. 6992.
Lewis, K. 2003. Measuring Transactive Memory Systems in the Field: Scale Development and Validation,
Journal of Applied Psychology (88:4), pp. 587604.
Lewis, K. 2004. Knowledge and Performance in Knowledge-Worker Teams: A Longitudinal Study of
Transactive Memory Systems, Management Science (50:11), pp. 15191533.
Lewis, K., Lange, D., and Gillis, L. 2005. Transactive Memory Systems, Learning, and Learning Transfer,
Organization Science (16:6), pp. 581-598.
Liang, D. W.. Moreiand, R., and Argote, L. 1995. "Group versus Individual Training and Group Performance: The Mediating Role of Transactive Memory," Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin (21:4), pp, 384-393.
Lin, C., Standing, C., and Liu, Y.-C. 2008. A Model to Develop Effective Virtual Teams, Decision
Support Systems (45:4), pp. 10311045.
BMIC 2015| page23

Lin, C.-P. 2006. To Share or Not to Share: Modeling Tacit Knowledge Sharing, Its Mediators and
Antecedents, Journal of Business Ethics (70:4), pp. 411428.
Lin, T.-C., Hsu, J. S.-C., Cheng, K.-T., and Wu, S. 2012. Understanding the Role of Behavioural
Integration in ISD Teams:An Extension ofTransactive Memory Systems Concept, Information
Systems Journal (22:3), pp. 211234.
Littlepage,. G., and Silbiger, H. 1992. Recognition of Expertise in Decision-Making Groups: Effects of
Group Size and Parti- cipation Patterns, Small Group Research (23:3), pp. 344-355
Liu, Y., and Phillips, J. S. 2011. Examining the Antecedents of Knowledge Sharing in Facilitating Team
Innovativeness from a Multilevel Perspective, International Journal of Information Management
(31:1), pp. 4452.
Lozano, R. (2014). Creativity and organizational learning as means to foster sustainability. Sustainable
Development, (22:3),pp. 205216.
Lurey, J.S. and Raisinghani, M.S. 2001. An Empirical Study of Best Practices in Virtual Teams,
Information and Management (38), pp. 523-44.
Malhotra, A., and Majchrzak, A. 2014. Enhancing Performance of Geographically DistributedTeams
ThroughTargeted Use of Information and Communication Ttechnologies, Human Relations
(67:4), pp. 389411.
Majchrzak, A., Rice, R. E., Malhotra, A., King, N., and Ba, S. L. 2000. Technology Adaptation: The Case
of a Computer-Supported Inter-Organizational Virtual Team, MIS Quarterly (24:4), pp. 569-600.
Martins, L. L., Gilson, L. L., and Maynard, M. T. 2004. Virtual Teams: What Do We Know and Where Do
We Go From Here?, Journal of Management (30:6), pp. 805835.
Massey, A. P., Montoya-Weiss, M., Hung, C., and Ramesh, V. 2001. Cultural Perceptions of Task
Technology Fit, Communications of the ACM (44:12), pp. 83-84.
Maynard, M. T., Mathieu, J. E., Rapp, T. L., and Gilson, L. L. 2012. Something ( s )Old and Something ( s
) New: Modeling Drivers of Global Virtual Team Effectiveness, Journal of Organizational
Behavior (365:November 2011), pp. 342365.
Maznevski, M. L., and Chudoba, K. M. 2000. Bridging Space over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics
and Effectiveness, Organization Science (11:5), pp. 473-492.
Mell, J. N., van Knippenberg, D., and van Ginkel, W. P. 2013. The Catalyst Effect: The Impact of
Transactive Memory System Structure on Team Performance, Academy of Management Journal
(57:4), pp. 11541173.
Moreland, R.L., 1999. Transactive Memory: Learning Who Knows What in Work Groups and
Organizations, In Shared Cognition in Organizations: The Management of Knowledge.
Thompson, L.L., Levine, J.M., Messick, D.M. (Eds.), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 331
Moreland, R. L., and Argote, L. 2004. Transactive Memory in Dynamic Organizations, in Understanding
the Dynamic Organization, R. Peterson and E. Mannix (eds.), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associatges, pp. 135-162.
Moreland, R. L., and Myaskovsky, L. 2000. Exploring the Performance Benefits of Group Training:
Transactive Memory or Improved Communication?, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes (82:1), , pp. 117-133.
Nonaka, I. 1991, The knowledge-Creating Firm, Harvard Business Review (69:6), pp. 96104
Nunnally, J.C., and Bernstein, I.H. 1994. Psychometric Theory. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.
Paul, D. L., and Jr. McDaniel, R. R. 2004. A Field Study of the Effect of International Trust on Virtual
Collaborative Relationship Performance, MIS Quarterly (28:2), pp. 183227.
Pavlou, P., Liang, H., and Xue, Y. 2007. "Understanding and Mitigating Uncertainty in Online Exchange
Relationships: A Principal-Agent Perspective," MIS Quarterly (31:1), pp. 105-136.
BMIC 2015| page24

Payne, S. C., Youngcourt, S. S., and Beaubien, J. M. 2007. A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Goal
Orientation Nomological Net, Journal of Applied Psychology (92:1), pp. 128-150.
Perry-Smith, J. E. 2006. Social yet Creative: The Role of Social Relationships in Facilitating Individual
Creativity, Academy of Management Journal (49:1), pp. 85101.
Perry-Smith, J. E., and Shalley, C. E. 2003. The Social Side of Creativity: A Static and Dynamic Social
Network Perspective, Academy of Management Review (28:1), pp. 89106.
Petter, S., Straub, D.W., and Rai, A. 2007. "Specifying Formative Constructs in Information Systems
Research," MIS Quarterly (31:4), pp. 623-656.
Piccoli, B. G., and Ives, B. 2003. Trust and the Unintended Effects of Behavior Control in Virtual Team,
MIS Quarterly (27:3), pp. 365396.
Pinjani, P., and Palvia, P. 2013. Trust and Knowledge Sharing in Diverse Global Virtual Teams,
Information & Management (50:4), pp. 144153.
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y., and Podsakoff, N.P. 2003. "Common Method Biases in
Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies," Journal of
AppliedPsychology (88:5), pp. 879-903.
Potter, R. E., and Balthazard, P. A. 2002. Understanding Human Interaction and Performance in the
Virtual Team, Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application (4:1),pp. 123.
Rau, D. 2005. The Influence of Relationship Conflict and Trust on the Transactive Memory: Performance
Relation in Top Management Teams, Small Group Research (36:6), pp. 746771.
Rego, A., Sousa, F., Pina e Cunha, M., Correia, A. and Saur-Amaral, I. 2007. Leader Self-Reported
Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Employee Creativity: An Exploratory Study, Creativity and
Innovation Management (16:3), pp. 250264.
Ren, Y., and Argote, L. 2011. Transactive Memory Systems 19852010: An Integrative Framework of Key
Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences, The Academy of Management Annals (5:1), pp.
189229.
Rico, R., Snchez-Manzanares, M., Gil, F., and Gibson, C. 2008. Team Implicit Coordination Processes: A
Team Knowledge-Based Approach, The Academy of Management Review (33:1), pp. 163-184.
Robert, J.L.P., Dennis, A.R. & Ahuja, M.K. 2008. Social Capital and Knowledge Integration in Digitally
Enabled Teams, Information Systems Research (19:3), pp. 314334.
Robert, L. P., Denis, A. R., and Hung, Y.-T. C. 2009. Individual Swift Trust and Knowledge-Based Trust
in Face-to-Face and Virtual Team Members, Journal of Management Information Systems (26:2),
pp. 241279.
Sarker, S., Sarker, S., Nicholson, D. B., and Joshi, K. D. 2005. KnowledgeTransfer in Virtual Systems
Development Teams: An Exploratory Study of Four Key Enablers, IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication (48:2), pp. 201218.
Shalley, C. E., and Gilson, L. L. 2004. WhatLeaders Need to Know: A Review of Social and Contextual
Factors that can Foster or Hinder Creativity, The Leadership Quarterly (15:1), pp. 3353.
Song, X. M., and Montoya-Weiss, M. M. 1998. Critical Development Activities for Really New versus
Incremental Products. Journal of Product Innovation Management (15:2), pp. 124135.
Srivastava, A., Bartol, K. M., and Locke, E. a. 2006. Empowering Leadership in Management Teams:
Effects on Knowledge Sharing, Efficacy, and Performance., Academy of Management Journal
(49:6), pp. 12391251
Staples, D. S., and Webster, J. 2008. Exploring the Effects of Trust, Task Interdependence and Virtualness
onKnowledgeSharing inTeams, Information Systems Journal (18:6), pp. 617640.
Stewart, K. J., and Gosain, S. 2006. The Impact of Ideology on Effectiveness in Open Source Software
Development Teams, MIS Quarterly (30:2), pp. 291314.
BMIC 2015| page25

Suh, A., and Shin, K. -s. 2010. Exploring the Effects of Online SZocial Ties on Knowledge Sharing: A
Comparative Analysis of Collocated vs Dispersed Teams, Journal of Information Science (36:4),
pp. 443463.
Thatcher, S. M. B., and Brown, S. a. 2010. Individual Creativity in Teams: The Importance of
Communication Media Mix, Decision Support Systems (49:3), pp. 290300.
Tiwana, A., and Mclean, E. R. 2005. Expertise Integration and Creativity in Information Systems
Development, Journal of Management Information Systems (22:1), pp. 1343.
Turel, O., and Zhang, Y. (Jenny). 2010. Does Virtual Team Composition Matter? Trait and ProblemSolving Configuration Effects on Team Performance, Behaviour & Information Technology
(29:4), pp. 363375.
Van der Vegt, G. S., and Janssen, O. 2003. Joint Impact of Interdependence and Group Diversity on
Innovation, Journal of Management (29:5), pp. 729751.
VandeWalle, D., Cron, W. L., and Slocum, J. W. 2001. The Role of Goal Orientation Following
Performance Feedback, Journal of Applied Psychology (86:4), pp. 629640.
Veryzer, R. W. 1998. Discontinuous Innovation and the New Product Development Process, Journal of
Product Innovation Management (15:4), pp. 304321.
Wageman, R. (1995). Interdependence and Group Effectiveness, Administrative Science Quarterly (40:1),
pp. 145180.
Wegner, D.M., 1987. Transactive Memory: A Contemporary Analysis of the Group Mind, In Theories of
Group Behavior, Mullen, B., Goethals, G.R. (Eds.), Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 185208.
Wegner, D.M., Giuliano, T. and Hertel, P.T. 1985. Cognitive Interdependence in Close Relationships, in
Compatible and Incompatible Relationships, Ickes, W. (ed), Springer Verlag, New York, USA, pp.
253276.
Weick, K. E., and Roberts, K. H. 1993. Collective Mind in Organizations: Heedful Interrelating on Flight
Decks, Administrative Science Quarterly (38:3), pp. 357-381.
Whitener, E. M., Brodt, S. E., Korsgaard, M. A., and Werner, J. M. 1998. Managers as Initiators of Trust:
An Exchange Relationship Framework for Understanding Managerial Trustworthy Behavior,
Academy of Management Review (23:3), pp. 513-531.
Wilson, J.M.; Straus, S.G.; and McEvily, B. 2006. All in due time: The Revelopment of Trust in ComputerMediated and Face-to-Face Teams, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(99:1), pp. 1633.
Woodman, R. W., Sawyer, J. E., and Griffin, R. W. 1993. Toward a Theory of Organizational Creativity,
Academy of Management Review (18:2), pp. 293321.
Yoo, Y., and Kanawattanachai, P. 2001. Development of Transactive Memory Systems and Collective
Mind in Virtual Teams, The international Journal of Organizational Analysis (9:2), pp. 187208.
Zakaria, N., Amelinckx, A., and Wilemon, D. 2004. Working Together Apart? Building a KnowledgeSharing Culture for Global Virtual Teams, Creativity and Innovation Management (13:1), pp. 15
29.
BMIC 2015| page26

Man power Forecasting and Strategies for Sustainability for the Indian
Banking Sector
Mahesh Prabhu and Asish Oommen Mathew
Abstract
In todays competitive business environment where the developing countries in the world have
opened the doors of their economy for foreign players through liberalization, the local business
conglomerates are facing immense pressure to effectively attract and retain talented professionals. This has
resulted in the shortage of talented manpower in certain segments of the industry and the banking industry
is no exception. This paper focuses on the manpower requirements for the Indian Banking sector along
with the supply available. System Dynamics (SD) method of modeling and simulation is employed in the
study. A manpower planning model is developed and simulated. The demand-supply gap is analyzed. At
the current level of operations, it is seen that ten years down the line banking industry will face acute
manpower shortage due to the migration of talented professionals to other attractive profession and
superannuation of existing employees will aggravate the problem. A policy of setting up training
institutes to cater to the needs of banking sector is proposed and evaluated along with the anticipated
sector growth rate of 10%. Implementing the policy would improve the shortage of manpower
significantly.
Keywords:Man power planning; Nationalized Banks;System Dynamics.
1. Introduction
According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Indian Banking sector is sound, adequately ca
pitalized and well-regulated. The financial and economic conditions in India are much better than many of the
developed countries in the world. It is to be noted that Indian banks have resisted the recession well. As per the
KPMG- CII report, Indias banking and financial sector is swiftly growing and can probably become fifth
largest banking sector in the world by 2020 and third largest by 2025. The banking industry in India is worth
Rs.81 trillion (US $ 1.31 trillion). Both public and private sector banks are increasing dependent on
technologies like internet and mobile applications to render service to the customers. The banking sector in
India consists of around 46 commercial banks competing for business with a few foreign and regional co operative banks. The nationalized banks share about 80 per cent of the business and the remaining is shared by
the private players. Standard and Poor has estimated that the banking sector in India would grow by 12-13 per
cent annually from the financial year 2016.
With the government indicating to issue new licenses, banks colluding with insurance agencies to
sell insurance policies, the vision of banks to open more number of branches along with the RBI and
governments efforts to extend financial services to rural areas, the hiring in the banking sector may get a
boost in the future. Furthermore it is to be noted that most of experienced employees in the banking sector
are due for retirement in the near future which would mean that there is a dire requirement of talent. The
workforce requirement for the banking sector was estimated around 4.2 million between 2008 and 2022
and the banking industry may generate around 20 lakh new jobs in the next 5-10 years.
Talented manpower in banking sector has played an important role in achieving customer
satisfaction. The main challenge for the banking sector is the scarcity of skilled manpower to meet the
growing needs of economy. The problem will increase due to the retirement of experienced employees
BMIC 2015| page27

in nationalized banks. Also it is observed that qualified professionals are taking banking service as an
intermediate job until they find a lucrative offer. Hence there is a pressing need to carefully analyse the
demand-supply gap of talented manpower for the banking sector and take steps to reduce the gap so that
there is sufficient number of employees to meet the challenge.
The objective of this paper is to assess the requirements of talented manpower for the India n
banking sector by developing a SD model. The model is simulated to capture the demand and supply of
manpower for the next fifteen years. Then the projected supply is compared with projected demand and
recommendations are made to maintain optimum level of workforce.
In the past, researchers had given little importance for the need for planning manpower for various
occupations. They were of the belief that workforce replacement was relatively easy and a pay variation
would plug the gaps (Papps 2001). But according to Hughes (1991), the new generation researchers argued
that the labour market is inflexible. Therefore manpower planning is crucial for the development of
strategies to ensure continuous supply of labour in future. The two important roles of manpower planning
are information role and the policy role (Hughes 1994).
The goals of manpower forecasting are to evaluate the current state of labour market and
anticipate changes and to evaluate the effect of various policies on manpower availability (Papps, 2001).
The process of ensuring that right number of people with right qualification on the right job at
the right time is called as manpower planning (Ritcher 1984). The basic technique to forecast manpower
is providing a provisional forecast based on industry growth rate.
A particular strategy is adapted by a firm to fit its core competencies, needs and circumstances.
Business strategy can be defined as a set of responsibilities developed to exploit core competency and to
increase competitive advantage (Liao, 2004). These strategies are planned to improve the organizational
resources (Dess et al., 1995), and to lead the future course of actions which are focussed to achieve end
results (Slevin and Covin, 1997).
The strategic importance of Human Resource (HR) department is ignored in many organisations
and they view the HR department as an administrative function. Hence the HR department is not
integrated while formulating the business strategies (Huselid et al., 1997). Human Resource
Management (HRM) practitioners have been demanding to align HRM practices with business strategies
for increased business performance (Van Eynde and Tucker, 1997). To attain higher business outcomes,
there must be an alignment between HR practices and organisational strategies (Wright and McMahan,
1992).
BMIC 2015| page28

Roy and Koul (2009) and Chung et al. (2010), used System dynamics to forecast manpower in steel
plants and health services respectively. Similarly Wu et al. (2003) and Park et al. (2008) applied SD to study
manpower requirements in enterprises and information security industry respectively.
Hence from the above literatures it can be concluded that, HR planning is an important function to
keep all the positions filled for business continuity and the HR department must be included in the strategic
planning process so that the manpower needs for the future can be addressed. SD can be used as tool to
model and simulate the manpower requirements considering the various parameters.
3. Research Methodology
3.1 System Dynamics
System Dynamics approach of modelling and simulation as proposed by Forrester (1994) is

employed in the current research. The research steps in the proposed methodology as highlighted by
Sushil (1993) include: Problem identification, System Conceptualization, Model formulation, Simulation
& validation, and Policy analysis & improvement. Vensim, the simulation software which is used in this
research is developed by Ventana Systems, Inc. (Harvard, Massachusetts), and it is widely used
software for SD modelling & simulation. Its purpose is to help companies to find an optimal solution
for various situations that need analysis and where it is necessary to find out all possible results of future
implementation or decision. Vensim is able to simulate dynamic behaviour of systems that are
impossible to analyse without appropriate simulation software, as they are unpredictable due to many
influences, feedback etc. It helps with causality loops identification and finding the leverage points.
While originally being designed for the analysis of industrial enterprises, nowadays system dynamics is
applied to a variety of systems that change over time, in particular to socio -economic systems (Morecroft,
2007; Sterman, 2000).
The model is developed in five phases: problem articulation, formulating a dynamic hypothesis,
formulating a simulation model, testing, and policy design and evaluation which is as shown in Figure 1 .
Fig.1.Overviewof asystem dynamics modelling process (Source: Sterman,2000)
BMIC 2015| page29

Phase 1: Problem Articulation (Boundary Selection)
The model must bedeveloped keeping in mind the problem statement and only those parameters
that influence the system. Hence the entire complexity of the system need not be considered. This can be
explained with the analogy of a map. The purpose of the map is to solve the problem of a location by
providing the necessary information to commute between two points. If the map is developed with out
considering the core purpose and includes all intricacies of the region, it may shift the focus to complexity
thus reducing its utility. Therefore, it is desired to have a specific goal while developing the model so that
a specific problem is solved instead of attempting to imitate the entire structure in detail. Hence the model
boundary and scope can be fixed.
Phase 2: Formulating a Dynamic Hypothesis

The researchers knowledge, available literature and the opinions of experts of the associated
industry forms the basis for the development of the hypothesis. In the process of formulating hypothesis,
the various opinions that arise must be captured. Only endogenous variables (i.e. the variables that have
direct impact on the working of the model) are considered while developing the model and exogenous
variables (i.e. external factors which are uncontrollable) are either considered partially or completely
excluded. Parameters that are not interconnected to the problem are omitted as they just add to the density
of the model without offering any extra benefits. While formulating the hypothesis, different SD tools
such as causal loop diagrams, stock and flow diagrams are used.
Phase 3: Formulating a Simulation Model

Formulated dynamic proposition (by considering all the opinions that had surfaced while
formulating), a simulation model is developed to capture the interrelationships between the dynamic
systems. The various ideas developed in phase 2 will be represented in the form of equations in this
phase. This phase systematizes the conceptual model so that it can be simulated for a given number of
conditions. This is achieved through repeated processes until the desired outcome is achieved which
matches the real world situations. Based on the observations the model is continuously re fined until
an acceptable model is obtained. Finally, the identified variables are interrelated using mathematical
relationships.
Phase 4: Testing
Testing of the model occurs throughout the modelling process; however an extreme conditions
test must be conducted once the final version of the model is available. These tests may include testing of
the model under hypothetical conditions the likelihood of which is rare in real life known as extreme
conditions, but these tests have to prove that the model responds to such situations realistically.
Scenarios such as complete production stoppage due to machine breakdown, shortage of raw materials,
and an abrupt increase in orders and so on are examples of extreme conditions. The model should also be
tested for verifying the mathematical formulae and units of the variables. Finally the variables must
represent the real world.
BMIC 2015| page30

Phase 5: Policy Design and Evaluation
A manpower planning model is conceptualized by referring to past literatures during the
formulation stage and tested continuously during the testing phase in order develop a robust model, with a
proper structure and representation of the real world. Hypothetical values resembling the actual scenario
form the basis for simulation. This enables the model to be self-learning. Existing data are keyed, in
accordance with the existing policies and practices. The output generated by the model indicates normal
running situation of the company. Then, to attain the desired state by implementing new policies and
decisions, the relevant data are induced and the model is simulated again. Better results denote
improvement, and worse results indicate a need for another attempt. In this phase, the model will be ready to
produce results under multiple scenarios.
3.2 Model Validation

The process of ensuring that the developed model is accurate for the specific purpose is called
Validation (Stewart, 1997).No model can be 100% accurate because a model is a replica of the complex
system. It is developed to understand the complex system which is otherwise difficult to analyse (Pidd,
1992). The major problem simulation analysts are facing over the years is to determine if the developed
model is the true representation of the system being studied, for the stated objectives. Hence a wide
variety of tests have been developed to reveal the flaws in model and improve its performance .
3.3 Model Development

3.3.1
Causal Loop diagram
To begin with, a Causal Loop Diagram (CLD) representing the causal relationships between
the various manpower planning variables is developed. The causal loop diagram is developed in two
stages viz.
1. The demand for manpower and
2. The supply of manpower.
3.3.2
The Demand for Manpower
The current workforce of the bank consists of experienced employees, most of them attaining
superannuation in the next six to ten years. Among the experienced employees, some may decide to
take voluntary retire ment which will lead to job openings in the bank. Also there are employees who
have begun their career in the banking industry and have a total experience of less than five years. The
attrition rate among this group of employees is very high because there is a high tendency that they
may leave the organization if placed in a better paying job. This will lead to vacancies in the bank. The
vacancy created along with the growth rate of the bank will lead to total job openings in the bank .
Fig.2. Causal loop diagram for manpower demand
BMIC 2015| page31

3.3.3
The supply of manpower
The primary source of manpower for the banks is the educational institutes. The total supply
consists of the undergraduates and the post graduates who are willing to take up jobs immediately. The
actual availability of manpower will be the percentage of candidates who have applied for jobs in
banking and financial institutes.
Fig.3. Causal loop diagram for manpower supply
3.4 Stock and flow diagram

Based on the parameters, those affect the manpower demand and supply in the banking industry,
which were identified while developing the causal loop diagram, a stock and flow diagram is developed to
forecast the manpower requirements. The stock and flow diagram is designed using Vensim software. The
data for the supply of manpower is compiled from authenticated secondary sources. The data regarding the
attrition rate, superannuation percentage and demand for manpower for the bank is extracted from
published sources and from experts in the field. The stock and flow diagram is developed for the
manpower demand and supply as below:
3.4.1
Stock and flow diagram for manpower demand
The hiring of candidates depends upon the actual new jobs created which is a function of
vacancy created.
The vacancy created is the summation of employee resignations, employee superannuation and
demand for employees due to the growth of banking sector. The probationary period for new employees
is assumed to be six months and it is observed that new employees take a minimum of two years to
adjust to the banking environment. The new workforce consists of employees who have a total
experience of less than five years in banking sector and the experienced workforce consists of
employees who have a total experience of more than fifteen years. The attrition rate among the new
workforce is high and is assumed that on an average 20% of new workforce resign every year. The
attrition rate among the experienced employees is negligible and is fixed at 5% per year but the
superannuation per cent is high among them and is fixed at 15% per year. The banking and financial
industry in India employs around ten lakhs employees across all levels.
BMIC 2015| page32

Fig.4. Stock and flow diagram for manpower demand
3.4.2
Stock and flow diagram for manpower supply
The primary sources of manpower for the banking industry are the graduates and post graduates
from educational institutes in the country. Among the graduates and post graduates who are willing to
take up employment immediately, there will be movement to other professions and a small per cent may
migrate to pursue PhD. Therefore, among the available candidates a small per cent may be available to
work in the banking sector. In India, on an average, 15 million candidates enrol for graduate education
every year. The duration of UG course is considered as 4 years and PG course as 2 years.
Fig.5. Stock and flow diagram for manpower supply
BMIC 2015| page33

4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Base run results

The base run was realized considering the current level of operations (i.e. the candidates are
recruited and selected as per the yearly hiring plan and placed in probation for six months and thereafter
they progress in their career) and the manpower demand-supply parameters were studied for a period of
fifteen years.
Selected Variables
6M
4.5M
3M
1.5M
0
0
10
11
12
13
14 15
Time (Year)
Total demand : Current level
Total supply : Current level
Fig.6. Demand and supply of manpower under current level of operations
The simulation results for the base run indicate that there is excess of demand over supply for manpower
after ten years, indicating a shortage of manpower in the banking sector. This can be attributed to factors such as high
turnover among the new workforce and a major chunk of experienced workforce attaining superannuation in
the next ten years. Although 15 million graduates are available to work every year, the supply of workforce to the
banking sector is not increasing. This is because majority of graduates are inclined to take up jobs in software and
manufacturing sector.
4.2 Policyanalysisandoutcome
To alleviate the shortage of manpower in the banking sector, the banking corporations efforts
are necessary. The efforts should be directed towards establishing banking training institutes, wherein
graduates are engaged and imparted on the job training on banking roles and responsibilities. The
candidates can be designated asprobationary trainees and paid a minimum pay as per the pay policies of
the bank. The training period should be for four years during which the candidates are trained on all the
aspects of banking followed by a years probation. During the probationary period, the candidates can
be assessed for the various skills they have developed so that they can be placed at suitable position for
future roles.
BMIC 2015| page34

With the above assumption of setting up a training institute, the model is rerun and its effect on
manpower demand-supply condition is analysed .
SelectedVariables
6M
4.5 M
3M
1.5 M
0
0
Totaldemand :Training
10
11
12
13 14
15
Time(Year)
Totalsupply:Training
Fig.7. Demand and supply of manpower after setting up training institute
The policy of setting up training institute with an objective of attaining uninterrupted supply of
manpower for the banking sector has shown tremendous improvements over the base run results. The supply
curve is always above the demand curve implying that there will be continuous supply of manpower to
meet future challenges. Hence setting up of a training institute would ease the situation.
5. Conclusion
This paper is focused on developing a unified demand supply model of manpower planning for
banking sector in India. The base run results indicated that, ten years down the line the Indian banking sector
would face acute manpower shortage and will be unable to serve the customers. Also it can be concluded
that the banking sector would generate huge employment opportunities for qualified professionals in the
forthcoming decade. After applying the policy of setting up banking training institutes, the problem of
manpower shortage is eliminated. Hence, policy makers must think of taking appropriate steps in the
future like forming a consortium of banks in establishing training institutes, number of candidates to be
inducted and trained in these institutes etc. in order to attain sustainability in operations
theseinstitutesetc.inordertoattainsustainabilityinoperations.
References
All India Survey on Higher Education (2013), Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of
Higher Education, Government of India, New Delhi.
Amjad, R. (1985). The application of standard techniques of manpower planning in developing countries: a
ARTEP approach. In: Manpower Planning in ASEAN Countries, ed. K. Kalirajan and P. Arudsothy.
Singapore: Regional Institute of Higher Educational and Development.
Chritamara S. et al., (2002). System dynamics modelling of design and build construction
projects. Construction Innovation, 2(4), 269-295.
Chung, S.H. et al., (2010), A dynamic forecasting model for nursing manpower requirements in the medical
service industry, Service Business, Vol. 4, pp. 225-236.
Dess. Et al., (1995), Conducting and Integrating Strategy Research at the International, Corporate and
BMIC 2015| page35

Business Levels: Issues and Directions, Journal of Management, Vol. 21, pp. 357-393.
Forrester, J. W. (1994), System dynamics, systems thinking and soft OR, System Dynamics Review, vol. 10,
no. 2-3, pp. 245-256.
Hughes, G. (1991). Manpower Forecasting: A Review of Methods and Practice in Some OECD
Countries.Dublin: The Economic and Social Research Institute and FAS- The Training and
Employment Authority.
Hughes, G. (1994). An overview of occupational forecasting in OECD countries. International Contributions to
Labour Studies 4: 129-144.
Huselid M A, Jackson S and Schuler R (1997), Technical and Strategic Human Resource Management
Effectiveness as Determinants of Firm Performance, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 40, No.
1, pp. 171-188.
Kumari, S. et al., (2011). Links Between Business Strategy and Human Resource Management Strategy in
Select Indian Banks: An Empirical Study. IUP Journal of Business Strategy, 8(3), 24.
Liao Yao-Sheng (2004), Business Strategy and Performance: The Role of Human Resource Management
Control, Personnel Review, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 294-309.
Menon, B et.al (2012) Assessment of Technical Manpower Requirements in Agriculture Sector in India, The
30th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society St. Gallen, Switzerland -- July 22-26,
2012, ISBN 978-1-935056-10-2.
Morecroft, J. (2007). Strategic modelling and business dynamics: A feedback systems approach. Wiley.com.
Papps, K.L. (2001). Occupational and Skill Forecasting: A Survey of Overseas Approaches with Application
for New Zealand. Occasional Paper 2001/1. Wellington: New Zealand Department of Labour.
Park, S.H. et al., (2008), A dynamic manpower forecasting model for the information security industry,
Industrial Management and Data Systems, Vol.108, No.3, pp. 368-384. Pidd M.,(1992), Computer
simulation in Management science, 3rd edition, Wiley.
Ritcher, L. (1984). Manpower planning in developing countries: changing approaches and emphases
International Labour Review 123: 677-691.
Roy, D. and Koul, S. (2009), Human resource planning in a shore-based integrated steel plant: A system
dynamics model, Proceedings of the 27th International Conference of the System Dynamics
Society, Albuquerque, USA.
Slevin D P and Covin J G (1997), Strategy Formation Patterns, Performance, and the Significa nce of
Context, Journal of Management, Vol. 23, pp. 189-209.
Stewart R. (1997), Simulation Model Verification and Validation: Increasing the Users Confidence, Journal
of Operations and Information Management Group, pp. 53-59.
Sushil (1993), System Dynamics: A Practical approach for Managerial Problems, Wiley Eastern publication,
New Delhi, India.
Van Eynde D F and Tucker S T (1997), Quality Human Resource Curriculum: Recommendations from
Leading Senior HR Executives, Human Resource Management, Vol. 36, pp. 397-408.
Wright P and McMahan G C (1992), Theoretical Perspectives for Strategic Human Resource Management,
Journal of Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 295-320.
Wu, M. et al., (2003), System dynamics modelling of manpower forecasts and programming, Proceedings of
the 21st International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, New York, USA.
Banking sector in India, retrieved from http://www.ibef.org/industry/banking-india.aspx, on August 13, 2015.
BMIC 2015| page36

Banking and Financial services industry, retrieved from http://info.shine.com/industry/banking-financialservices/8.html, August 13, 2015.
Statistics on Indian Higher Education, retrieved from http://www.dreducation.com/2013/08/data-statisticsindia-student-college.html, August 13, 2015.
BMIC 2015| page37

Impact of Delivery Delay on the Manufacturing Firm Inventories: A System

Dynamics Approach
Rajesh R.Pai, Sunith Hebbar and Lewlyn L. R. Rodrigues
Abstract
Optimizing the operations is a complex task due to the complexity involved in its various processes
of a manufacturing firm. The operations such as planning, scheduling, tracking, monitoring and dispatching
becomes a major task so as to satisfy potential goals of increasing throughput, reducing inventories and
costs. In order to overcome this complexity, there should be a proper communication and relationship with
the supplier within and outside the firm. This paper makes an attempt to study the impact of delivery delay
on the finished goods inventory of a manufacturing firm, where the ordering is made according to the
production forecast and also by considering the total warehouse capacity. Hence the main objective is to
analyse the impact of delivery delay on optimising the materials in stock so as to gain the benefits from it for
better performance of the firm on a long term basis. The key variables of study are Material Order Rate,
Raw Material Inventory, and Material Usage Rate. Using System Dynamics (SD) methodology a stock and
flow model is drawn using Vensim PLE software and the dynamic behavior of the system is studied by
varying the delivery delay also, appropriate strategies and policies have been recommended for effective
delivery of the material.
Keywords: System Dynamics; Material in Order; Raw Material Inventory; Material Usage Rate;
Manufacturing Firm.
1. Introduction
In todays market scenario, delivering product to the customers at the shortest possible time is a
challenge for all the manufacturing industries. In contrast to this, most of the inventory problems arise
because of interval of time between the decision to place an order for and the availability of the stock from
that order to in order to meet the demand of the customer or for production setup. This time interval is called
the lead time (Gudum, 2002). Any delay in the process of placing the order till the replenishment of the stock
is called as the delivery delay. This delivery delays provides detrimental results for the company.
In manufacturing, delays occurs on a daily basis which results in ineffectiveness, inefficiencies, and
poor performance of the products and its processes (Arunagiri and Gnanavelbabu, 2013). One of the reasons
could be the performance measures which are defined and optimized for the each function within an
organisation but not for the entire value delivery process (Viswanadham, 2012). In such cases, the main
objective is to improve the communication between the company and other suppliers in terms of sharing
methodology and information, and by designing the process in such a way so as to improve and to optimize
the throughput, lead-time and cycle time. Moreover, it has been identified in the research work of Arunagiri
and Gnanavelbabu, (2013) that 80% of process delay are caused by 20% time trap. By focusing on that 20%
the problem of lead-time and total cost of acquisition, transportation and possession of goods and services
can be reduced which creates benefit both to the buyer and seller. As a result, it provides a competitive
advantage and improved profits.
In the traditional inventory models, the ordering cost and lead time are constant and not subjected to
control. However, this may not be realistic. Alexandre Dolgui, Oussama Ben Ammar, Faicel Hnaien, and
Mohamed-Aly Louly (2013), identified that lead time fluctuations strongly reduces tools performance and
increases production costs. According to Christoph H. Glock (2012), lead time is varied by reducing setup
time or by increasing the production rate, which results in a reduced production time. In the research paper
BMIC 2015| page38

of Ali Arkan, Seyed Reza Hejazi (2012), identified that lead time is controllable with the addition of cost.
Moreover, reduction in the lead time is considered as one of the most important variables for improving the
performance of supply chain and controlling the lead time which is only possible by identifying the various
factors which has an influence on it. Hence, by identifying these factors the firm can develop strategies
which plays a significant role in the product and process development. A firms supply chain strategy will
have an influence on likelihood of obtaining assistance from supplier to deliver the materials on time, so as
to avoid delays in parts manufacturing processes.
2. Literature review
In recent years, there has been an increasing trend in manufacturing industries to focus more on
core manufacturing processes, leading to increasing interdependence on suppliers to supply the materials
and the processes within the organizations for ordering and storing of materials. In order to have a proper
coordination between the supplier and manufacturing industry all the functional units should integrate and
work towards the achievement of the organisational objectives. Therefore Supplier Relationship
Management (SRM) and Continuous Improvement Programs plays an important role for the performance of
an organisation.
Considering the inventory, proper managing of inventory plays an important role in improving the
supply chain performance which also satisfy customers demands, smoothens production plans and reduces
operational cost without causing any delay in the production processes (Lee and Wu, 2006). One of the
major sources for building bullwhip effect is due to the use of poorly performing inventory policy (Disney
and Towill, 2006). Automatic Pipeline, Inventory and Order Smoothing Policies and Order - Based
Production Control System (APIOBPCS) were developed to cope up with the bullwhip effect but these
polices reduce customer fill rate of a traditional supply chain (Cannella and Ciancimino, 2010). The
bullwhip effect thus can be reduced by 55% by properly chosen ordering policy and forecasting method
(Wright and Yuan, 2008). An inventory policy which adjusts with the marketing trend may perform better
interms of bullwhip effect, inventory performance and fill rate, than other policies which could not adjust
with changes in present competitive market (Chinna Pamulety and Madhusudanan Pillai, 2011).
From the literature identified by Lee and Chu (2005), it was found that information sharing is more
beneficial where inventory policies are reformulated to make better use of shared information; and where
higher levels of manufacturing capacity is available and where supplier lead time is longer and where
retailer lead time is shorter (Moinzadeh, 2002).
Mohamed and Coutry (2015) identified that lead time is a critical measure of a supply chain's
performance which impacts both the customer satisfactions as well as the total cost of inventory and
observed that almost one third of the materials orders were delivered later than the scheduled due date and
concluded that the company have to re-valuate the supplier and consider the removal of supplier that are
inconsistent in the delivery times.
Porter (1980), proposes that an effective management of supplier relationships can be achieved by
managing the firm's logistic and procurement programs, so as to attain a source of competitive advantage
and thus contribute to the firm's profitability and performance (Adobor and McMullen, 2007). In order to
have a competitive advantage, strategic supply chain management, with supply chain integration, have
become the more important sources for improving the firms performance (Mihir Dash and Viswanathiah,
2011).
Contemporary views of Supply Chain Management and its relationship with the marketing research
has attempted to increase understanding of the customer supplier relationships in which the long-term cooperation simultaneously increases with the value produced by the demand chain and decreases with the
overall cost of the chain (Heikkil J, 2002).
With the help of the previous literature this paper focuses on the impact of the delivery delay on the
performance of the manufacturing system which has been carried out using system dynamics approach. This
method was founded by a group of researchers led by J. Forrester at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the late 1950s. This methodology combines the theory, methods and philosophy needs
to analyse business policy and decision making (Lihua Zhai, 2004). Chung et al. (2004) extended Pan and
BMIC 2015| page39

Hsiao (2001) model by developing a minimax distribution with backorder discount and variable lead time.
Srinivas and Rao (2007) developed an inventory model where the lead time for replenishing is assumed to
be dependent which helps to make faster delivery, and further improves service level enhancing the
customer satisfaction level thereby increasing market share of the business (Agarwal A and Shankar R,
2005). Peng, Peng, and Chen (2014) proposed a system dynamics model to analyze the behaviors of
disrupted disaster relief supply chain by simulating the uncertainties associated with predicting post-seismic
road network and delayed information and concluded that replenishment solution achieves the balance
between the service level and the inventory level by planning inventory based on information sharing and
adjusting the strategy according to the predicted fluctuations of the lead time.
This paper, makes an attempt to identify the dynamic behaviour of the raw materials in order,
material inventory and material usage rate by varying the delivery delay (i.e. suppliers) based on the
simulation results hence to adopt policies and strategies have been recommended so as to gain maximum
benefits by reducing these delays.
3. Construction of the Model

The model is constructed for a manufacturing organisation based in India where the material is
ordered according to the demand forecast which is the key input for the simulation. The major stock
variables are Materials in order (which defines the pipeline inventory) Raw material inventory. The demand
forecast directs the ordering rate and the lead time derives the rate of ordering but the supplier delay derive
the acquisition rate which will be the input to raw material input. Similarly, output of Raw materials is
derived through the usage rate which is influenced by total manufacturing cycle time. Total manufacturing
cycle time in the model (Fig. 1) is defined as the sum of the takt time and the time elapsed through other
delays (time lost due to other issues). Takt time is the actual time required to complete one production unit.
Time elapsed due to other issues is nothing but the delays caused due to other issues like issues related to
fabrication shop, quality issues etc., which directly influence on the rate of production. The stock and flow
diagram for the inventory system is shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Stock and flow diagram for the material inventory
BMIC 2015| page40

4. Simulation results and analysis
The model is simulated for one month (30 days) under different time periods which is determined
by varying the delivery delay (Supplier delay) from 2 days to 6 days with the step of 2 days.
It is observed that when the delivery delay is 2 days there is sudden increase in the materials in
order because the ordering is done at a faster rate as the replenishment and consumption time is less which
gets stabilized at around 18 days than compared to 4 days and 6 days of delivery delays for which system
stabilizes at around 20 days (Fig. 2). These simulated graphs infer that for a delivery delay of two days the
system is having a lesser amplitude of fluctuations and also stabilizes at a faster rate than the other two cases
for the material in order.
Similarly, for Raw material inventory it can be observed that when the delivery delay 2 days there
is a sudden increment in the raw material inventory by around 4 days which is earlier than the other two
simulation which stabilizes around 6 and 7 days respectively (Fig. 3). This signifies that for a shorter lead
time the response to the inventory requirements will be faster and the system stabilizes sooner.
Fig. 4, shows the response of the change in lead time on the material usage rate (i.e. production
rate). It can be clearly observed that with the available inventory in the material store, there is almost 30%
increase in the usage rate of material because of the increased production rate and this inventory will get
stabilizes at around 13th day if they follow this strategy of keeping the delivery delay as 2 days.
From all the simulated graphs shown above, we can clearly conclude that the reduction in delay
even by one day have a significant impact on key system parameters. From the graphs, we can observe that
for a delay of 2 days there is a greater impact on system parameters that is for Raw material inventory the
system stabilizes at 11th day which is almost 6 days earlier than the next simulated values for a delay period
of 6 days. But it can be observed that reduction in delay form 6 days to 4 days will result in faster
stabilization by only one day. Hence it is advisable to reduce the delay to 2 days form a current delay period
of one week to get the maximum benefits. Accordingly, study has been carried to understand complexity
involved in the supply process and appropriate strategies have been suggested for effective supply of the
materials with a goal to achieve above requirement.
Fig. 2. Effect of delivery delay on Materials in Order
BMIC 2015| page41

Fig. 3. Effect of delivery delay on raw material inventory
Material usage rate

20,000
Units/Day
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time (Day)
Material usage rate : Delivery delay 6 day

Fig. 4. Effect of delivery delay on material usage rate
5.
Inferences
It has been observed that when there is a delay in the delivery of raw materials i.e. from 2 days to 6
days, the materials ordered will get stabilized at a faster rate if the delay is 2 days as planned by the
organisation than compared to the 4 days and 6 days. Similarly, it is observed that when delivery delay is 2
days the pilling up of raw materials inventory is less than compared to that of 4 and 6 days. This indicated
that the delivery delay should not be more than 2 days.
Hence, the structure of the system (Fig. 1) between the supplier and the firm is analyzed and the
reasons for delay have been identified and accordingly suggestions have been given.
i. Suppliers should be given appropriate forecast in advance to manufacture and deliver the raw
material in time.
If the manufacturing company can provide 2 months of firm forecast and a rolling forecast, the
suppliers can also plan their operations effectively and supply the parts without any hindrance.
BMIC 2015| page42

ii. The design drawings and the Bill of Materials of the components in the suppliers firm should be
the same as followed by the employees in the parent organisation.
iii. Adopting Milk Run System & Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) for collecting and ordering of
raw materials from the suppliers.
The advantages of adopting Milk Run System and EOQ is to help the organisation in setting up
an inventory reorder point which will help in reducing the inventory holding cost which can be
achieved by segregating the components according to ABC analysis on the basis of the total
value of the components as indicated in Table. 1 below.
Table 1: Summary of ABC analysis
C
(374
per annum)
lass
Machines
tot
464,246,772
85%
Par
34
tot
63,667,729
12%
Par
62
tot
18,986,297
3%
Par
290
al value
A
Value
ts
al value
B
Value
ts
al value
C
Value
ts
To
tal Value
54,69,00,798
iv. Frequent supplier performance review should be done in order to trace the supplier who are not
supplying the materials on time.
Suppliers performance is currently measured using Delivery Precision which is prepared on
the basis of total quantity supplied by them without considering exact date of ordering and
receiving the particular item. Hence, the process should be structured by comparing the
Purchase Orders raised against requirement with the invoice date raised on the day of shipment.
v. Inventory counting should be done by the parent organisation so as to order the right quantity
of materials in the right time.
Inventory counting helps the organisation in tracing the inventory levels and reduction of the
wastage of materials. So that right quantities can be ordered at right time.
BMIC 2015| page43

6. Conclusions and Future Scope

This paper proposes a SD methodology to study the effect of delivery delay (supplier delay) on raw
material inventory and production rate which is indicated through material usage rate. By knowing its
impact the company can gain maximum benefits from the processes by implementing proper policies and
strategies to control the delivery delay. One of the effective strategies to reduce the delay by maintaininga
good relationship with the supplier. Therefore Supply Relationship Management (SRM) plays a key factor
in reducing the delay and also in improving the processes of the company. While carrying this analysis there
may be some parameters influencing the same which have not considered in this study as these analysis are
based on system perspective (i.e. system thinking). On successful implementation, there will be continuous
and accurate flow of materials at the right time and in the right quantity with optimum cost. Also, effective
SRM and internal process of the firm will help better adaptation to the changing requirements which helps in
gaining the competitive edge over its competitors in the market on a longer perspective. A balance can also
be maintained by using a system of Kanban system and other lean techniques.
The future scope of this research can be on a detailed analysis of all other parameters and its
influence on system performance. Also, this research can be carried out to analyse the impact on a system
performance when there many suppliers which increases the complexity and hence it makes supply a
challenging task.
References
Adobor, H., & McMullen, R. (2007). Supplier diversity and supply chain management: A strategic
approach. Business Horizons, 50(3), 219-229. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2006.10.003.
Agarwal, A., & Shankar, R. (2005). Modeling supply chain performance variables. Asian Academy
of Management Journal, 10(2), 47-68.
Dolgui, A., Ammar, O. B., Hnaien, F., & Louly, M. A. (2013). A state of the art on supply planning
and inventory control under lead time uncertainty. Studies in Informatics and Control, 22(3), pp-255.
Arkan, A., & Hejazi, S. R. (2012). Coordinating orders in a two echelon supply chain with
controllable lead time and ordering cost using the credit period. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 62(1),
56-69.
Arunagiri, P., & Gnanavelbabu, A. (2013). Review on Reduction of Delay in manufacturing
process using Lean six sigma (LSS) systems. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,
3(2), 1-5.
Glock, C. H. (2012). Lead time reduction strategies in a single-vendorsingle-buyer integrated
inventory model with lot size-dependent lead times and stochastic demand. International Journal of
Production Economics, 136(1), 37-44.
Disney, S. M., & Towill, D. R. (2006). A methodology for benchmarking replenishment-induced
bullwhip. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 11(2), 160-168.
Gudum, C. K., 2002. On the distribution of lead time delays in supply chains. Working paper,
Kbenhavn, 38p.
Heikkil, J. (2002). From supply to demand chain management: efficiency and customer
satisfaction. Journal of operations management, 20(6), 747-767.
Lee, H. T., & Wu, J. C. (2006). A study on inventory replenishment policies in a two-echelon
supply chain system. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 51(2), 257-263.
Liao, C. J., & Shyu, C. H. (1991). An analytical determination of lead time with normal demand.
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 11(9), 72-78.
BMIC 2015| page44

Mohamed, A., & Coutry, N., 2015. 'Analysis of Lead Time Delays in Supply Chain: A Case Study'.
World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International Science Index 102, International
Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic and Management Engineering, 9(6), 1995 - 2000.
Moinzadeh, K. (2002). A multi-echelon inventory system with information exchange. Management
science, 48(3), 414-426.
Pamulety, T. C., & Pillai, V. M. (2011). Impact of Information Sharing in Supply Chain
Performance. In Technology Systems and Management (pp. 327-332). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Pan, J. C. H., & Hsiao, Y. C. (2001). Inventory models with back-order discounts and variable lead
time. International Journal of Systems Science, 32(7), 925-929.
Peng, M., Peng, Y., & Chen, H. (2014). Post-seismic supply chain risk management: A system
dynamics disruption analysis approach for inventory and logistics planning. Computers & Operations
Research, 42, 14-24.
Prashant Jindal, Singh, S. R. & Rachna Kumari. (2011), Continuous Review Inventory Model with
Ordering Cost and Lead Time Reductions taking Time-Value of Money into account, International
Conference on Advances in Supply Chain and Manufacturing Management Kharagpur, India. Retrieved
from http://www.library.iitkgp.ernet.in/sites/default/files/ICASCMM-2011/papers.html
Srinivas, C., & Rao, C. S. P. (2006). Consignment stock policy with controllable lead time for
effective inventory management in supply chains. International journal of manufacturing technology and
management, 10(2-3), 161-176.
Sterman, J. D. (2000). Business dynamics: systems thinking and modeling for a complex world
(Vol. 19). Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Viswanadham, N. (2012). Analysis of manufacturing enterprises: an approach to leveraging value
delivery processes for competitive advantage (Vol. 12). Springer Science & Business Media.
Wright, D., & Yuan, X. (2008). Mitigating the bullwhip effect by ordering policies and forecasting
methods. International Journal of Production Economics, 113(2), 587-597.
Zhai, L. (2004). A system dynamics approach to supplier partnership management in supply chain
(Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
BMIC 2015| page45

Urbanization and Its Impact on Environmental Sustainability in the City Of

Bangalore: A System Dynamics Approach
Sunith Hebbar, Rajesh Pai and Lewlyn L. R. Rodrigues
Abstract
The wave of urban growth in India is spreading across the country, particularly since the past
decade, and the associated complexities in terms of resource utilization are inevitable. The pace and the
scale of urbanization are to the extent that it has already resulted in shortages of resources, the solution to
which has become a compelling necessity. The issues are multidimensional but interrelated. Firstly,
increasing population has resulted in scarcity of space (hence deforestation), and increase in vehicle
numbers (hence traffic congestion). Secondly, the major issue is with the pollution of air and other
resources, mainly water and soil. This study is based on these burgeoning problems which have occurred in
the city of Bangalore popularly known as Silicon City of India. The main focus of this research is to study
the impact of current growth rate (urbanization) on the traffic congestions, pollution, and on health. System
Dynamics methodology is used in this research to identify the interdependency of various factors
influencing the issue (i.e. Urbanization & traffic congestion) and a causal loop diagram is developed. The
attempt is to deviate from viewing the problem from a linear point of view and move towards a systems
perspective, so as to understand the complex nature of the issue. The causal loop diagram will also enable
the development of a stock and flow diagram, which can be used in forecasting the long term impact of
urbanization on environmental sustainability.
Keywords: Urbanization, Pollution, Vehicle Emission, Environmental Sustainability, System Dynamics
1. Introduction
One of the greatest constants in todays world is change and the major reason for this is human
beings and their desire to have an improved standard of living. This persistent desire has resulted in drastic
developments in every aspect of the economy and it had the most impact on industrialization. The process of
development is still on in its varied forms. The direct consequence of this development is the process of
urbanization which entices a large rural population to migrate to the cities.
There is no denying that we all need economic growth and continued improvement in general wellbeing. It is evidenced in the way we moved from postal systems to mobile phones for communication, and
from the rugged carts to the advanced automobiles for transportation, and many more such cases in other
areas. However, these seemingly beneficial developments often come with a greater cost. The indirect
consequences of these developments on the ecosystem and environment get ignored in the excitement of
sophistication. Eventually, we would be forced to face the greatest challenges of depleting resources,
increasing pollution, global warming and so on. We can recall the line Todays problem comes from
yesterdays solution, (Senge, 2004). One of the reasons for our failure to see the long term impact of our
action is due to its complexity. However, people are increasingly becoming aware of the complexity and
adopting tools of systems thinking to grasp this.
This research aims to study the impact of urbanization on the environmental sustainability in the
city of Bangalore, India. The city of Bangalore is amongst the top ten preferred entrepreneurial location in
the world. Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration
(Amandip, 2012). During the 1980s, the urbanization had spilled over the city and ever since, there is
continuous rapid development. Bangalores USD 83billion economy in 2012 makes it one of the major
economic centers in India (DESK, 2010). With an economic growth of 10.3%, Bangalore is the second
BMIC 2015| page46

fastest growing major metropolis in India, and is also the country's fourth largest fast moving consumer
goods (FMCG) market. According to the census 2011 the population of Bangalore is around 9621551
people with a migration percentage of 13.4% (Census, 2011). As a result of this rapid growth, problems
which the city is facing today are increasing population, traffic congestion and major pollutions.
Several researches are being carried out both by academic researchers as well as public bodies in
the field of urbanization and its impact on ecology in the city of Bangalore. The proposed study is
specifically focused on traffic congestion and its influence of air pollution as a major component along with
which water and soil pollution are being taken into consideration fairly. System Dynamics (SD)
methodology is being adopted as it is one of the popular tools in recent times in systems thinking. The main
objective of this research is to study the impact of urbanization and hence increased traffic congestion on the
environmental sustainability on long run.
Environmental sustainability is the one of the key areas of research in the present day scenario due
to the increasing awareness and stringent regulations by the government. The highest scopes of research on
these are in the urban locations due to the rapid growth of industries, vehicle population, etc. A study on
benchmarking sustainability in which comparison of Bangalore was done against the Mumbai (major metro
city of India) has proved that in recent time the rate of change over the years of key sustainability parameters
like economic, social and environmental, is highest in Bangalore compared to Mumbai (Sudhakar and
Balachandra, 2013). Sudhir and Prashant (2008), in his research had made an extensive study on the growth
of traffic and its impact on congestion, some of the key findings of this research were motorization index is
increasing at around 10% and average movement speed reduced to 40Kmph to 25Kmph. Shiyong L. et al.
(2010), has developed a framework using a SD methodology for studying the dynamics of traffic congestion
on costs. Similarly a SD methodology was used to study the impact of congestion, and its influence on air
pollution and desired strategies for the welfare of the ecosystem (Frederick et al., 2010; Sokolowski, 2010)
The other key issue which the city is facing along with traffic congestion is pollution. Research has proved
that 50% air pollution in the city is by dust and other key pollutants are sulphur and lead. Stave (2010), in
his research has studied the influence of urbanization on air quality, waste generation and landfill, water
resources through building a model with a purpose of sustainable and effective management of the
environment. Having realized the importance and usefulness of systems thinking and its tool (i.e. SD
modeling) this research is aimed to study the influence of urbanization considering the increase in
population and its impact such as traffic congestion and major pollution like air, water and soil. Even
though the main focus is on traffic and pollution of air other factors are being taken into consideration. The
parameters and its interrelationships are shown using a causal loop diagram (Fig. 1).
BMIC 2015| page47
Fig. 1. Causal Loop Diagram for Traffic Congestion and Pollutions
BMIC 2015| page48

desired road
capacity
capacity on
progress
Temperature
inversion
Deforestation
Green house
effect
road capacity
expansion
time to
construct road
capacity
acquired
Road capacity
capacity gap
Pressure to reduce
traffic congestion
Domestic
pollutants
other sources
Industrial
emissions
Industrial emission
standards
Average emission
per vehicle mile Dust
Emission from
Vehicle
Particulates
percent of trips by
public transport
traffic volume
<total number of average capacity

vehicles>
per vaehicle
<Air pollution>
Needs for
regulation
Traffic
congestion
Air pollution
<Urban
population>
percent of trip by
logistic vehicles
total number of
vehicles
Total vehicle miles

travelled per day
Traffic capacity
<Urban population>
dry waste
Pollution
Time in traffic
Infrastructure
costs
wet waste
Soil pollution
percent of solid
waste recycled
solid waste
Water pollution
Economic
Development
Urbanization
unscientific method of
disposal of solid wastes
Rate of eflluents
letting in to lakes
Sewage from
house hold
Industrial
effluents
share of waste
water treated
percent of trip by
logistic vehicle
Quantity & quality of

mass transit
Birth ratio
infrastructure Quantity & quality of
alternative mode
infrastructure
Attractiveness as
a place to live
Industrialization
Trek population
Birth rate
Urban
population
Death rate
Death ratio
Percent of trips by
personal vehicle
Average distance
per trips
Average trips
per day
motorization
index


3. Research Design and Methodology
A system dynamics modeling is adopted where a stock and flow diagram of traffic
congestion and simultaneously its influence on pollution is built (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). The base model is taken
from Shahgholian and Hajihosseini (2009), where a model was built on studying the air pollution rate in one
of the cities of Iran.
The stock and flow diagram consists of major stock variables of population where the
birth ratio and death ratio are being considered to define (Census, 2011). This can be used to analyze the
particulate emissions, representing air pollution, through vehicle emission, industrial and domestic emission
as major sources of pollutants. Population can also be used in determining waste generated and the sewage
generated per capita on a daily basis. These variables are being controlled by recycling of solid waste and
sewage water treatment which reduces the intensity of pollution. These three pollution viz. Air, water and
soil pollutions are defined as stock variables. One of the major parameters contributing towards air pollution
is the number vehicles running around the city every day. To identify this motorization index has been used.
The stock and flow diagram representing these dynamics of pollution due to urbanization is represented in
Fig. 3.
The other important component of stock and flow diagram is traffic congestion and its
dynamics. Crowding of vehicles on the road has resulted in more and more emission of carbon particulates
into the air and is has become a potential threat to the health related issues. The available capacity of the
roads in the city to hold the vehicles and move smoothly is being compared to the number of vehicles and
the desired capacity in terms of area required for free movement (Shuo, 1990). When the pressure to
congestion builds it is assumed that immediately an action is taken to build on the road capacity. The other
important parameter of study is total number of trips in a day by the vehicles. Here the different types of
vehicles like logistics vehicles, public transport and personal vehicles are being considered and accordingly
the traffic volume is defined. The average number of trips is being considered to be a minimum of two trips
per day per vehicle. The structure of the model is as shown in Fig. 2.
time constant
time to
construct road
Road
Capacity
average number of
trips per day
inflow of capacity
desired
road capacity
expansion
percent of trip by
public transport
total number of
trips per day
Average
distance per trip
<Urban
total number of
Population>
vehicles
motorization
index
capacity
acquired
multiplier index
Capcity on
progress
traffic volume by
Traffic Volumepublic transport
pressure to reduce
congestion
traffic volume by
personal vehicle
percent of trips by
personal vehicle
<Road
Capacity>
capacity gap
average
emission vehicle
emission from
vehicle
traffic volume by
logistics vehicle percent of trip by
logistic vehicles
Fig. 2. Stock and Flow for Traffic Congestion
BMIC 2015| page49
desired road
capacity
average capacity
requirement per
vehicle

percet change in
air pollution
<time constant>
Dust
Air
Pollution
air pollution rate

particulates
Domestic &
Industrial Pollutants
industrial
pollutant
Others sources
domestic
pollutant
<emission from
vehicle>
percent change in
soil pollution
solid waste
death ratio
soil pollution
rate
share of waste
water treated
waste water
generated
Soil
Pollution
Urban
Population
dry waste
percent of soild wet waste

waste recycled
<time constant>
water pollution
rate
Water
Pollution
death rate
popullation rate
switch function
percent trek
population
percen change in
water pollution
birth ratio
Fig. 3. Stock and Flow for Pollution

4. Results and Discussion
The model is being simulated for a period of 30 years by varying the two key parameters
for study purpose. Firstly, analysis is being carried out on how a reduction in average emission per vehicle
by improved regulation influence air pollution. Secondly, the impact of increasing migration on the
environmental sustainability is being carried out.
total number of vehicles
Urban Population
800 M
2B
600 M
vehicles
person
1.5 B
1B
400 M
200 M
500 M
0
0
730
1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300

Time (Day)
Urban Population : Traffic Regulation 3

Fig. 4a. Population growth over the years

4.1. Reducing average emission per vehicle:
730
1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300

Time (Day)
total number of vehicles : Traffic Regulation 3

Fig. 4b. Growth of vehicles over the years
Here, the model is simulated for three scenarios where the emission from vehicle is reduced from
an average of 117g/Km to 110 g/Km and 105g/Km. The impact of these on emission from vehicle, air
pollution are studied. The population and number of vehicles in the city are increasing over the years and are
represented in Fig. 4a & Fig. 4b.
BMIC 2015| page50

With this rate of growth, the impacts of stringent regulations resulting in a declining rate
of emissions from the vehicle are being studied and the simulated results are being depicted in Fig. 5 and
Fig. 6 respectively.
The impact of reduction in particulate emission from 117g/Km to 110 g/Km and finally
to105g/Km is analyzed for every five years starting from now to next 15 years. The depicted graph is shown
in Fig. 5. It can be observed that there is around 4.8% reduction in vehicle emission if regulation 2 is
achieved and 10.2% reduction if regulation 3 is achieved.
total number of vehicles
600000
800 M
500000
Trffic
Regulation 1
Traffic
Regulation 2
300000
200000
100000
vehicles
600 M
400000
400 M
200 M
0
0
0
1
730 1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300
Time (Day)
total number of vehicles : Migration 3

Fig.
6.
Influ
ence
of
migr
ation
rate
on
total
numb
er of
vehic
les
Fig. 5. Vehicle emission for traffic regulations
4.2. Impact of increasing migration on the environmental sustainability

Here, the migration rate is increased from actual 13.4% to 14% and to 14.5% and its impact on the
number of vehicles, total number of trips (Fig. 6), air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution are
studied. The simulation graphs are depicted in Fig. 6 to Fig. 10.
Fig. 7. Influence of migration rate on air pollution rate
Fig. 8. Influence of migration rate on soil pollution rate
It can be observed that increasing migration has a severe impact on the air pollution rate (Fig. 7),
which increases to around 3% during 6th year, then at the 15th year pollution rate increases by 5%, resulting
in a total emission of 563827 tons per day as compared to 537435 tons per day in the fifteenth year.
The migration rate has similar impact on soil pollution (Fig.8). Here the soil pollution is refers to
merely the waste generation which are not been recycled. It can be observed that the waste generated
increases from 151954 tons/day to 159418 tons per day which is again around 5% increased rate during the
15th year. In the water pollution (Fig.9) the sewage generated is considered as the major source of water
pollution. The generation of sewage increases to a very high value of 21592400000 from 20581500000
liters/day, for the three simulations in the fifteenth year. Finally the total number of trips increases to
4818050000 Km from 4592470000 Km in the 15th year (Fig. 10).
BMIC 2015| page51

Fig. 9. Influence of migration rate on water pollution rate
Fig. 10. Influence of migration rate on total number of trips e

very day
5. Implication
Certainly, everyone knows urbanization will have a harmful impact on the ecosystem. However,
the uniqueness of SD is that we can approximately find the amount of influence these key variables has on
the ecosystem. From the simulation we can imply that migration has a severe impact on traffic congestion,
air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution. It has been observed that there is around 5% change in all
the forms of pollution under consideration when there is a small change in the migration rate. Further,
controls in vehicle emission through stringent regulation have resulted in a 10% decrease of vehicle
emission and hence, on air pollution. Therefore, appropriate strategies must be adopted in order to control
the vehicle emission rate and all the other forms of pollution.
6. Conclusion and Future Scope

From the simulation and analysis, it can be observed that there is around seven percent increase in
the vehicle number due to the change in the migration rate, which has resulted in an increased number of
trips per day and hence the emission by vehicle. Thus, a proper monitoring on road capacity and vehicle
growth is necessary so that in later stages it would not result in severe congestion problems. Also, results
have shown an increased pollution rate in the city of Bangalore (Fig. 7 to Fig. 9) And check on this is
quintessential for environmental sustainability.
The entire study focused on Bangalore city which is growing at a rapid pace during the past few
years. This research tried to analyze the extent of impact growth has on the attractiveness of the city as a
place to live. Through the research it can be concluded that even though the opportunities are immense,
there are various factors which increase the health risk of the people and reduces the attractiveness. Hence, it
is necessary to take certain actions where the state can focus on growth by permitting the new IT or any
other organizations to get into other nearby cities such as Mysore or some major cities like Mangalore or
Hubli instead of Bangalore. This may result in a check on the migration rate into the city.
In the future, scope a detailed study considering all the factors of CLD into stock and flow diagram
and analyzing through various policies can be done. Also, study can be carried out on air pollution and other
forms of pollution individually so as to study the impact of these on human life. Further, the model can be
used to study on the road capacity requirements which are not considered in the current research.
BMIC 2015| page52

References
Senge, P., 2004. The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organization. New York,
USA: Doubleday.
Amandip, S., 2012. India Business Primer An Outline of Economics and Demographics in the
Top 5 Commerce Cities by GDP Int. J. of economics & management science, Vol.1(12), 78-89.
DESK, 2010, All India figures at a glance (PDF). Department of Economics and Statistics,
Government of Karnataka. [Online] Available at: www.webcitation.org/5hhoB0jVy [Retrieved 1 November
2010]
Census, 2011. Census India. Data on
www.census2011.co.in [Accessed on 10, Nov 2014]
Indian
Population.
[Online]
Available
at:
Sudhakar, R. and Balanchandra, P. 2013. Benchmarking Urban Sustainability - A Composite Index

for Mumbai and Bangalore Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai. [Online] Available
at: http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2013-008
Sudhir, G. and Prashant, M. 2008. Congestion to Demotorisation-A Paradigm Shift for Bangalore.
[Online] Available at: http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles72398_resource_1.pdf. [Accessed
on 10, Nov, 2014]
Shiyong, L. et al., 2010. A framework for evaluating the dynamic impacts of a congestion pricing
policy for a transportation socioeconomic system, Journal of Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 44.
596608.
Frederick, A. et al., 2010 A Systems Dynamics Approach to Explore Traffic Congestion and Air
Pollution Link in the City of Accra, Ghana. Journal of Sustainability. Vol. 2.
252-265.
doi:10.3390/su2010252.
Sokolowski, J. A. 2010 Modeling Complex Social Behavior: A System Dynamics Approach.
Proceedings of the 19th Conference on Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation. Charleston.
SC, 21 - 24 March.
Stave, K. A. 2010. Participatory system dynamics modeling for sustainable environmental
management: Observations from four cases. J. of Sustainability, Vol. 2(9), 2763-2784.
Shahgholian, K. and Hajihosseini, H. 2009. Dynamics: A Study on Tehran-Iran (With Computer
Simulation by the Software Vensim). World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 35.
Shuo, L. 1990. A Study on the Macro Capacity Model of Urban Road Network and Its
Application. The Subereport of Zhuzhou, China. Vol.3. [Retrieved on 10, Nov, 2014]
BMIC 2015| page53

The Understanding on Islamic Banking System: Analysis of Selected Banking

Institutions Staff
Azizi Abu Bakar, Fadzil Mohd Husin and Mohd. Sollehudin Shuib
Abstract
The financial crisis to the world has opened up a new dimension to the Islamic banking system to
the world. In the early 1980s, some Muslim countries have begun to take seriously the establishment of the
Islamic Banking System, including Malaysia. Bank Islam is the first bank to use the Islamic Banking
System. Malaysia currently has a total of 19 banking institutions have adopted the Islamic Banking System.
However, not all people who understand this concept fully understanding even the bank staf to implement
Islamic Banking System to community. Therefore, the main focus of this research is to examine the extent to
which bank staf understanding of Islamic Banking System. Understanding the system is very importance to
the staf because they represent their banks in promoting and introducing Islamic Banking System. The
second objective of this study was to examine the extent to which staf are able to differentiate between the
Islamic Banking System and Conventional System. The final objective is to see whether the courses
provided by the bank or not enough in understanding the staf. Respondents in this research is Staff bank that
offer Islamic Banking in entire Peninsular Malaysia. This research is a quantitative study by distributing
questions to respondents. A total of 124 respondents participated in the study. The results showed that the
level of understanding of the respondents are located at a satisfactory level yet so the parties should enhance
training courses to enhance the understanding of the respondents against the Islamic Banking System.
Keywords: Islamic Banking System, Conventional Banking System; Staff
1. Introduction
By the '80s the Malaysian community is dwindling to show high interest in Islamic Banking
System (IBS) for centuries after they were dealing with conventional banking system. In line with these
developments, Islamic banking institutions are also in the mainstream when it's by offering Islamic banking
products synonymous with the awareness and interest of the community at that time. Banking institutions
that offer earlier this IBS is a banking institution that offers a wholly conventional banking system.
Although they have been applied for the innovation of their operating system to IBS than previous
technology, but the change that occurs only on systems rather than to the staff in full. According to
Sulaiman Abdullah Saif Al Nasser, & Datin Dr Joriah Muhammed (2013) IBS were based on two main
principles which is sharing the profit / loss and the prohibition of collecting and payment of interest.
Before the existence of IBS, Muslims largely dependent on traditional banking. With the
establishment of Islamic banking institutions in addition to a deep awareness of the concept of Islam itself,
IBS began to be hunted Muslims today. The early history of Islamic banking can be viewed with the
establishment of the first Islamic bank in the world, Dubai Islamic Bank in Dubai United Arab Emirate
(UAE) in 1975, followed by the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) in Saudi Arabia in 1976. Around the year
1976 to the year 1985 for the rapid establishment of financial institutions around the world like mushrooms
after the rain, where many countries have turned to the Islamic banking system, these countries are as
Pakistan, Sudan, and Iraq (Kamal Naser, & Luiz Moutinho, 1997), Brunei (M. Shahid Ebrahim, & Tan Kai
Joo, 2001) Singapore (Philip Gerrard, & J. Barton, 1997) and Indonesia (Abduh, M., & Azmi Omar, M,
2012)
The success of Islamic banking also attract non-Muslim countries. The first non-Muslim countries
to establish an Islamic bank is the Philippines with the Philippine Amanah Bank establishment in 1973 at the
BMIC 2015| page54

request of the Muslims in southern Mindanao. There Luxembourg emerged as the second non-Muslim
countries which set up an Islamic bank with the establishment of the Islamic Banking System International
Holding in 1978. The measures taken by the two countries followed by the non-Muslim countries such as
Switzerland (Dar al-Maal al-Islami) , USA (LARIBA Finance House) and several other non-Muslim
countries (Mokhtar Mahamad, & Izah Mohd, 2010)
The starting point is the establishment of Islamic banks in Malaysia begins when the call and
demands of the community to set up the banking system. It is also influenced by the rise and success of
Islamic banking institutions in the Middle East. In addition, this proposal was voiced by Bumiputera
Economic Congress in 1980 to set up an Islamic bank. This proposal became reality when the establishment
of the first Islamic bank in Malaysia, Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad (BIMB) in 1983 (Kamarulzaman, Y., &
Madun, A, 2013) BIMB was the first bank to offer Islamic transactions with paid-up capital of RM80
million and it is regulated by the Shariah Supervisory Council. In 1983 and 1992 can be considered as the
monopoly of the government's decision to grant a period of 10 years to BIMB to grow without competition
and create as many Islamic banking products. Currently in Malaysia now, there are 19 Islamic Banking that
operating in the market. (Refer Table 1)
Table 1. List of Islamic Banking in Malaysia

No
1
Banks
Affin Islamic Bank Berhad
Al Rajhi Banking & Investment Corporation (Malaysia) Berhad
Alliance Islamic Bank Berhad
AmIslamic Bank Berhad
Asian Finance Bank Berhad
Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad
Bank Muamalat Malaysia Berhad
CIMB Islamic Bank Berhad
HSBC Amanah Malaysia Berhad
10
Hong Leong Islamic Bank Berhad
11
Kuwait Finance House (Malaysia) Berhad
12
Maybank Islamic Berhad
13
OCBC Al-Amin Bank Berhad
14
Public Islamic Bank Berhad
15
RHB Islamic Bank Berhad
16
Standard Chartered Saadiq Berhad
BMIC 2015| page55

2. Execution Islamic Banking System in Malaysia
What is certain global financial crisis was really a significant impact The world economic
landscape even sparked a debate on the phenomenon needs urged to re-assess the international financial
architecture more sustainable and resilient for the benefit of the world community. In the midst of this
debate, many experts The world economy, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) to start focusing on Islamic banking and financial system that is seen to be more stable and powerful
at a time when many conventional financial institutions struggled to continue to operate (Asyraf Wajdi
Dusuki, 2010). IBS in Malaysia's history began in 1963 when the government set Tabung haji. It is a
specialized financial institution that provides a fund or funds that systematic management for Muslims to
perform Hajj to Mecca and encourage them to participate in the opportunities for investment and economic
activity to another. In fact, due to the uniqueness of its functions, Tabung Haji is considered as the first
institution in the world to carry out similar functions (Haque, Osman & Ismail, 2009). Based on the
performance of the Tabung Haji that is so impressive, the government finally introduced the Islamic
financial system more systematic and centralized. This process can be divided into three phases
2.1 First Phase

This phase is the introductory period (1983-1992). This is the period in which the Bank Islam
Malaysia Berhad (BIMB) was established and started its Islamic banking operations in accordance with the
Syariah principles. Bank Islam has been listed on the main board of the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange
(KLSE) as at January 17, 1992. Bank Islam later became one of the leading financial institutions in the
country.
2.2 Second Phase

This phase started in (1993-2003) is intended to establish a more conducive environment to
encourage competition among banking companies. At the same time, it also can give enough time to the big
banking company to try to get the broader stock market. Finally, awareness among the public, especially the
Muslim community can be fostered on the facilities offered by IBS. At this time, the conventional banks are
allowed to offer Islamic banking services by opening Islamic windows or Islamic Banking Scheme in 1993.
2.3 Third Phase

This phase began in 2004 is the continuation of a more comprehensive IBS. At present, the Central
Bank of Malaysia has opened an opportunity for the Islamic banking institutions from abroad for operations
in Malaysia to issue a license to the bank. Malaysia had become the first country to implement the two
banking systems in which IBS operates in parallel with conventional banking system. The model introduced
by Malaysia has gained recognition from other Muslim countries as a model for the future and many
countries are keen to follow in his footsteps. In today Malaysia has enjoyed progress in Islamic finance and
were the main and an example to the world (Mohamad Akram Laldin, & Nusaibah, 2010)
3. Issues
There are a lot of researcher that study on IBS in every direction for example brand preference in
IBS (Ahmad, Rustam, & Dent, 2011; Amin, Rahim Abdul Rahman, Laison Sondoh, & Magdalene Chooi
Hwa, 2011; Baba & Amin, 2009; Badr El Din A. Ibrahim, 2006; Fadzlan Sufian, 2007; Gilani, 2015;
Hassan, Mohamad, & Khaled I. Bader, 2009)Already a must for an institution to gain the maximum
possible, reduce costs and increase productivity in order to be able to compete with the banking institutions
of the other. Regardless of the type of bank, bank employee or staff is the main agenda determine the
success or failure of a bank. This was the case with an Islamic banking institution who are not immune from
the need to staff completely understand every principle of Islam which offered customers to be able to
BMIC 2015| page56

understand each product completely accurate because understanding staff. Many researchers have concluded
among the main reasons is the Islamic banking institutions selected for its adherence to Shariah other than
quality and good performance. In order to ensure that its performance is in good condition, an institution that
should have the best staff in the form of assets in ensuring the sustainable performance. The main thing
about the IBS and muamalat law that there should be a basic and fully controlled by the staff, in the sense
that they are able to serve any other issues raised by customers as the customers themselves are sometimes
unclear about the products offered. When banks in Malaysia changed their direction from conventional
systems to the Islamic system, the staff in these banks are still the same staff. The main concern that arises is
the extent of their understanding of the instruments offered. The objective of this study are follows:
To what extent bank staff understand the instruments available under the concept of Islamic
banking?
Does the bank staff can distinguish IBS with conventional banking system?
Does seminars and courses for the staff of the bank enough in understanding the IBS
4. Differences from the Perspective of Governance and Operations
IBS can be defined as a banking system based on the principles of the course and practice of
Islamic law or in Arabic called the Sharia. This means that all operations in the bank whether the money nor
the storage business funding arrangements made in accordance with the rulings of Shariah, or at least
without violating the restrictions that have been imposed by Allah SWT Sign Syariah laws. The use of these
principles also include transaction - a transaction such as managing bank remittances, letters of guarantee,
letters of credit and foreign exchange.
The main distinguishing factor between Islamic banks and conventional banks is their proceedings
should be conducted without involving any element of interest (interest on loans). This is because Islam
prevents Muslims from giving or taking and usury. Moreover, key objectives is the establishment of Islamic
banks to meet the needs of Muslims in the affairs of the bank. Basic operation of his business is based on the
assessment of Al-Quran and As-Sunnah, which is based on the concept of fair and equitable in the interests
of society as a whole. The difference between Islamic banking and conventional banking can also be viewed
from the aspect of governance and operation (Refer Table 2)
Table 2. The different between IBS and Convention Banking System

Issues
Monitoring
Shariah
Compliance
Surplus
Islamic Banking System

Islamic banking activities will be
monitored by members / Syariah
Advisory Council and the Audit
Committee of the Syariah. They are
individuals who are responsible for
ensuring compliance with Sharia law
in a bank
Implement Shariah compliant
transactions. Any gains or proceeds
arising from banking transactions
that do not comply with the Sharia
and Sharia guidelines will be
distributed to charities
Gain in a manner that does not
conflict with Islam. Profit (profit)
was generated from contracts for the
purchase and profit sharing income
Conventional Banking System
Do not have a monitor in terms of

Shariah
There is no provision to comply

with the principles of Shariah
Profits through a variety of ways

regardless of whether or not
legislation is complied with.
'Interest' resulting from a surplus
BMIC 2015| page57

(investments).
Relationships
With Clients
Charge For
Loan
Zakat
Islamic
Da'wah
Aqad
The relationship between the bankers

(financiers) and customers formed
from a sales transaction, investment
or profit-sharing compensation.
The charge is based on actual costs
or 1%, as outlined by BNM
(compensation / ta'widh).
Involved in the payment of zakat. It
is the social responsibility of the
Islamic banking.
Involved in the movement of Islamic
preaching to the public. For example,
to create awareness among the public
about the ban on riba, gave the
sermon, forums and research on
Islamic Muamalat
Islamic Financial system is based on
contracts that have been agreed upon
by the Shariah as Bai 'Bithaman Ajil
(BBA), Wadi'ah, Mudarabah,
Musharaka, etc.
(increase) of total loans / loans

and advances.
The relationship between the bank
(lender) and the client (borrower)
is formed of a transaction of loan /
debt
The fines were not based on actual
costs doubled and even the fines
resulted in the total increase in
consumer debt
(Compounding).
There is no provision for zakat.
Not concerned about Islamic

missionary activity.
The operation is not based cards

are valid in Islamic jurisprudence
and are mostly involved in the
loan system based on riba.
Source: Bank Muamalat (2012)
5. The Understanding of Islamic Muamalah System and Services
Abbas et al. (2003) reveals that the knowledge and competence of staff in IBS is very important
for customers. The staff is a great asset for any organization and became one of the most important factors
why customers choose Islamic banking services. Islamic banking institutions must train and develop their
staff development more actively to ensure that the products and services offered by Islamic banking is much
better and has a unique feature compared to other banking systems. This is because, deep knowledge of
Islamic banking is very important for a staff. In addition, other aspects related such as ethics, professional
attitude, their duties and responsibilities to the customer and the organization, is also very important because
it can improve the efficiency and thus better serve its IBS (Dusuki & Abdullah, 2008).
Adequate training for staff can also produce quality personnel in IBS and indirectly, it can attract
more customers to select IBS as the preferred choice. The staff were really qualified and have skills in IBS
can ensure a smoother operation and more efficient. The bank must ensure that their staff is fully trained to
handle customer inquiries and further provide a detailed explanation about the facilities offered by Islamic
banking. This is important because it can avoid any confusion among customers, especially in ensuring that
the unique features offered by IBS is really unique and compares favorably with other banking systems
6. Methodology
Collecting data in this research is conducted using quantitative methods. The researchers used a
questionnaire which was distributed to a sample that was randomly selected to assess the level of staff
concerns about IBS banking institutions in Malaysia. Sekaran (2003) agreed with the use of questionnaires
BMIC 2015| page58

as an effective tool in data collection. All data is based on the answers given by respondents include
questions concerning the background of the respondents, the courses they had attended and their
understanding of the principles adopted in the IBS. As noted, this research uses a questionnaire survey
(survey questionnaire) to collect data. This method is a popular approach in research in the field of
management (Veal, 2005). The questionnaire was developed for this research involved four main parts. Part
A is a question relating to the background of the respondents. This section contains six items. Part B look
understanding on the principles used in Islamic banking and in this section has 11 items. While the questions
in Section C, focus on the level of understanding of the difference IBS and conventional systems in which
10 questions had been prepared while the last part of section D look on the effectiveness of the courses that
have been attended by the respondents. This section also has 10 questions. The population of this research
were bank staff who run the IBS. In Malaysia there are 16 banks that have run IBS. Selection is based on
research samples randomly after perusing the list of staff at selected locations (Sekaran, 2003).
7. Result
The staff is a very important asset to a company. The staff must have a good grasp of every product
companies will promote to customers. In this research respondents were the staff at banks that implement
IBS. Thus their understanding of the concepts and systems used in IBS is very important and is the main
criteria for each staff. In this part of the respondent will be given a statement and they must answer whether
right or wrong. It is to look at their level of understanding in which the IBS 11 statement provided in this
section. The results showed that most of the respondents gave correct answers to all the statements made. It
shows their understanding being at a good level. Statements are like savings accounts and current accounts
with Al-Wadiah principle, al-Ijarah principle be used by the customer for the service of an asset and alMudharabah is the principle used by clients in the investment opportunities. However, there are a handful of
respondents still confused and give the wrong answer. This matter should be considered by the bank as a
little mistake in the description given by the staff to the customer will leave a bad impact on the performance
of the bank as possible investors will lose confidence in them. (Refer Appendix 1)
The findings of this research also showed that the respondents agree with the state that IBS is more
efficient compared with conventional systems. This is a positive sign for the development of IBS.
Respondents also believe that IBS bank staff more efficiently. The findings also showed that the respondents
were aware of the existence of differences between the two systems. The difference between IBS san
conventional systems is very large and the differences that exist are the strength of the IBS system. If the
staff of a bank familiar with these differences of course delivering them to the customer will be more
effective. IBS does not have a system of imposing penalties and interest and also this is a big difference
between the two systems and practices is one of the main pillars in the implementation of the IBS. Based on
the research findings, the researchers found that the level of respondents distinguished between IBS with
Conventional Systems at a good level. Most of the respondents saw better able to distinguish the differences
that exist between the two systems. However this does not mean the bank can be satisfied with the present
situation as there are a small handful still unsure of the differences that exist between the two systems.
8. Conclusion
Overall able to conclude that the research undertaken focuses on three main parts, namely
reviewing bank staff understanding of IBS, wanted to see the extent to which bank staff can distinguish IBS
with conventional systems. The last focus in this research is to see whether the course has prepared before
adequate in providing an understanding of the IBS.
The results showed that most of the respondents gave correct answers to all the statements made. It
shows their understanding being at a good level. Statements are like savings accounts and current accounts
with al-origin principle, al-Ijarah principle be used by the customer for the service of an asset and AlMudharabah is the principle used by clients in the investment opportunities
BMIC 2015| page59

However, there are a handful of respondents still confused and give the wrong answer. This matter
should be considered by the bank as a little mistake in the description given by the staff to the customer will
leave a bad impact on the performance of the bank as possible investors will lose confidence in them.
In conclusion, it is the responsibility of the staff to understand IBS and its products in greater depth
so that the element of the IBS can be explained by the staff. In addition, by understanding the products of
IBS, staff may also introduce Islamic banking products to their customers, especially customers who are
non-Muslim. This is because IBS products more transparent and keep the values of individual and universal
justice for the people.
References
Abduh, M., & Azmi Omar, M. (2012). Islamic banking and economic growth: The indonesian
experience. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 5(1), 35-47.
doi: 10.1108/17538391211216811
Ahmad, K., Rustam, G. A., & Dent, M. M. (2011). Brand preference in islamic banking. Journal of
Islamic Marketing, 2(1), 74-82. doi: 10.1108/17590831111115259
Amin, H., Rahim Abdul Rahman, A., Laison Sondoh, S., & Magdalene Chooi Hwa, A. (2011).
Determinants of customers' intention to use islamic personal financing. Journal of Islamic Accounting and
Business Research, 2(1), 22-42. doi: 10.1108/17590811111129490
Asyraf Wajdi Dusuki. (2010). Sistem perbankan islam di malaysia dan pengaruhnya dalam
transformasi kewangan dunia islam.
Baba, R., & Amin, H. (2009). Offshore bankers' perception on islamic banking niche for labuan:
An analysis. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 19(4), 293-308.
Badr El Din A. Ibrahim. (2006). The missing links between islamic development objectives and
the current practice of islamic banking the experience of the sudanese islamic banks (sibs). Humanomics,
22(2), 55-66.
Bank Muamalat. (2012). Isu-isu dalam perbankan islam: Adakah perbankan islam mengaut
keuntungan berlebihan? In Pena Shariah Bank Muamalat (Ed.), Al Muamalat.
Dusuki, A. W. (2008). Understanding the objectives of Islamic banking: a survey of stakeholders
perspectives. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management,1(2), 132-148.
Fadzlan Sufian. (2007). The efficiency of islamic banking industry in malaysia: Foreign vs
domestic banks. Humanomics, 22(7), 174-192.
Gilani, H. (2015). Exploring the ethical aspects of islamic banking. International Journal of Islamic
and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 8(1), 85-98. doi: 10.1108/imefm-09-2012-0087
study on
Haque, A., Osman, J. & Hj Ismail, A. Z. (2009). Factor influences selection of Islamic banking: a
Malaysian customer
preferences. Technology Publications,1-3
Hassan, T., Mohamad, S., & Khaled I. Bader, M. (2009). Efficiency of conventional versus islamic
banks: Evidence from the middle east. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and
Management, 2(1), 46-65. doi: 10.1108/17538390910946267
Kamal Naser, & Luiz Moutinho. (1997). Strategic marketing management: The case of islamic
banks. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 15(6), 187-203.
Kamarulzaman, Y., & Madun, A. (2013). Marketing islamic banking products: Malaysian
perspective. Business Strategy Series, 14(2/3), 60-66. doi: 10.1108/17515631311325114
M. Shahid Ebrahim, & Tan Kai Joo. (2001). Islamic banking in brunei darussalam. International
Journal of Social Economics, 28(4), 314 - 337.
BMIC 2015| page60

Mohamad Akram Laldin, & Nusaibah Mohd Parid. (2010). Senario kewangan dan perbankan islam
masa kini: Prospek, isu-isu dan cabaran. Konvensyen Kewangan Dan Perbankan Islam.
Mokhtar Mahamad, & Izah Mohd Tahir. (2010). Persepsi pelanggan bukan islam terhadap
perbankan islam: Satu kajian rintis. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, 16.
Philip Gerrard, & J. Barton Cunningham. (1997). Islamic banking: A study in singapore.
International Journal of Bank Marketing, 15(6), 204-216
Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business a skill building approach 4 th ed. Chichester:
John Wiley.
Sulaiman Abdullah Saif Al Nasser, & Datin Dr Joriah Muhammed. (2013). Introduction to history
of islamic banking in malaysia. Humanomics, 22(2), 80-87.
Veal, A.J. (2005). Business research methods 2nd ed. Australia: Pearson Addison Wesley
Appendix 1
Answer / number of respondent

Right
Wrong
No
Item
Savings accounts and current accounts using the principle of alWadiah

Bank will not need to apply for permission from the Customer in the
use of client funds
Al-Mudharabah is the principle used by clients in the investment
opportunities
Based on the principle of al-Mudharabah, bank capital is a
manufacturer and customer is the entrepreneur
In the event of loss of al-Mudharabah principles, customers will have
to bear the whole
In principle al-Musharaka the bank with customers will co-finance a
project financed and agreed upon
In this project only bank which has the final say in an action
In order to obtain the financing of an asset, in accordance with the
principle of al-Murabahah, banks do not have to buy the asset
Assets financed through Bai Bithaman Ajil (BBA) require the client
to pay all bank financing as soon as possible
Al-Ijarah principle be used by customers to obtain services from an
asset
Bai al-Inah is borrowing money from the bank to its customers
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
BMIC 2015| page61
117
21
103
96
28
119
120
119
121
5
3
115
124
124
10
0
114

Impact of Time to Adjust Capacity on the Performance of a Manufacturing

System: A System Dynamics Approach
B. Giridhar Kamath, Sunith Hebbar and Lewlyn L.R. Rodrigues
Abstract
Fluctuating demands, advancement in technologies, and innovation in the supply chain

management are posing challenges to managers in deciding the optimum levels of production and capacity
building in the right time. This is an area of concern that has to be addressed effectively with a focus on the
cost factors and thus gain a competitive advantage over the others. Managers over a period of time have
been using expansion strategy or wait and see strategy to handle fluctuating demand scenarios. This paper
uses System Dynamics methodology to study the fluctuating demand scenarios and attempts to find
solutions that could help managers to meet the demand levels optimally. Simulations are conducted at
various capacity levels and attempts are made to suggest solutions based on the graphs obtained. This paper
aims at studying the effects of delay in capacity building decisions by managers on the manufacturing
system. The results indicated that the most preferable option was to acquire the capacity by 6 months failing
which, the capacity should be acquired by at least 12 months. The simulations carried out in this research
can be of great help for the managers in their decision making process and help in taking fruitful strategic
decisions.
Keywords: Time to adjust capacity; Manufacturing system; Stock and Flow Diagram; System Dynamics
1. Introduction
One of the greatest constant in today's market is change. The ever increasing global competition
has resulted in a situation where managers have to be proactive and anticipate these changes so as to sustain
in the market. The changes can be either in the areas of technology, new product development or even an
unexpected increase/decrease in demand. Ever increasing competition, volatile markets, and availability of
substitute products influence the demand to a great extent. Hence it is very necessary to cope up with these
uncertainties, especially in demand, in an effective way so as to develop a competitive edge and grow in the
market.
Realizing the importance of handling fluctuating demand wisely, several strategies have been
adopted by managers with an objective of meeting demands of each and every customer optimally. One of
the important tasks in achieving the above objective is the meeting the capacity requirements in a timely
manner. The two strategies that are generally adopted are, expansion strategy, and wait-and-see strategy.
The decision is generally based on the mangers behavioural nature and his risk taking abilities. The
expansionist strategy involves huge costs because of which managers try to postpone their decisions on
expansion until they are completely confident on the requirement of new capacity, and this is generally
called as wait and see strategy. Here, the possibility is that by the time new capacity is acquired there could
be more number of dissatisfied customers and a lost opportunity cost. Hence, to tackle these challenges
managers have to develop plans that effectively help in attaining optimal results. Some of the major factors
influencing the decision of expansion strategies are time, frequency of the expansion, capacity requirement,
future demand expectations, funds available etc. It is evident that the decision of expansion or wait-and-see
strategy is influenced by the nature of manager himself involved in the decision making process. For
example an optimistic manager may immediately identify the need for capacity expansion and take decisions
on the same immediately, whereas a pessimistic manager could initially adopt wait and see strategy and then
BMIC 2015| page62

after some time may go for the expansion plan. Because of these dynamic complexities it is very much
essential and practical to adopt tools and techniques that could help in decision making rationally and
logically.
This paper tries to address the above issue using System Dynamics Methodology which is one of
the most popular tools in dealing with dynamic complexities. This paper focuses on building a simulation
model for the manufacturing system. Simulations have been carried out to study the variable time to adjust
capacity and its impact on various other system parameters. By doing this it will be possible for the
managers to determine the optimal time available for expansion so that the benefits could be maximized.
This paper is focused on identifying the significance of meeting the capacity requirements at a faster rate on
the profitability of the firm.
All Capacity planning is the process of determining the production capacity needed by an
organization to meet changing demands for its products (Mahadevan, 2010). A discrepancy between the
capacity of an organization and the demands of its customers results in inefficiency, either in under-utilized
resources or unfulfilled customers. In the context of capacity planning, design capacity and effective
capacity to play a major role in the organisation for the current fluctuating market scenario. The term
"design capacity" is defined as the maximum amount of work that an organization is capable of completing
in a given period, and in the case of "effective capacity", it is nothing but the maximum amount of work that
an organization is capable of completing in a given period due to constraints such as quality problems,
delays, material handling, etc. Blumenfeld et al. (1999) developed a model to analyse how such
manufacturing response time affects the inventory level needed at a retailer to meet demand. Results indicate
that shortening the average response time can substantially reduce the inventory that a retailer needs.
Inventory reductions would result in holding costs savings for the retailer. Inventory cost savings are likely
to be passed on in part to the customer in reduced prices, which can result in increased sales for the
manufacturer. Customer, retailer and manufacturer can therefore benefit from any inventory reductions.
In the past, inventory was considered to be a measure of wealth and organizations kept inventory in
order to reduce shortfalls. But in recent times it is considered to be only as a current asset. These inventories
incur more costs than benefits. Inventory reduction emphasizes on efficiency, accuracy, assurance,
responsiveness and anything that streamlines operations (Tersine and Tersine, 1990). Supply Chains are
complex physical systems that behave badly when typical managerial practices are applied to them. One
major concern within supply chains is the bullwhip effect. In a simple case of a manufacturer to customer,
any changes in a customer order will create instability in the manufacturers production schedules. Such
changes first cause disproportionately large changes in the work-inprocess, finished good inventory levels,
and lead to a bullwhip effect, which is a much higher level of changes, in the desired inventory and required
production levels of the upstream suppliers (Burns and Janamanchi, 2006). Orcun et al. (2006) studied
various system dynamics models related with capacity planning in manufacturing. Their studies focused on
simulations that dealt with production planning. According to Booth and Vertinsky (1993), when capacity is
added well in advance without appropriate need, the firm failure risks may rise owing to the increased lead
times and huge capital commitments. However, the competitive advantage of a firm lies in its ability to be
alert and possess a good vision to take decisions against capacity expansion to be able to accommodate any
kind of market share loss after brief higher sales.
Thus, it is very important for a firm to be proactive and try to capture the entire market without
losing any customer which creates a higher value of customer satisfaction and thus growth. There are several
strategies followed by the company in order to meet the capacity requirements with short term and long term
focus. Also, capacity expansion should consider two viewpoints that is product perspective and process
standpoint (Karabuk, 2011). Generally, expansion of capacity is a long term focused approach which
requires high capital and more time. The decision on capacity expansion cannot be taken immediately when
demand exceeds capacity, but it requires a proper monitoring and analysis before action. Also, another
important aspect here is that if the additional capacity required is of small quantity it is not economical to
rise new capacity. Thus, under these situations, firms look for outsourcing to meet the capacity requirement
without losing any customer. Outsourcing is an important strategic decision which has a direct bearing on
cost and quality. Most manufactures are considering this as an integral part of their business and this has
become a common practice in the business due to its various advantages (Huang, 2008). Hence, SD can play
BMIC 2015| page63

a vital role in any capacity planning decisions because of its unique characteristics of considering the
interrelationship of various factors creating a holistic picture. The base model for this research is taken from
Chittori et al. (2011) where the effect of changes in demand is studied on the capacity expansion strategies
along with backlogs, production and also human resources aspects of the system. But one of the important
aspects which is not considered here is the time of expansion. In the base model it is assumed that there is a
continuous expansion taking place whenever a demand gap is identified which is not realistic. Thus, in the
current study this limitation is being addressed by considering an important variable outsourcing and also a
few other related variables are added to the base model.
3. Construction of the model

The model of a manufacturing system is constructed with an objective to analyze the impact of time
to acquire capacity on the various managerial activities of a manufacturing system. Figure 1 represents
subsystem diagram of the system under stochastic demand conditions. Here the system is divided into three
subsystem viz. Operations, Finance and Human Resource. The key parameters under each subsystem are
also enlisted in the Figure 1.
Finance:
Installation
cost
Backorder
cost
Total cost
Human
Resource:
Operations:
Hiring rate
Order backlog
Inventory
Total
workers
Production
Capacity
Production
capacity on
order
Cost of
workers
Profit
Sales
Demand
Figure 1: General structure of a production system
The stock and flow diagram shown in Figure 2 is built with the general structure of a production
system in mind. The stock and flow model is developed from generic models of Sterman (2000). The model
developed in this paper takes in to consideration the model developed by Chittori et al. (2011) in the field of
capacity utilization. The stock and flow diagram can be divided into five components which are as follows.
First, demand forecast and key indicators like high value of sales high value of production and total
shortfall. The second component is related to capacity planning and its expansion. The third component
considers production and inventory related variables, fourth component has the factors related to human
resource, and lastly the fifth component considers finance related parameters like costs and profit. The
detailed explanation of these components is given below.
3.1 Demand Forecast:

The demand is assumed to be stochastic and is being forecasted using a Gaussian function which is
as given below in equation 1. The calculated demand becomes one of the major inputs in determining the
capacity gap production rate etc. This is also used in formulating key indicators like total shortfall, which is
the difference between the inventory level and expected demand. This compares with the actual sales to
BMIC 2015| page64

measure the percentage of sales shortage. The other important indicator is the high value of sales, which is a
function of current sales and past high value of sales which is as given below,
IF THEN ELSE (sales>High value of sales/month, sales-High value of sales/month, 0)
Similarly the other indicator is the high value of production when production exceeds high value of
production and given as the difference between the current production to past high value of production.
3.2 Capacity Planning and its Expansion:

Here a switch function is adopted where the current demand is compared with past maximum and if
the difference is greater than one the switch is on resulting the value of parameter upward to be one else it is
zero. If upward is one, it indicates a need for capacity expansion. But it is not economical to expand the
capacity for smaller capacity requirements. Thus, it is assumed that the capacity expansion takes place only
if the demand exceeds 500 products else outsourcing will be carried out which is more commonly observed
in the current market. But, the outsourcing has a minimum order quantity. Thus these factors have influence
directly on the cost aspects of the system. The important function used here along with the above said
conditional equation on capacity expansion and outsourcing is given below,
IF THEN ELSE (upward=1, max ((forecast production-Production capacity-Production capacity on
order) *investment policy, 0), 0)
Where forecast production is a direct function of expected demand. Production capacity is the
current maximum available capacity and production capacity in order is the capacity expansion taking place
which is in process. Investment policy is the factor which indicates how aggressive the managers are in
taking the decision of capacity expansion. Here the delay that generally occurs in making the decisions of
capacity expansion due to the large investments involved in it and also by considering the amount of
backlog levels is being considered. The rate of capacity expansion is calculated using the time required for
capacity expansion and the capacity identified for expansion.
3.3 Production and Inventory:

The factory production rate is considered to be a function of production capacity, production order
and time to adjust capacity. This in turn measures the backlog level, which is the difference between the
customers orders and factory production rate.
3.4 Human resource aspects:
The production capacity and the productivity are used to identify the hiring rate of workers into the
organization. Here productivity is defined with consideration of both machine productivity and worker
productivity. Hiring rate now increases the total workers and the cost of workers.
3.5 Finance Related:

Here some of the major costs like workers cost (i.e. Salary and wages), inventory holding cost,
backorder costs, installation cost, outsourcing cost and production cost are considered which in turn is
deducted from the total revenue to get the profit. The profit here is not the exact profit since all the cost
factors are not considered, but is used to get a gauge of change in profits, which shows the significance of
policies adopted during simulations.
BMIC 2015| page65
BMIC 2015| page66
Figure 2: Stock and Flow diagram for a capacity expansion model
standard
deviation 0
mean 0
DT 0
seed 0
Growth 0
new workers
hiring rate 0
productivity 0
customer
orders 0
marketing
effort 0
inflow of expected
demand 0
inflow to total
shortfall 0
past max 0
Expected
demand 0
<sales 0>
shortage 0
capacity
expansion 0
delay time 0
upward 0
outflow of expectd
demand 0
sales inflow 0
<actual
demand 0>
inflow of high
value of sales 0
<month 0>
<factory
production 0>
delivery delay
traditional 0
High value of
sales 0
inflow of high value

of production 0
<factory
production 0>
investment
delay bias 0
delivery delay
recognized 0
<Order
backlog 0>
<Scrap 0>
<Outsourcing>
<selling price of
product 0>
High value of
production 0
time to delivery
delay tradition 0
delivery delay
management goal 0
delivery delay
operating goal 0
delivery delay
bias 0
<factory
production 0>
net production
cost 0
<marketing
effort 0>
scrap cost per
unit 0
cost of
marketing 0
cost per unit 0
<Total Sales
0>
profit 0
marketing
cost 0
investment
policy 0
selling price of
product 0
capacity
expansion order
Total
Sales 0
Outsourcing
<upward 0>
month 0
Production
capacity on
order 0
inflow of production
capacity on order 0
Scrap 0
time to adjust
production 0
sales 0
scrap rate 0
Finished
goods
inventory 0
<month 0>
<Production
capacity 0>
production
capacity per month
0
<net production
cost 0>
Outsourcing
cost
Cost of Outsourcing
per unit
<Production
capacity on order 0>
Unit installation
cost 0
<Order
backlog 0>
total revenue
0
unit backorder
cost 0
total cost 0
unit holding
cost 0
<Finished goods
inventory 0>
cost of
workers 0
average
salary 0
factory
production 0
production
order 0
forecast
production 0
<Expected
demand 0>
increased
demand 0
<mean 0>
correlation
time 0
actual
demand 0
<Finished goods
inventory 0>
<month 0>
production
indicated 0
Order
backlog 0
<Outsourcing>
Unused capacity
rate
extra
capacity 0
Total
shortfall 0
<month 0>
initial
workers 0
normal work rate per

worker per month 0
work rate of
worker 0
total workers
0
Production
capacity 0 production capacity
acquired 0
time to acquire
capacity 0
weeks of backlog
desired 0
desired
inventory 0
<production
order 0>
time needed per

product for avg lot
size 0
<High value of
production 0>
capacity gap
0
<High value of
sales 0>
<Expected
demand 0>
<outflow of expectd
demand 0>
coverage 0
<month 0>
<work rate of
worker 0>
<production
capacity per month
0>
productivity of
productivity of
workers 0
machines 0


4. Simulation and Analysis

Capacity expansion decisions are the most important decisions and involve a lot of complexities.
Generally, once the capacity for expansion is initiated and is in process, managers tend to lose their attention
towards it and because of which there will be a delay in the completion of acquisition of the capacity.
Another possibility is that even though the expansion plan is initiated they tend to postpone the process and
try to act defensively (wait and see strategy). These actions results in huge losses for the companys
profitability. Hence the simulation is carried out in order to study the impact of the acquisition time on the
system performance.
In the model, one of the important assumptions in the operation of the model is that as and when
there is a capacity shortfall when compared with the simulated demand, a decision to expand its capacity is
initiated and is represented by the variable capacity on order. This simulation tries to analyse how the time
to acquire this capacity is influencing the system performance and tries to identify optimum time for
acquiring the capacity.
The important condition which is considered during the simulation is that there will be no
outsourcing and capacity gap initiates an expansion action. Since the purpose of the model is to analyse the
impact of time to acquire capacity on various system parameters, the models are simulated for 72 months
under the following four conditions, which is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Installation cost details

Sl. No.
Time to Acquire Capacity

(in months)
Unit Installation Cost
3500
12
3000
18
2700
24
2500
(Rs. / product)
The initial values of the other key parameters are as shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Initial values of parameters

Parameters
Values with Units
Productivity of machines
0.6 Dmnl
Productivity of workers
0.5 Dmnl
Initial Workers
50 workers
Average Salary
Rs. 10,000 per worker
Coverage (Inventory)
1 Month
Weeks of backlog desirable
1 Week
Time to Adjust Production
4 Months
Selling price per unit
Rs. 50/ unit
Outsourcing cost
BMIC 2015| page67

The simulated graphs are depicted in Figure 3 to Figure 10. The simulation analysis has been
carried out on the key parameters like capacity on order, capacity, inventory, total costs, profits, high value
of sales (i.e. Maximum sales occurred during the simulated time period).
actual demand
40,000
products
35,000
30,000
3
25,000
12
16
24
actual demand : For 72 TAC

24
18
12
6
1
1
4
1
1
2
48
1
2
3
64
1
2
3
4
56
4 1
1 2
4
1
32
40
Time (Month)
3
2
23 4
34
41
3
4
2
2
20,000
1
4
2
3
72
2
3
3
4
Figure 3: Demand forecast

The demand is considered to be stochastic and is fluctuating in the range of 20,000 to 28000
products per month (Figure 1).
Production capacity on order

6,000
1
products
4,500
1
4
3,000
1,500
1
2
3
4
4
2
3
16

24
: For
: For
: For
: For
72
72
72
72
3
4
32
40
Time (Month)
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
24
18
12
6
2
3 4
1
2
3
4
3
4
Figure 4: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Production Capacity on Order
BMIC 2015| page68
72
1
2
3
4
1
34
64
1
2
3
4
3 4
56
1
2
48

Production capacity
40,000
products
32,500
25,000
4
4
17,500
12 3
12
3 4 12 3 4 12 3 41 2 3 41 2
3 4
4
34
34
1 2
1 2
2
1 2
1
10,000
0
16
Production capacity : For

72
72
72
72
24
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
24
18
12
6
32
40
Time (Month)
1
1
2
48
1
2
1
2
3
4
56
1
2
3
4
64
1
2
3
72
1
2
3
Figure 5: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Capacity
From the graphs of production capacity on order (Figure 4) and production capacity (Figure 5) it
can be observed that for the forecasted demand there will be shortage of available capacity during the initial
period.
Hence, the production capacity on orders starts increasing in the 2nd month and the available
production capacity increases from the 3rd month onwards.
For TAC 6 months, it can be observed that the capacity increases to around 23000 products by 15 th
month which then onwards gradually increases and reaches around 23954 products by 36 th month. But it can
be observed that for the other 3 simulations that is TAC of 12, 18 and 24 months the increasing rate are very
close to each other but when this is compared with TAC 6 months there is a drop by 10% w.r.t. others. It can
also be observed that by 36th month the capacity will be around 23000 for all the simulation.
Finished goods inventory

60,000
4
products
45,000
4
4
30,000
15,000
4 12 3
2 3
1
4
3
1 2
4
3
1 2
1 2
3
1 2
3
1 2
4
12
2
1
0
0
Finished
Finished
Finished
Finished
goods
goods
goods
goods
16
inventory : For
inventory : For
inventory : For
inventory : For
24
72
72
72
72
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
32
40
Time (Month)
24
18
12
6
48
1
2
1
2
3
4
56
1
2
3
4
72
1
2
3
4
64
3
4
1
2
3
Figure 6: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Inventory

It can be observed that the finished goods inventory (Figure 6) increases drastically as the TAC
reduces from 24 months to 6 months. It can also be noted that during the 72 nd month there is about 50%
increase in the inventory value when compared with TAC of 12 months and this percentage gap is lower (of
around 25%) when comparison is made between TAC of 12, 18 and 24 months.
BMIC 2015| page69

total cost
20 M
rupees
15 M
3 41
2
3
1
2
10 M
1
3
5M
3
4
3
4
3 4
12
23
4
3
34
0
0
total cost
total cost
total cost
total cost
8
: For
: For
: For
: For
72
72
72
72
16
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
24
18
12
6
24
32
40
Time (Month)
1
2
1
2
3
4
48
1
2
3
4
56
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
64
1
2
3
72
1
2
3
3
4
Figure 7: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Total Cost
profit
80 M
55 M
rupees
3
4
30 M
4
5M
12
3
-20 M
0
2
41
4
2
1
4
2
1
3
16
profit : For 72 TAC 24

24
1
3
2
3
1
4
2
1
3
2
32
40
Time (Month)
48
56

64
72
3
Figure 8: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Profit
It can be inferred from the simulation graph that even though the costs are higher initially for
acquiring the capacity in a smaller duration of time, i.e. 6 months during the 4 th month, it can be observed
that the costs decreases drastically from other simulations then onwards (Figure 7). This is also been
reflected in the simulation graph for profits where the profits drop to a minimum value for TAC of 6 months
during the 4th month but then onwards it shoots up and reaches a maximum value of about 38 million during
the 36th month when compared with the other simulations (Figure 8). Hence it is always recommended to
acquire capacity as fast as possible to gain the maximum benefits without losing any opportunity costs.
BMIC 2015| page70

shortage
100
75
dmnl
50
3
41
25
3
4
12
1
4
2
3
0
0
shortage
shortage
shortage
shortage
8
: For
: For
: For
: For
72
72
72
72
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
12
2
3
16
24
32
40
Time (Month)
24
18
12
6
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
48
12
34
2 3
4
72
1
2
3
4
1
4
64
1
2
12
56
1
2
Figure 9: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on Shortage

This is one of the important indicators representing the shortage of products created because of the
gap between the production capacity and demand. It can be observed that the shortage will be higher initially
with a maximum value of around 100 products but as the capacity is acquired shortages reduces and reaches
a minimum value of around 15 products during the 36 th month which might even become zero value if
simulated for further along the time (Figure 9).
High value of sales
40,000
products
30,000
4
20,000
3
4
3
3
1 2
4 12
1 2
4
3
1 2
34
3
1 2
4
1
3 4
3 41 2 3 41 2
3 4
12
2
12
10,000
0
0
High value
High value
High value
High value
8
of sales
of sales
of sales
of sales
: For
: For
: For
: For
16
72
72
72
72
24
TAC
TAC
TAC
TAC
24
18
12
6
32
40
Time (Month)
1
1
2
1
2
3
4
56
1
2
3
4
48
1
2
3
4
64
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
72
3
4
Figure 10: Influence of Time to Adjust Capacity on High Value of Sales

This is another important indicator indicating the maximum value of sales reached during the
simulation for 36 months. The maximum sales occurred are about 25000 products for TAC of 6 months but
this drops as the TAC increases indicating the loss of opportunity costs due to the lack of available capacity
(Figure 10).
5. Conclusion and Future Scope:

From the simulation and analysis it can be concluded that it most preferable to acquire the capacity
by 6 months or if this is not possible, the capacity should be acquired by at least 12 months. Otherwise it
would increase the cost and decrease profit level on a greater margin compared to 6 and 12 month scenario.
Hence it can be understood that the optimum time for acquiring the capacity is around 6 months to 12
months. The other important aspect which can be observed is that the maximum capacity under the current
condition is about 24000 products for the next 72 months of simulation. With this information manager can
plan his capacity expansion decision most effectively by deciding on the number of phases required for the
BMIC 2015| page71

expansion of this capacity. It can be inferred that the simulation of the current system will be of great help
for the managers in their decision making process and help in taking strategic decisions. It is a vital tool for
the managers if implemented appropriately and will definitely help in attaining a competitive edge over the
others. The simulation carried out in this paper is for time to acquire capacity. Future studies can focus on
studying the impact of other key parameters that could help in identifying the best possible fundamental
solution rather than settling with temporary solutions which may recur again or could result in side effects
gradually worsening the situation. The current study was carried out without considering the outsourcing
aspect. Future studies can carry out a comparison of this study against outsourcing strategies and focus on
capacity expansion strategies which would result in a higher realization of benefits to the firm in their
decision making process. A similar study can also be extended to other systems like assembly line or service
system.
References
Booth D. And Vertinsky I., (1993), The strategic capacity-expansion model for a newsprint firm. IEEE
Transactions on Engineering Management, Volume.40, Issue: 2, 1993, pp. 162-174.
Blumenfeld D.E, Daganzo C.F., Frick M. C., and Gonsalvez D.J.A., (1999) "Impact of manufacturing
response time on retailer inventory", International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, Volume.19, Issue: 8, pp.797 81.
Burns J. R., and Janamanchi B., (2006), Strategies for Reducing Inventory Costs and Mitigating the
Bullwhip Effect in Supply Chains: A Simulation Study.
Huang X., (2008), Capacity Planning in a General Supply Chain with Multiple Contract Types, Doctor of
Philosophy Report, Available Online: Retrieved on 27/8/15.
Karabuk S, and David W., (2011), Coordinating Strategic Capacity Planning In The Semiconductor
Industry, Technical Report 99T-11, Department of IMSE, Lehigh University, [Online:
http://www.lehigh.edu/~sdw1/karabuk1.pdf] Retrieved on 27/8/15.
Mahadevan B (2010): Operations Management theory and Practice 2 nd edition, Pearson.
Orcun S., Uzsoy R., and Kempf K., (2006), Using system dynamics simulations to compare capacity
models for production planning, Proceedings of winter simulation conference.
Chittori S,S., Rodrigues L.L.R., and Shetty, D.S., (2011), Influence of marketing efforts on production
capacity planning: A system Dynamics approach, International Conference on Advances in Supply
Chain and Manufacturing Management, Kharagpur, India, December 1618.
Sterman J. D (2000), Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modelling for a Complex World, Irwin
McGraw-Hill, pp. 845.
Tersine R. J and Tersine M, G., (1990), Inventory Reduction: Preventive and Corrective Strategies, The
University of Oklahoma, Volume.1, Issue: 2.
BMIC 2015| page72

CULTURAL TOURISM IN NAGA VILLAGE,WEST JAVA PROVINCE,

INDONESIA
(AN ACTOR NETWORK THEORY APPROACH)
Arief Faizal Rachman and Amalia Mustika
Abstract
Cultural and environmental tourism development in Naga Village constructed by the high demand
of visitors that come to Naga Village. This is a social process that contested by stakeholders, such as local
community, tour operators and local government. This entire stakeholder has their own self-interest, as the
elements of their stated social concept. Different values of elements between stakeholders created interest
between them. The research used explorative and descriptive methodology to find out actor network theory
on the physical and social transformation between stakeholders. The results of this research are local
community of Naga Village open their selves on the dynamics of tourism there. Transformation happened in
Naga Village, both physics and functions transformation. Nevertheless, the culture and environment of Naga
Village sustain till the present time.
Keywords: actor network theory, transformation, cultural destination, sustainable tourism
INTRODUCTION
Kampung Naga is located in the area of Neglasari Village, Salawu District, Tasikmalaya Regency,
West Java Province, Indonesia. It takes six hours drive from Jakarta as capital city of Indonesia. Kampung
Naga is a village which is inhabited by a community in a very strong tradition of holding the remainder
ancestors. The differences are visible when compared with other communities outside Kampung Naga. The
community are living in the framework of an atmosphere in a traditional simplicity and environmental
wisdom.
Kampung Naga is located not far from the main road that connects with the city of Garut,
Tasikmalaya. Villages are located in a fertile valley, with the boundaries, in the West Village by Naga
forest. The forest is sacred because it is located in the ancestral cemetery. In the south is the rice fields, and
in the north and east are surrounded by river Ciwulan, which the source of water comes from Mount Cikuray
in Garut. The distance from the town of Tasikmalaya to Kampung Naga is approximately 30 kilometers,
while the distance from the city of Garut is 26 kilometers. To reach Kampung Naga from Garut,
Tasikmalaya, people must climb down the ladder in the wall to the bank of the river Ciwulan with the slope
about 45 degrees with a distance of approximately 500 meters. Then through the paths into Kampung Naga.
The settlement is easier to visit than the most ancient Sundanese village in Baduy, located in Banten
province, western part of Java island.
According to the data from Neglasari village, the surface soil of Kampung Naga hills with those
used for land productivity can be fertile. Area of land in Kampung Naga is one of half a hectare, mostly used
for housing, yards, ponds, and the rest is used for agriculture rice harvested twice a year.
The social construction of technology trying to see social processes that formed in a certain time
frame. In the process, there are social groups that have an interest (self-interest), so that it can make a
difference that can lead to the onset of the collision even conflict. The process of experiencing the push-pull
between groups related to a series of norms, ultimately a social construction (Yuliar, 2009).
The uniqueness of the cultural life of the community of Naga Village have appeal to Naga Village
grow and develop as one of the tourist attraction in Tasikmalaya Regency, West Java Province. However,
the development of tourism in Naga Village result in a change of social transformation in the region. This
transformation is in fact involves many social groups, namely the local communities, the tourism industry,
and government.
The changes that occur in Naga Village from the first until now created due to the interaction
between related groups in Naga Village. The relationship between social groups related to the Naga Village
culture exists that line, but there is not. This is because of self-interest is different, so it lead to resistance
BMIC 2015| page73

from certain parties against the policies established. This resistance can create stabilization but on the other
hand can also trigger the conflict (destabilization).
Social transformation in Naga Village basically occur stably with the agreement of the parties
involved. However, on the other hand, this process is also experiencing a prolonged polemic even conflict
until finally a stabilization or destabilization. To find out the social transformation of the determination in
Naga Village tourism policy it is necessary to a study by the actor network theory approach.
Research question
Research question of this study is how social transformation shaped sustainable
destination of Naga Village
cultural
Research objectives
The objectives of study to determine the social transformation that occurs when the tourism activity
into an activity in Naga Village. Tourism destinations is an area is interconnected spatial, temporal and
sociocultural, so it has a certain image, in which there are components of tourism and community elements
interact.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tourist destination
In a destination area, there are several components that must be held in the planning and
development of tourism, consisting of a tourist attraction, accommodation facilities, restaurants, souvenir
shops, tourist information centers, shops, roads, transport services. In tourism, these components are
practically necessary elements of tourist destination (Spillane, 1991) is a tourist attraction, facilities,
infrastructure, transportation, hospitality and security. In addition to physical artifacts that are required in the
development of tourism destinations, there are components of the non-physical which also determines the
development of tourism destinations in the region.
The attraction of Naga Village present a daily life of the village where mostly are Sundanese
people. Upon arrival at the village, tourist will be welcomed by a local people that dedicated himself as a
local guide. He took the tourist to the village where nature-based attraction, a Ciwulan river and a forbidden
forest protected by local custom. Finally, after twenty minutes on foot, tourist will see a traditional staged
house (Suhamihardja and Sariyun, 1992) as highlite of the tourist attraction.
The facilities of Naga Village is a traditional one when they make toilet and bathing shower into a
bamboo shower and bamboo wall. They use a local house as tourists accommodation and place to eat.
Souvernir shops are provided by the locals. There is a function room that can be used as a meeting room for
discussion with visitors (mostly students and researchers).
The infrastructure is a simple one. There is no electricity network, but locals use battery for black
and white TV, radio and cellphone charging. There is only one stairs pathway for accessibility. But
traditionally, there is a lot of water supply for daily needs and tourist. Tourist information is availbale by
local people where they make a small business unit called Sauyunan.
There is no transportation on the site. But it is easy to get to the entrance gate of destination
because located enroute of national road. There is also a parking lot provided by local tourism authority of
Tasikmalaya Regency. The only pathway to the village is four hundreds stairs that connected parking lot to
down to the village.
As it is a traditional village, it has good level hospitality and security. Warm greeting and locally
type of service will welcome all the visitors to the village. Even the visitors are allowed to see their part of
local house, such as kitchen, bedroom and family room. There is good interaction between host and guest at
destination.
Elements of culture
Naga Village is a village that still holds the traditional Sundanese tradition Wiwitan and has lived
in the region for hundreds of years. Naga Village society still holds the traditions of indigenous Sundanese
culture in everyday life, which can be seen from the seven elements of culture (Koentjaraningrat, 1994).
Seventh cultural elements that make a social construction in Naga Village.
The first element of culture is religion; believes religion is the religion of Sunda Wiwitan ancestors,
but also run distance-teaching of Islam. The second is the language; the use of Sundanese as everyday
language and can speak in Indonesian. Also known as the literature of ancient Sunda Sunda with writing that
BMIC 2015| page74

is similar to writing ancient Java. The third elements of culture is a system of kinship; lineage more
dominant on paternity (paternalistic) and nuclear family consisting of a father, mother and children.
Meanwhile, calls to the older man is indeed considered while the female called teteh and others.
The fourth is cultural elements livelihood systems; most are agriculture-based society that is still
known their confidence in the rice goddess Dewi Sri as the Sunda public confidence, it is also known in
Javanese culture. The fifth element is the culture of science and technology systems; science used is usually
associated with subsistence farmers, the science of astrology is associated with a good season to start
farming, and is also known by the Sundanese calendar. Meanwhile, the technology is also largely used for
agricultural tools and tools for cultivating paddy harvest, such as plow rice fields and rice is a traditional
cutter ani-ani. So also with the concept of environmental sustainability for local communities.
The sixth is the cultural element of leadership system, known as Kuncen or traditional leaders.
Leadership in Naga Village structured not join directly from the government, so there are other functions of
a formal leader (Village Head) and informal leader (Kuncen).
The seventh element is distinctively art system Sundanese people like art with a bamboo musical
instrument, called the angklung, rhymes, songs Sundanese (songs).
Cultural Tourism which is a type of tourism, which motivated people to travel due to the
attractiveness of the art and culture of a place or region. So the object of his visit is the ancestral heritage of
ancient objects. Yoshimura and Wall (2010), Burton (1995) stated that cultural expression come in both
tangible and intabgible form, with associated stories and interpretations.
Actor Network Theory
Crawford (2004) describe that Actor network theory (ANT), also known as enrolment theory or the
sociology of translation, emerged during the mid-1980s, primarily with the work of Bruno Latour,
MichelCallon,andJohnLaw. ANTisaconceptualframe for exploring collective sociotechnical processes,
whose spokespersons have paid particular attention to science and technologicactivity. Stemming froma
Science and Technologies Studies (STS) interestintheelevatedstatusof scientificknowledge and counterto
heroicaccountsorinnovationmodels, ANT suggests that the work of scienceis not fundamentally different from
other social activities .ANT privileges neither natural (realism) nor cultural (social constructivism) accounts
of
scientific
production,
asserting
instead
that
scienceisaprocessofheterogeneousengineering
inwhichthesocial,technical, conceptual, andtextualarepuzzled together (orjuxtaposed) and transformed
(ortranslated).
Crawford (2004) also stated that asoneofmanyanti-essentialistmovements, ANT does not
differentiate between science (knowledge) and technology (artifact). Similarly, proponents do not subscribe
to the division between society and nature, truth and falsehood, agency and structure, context and content,
human and non- human, microlevel phenomenon and macrolevel phenomenon, or knowledge and power.
Nature and society, subjectivityandstructure,and factandfictionareall effects
of collectiveactivity.
ANTadvancesa relationalmateriality, the material extension of semiotics, which presupposes that all entities
achieve significance in relation to others. Science, then, is a network of heterogeneous elements realizedwithinasetofdiversepractices.
Law (2007) assumed that nothinghasreality or form outside the enactment of those relations.Its
studies explore and characterise the websandthepracticesthatcarry them. Like other material-semiotic
approaches, theactor-network approachthusdescribestheenactmentof materially and discursively
heterogeneousrelationsthat produceandreshuffle all kinds of actors including objects, subjects, humanbeings,
machines, animals,nature,ideas,organisations,inequalities,scaleandsizes,and geographicalarrangements.
In the study of transformation in Naga Village will collaborate between the actor network theory
with the tourism sector which forms the concept of cultural tourism as a form of social construction in Naga
Village. In the theory of social construction, development artifacts seen as a process that can not be
predicted, according to the circumstances at the time (contingent process). According to this view, these
changes can not be analyzed by following a fixed path and unidirectional (unidireksional), but refers to a
number of determinants are heterogeneous. The changes are explained by reference to a number of
differences which could be an obstacle even can lead to conflicts between social groups technologist. Each
group has conceptual framework and the interests of each (self-interest). The social groups involved in the
preparation of strategies to win the interests and goals, and forming technology in accordance with their
respective plans (Yuliar, 2009).
BMIC 2015| page75

In the following review will describe the factors forming the social construction of determination in
the study area. Identification of social groups as actors or social groups that had a role in creating an artifact
of social processes that occur in an area. The social group is necessary to understand how the process of
technology development). On the diagram, the relationship between social groups is illustrated as follows
(Yuliar, 2009) that is relevant social groups and framework conception and conception framework elements.
METHODOLOGY
The method used is descriptive research method with explorative approach to describe and explore
results of field observations. Descriptive method is a procedure of identification of problems investigated by
describing circumstances (subject & object) research during the study based on the facts as they appear
(Bungin, 2007). This method is not limited to data collection, but also includes the analysis and
interpretation of the meaning of these data, measure the dimensions of a symptom, held a symptom
classification, set standards, establish relationships between symptoms were found and others. Peterson
(1987) stated that qualitative research is used to adress a number of different types of objectives in the
research process.
Data collection procedure
Data collection in this study consisted of primary and secondary data. In this research emphasized
using snowball interview technique, a method of sampling to see a network of relationships between
people/organizations. This method is also to identify a case on a network that analogy based snowball that
starts with a small portion then becomes large. As for the informants are:
1. Patrick Silano, a professional tour guide, 58 years old, live in Jakarta
2. Cahyan, member of Naga Village, 48 years old, live in Naga Village
3. Local tourism authority
Data Analysis Methods
It used descriptive method to facilitate researchers in determining the unit of analysis, the type of
data used, methods of data collection, analysis and desired output in this study. Results of the interviews will
be discussed and analyzed as a result of research. This research was conducted on January - April 2015, held
at Naga Village, Salawu, Tasikmalaya.
The analysis process begins with the identification of the social groups associated with social
transformation in Naga Village. After using the snowball method in the determination of social groups are
involved, then discovered several groups of stakeholders in Naga Village social groups identified as directly
involved with the social transformation of the mine tour in Naga Village. In Table 1.1 can be seen in the
social groups involved in the formation of the social construction of cultural tourism in Naga Village.
Table 1 Social group identification of Naga Village
Group identification of Naga Village
Tour Operator
Member of Naga Village
Local tourism authority
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
According to the data from Neglasari village, the surface soil of Kampung Naga hills with those
used for land productivity can be fertile. Area of land in Kampung Naga is one of half a hectare, mostly used
for housing, yards, ponds, and the rest is used for agriculture rice harvested twice a year.
BMIC 2015| page76

Language
Belief
Occupation
Leadership
Science &
Technology
Naga Village
Kinship
Art
Figur 1.1 Before tourism came to Naga Village

Figure 1.1 shows the condition of Naga Village before the arrival tourism. The village is only a
traditional village with agriculture life background. The term traditional become stronger because there is
still practised of ancient sundanese belief in there. The seven of elements of culture designed the village into
most traditional village compared another village in the area. The leader of the village informed (Mudzakir,
2015) that there is no need for Naga Village become a tourist destination and it is never stated. Just because
of the hospitality of locals which willing to welcome the visitors.
At the beginning of 1970s there visitors came, both domestics and international, to Naga Village.
Artifacts/physical transformation as an attractiveness of Naga Village undergo physical changes along with
the development of tourism activities in the region. Promotional efforts made by the interested parties such
as local governments and travel agents in an attempt to sell a tour product. Naga Village once just a
Sundanese community of civilized society today has its attraction for visitors to come.
Below the figure after tourism came to Naga Village that shape a new social construction at the
destination.
BMIC 2015| page77

Leadership
Belief
Language
Occupation
Indigenous science
& technology
Kinship
Art
Naga Village
Attraction
Facilities
Locals as a guide
Infrastructure
Tourists/visitors
Tourism authority
--------------------
Tour operators
Accessibility
Transportation
Figur 1.2 After tourism came to Naga Village, there is a transformation

The role of travel agents in bringing tourists (both foreign and domestic) to visit Naga Village have
a significant impact on the positive image of the uniqueness of Naga Village. A positive image that is
packaged in a tour that can be enjoyed by participants. In fact, there is the movement of people (visitors) to
and from Naga Village is going on weekends or weekdays. Value increases the attractiveness of Naga
Village. In the past that did the movement to and from the village of Naga are just local people only.
Interaction between the host and guest is more than just a meeting between two different cultures,
but already there is a desire for the host to accommodate the needs of tourists who come. In contrast, the
visitors had no hope of the added value of the purchased travel package to what is seen from a visit to Naga
Village.
Interactions in this appeal is reinforced with a scenario referred to as a tourist trip itinerary (travel
route). To realize the added value of the itinerary, the tour guide is also an important role in providing the
interpretation of the elements of the existing culture. By relying on the authenticity of Naga Village culture
that the tourism activity is referred to as cultural tourism. Tourists visiting Naga Village implications for the
provision of tourism facilities in Naga Village.
Physical Transformation
This happens to support tourism activities such as the stairs to Naga Village. There are about four
hundred stairs to get to Naga Village. Previously existing stairs connecting Naga Village. However, the
existing stairs have not been given a touch of technology use cement materials. Physical transformation rung
occurs when an existing rung repaired by providing the use of processed cement and sand. Physical
transformation of rungs are used to facilitate tourists visiting Naga Village. Then the physical transformation
BMIC 2015| page78

of the parking lot at the beginning of the Naga Village never thought to make a small parking area for
vehicles and buses. Artefacts creation of parking area is intended to support the accessibility and
convenience of handling the arrival of tourists who come by car. Physical transformation occurs because of
the need for setting a vehicle that will be parked.
Ample parking space and made of asphalt in the construction aided by local government. Physical
transformation for infrastructure mostly built by the government. Further parking area is developing into one
of the local revenue for Local Tourism Authority of Tasikmalaya district which picked visitors fee through
parking fees.
Physical of traditional toilet concepts in Naga Village is still a traditional form, known by the name
of bamboo shower (pancuran). It used water resources from local natural water sources. As the name
implies, this shower has no tap water, so the flow continues to fit the availability of natural water in Naga
Village.
While the toilets which are in the vicinity of this parking area is provided for visitors who come.
Physical transformation in the concept of using the shower toilet that had been transformed into a semimodern toilet by using faucets and tubs. This toilet management by communities around the parking area
also use the economic approach, namely with the implementation of a paid toilet Rp. 1,000, - / person.
Facilitating the transformation of food stalls and drink is one component of the tour. Therefore, the
tourists who do visit also buy food and drink available around the parking lot. Factors tropical climate and
high humidity cause thirst of tourists visiting Naga Village, hence the desire to buy a drink.
Physical transformations arise when the opportunity to sell food and drinks to tourists. Physical
design eat and drink stalls this simple form to take advantage of available land around the parking lot. There
are also food stalls and drink whose location lies on the route of travel (by foot) to and from the village of
Naga.
However, the provision of food and beverages on the existing stalls can not present the
characteristic of Sundanese food overall. Physical transformation with the advent of food stalls and drink is
not functioning serving typical Sundanese culture.
Souvenir or gift is an interesting artifacts to be purchased as indicating that somebody had been to
the area. Moreover, if the craft artifacts or souvenirs symbolically it signifies a certain culture that looks at
the shape, color, writing or other symbolic meanings typical. Souvenir itself becomes a form of physical
transformation of culture in tourism results were priced in dollars to benefit sales. The existence of a
souvenir shop also add physical transformation in the environment Naga Village. The design and layout of
the neighborhood adorn souvenir shop, in the hope something is bought by the tourists who visit.
Tourist Information Center and Guides Association Naga Village is a building construction for the
management of tourism activities by the local community. Social institutions resource guides have been
around a long time. Physical transformation for this building reinforces the presence of Information and
Guides Association Naga Village.
Furthermore, the handling of the visitors that come staffed by officers who have the responsibility
through job description (job description), standard work tools of office (for stationery, table, chair, work
schedules and computer and internet networks).
Transformation in Function
Disbudpar (tourism authority) Tasikmalaya regency occurred in Naga Village travel policy
formulation, the government initiated a social group, has several sections or work units directly involved
with the development of the economic sector in Naga Village.
This government work units that are directly related to tourism activities in Tasikmalaya District,
particularly destinations Naga Village. As the holder of tourism regulator in Tasikmalaya District, this
government work unit in charge of managing the attractiveness of tourist attractions that exist in the region.
Naga Village tourism management by local governments Tasikmalaya implications for policies
related to the elements forming a tourist destination, which consists of representatives from tourist attraction,
facilities, infrastructure, accessibility and hospitality of the local people.
Transformation in the travel industry tourism is a major driving factor in making Naga Village into
a cultural tourist attraction famous. Without the activity of a travel route of travel (itinerary) through
Tasikmalaya regency then maybe Naga Village is not well known as it is today.
Naga Village was first visited by a group of foreign tourists who managed his journey by tour
operator in 1978. Subsequently after developed by Pacto Tour & Travel, Naga Village become better
BMIC 2015| page79

known since packaged into an Java Bali overland tour, started from city of Jakarta, Bandung, Tasikmalaya
pass, Ciamis and then headed towards the provinces of Central Java and East Java (Rachman, Hutagalung,
Silano, 2013).
From interviews with fellow travel managers in Java and Bali, Naga Village obtained information
that still has a good appeal and has its own uniqueness. In terms of financing, a visit to Naga Village is not
too expensive, but tourists are very high satisfaction after visiting Naga Village.
Travelers is one component unit of this study because without tourists, a tourist destination will not
successfully become a place that gives value to the economy, culture and environment. With the tourists
there will be tourism production of capital and labor in Naga Village.
Domestic tourists are tourists who come from countries Indonesia itself. However, this could be
domestic travelers have different cultural backgrounds to Naga Village culture. Thus there was a significant
interaction between visitors who have different cultures (eg, tourists come from Sumatra) with the host.
From interviews with domestic travelers obtained information that Naga Villagae has a unique interest
because they live with their original culture, with houses that still traditional, no electricity and naturally.
Most of the domestic tourists come from the students, student or university academics who are conducting
research and mostly from urban area.
The society of Naga Village traditional agriculture is still practiced customs society characterized
by Sundanese culture. As stated earlier discussion to determine the characteristic of the culture, it can be
known through the seven elements of culture. For people who still adhere to customs Sunda this Wiwitan
then the implication is to be a unique thing in the midst of the people who had entered the modern era.
At first, people in Naga Village is not created as a tourist attraction. There is no need for local
communities to make Naga Village as a tourist destination in West Java. However, it is precisely the nature
of authenticity is what ultimately becomes a pull factor of tourists, both domestic and foreign. At this
process occurs friction values have a lot to make adjustments, both from the host society Naga Village,
tourists and government.
Transformation at the local tourist services in question here is any form of service in the form of
traveler handling when first come, enjoy a visit to leave Naga Village. Transformation function interesting is
when the concept of service science owned by the local community in dealing with tourists.
Services is a concept of hospitality to consumers (tourists). In terms of hospitality, the people of
Naga Village own soul hospitality and respect every guest who visited. But when the visit in the form of
tourism, the concept of hospitality in Naga Village authenticity becomes more developed to support tourism
activities through skill, knowledge and attitude required.
One of the travel services provided are guides Naga Village. One of skill owned by the guides is
the ability to speak in providing information to a foreign English language. English skills must be obtained
through a process of education and training. English is used when there are foreign tourists who come to
Naga Village. Knowledge that is owned by a tour guide talking about the absolute Naga Village Naga
Village culture. Knowledge of Naga Village obtained through information obtained from generation to
generation from parents to their children.
Literature studies are also needed to enrich the knowledge gained earlier from tacit knowledge.
Attitude (behavior) a guide in Naga Village governed by ethics guides available at Naga Village Guides
Association. However, ethics guides at Naga Village is also strengthened by the spirit of maintaining and
preserving the cultural and environmental Naga Village. As someone who deal directly with tourists during
the visit, guides become the leader in providing information and positive image for Naga Village.
CONCLUSION
Naga Village has a unique tourist destination, which can be seen in terms of physical, historical
relics and culture can still be found until now and serve as an asset for the development of cultural tourism.
However, in addition to physical function, at Naga Village also has a non-physical attractiveness. This can
be seen from the social and cultural life of society is growing. Preservation of Sundanese culture is very
strong look at Naga Village.
Based on the analysis of social transformations in Naga Village as a tourist attraction, it can be
concluded that formulate social transformation, both physical and functions in Naga Village used approach
to the social construction of technology. This concept starts from a series of processes, namely identifying
BMIC 2015| page80

the social groups associated with the enforcement policy of the tourism sector by local governments
Tasikmalaya.
REFERENCES
Bungin, B. 2007. Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta: Kencana
Burton, R. 1995. Travel Geography. London: Pittman Publishing
Crawford, C.S. 2004. Actor Network Theory in Ritzer Encyclopedia.
Harman, G. 2009. Prince of Networks: Bruno Latour and Metaphysics. Melbourne: re.press
Yoshimura, M., Wall, G. 2010. The Reconstruction of Atayal Identity in Wulai, Taiwan in Hitchcock, M.,
King, V.T., Parnwell, M. Heritage Tourism In Southeast Asia. Denmark: NIAS Press.
Koentjaraningrat.1993. Manusia dan Kebudayaan di Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit Djambatan.
Latour, B. 2005. Reassembling the Social. Oxford: University Press
Law, J. 2007. Actor Network Theory and Material Semiotics, version of 25th April 2007
availableathttp://www.heterogeneties.net/publications/Law2007ANTandMaterialSemiotics.pdf,
(downloaded on 10th January, 2015).
Mudzakir, A. 2015. Tanah dan Identitas Masyarakat Adat: Studi Kasus Komunitas Kampung Naga,
Tasikmalaya, Jawa Barat. Page :7
Peterson, I.K. 1987. Qualitative Research Methods for the Travel and Tourism Industry in Travel, Tourism
and Hospitality Research (A Handbook for Managers and Researchers). Edited by J.R. Brent
Ritchie and Charles R. Goeldner. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rachman, A.F., Hutagalung, M.H., Silano, P. 2013. Teori dan Praktik Pemandu Wisata: City Sightseeing,
Excursion and Overland Tour). Jakarta: Media Bangsa.
Spillane, J.J. 1991. Ekonomi Pariwisata: Sejarah dan Prospeknya. Jogjakarta: Kanisius
Suhamihardja, A.S., Sariyun, Y. 1992. Kesenian Arsitektur Rumah dan Upacara Adat Naga Village Jawa
Barat. Jakarta: Proyek Pembinaan Media Kebudayaan
Yuliar, S. 2009. Tata Kelola Teknologi: Perspektif Teori Jaringan Aktor. Bandung: Penerbit ITB.
BMIC 2015| page81

Fund Flows and Asset Allocation Behavior of Mutual Fund Investors

Bhutorn Sukwanitch
Abstract
This study examines the effect of market and economic condition (e.g. the volatility of stock
market, the volatility of bond yield, CDS price, Term spread) on the mutual fund flows and asset allocation
behavior of Thais mutual fund investors. These conditions have the significant effect to the mutual fund
flows and asset allocation behavior. The result indicates that there is a positive effect between equity funds
excess flow and volatility of the stock market. But the negative effect between fixed income funds excess
flow and the volatility of the stock market. This study concludes that Thais investors tend to invest in riskier
asset when the stock markets volatility increase, but tend to allocate their funds away from equity funds
when the economic condition is poor. And in the volatile condition investor tend to invest more in growth
stock funds. Finally, the result also shows that LTF/RMF investor and non-LTF/RMF investor have a
different behavior, the behavior of LTF/RMF investor is influenced by the seasonality effect more than
market or economic condition.
Keywords: Type your keywords here, separated by semicolons ;
1. Introduction
In financial management area, how investor made a decision to buy or redeem the mutual funds and
allocate the asset between asset classes, the interesting question that arise among the asset management
companies and academic researcher. In the financial market, especially in the mutual fund industry, there are
many asset classes that the investor can decide to invest, e.g. Stock, Bond, Mutual funds etc. However each
asset class is not truly separate from each other. There are many evidences which show the effect of
changing in behavior or characteristic of one asset class to another different asset class. E.g. there was a
paper that studies the relationship between Fund flow in mutual fund and stock market. Warther (1995)
shows that flow into equity funds is correlated with concurrent and subsequent market returns, while market
returns are negatively related to the subsequent flow of the monthly data.
Moreover, Economic condition and Market volatility seem to have an effect on the mutual funds
asset allocation, e.g. John Chalmers (2013) founded an evidence that volatility in the U.S. bond market and
stock market, default spread and economic crisis event have a negative impact to mutual fund flows but
positive impact on redemption of equity funds. Moreover Xiao Jun (2014) who study the mutual fund flow
on Chinese market founded the flow-performance relationship that , in general investors purchase funds that
have high priority performance but when the stock market is highly volatile this relation seem to be weaken.
One determinant that affects the volatility of the stock market is The behavior of the investor, the
past studies show that investor behavior such as herding behavior has a direct linear impact on volatility
because herding is said to be present in a market when investors decide to imitate the trading practices of
those they consider to be better informed. These volatility that caused from investor behavior can be found
often in the developed market, especially in the US which most of the investors are institutional investors.
Institutional investor is the investor who tends to be more informed and sophisticated and it is conjectured
that an individual investor tends to be less informed and are more speculative in nature. So, it was observed
that institution and individual investor did have a different impact on the volatility of a market. This
difference in impact lead to an interesting question whether the difference in stock market structure lead to
the different result? And how its going to affect the fund flow of mutual fund?
BMIC 2015| page82

In Thailand, more than half of trading activity in the stock market is individual investor. The Thai
SEC reports the statistic number of trading volume. The report (June 2015) shows that 57.17% of the trading
volume are driven by individual investors. Moreover, Thailand is accounted as one of the volatile market in
the world. (Rank as the third volatile market in ASEAN following after Indonesia and Philippines; Business
insider news)
The numbers of mutual fund in the world have been growing rapidly, especially in financial market
of emerging country due to its benefit to the individual investor such as portfolio diversification, asset
allocation. ICI (Investment company institution) reports, that from 2000 to 2013, total assets in mutual fund
worldwide has been increasing from $4 trillion in 1993 to almost $29 trillion in September 2013. And the
morning star direct report, that in the first quarter of 2015 mutual fund industry in Thailand is about
3.81515 Trillion compare to the SETs market capitalization is about 14.1 Trillion Bath (March 2015). So
the mutual fund industry is an important to Thais capital market because Mutual fund industry is about
3.815 Trillion
Sirri and Tufano (1998) have studied the determinant of flow into equity mutual fund and show that
Investor crowd to high performing fund, but failing to retreat lower performing fund at the same rate. This
complies with the studies by Ippolito (1992) Goetzmann and Peles (1997) Chevalier and Ellison (1997) Del
Guercio (2002). All of these studies are explained by asymmetric flow performance relationship. The
factor can be the cause of asymmetric relationship is included 1) Fee and Transaction cost 2) Marketing
effort of mutual fund dealer 3) Participation (Cost to attract new investors) 4) the investor clientele effect.
However, Xiao Jun (2014) argue that its not clear that the flow - performance relationship is due to
market volatility or due to the evolution of other factor and Xiao Jun (2014) show that Flow-Performance
relationship varies under different market condition which he use Chinese mutual funds sample and Chinese
market. Del Guercio and Tkac (2002) show that they constituted a substantial divergence in the pattern of
the flow-performance relationship between two investor groups retail mutual funds and fiduciary pension
funds in the US. Moreover, Economic condition and Market volatility seem to have an effect on the mutual
funds asset allocation, then Edwards and Zhang (1998) argue that the magnitude of fund flows into stock
and bond funds are affected significantly by stock and bond returns.Santini and Aber (1998) reports the
stock market performance and personal disposable income were positively related to new money flows into
mutual funds. This study also uses Thailand consumer confidence index as a control variable.
And from the Keynesian macroeconomic theory, John Hicks (1937) have developed the IS-LM
model which explains the relationship between interest rate and the output of the economy, such as the
investment-saving and liquidity preference-money supply, from the IS-LM model, interest rates are
determinant of the investment decision and also to the economic condition of financial markets. The term
spread (the difference between the yields on long-term and short-term government bond), it reflects an
expectation to future short-term interest rates. Fama&French (1989) show that Term spread is wide when
economic condition is good and narrow when economic condition is expected to be bad which later become
a standard practice among economists when forecasting output growth, recessions and predicting
economic condition. Another factor that can represent the economic condition is the default spread (the
difference between the yields on corporate bonds and Government bond) reflects the additional yield an
investor can earn from a security with more credit risk. Then the default spread is wide when the investor
afraid of default risk which imply to down-economic conditions, is narrow down when the investor have a
confidence to economic-condition. Which I use CDS Price of Thai-government 5-year bond (THAI CDS
USD SR 5Y D14) to represent the default spread
According to the asset allocation and investment decision theories, the allocation of assets across
different asset classes will depend on how risk averse an investor is, with less risk averse investors generally
allocating a greater proportion of their portfolios to riskier assets. ICI (Investment company institute)
reports that most mutual fund investors are still avoiding high-risk investments (high degree of risk
aversion) in their mutual fund portfolios. Moreover, ICI released the figures in its annual mutual fund study,
which it shows that investor which high risk aversion is the cause of strong fund flow to bond fund and
weak fund flow to equity fund. And another theory that studies the behavior of investor toward the risky
event is prospect theory The theory states that people make decisions based on the potential value of
losses and gains rather than the final outcome. Marc Oliver Rieger (2011) applies the prospect theory and
examine the degree of risk preference around the world and found that Thai investor have a higher loss
BMIC 2015| page83

aversion when compared with other countries. (Thailands degree of loss aversion is 0.722 while US is
0.69). This statistic is also an another reason, why Thailand is the interesting area to study further
Mark J. Kamstra (2013) has been shown the seasonal flow pattern for US. Mutual funds investors
seasonal pattern in mutual fund flows that is consistent with individual investors becoming more risk averse
in the fall, as the days shorten, and less risk averse in the winter/spring, as the days lengthen. And to Thais
investor, I think the nearly end of the year, which investors must buy a large amount of the mutual funds
unit in order to catch the tax-deductible benefit. So it would be the factor that makes investors behavior
change.
Finally, Our contribution to this study is following theses, first the prior research about the impact
of market, economic condition to the mutual fund flows are not considered on the seasonality pattern of fund
flow in Thailand because the largest group of investors is the tax-benefit investor who invest their money
into LTF/RMF funds. This characteristic of LTF/RMF investors is different from the normal investors. E.g.
they are less return-chasing and rational behavior. So this study has added the time-fixed effect (month
dummy variables) to investigate the seasonality flow. Second the previous research has used the realized
volatility, e.g. Standard deviation, sum square as the proxy for market volatility, but this study employ the
stochastic volatility which has been recognized as an accurate volatility model. Third the previous study
only focus on the asset allocation between asset classes of mutual funds, but this study extends more on the
different investment style of equity funds
2. Methodology
2.1 Sample
Thailand Mutual fund data obtained from Morning star Direct Database which provide much
information, e.g. Net asset value (NAV) in daily, weekly and monthly, type of funds, past return, etc. From
all available information between 1975 to 2014, There are 1405 Funds that can be classified as Openended Fund and Close-ended Fund or by asset class as Equity (533 Funds) Fixed Income (687
Funds) and Balanced Fund (117 Funds).
Table1. Summary of mutual funds sample
Number of mutual funds by Board category (till April 2015)

Equity
399
Fixed income
162
Commodities
47
Allocation
115
Miscellaneous
643
Property, Infrastructure, REITs
16
Total
1382
2.2 Identify the Excess flow and flow of mutual funds.

To examine which asset classes of mutual fund investor allocate their money in response to the
economic and market condition. For each funds I have to identify net flow (NF) by using monthly change in
asset (A) which resulting from net flow and adjust by the monthly return
BMIC 2015| page84

Where subscript i is denoted as the mutual fund i,

is the total asset of fund i at time t and
is
the return of fund i at time t. Next I aggregate the net flow of each fund by 3 asset classes (e.g. equity, fixed
income, allocation). Then, to identify the excess flow I apply the methods proposed by Frazzini and Lamot
(2008) which use net-asset-weighted flow (AWF) as a flow benchmark.
Where subscript j is denoted as the asset classes and it is the month and asset-weighted flow (AWF)
for asset class j in month t is the new flow that would go to class j if the investor allocated in proportion to
the relative net assets of class j in month t-1. Then, the excess flow for category j
is constructed as an
actual flow for category j less asset-weighted flow
And for the flow of each fund, then calculate the percentage of net flow, which is the net flow
scaled by the fund's total assets
(
2.3 Identify Stochastic Volatility of the stock market (GARCH 1-1)

This paper defines the stock market volatility by a stochastic process, to study the effect of
volatility of the stock market to the decision of mutual fund investor, this paper, assuming that the volatility
of the stock market return is a stochastic process rather than a constant.
The Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity (GARCH) model is the popular

model for estimating stochastic volatility. It assumes that the randomness of the variance process varies with
the variance, as opposed to the square root of the variance as in the Heston model. The standard GARCH (1,
1) has
employed in this paper
GARCH (1,1) estimated volatility

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2015
BMIC 2015| page85

Fig. 1. The volatility of SET Index return during 1975 2015 by GARCH Model
2.4Asset allocation between asset classes

To measure the effect of market and economic condition on the asset allocation between different
asset classes, e.g. Equity, Fixed income and allocation funds, this study applies the methodology from John
Chalmers (2013) by constructing the regression model as follows
(
2.5 Asset allocation between differing fund investment categories

Overall, the result from the previous will shows how economic and market condition
effect to theallocation behavior between asset classes. However, it cannot show the asset allocation behavior
among the different investment style of each fund Hence, This study have developed another panel data
regression Modelto investigate the different allocation behavior among the different investment styles of
fund which is
(
)
(
(
)
)
)
2.6Categories of investment style

Mutual funds can be broadly categorized into two categories which are Equity and Fixed income
fund However, This study also creates other sub categories based on its investment style. Separating mutual
funds into different sub - categories by using these criteria First, Fund size with can be separate funds into
three different subgroups, which are large, medium, small fund. Second, Investment Style that referred to
how value-growth orientation of the stock holdings growth, which also can be separate funds into three
different subgroups namely growth, blend and value fund. The definition of each criteria can be found in
Table 1below
Table2. Summary criteria of investment style category

Criteria
Definition
Large
These funds seek capital appreciation by investing in Large-cap stocks that are accounted for the top 70% of
the capitalization
Medium
These funds seek capital appreciation by investing in Medium-cap stocks which represent the next 20% of the
capitalization
Small
These funds seek capital appreciation by investing in small-cap stocks.
Growth
The Growth style is defined based on high price/book and price/cash-flow ratios, relative to the MSCI EAFE
Index.
Value
The Value style is defined based on low price/book and price/cash-flow ratios, relative to the MSCI EAFE
Index.
Blend
The blend style is assigned to funds where neither growth nor value characteristics predominate
BMIC 2015| page86

3.1 Asset allocation between asset classes

The first question is whether market condition and economic condition affect asset allocation
behavior. Table 3.presents the result from the regression of excess flow between mutual fund asset classes
on the market condition, economic condition and other control variables. I employ the Newey-West tstatistics to overcome the concern of autocorrelation and heteroscedasticity in the error term of time-series
regression
The table 3 shows that the excess flow of equity is positively and significantly related to stock
markets GARCH volatility (Newey-wests p-value of 0.043). While fixed income class is negative but not
significant (Newey-wests p- value of 0.189). I run regression for the Term spread which represent to
economic condition the table 3 show that the excess flow for equity and mixed class are negatively and
significantly (Newey-wests p-value of 0.054 and 0.003) but positively for fixed income class (Neweywests p-value of 0.029). And another economic variable CDS Price (THAI CDS USD SR 5Y D14), it is the
credit derivatives contract which represents the credit quality of Thailand. CDS price is significant for all
types of asset classes. Negative relationfor equity and mixed fund, positive relation to fixed income fund.
This study has shown the strong evidence that Thais investor different from the investor in
developed markets. When the stock market is highly volatile there has the positive excess flow to the equity
asset class.Which shows that Thais investors they do not allocate their funds to less risky assets during the
high volatile market condition. The Term spread, which is the proxy variable to the track economic
condition, it widens when economies are troughs and expected the economy to improve, it narrows when the
economists are near the peaksand expected to worsen. As a result, the regression of equity implies that the
fund flows to equity fund is high when the economic cycle are near the peaks and expected to worsen in the
future. And opposite to the fixed income fund
For the market condition of fixed income, when the bond market is highly volatile there has the
excess flow out of the fixed income fund (negative coefficient to bond volatility). It suggests that when
investors face with the high volatility, investors treat fixed income fund in the different way of equity funds.
The CDS Price, it negatively to equity and mixed fund, suggests that when the investors default
aversion is high will lead to lower fund flow to equity and mixed fund. But in contrast to fixed income fund
has a positive excess flow when the investors default aversion is high, the result suggests that when the
CDS Price (spread) is high, Thais investor allocate their funds from equity to fixed income because fixed
income has a less risk compare to equity funds. Moreover CDS is can be explain the investors aspect to
macro-economic and markets technical factor.
Another interesting point is that, I have added months fixed effect in the regression model to absorb
the effect of monthly flow and found that the December dummy variable is positive and significant.
Which suggests that, December is the month with the highest excess flow to the equity and mixed funds, but
fixed income has an outflow of funds. This attribute to a tax-benefit funds (RMF and LTF) offered by Thais
government. In Thailand this kind of mutual fund has become more favorable and capture a large fund
inflows when compared to ordinary mutual funds. To get the tax deduction benefit investors must buy a
large amount of mutual fund within particular year this lead to higher flow in December. Moreover, its
consistent with a previous study which found that in us. Investors make asset allocation decisions more
actively around the end of year.
BMIC 2015| page87

Table 3. Excess flow of asset classes and market-economic conditions.
Panel A : Market And Economic Condition Variables (t-stat)
GARCH
BV
TERM
CDS
RSI
Equity
Fixed Income
Mix
0.183*
-0.417
0.195
(1.880)
(-1.260)
(1.040)
0.011
-0.133
0.066
(0.430)
(-1.540)
(1.400)
-0.004*
0.018**
-0.007*
(-1.890)
(2.310)
(-1.950)
-0.010**
0.029**
-0.011
(-2.410)
(2.380)
(-1.530)
-0.011
0.036
0.017
(-1.270)
(1.080)
(0.710)
Panel B : Monthly Dummy Variables (t-stat)

February
March
0.005
0.005
-0.010
1.360
0.340
-1.340
0.006
-0.006
-0.005
0.950
-0.380
-0.270
Table 3. Excess flow of asset classes and market-economic conditions. (Continuous)

Equity
Fixed Income
Mix
Panel B : Monthly Dummy Variables (p-value)

April
May
June
July
August
0.000
0.013
-0.006
-0.010
0.910
-0.460
0.003
-0.004
-0.005
0.510
-0.240
-0.400
0.004
-0.016
-0.012
0.900
-0.930
-0.920
-0.001
0.013
-0.007
-0.300
0.800
-0.720
0.005
-0.002
-0.005
1.360
-0.200
-0.440
BMIC 2015| page88

September
October
November
December
0.005
-0.013
-0.009
1.460
-0.790
-0.890
0.001
-0.004
0.010
0.390
-0.300
0.870
0.002
0.019
0.003
0.420
0.910
0.260
0.008*
-0.024
0.011
1.850
-1.360
1.400
155
155
155
3.2 Asset allocation among different investment style of funds

I divide the equity fund into sub-category based on its investment style of its underlying
asset which reflect to risk levels. (E.g. growth and small is more risk and the opportunity of a greater return),
in order to investigate the allocation behavior of investors on different styles of funds.
The table 4 shows that the large-blend stock have a negative relation to the stock markets
GARCH volatility, which contrast to large-growth stock (positive relation), small stock also have a positive
relation and to mid-blend it also has a negative relation although its not statistically significant but nearly to
significant. The Term spread for almost all of category the flows are high when the economic cycle are near
peaks and expected to worsen in the future it consistent with the previous model. The CDS Price shows how
financial markets perceive the risk of default on debt and it has a negative relation to the large-growth and
small flow which suggest that when the investors aspect to economic condition is poor, the fund is flow into
less risky category of mutual fund, This study has shown the evidence that investor has a different behavior
on different category of funds. When the volatility of the stock market is high, there has a positive flow into
growth and small stock funds. The growth and the small stock is mean of risky asset, which imply that Thais
investors allocate their funds intorisky asset when the volatility of the stock market is high. This is
consistent with previous model. And the interesting point is the result still show a positive sign in a
December monthly variable which I have more tests to study the effect of seasonal flow according to taxbenefit funds (LTF/RMF)
Table 4. Mutual fund flows with different investment style

Large blend
Large growth
Large value
Mid blend
Mid growth
Mid value
Small
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
Panel A :Market And Economic Condition Variables (p-value)

GARCH (t-1)
Ln (TA)
-0.304**
0.088**
-0.179
-0.684**
-0.206
0.047
5.361
-2.520
1.990
-0.800
-2.600
-0.820
0.140
0.790
-0.042***
-0.025***
-0.023***
-0.018***
-0.019***
-0.034***
-1.220***
-16.840
-23.240
-4.810
-3.460
-4.400
-4.890
-7.230
BMIC 2015| page89

Ln (AGE)
RANK
BV
TERM
CDS
RSI (t-1)
-0.016***
-0.008***
-0.010**
-0.017**
0.008
-0.025***
0.015
-5.550
-6.430
-2.670
-3.140
1.240
-3.710
0.180
0.001
0.002***
0.000
-0.002
-0.003
-0.007***
0.052**
1.010
3.740
-0.150
-0.890
-1.300
-3.360
2.880
-0.010
-0.051***
-0.066
-0.119
0.014
-0.122
-0.198
-0.240
-3.350
-0.920
-1.350
0.160
-1.100
-0.110
0.000
0.000
-0.003
-0.006
0.008
-0.014*
-0.110
-0.030
-0.500
-0.580
-1.090
1.410
-1.950
-0.740
0.010*
-0.010***
0.000
0.022*
0.003
-0.007
-0.172
1.740
-4.750
0.000
1.870
0.260
-0.470
-0.570
-0.001
0.020***
0.002
0.083**
0.075**
0.075**
1.147**
-0.060
3.570
0.060
2.580
2.410
2.040
2.240

February
March
April
May
June
July
August
0.004
0.003
0.000
-0.005
-0.005
-0.001
-0.014
0.650
0.390
0.000
-0.350
-0.250
-0.060
-0.710
0.008
0.000
-0.001
-0.009
-0.019
-0.001
0.017
1.140
-0.040
-0.380
-0.640
-0.990
-0.050
0.840
0.012*
0.004
0.004
-0.009
-0.005
-0.006
0.027
1.820
0.430
1.100
-0.660
-0.250
-0.340
1.350
0.003
0.013
0.004
-0.014
-0.021
-0.012
-0.002
0.430
1.450
1.230
-1.020
-1.110
-0.640
-0.110
-0.001
0.009
-0.002
-0.009
-0.006
0.005
0.044**
-0.110
1.010
-0.520
-0.640
-0.340
0.270
2.180
0.012*
0.016*
0.001
-0.007
0.015
-0.006
0.028
1.840
1.900
0.380
-0.510
0.800
-0.320
1.390
0.012*
0.023**
0.008**
-0.016
0.005
0.005
0.039*
1.810
2.620
2.360
-1.180
0.260
0.270
1.940
BMIC 2015| page90

Table 4. Mutual fund flows with different investment style. (Continuous)

Large blend
Large growth
Large value
Mid blend
Mid growth
Mid value
Small
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow
%Flow

September
October
November
December
0.013*
0.014
0.012***
-0.012
0.002
0.006
0.032
1.860
1.610
3.700
-0.880
0.120
0.360
1.630
0.017**
0.016*
0.020***
-0.012
-0.013
0.006
0.025
2.450
1.870
5.980
-0.870
-0.700
0.320
1.280
0.044***
0.061***
0.048***
0.007
0.024
0.057**
0.016
6.640
7.090
14.560
0.550
1.350
3.230
0.830
0.016**
0.019**
0.004
0.019
0.032*
-0.003
0.018
2.440
2.270
1.140
1.400
1.770
-0.180
0.940
14345
19517
2149
1471
694
562
113
From the table 4 to do more tests, I have specifically selected the mutual funds which have a taxbenefit scheme e.g. LTF (Long-Term Equity Funds) and RMF (Retirement Mutual Funds). But due to the
limit of data the category of our sample is only 4 category e.g. (large-blend, large-growth, large-value, mid)
Not surprisingthe Table 5 shows the result of LTF/RMF mutual funds, for almost all category, I
founded the positive seasonal pattern of flow for the month which nearly the end of the year (October to
December). And the GARCH Volatility is only significant for one category. Likewise to the Term spread,
Bond volatility, CDS Price its not significance for all. It contrast to the previous table which include all
type of mutual funds but when I separate out the tax-benefit funds its not significant which show that taxbenefit investors they do not allocate their fund because of market or economic condition, but they buying
the funds on the end of the year in order to caught up the tax-deductible benefit. And there has an evidence
of seasonal flows pattern on the end of the years. All, large-blend and large-growth have a positive flow on
September to December while mid have a positive flow on November and December and large-value have a
positive flows on November. the economic and market condition does not significant in tax-benefit funds
but significant incongregate samples of non-tax-benefit and tax-benefit funds hence, I have more test in the
next table to investigate whether the result is still the same if I exclude tax-benefit funds from whole
samples.
Table 6 shown the result of non-LTF/RMF Fund, for the large-growth, small funds there are a
positive correlation to the GARCHs volatility, but for the large-blend, large-value the relationship is
negative. Which suggested that the non-LTF/RMF investors are contrast to LTF/RMF investors because
they allocate their funds to risky asset when the market volatility is highEven though I have separate the
LTF/RMF and non LTF/RMF funds to investigate on the seasonal allocation, surprising we still see the
significant of monthly variable on the few month and the degree of significant is extremely less than
LTF/RMF funds. For the September positive only large-growth, for the October positive on large-growth
and small, for the November positive on large-blend and large-growth. And none of category is significant
on December. The different is that LTF/RMF investors they buying the mutual funds on the nearly end of
the year. But the non LTF/RMF investors they doesnt buy in the nearly end of the year.
BMIC 2015| page91

Table 5. Mutual fund flows with different investment style (LTF/RMF Funds)
LTF RMF
All
Large
Blend
Large
Growth
Large
Value
Mid
Panel A : Market And Economic Condition Variables (p-value)

GARCH
Ln(TA)
Ln(AGE)
RANK
BV
TERM
CDS
RSI
-0.1583
0.3573**
-0.0686
1.7310
-0.5093
-1.2000
2.0000
-0.8900
1.2300
-1.8000
-0.0349***
-0.0278***
-0.0302***
-0.0226
-0.0041
-13.0000
-7.2300
-14.8900
-1.1200
-0.8400
-0.0055
-0.0160***
-0.0060**
0.0294
-0.0233**
-1.6000
-3.5200
-2.6200
0.9300
-3.0600
0.0023*
0.0025
0.0033***
-0.0200**
-0.0026
1.7600
1.5500
4.4400
-2.2200
-0.9800
0.0315
-0.0910
-0.0732
-0.2071
0.0345
0.7100
-1.5600
-2.8300
-0.4700
0.3600
-0.0016
-0.0052
0.0011
-0.0684**
0.0066
-0.5700
-1.3300
0.6500
-2.0600
1.0400
0.0018
-0.0094
-0.0007
-0.0768
-0.0037
0.2800
-1.0700
-0.2000
-1.0200
-0.2700
0.0411**
0.0077
0.0455***
-0.0439
-0.0397
2.3700
0.3300
4.5000
-0.2500
-1.0600

February
March
April
May
June
0.0054
0.0080
0.0053
-0.0173
-0.0053
0.5400
0.6100
0.9000
-0.1800
-0.2500
0.0007
0.0054
0.0004
-0.0120
0.0168
0.0700
0.4100
0.0600
-0.1300
0.7800
0.0059
0.0154
0.0122**
-0.0124
0.0092
0.5900
1.1600
2.0800
-0.1300
0.4300
0.0135
0.0284
0.0047
0.0198
0.0130
1.3500
2.1600
0.8000
0.2100
0.6000
0.0110
0.0200
0.0101*
-0.0111
-0.0009
BMIC 2015| page92

1.0900
1.5100
1.7200
-0.1200
-0.0400
0.0055
0.0193
0.0096*
0.0146
-0.0063
0.5500
1.4800
1.6500
0.1600
-0.2900
0.0283**
0.0191
0.0134**
-0.0176
-0.0063
2.8400
1.4700
2.3100
-0.1900
-0.3000
0.0164
0.0336**
0.0230***
-0.0022
-0.0018
1.6400
2.5600
3.9400
-0.0200
-0.0800
July
August
September
Table 5. Mutual fund flows with different investment style (LTF/RMF Funds) - (Continuous)
LTF RMF
Large
Blend
All
Large
Growth
Large
Value
Mid

October
November
December
0.0313**
0.0355**
0.0411***
0.0382
0.0089
3.1200
2.7000
7.0300
0.4200
0.4100
0.0943***
0.1251***
0.1136***
0.3021***
0.0870***
9.4700
9.6200
19.5900
3.3800
4.1000
0.0406***
0.0539***
0.0201***
-0.0061
0.0602**
4.0800
4.1300
3.5000
-0.0700
2.8300
15087
3417
5139
164
452
Table 6. Mutual fund flows with different investment style (Non-LTF/RMF Funds)
GARCH
Ln(TA)
Ln(AGE)
RANK
All
Large
Blend
Large
Growth
Large
Value
Mid
Small
-0.3518***
-0.5533***
0.1188**
-0.3166
-0.3846*
5.3618
-2.9300
-3.7100
2.2300
-1.5300
-1.9400
0.7900
-0.0627***
-0.0478***
-0.0254***
-0.0308***
-0.0238***
-1.2201***
-26.6000
-15.1600
-18.2300
-5.3000
-5.6500
-7.2300
-0.0228***
-0.0182***
-0.0088***
-0.0125***
-0.0119**
0.0145
-8.5300
-5.2300
-5.6700
-3.5600
-2.9100
0.1800
0.0013
0.0007
0.0010*
0.0006
-0.0031**
0.0520**
BMIC 2015| page93

BV
TERM
CDS
RSI (t-1)
1.4100
0.5600
1.9300
0.5100
-2.2900
2.8800
0.0191
0.0310
-0.0404**
-0.0439
-0.1164*
-0.1980
0.4700
0.6100
-2.1800
-0.6500
-1.7500
-0.1100
-0.0020
0.0022
-0.0010
0.0028
-0.0054
-0.1102
-0.7800
0.6800
-0.9100
0.6300
-1.2500
-0.7400
-0.0016
0.0154**
-0.0117***
0.0030
0.0177**
-0.1721
-0.2900
2.2800
-4.8500
0.3000
1.9900
-0.5700
0.0229
-0.0041
0.0141**
0.0023
0.1095***
1.1472**
1.5800
-0.2200
2.0600
0.1000
4.6700
2.2400
Table 6. Mutual fund flows with different investment style (Non-LTF/RMF Funds) - (Continuous)
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
All
Large
Blend
Large
Growth
Large
Value
Mid
Small
0.0046
0.0030
-0.0017
-0.0062
-0.0074
-0.0705
0.5500
0.2800
-0.4200
-0.4900
-0.5500
-0.3800
0.0112
-0.0009
-0.0018
-0.0095
-0.0133
-0.1107
0.0046
0.0030
-0.0017
-0.0062
-0.0074
-0.0705
0.0153*
0.0010
0.0005
-0.0103
-0.0016
-0.0247
1.8300
0.1000
0.1400
-0.8100
-0.1200
-0.1300
0.0001
0.0083
0.0037
-0.0140
-0.0220
-0.0039
0.0200
0.7800
0.9200
-1.1000
-1.6400
-0.0200
-0.0045
0.0061
-0.0059
-0.0097
0.0072
0.0861
-0.5300
0.5700
-1.4700
-0.7600
0.5400
0.4500
0.0142*
0.0160
-0.0018
-0.0088
0.0146
0.0249
1.7200
1.5200
-0.4500
-0.7000
1.1000
0.1300
0.0070
0.0245**
0.0059
-0.0184
0.0149
0.0778
BMIC 2015| page94

September
October
November
December
0.8500
2.3300
1.4800
-1.4700
1.1300
0.4100
0.0115
0.0087
0.0086**
-0.0149
0.0106
0.1219
1.4000
0.8200
2.1400
-1.2000
0.8000
0.6100
0.0128
0.0112
0.0123**
-0.0142
-0.0034
0.3757*
1.5500
1.0600
3.0700
-1.1300
-0.2600
1.8800
0.0297***
0.0415***
0.0251***
-0.0158
0.0182
-0.2879
3.6500
3.9800
6.3200
-1.2900
1.4000
-1.5200
0.0094
0.0094
-0.0019
0.0190
0.0108
0.0174
1.1600
0.9100
-0.4800
1.5600
0.8300
0.0900
29679
10928
14378
1985
562
113
5. Conclusion
The aim of this paper is to consider the asset allocation behavior of investors due to the economic
and market condition and can be concluded that, investor allocates their assets by the economic and market
condition except tax-benefit investors because for the tax-benefit investors this study founded a seasonal
pattern of buyingthe mutual funds which occurs on the nearly end of the year.
For the study of the allocation behavior between asset classes, I founded that when the stock
markets volatility(measure by GARCH model) is high there has a positive excess flow come into the equity
and allocation funds but fixed income fund has an outflowthe which shows that investors allocate their asset
into equity funds when the market is in the volatile condition ,for the term spread and cds price which
represents the economic condition are show that there has a fund outflow from the equity funds when
economic condition is poor. And the point of interest is on December we founded the positive flow into the
equity fund. Because the buying behavior of tax-benefit investor in the month nearly the end of the year.
Next, I study the behavior of the investor to choose the mutual funds with different styles of
investment. I categorize the mutual fund by its investment style which represent the risk level. I founded that
when the market volatility is high investors allocate their assets into risky assets (growth-stock and smallstock funds) and when the economic condition (term spread and cds price) is poor investors allocate their
funds away from equity funds, especially risky investment style (small-stock funds) and I still founded the
positive flow on December for large-stock funds hence, I have separate tax-benefit and non-tax-benefit
funds to study the seasonal flow pattern. And founded that the tax-benefit investor they do not allocate their
funds according to the market or economic condition, they tend to buy the mutual funds in the nearly-end of
the year (the 4th quarter) and the result show that the abnormal flow in the nearly end of the year is come
from the LTF and RMF funds because when the LTF/RMF fund is exclude from my sample
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor RoongkiatRatanabanchuen(Ph.d)for the
continuous support of my study and related research, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge.
His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this paper.
BMIC 2015| page95

Reference
Bailey, W., Kumar, A., Ng, D., 2011. Behavioral biases of mutual fund investors.Journal of Financial
Economics 102, 127.
Ben-Rephael, Wohl, A., 2012. Measuring investor sentiment withmutual fund flows. Journal of Financial
Economics 104, 363382.
Fant, L.F., 1999. Investment behavior of mutual fund shareholers: the evidence from aggregate fund flows.
J. Financ.
French, K.R., Schwert, G.W., Stambaugh, R.F., 1987. Expected stock returns and volatility. J. Financ. Econ.
19, 329.Fukuyama, F., 1995. Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity.
M., Zhang, H., 2013. Mutual fund risk and market share-adjusted fund flows.J. Finance 53, 1589
1622.Stulz,
Warther, V.A., 1995. Aggregate mutual fund flows and security returns. J. Financ.Econ. 39, 209235.
Edwards, F., Zhang, X., 1998. Mutual funds and stock and bond market stability.Journal of Financial
Services Research 13, 257282.
Ferreira, Miguel A., Keswani, Aneel,2012. The flowperformance relationship around the world. J.Bank.
Financ. 36, 17591780.
Ivkovic, Zoran, Weisbenner, Scott, 2009. Individual investor mutual fund flows. J. Financ. Econ. 92, 223
237.
Massa, Massimo, Patgiri, Rajdeep, 2009. Incentives and mutual fund performance: higher performance or
just higher risk taking?
Rev. Financ. Stud. 22, 17771815.
Mark J. Kamstra, Lisa A. Kramer and Russ Wermers, 2013.Seasonal Asset Allocation: Evidence from
Mutual Fund Flows
BMIC 2015| page96

Vendor Performance Management to Maintain Sustainability for the

Manufacturing Firms
Lidwin Kenneth, Mahesh Prabhu and Giridhar Kamath
Abstract
Evaluation & measurement of Supplier's performance is an intricate part of any business

relationship. It is an extremely important management tool for those using Strategic Alliances, Partnering or
Supplier Development. Over the past years, both the manufacturing and service firms have become more
and more aware of the prominence of supplier performance and its critical impact on their own performance
and market competitiveness. To improve the performance of the suppliers, Supplier Performance
Management (SPM) is widely practicedin the industry today. To have a competitive edge
manufacturersfollow SPM for a perfect supplier scorecard. The supplier performance will be enhanced if
they get theright metrics on the scorecard. Successful results include: reduced costs, reduced risks and
increased quality. This paper discusses critical practices for implementing SPM by creating an effective
process to develop meaningful supplier performance metrics.The study was conducted for a heavy
machinery manufacturing company dealing with overhead cranes. The methodology used was ABC analysis
to identify the critical suppliers, dashboard analysis to evaluate them based on the metrics and vendor
rankings based on scorecard analysis.Primary data for analysis was collected through a survey of the
suppliers and secondary data from company records and other relevant sources. Based on the study findings,
the best supplier was identified and rewarded to continue the best practice and developmental activities were
planned for the others.
Keywords: Vendor evaluation; Supplier performance; ABC analysis; Heavy machinery; Key Performance
Indicators
1. Introduction
The new millennium has increasing number of world-class competitors, domestically and
internationally and these are forcing organizations to improve their internal process in order to stay
competitive. The information in the internet has shifted the balance of power between buyers and sellers.
The competitions and choices havemade the customers to want for better quality, faster delivery of products
and services tailor made to their individual needs at a lesser overall cost. As organizational capabilities
improved in the 1990s, managers began to realize that material and service inputs from suppliers had a
major impact on their ability to meet customer needs. Companies also realized that, delivering the right
products and services to customers at the right time, cost, place, conditions and quality constituted an
entirely new type of challenge.
The supply base is an important part of the supply chain and suppliers capabilities can help
differentiate a producers final good and or service. During the 1980s, superior management of supplier
relationships gave Japanese automobile producers a $300 to $ 600 per car advantage, an advantage that GM,
Ford and Chrysler did not have. Vendor development teams that also includes vendors as members reported
that they receivedsuggestions for improvement from the vendors which added new value to the purchasing
process.
Studies revealed that several firms lacked a system for measuring supplier performance, a key
component of supply chain effectiveness. Several other researchers have emphasized on monitoring the
performance of internal supply chain activities rather than tracking the end to end performance of supply
chain. The measurement process also helps determine if new initiatives are producing the desired results,
finally measurement may be the single-best tool to control purchasing and supply chain process.
Furthermore, relationship based on mutual trust and respect must underlie the purchasing effort. With this
BMIC 2015| page97

given background, this project was focused to measuring vendor performance system with respect to M & M
Engineering.
Statement of the Business Case

The M & M is a major player in Crane industry and they are manufacturing Overhead cranes for
their customers across the globe. They found that their market share has dropped from 30 to 20 % in past
two years. This was because the company lost some of their key Customers. The organization understands
from their key customers for the reason behind the drop of market share is due to poor performance in
delivery, quality and cost.
The organization had an introspection / root cause analysis and they arrived at an inference that, it
might be because of suppliers. The company has around 400 odd suppliers. They did not have a system in
hand which will track the performance of the suppliers. Hence the scope of the project was to evaluate the
performance of the key suppliers and give inference and suggestions to the top level management for
corrective action and scope for further improvements.
1.1 Scope of the Study
The company have to understand the ground reality of the vendors performance, so that their long
lasting relationship can be maintained with the vendors by which the companies can strengthen the raw
material supply and ensure raw material availability on sustainable basiswith respect to critical key
performance indicators such as Delivery, Quality and Cost. By conducting this study with the
vendors,company can understand thevendors performance and scope for the improvement. Besides,
company may get some inputs from the vendors, as further improvement for achieving business goal. This
will enable the company to realign the supply chain process towards continuous improvement in the
competitive business environment as outlined below:
i.
To understand an overall vendor performance.
ii.
To identify the competitive advantage of each vendors with respect to critical KPIs.
iii.
To design a methodology to track the KPI.
iv.
To suggest solution to the industry to improve the vendor performance.
v.
To design a feasible system for continuous improvement.
1.2 Key Performance Indicators and Measurement:

Experts found a strong bonding from the majority of supplier and customer integration to market
share and profitability. Firms performance can be correlated by taking advantage of supplier capabilities
and emphasizing a long-term supply chain perspective in customer relationships. The competency in
logistics is becoming a more critical factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage, as the
logistics measurement becomes gradually important because of the gap between profitable and unprofitable
operations becomes slimmer. Several researchers have highlighted the importance of including Cost, Quality
and Lead time for supply and Responsiveness in measuring productivity of firms.
BMIC 2015| page98

In a study on the gas and electricity utility markets of Netherlands, Cees et. al. (2008) explored
specific influence strategies. This study pointed out that main suppliers were not much worried about the
negative effects of reinforced strategies. In an attempt to win buyer confidence, dominant suppliers put in to
practice several effective strategies. One of them would be using a series of influence strategies. As long as
the results are favorable and as expected, the dominant suppliers have no reason to be worried of and can
carry out their plans and execute productively.
Many researchers have studied the risk issue is depth and have provided several insights in to risk
management. Munnukka and Jrvi (2008), tried to study risk management through the angle of a buyer and
the results were quite astonishing. In their study on 15 business organisations, Munnukka and Jrvi (2008),
adopted interview method and they concluded that business organizations dealt with risks very diligently
and tried everypossible step to minimize arbitrary decision makings owing to unpleasant pressure situations.
The semi-structured interview that were conducted, led to conclusions that suggested decentralization and
collective decision making could lead to better fundamental solutions to problems.
Boudewijn et. al., (2010) conducted studies on sourcing teams and found out that lack of team spirit
and the inability to see the benefits of synergy as a part of team culture is the main obstacle in productivity
growth of the organization in many purchase organizations in India. Hence it is necessary to inculcate habits
that encourage team work and unity of direction. He highlighted the importance of initiatives that
encouraged employee involvement and factors that drove team play. Kai Foerstl et. al., (2010), focused on
the various obstacles faced by the purchasing firms. Kai Foerstl et.al studied chemical firm and figured
outfactors that could help the firm get sustainable competitive advantage and one such factor is handling the
suppliers with utmost care and dealing with supplier issues with priority and impeccable seriousness.
3. Objectives of The Study

Following are the Objectives of the study
1. To study the present vendor performance of M & M company.
2. To analyze the vendors performance with respect to Quality, Cost, Delivery and Responsiveness
of M & M company.
3. To study the source list of suppliers and identify critical vendors, i.e top ten vendors by ABC
analysis.
4. To study about the benefit to the company derived from the present vendor performance
measurement system.
5. To study the factors deterring the vendor performance
6. To find a scope for further improvements.
BMIC 2015| page99

4. Methodology
4.1 Research design.

To study the performance of the vendor, descriptive research design is used. The output of the
research is expected to measure the current status, find the deficiencies, solve the problem and find some
feasible methods for continuous improvement. The statements of the data inputs are derived on the basis of
firms own goals, objectives and strategies. Thus, the research metrics has adapted to reflect the ground
reality with respect to the firms business requirements.
4.2 Sample Design:

Convenient samplings are used to collect data from a sample of 10 respondents, which are
conducted in the real-world environment. The variables to which the test units exposed are appeared as
under normal circumstances. This form of experimentation had provided high level of external validity, as
the respondents were reacted as they would in normal circumstances.
4.3 Dashboard Analysis:

After identification of the KPIs the vendors were analyzed based on the overall performance of
KPIs of all the vendors which is as shown in the Figure 1
4.4 Scorecard Analysis:

After the completion of the Dashboard Analysis, equal weightage is given to all KPIs which helps
in ranking of all the Vendors which is as shown in Figure -3
BMIC 2015| page100

4.5 Sources of Data:
4.5.1 Primary source:
With the help of questionnaire data is collected with respondents of 10 members using Likert five
point scaling technique. Location of the data source is from the subject lives. The data was collected through
interacting personally face to face with the respondents. The subject matter was introduced with a simple
way ofcommunication in a local language. Through perceiving situation, the statement of the data input has
been recorded manually in the questionnaire.
4.5.2 Secondary source:
Secondary source of data is collected from all the sources of record from the company, journals and
magazine
4.6 Data Analysis:
The available raw data has been used for vendor performance analysis. For effective focus on this
study towards achieving business goal, top ten vendors have been chosen by ABC analysis.
Dashboard and Scorecard analysis has done with respect to Vendors delivery system, Quality,
Cost and responsiveness.
This analysis provides many insights to the company and helping to identify the efficient vendors
with respect to changing the priorities of the above cited KPIs.
A model screen shot as attached below is proving an example for a vendor with respect to the
chosen critical KPIs.
Percentage method has been used for data analysis and comparing the vendors performance.
Fig.1. Indicates an overall performance of a vendor Sonica Corp with respect to delivery, Cost and Quality
factors.
BMIC 2015| page101

Fig.2.Indicates an overall performance of a vendor Sonica Corp with respect to Responsiveness.
Fig.3. A model score card presenting relative ranking among top ten vendors with respect to critical KPIS
such as Delivery, Cost, Quality and Responsiveness
BMIC 2015| page102

5. Key Findings:
1) The research identified the top 10 supplier in terms of the spend using the ABC concept.
2) Based on the organization priority weightage has been given for the components and prioritized
the vendors.
3) In terms of overall rating for the suppliers, by giving equal weight age for all the 4 components
H M Construction is the best or ranked as no 1 supplier, followed by AM brothers as seen in the
scored card.
4) In terms of Delivery, AM brothers is the best, as the supplier is delivering the materials 93 %
on time. Whereas the RM tires delivers the materials early which act as an inventory for the organization.
5) In terms of Cost, the researcher compared the base price with the actual price incurred for
purchase based on which the supplier was rated. The score card reveals the information that, which supplier
is the best in terms of cost saving.
6) In terms of Quality, the actual number of defect per ordered Quantity to total order Quantity
sent by the supplier was calculated and recorded. The scorecard provided better visibility for the
organization to identify which vendor is good in terms of quality and can make bench mark for other
suppliers.
7) The last part is responsiveness of each supplier, which would be in form of questionnaire which
will be filled by the department and measurement done based on the response
6. Suggestion for Continuous improvement:
The research suggested the organization to follow the process of getting the responsiveness from
the department on monthly basis. Same Excel file can be used by the organization for getting the visibility
for critical components providing supplier.
The top Management can bench mark all the supplier by using this methodology, they will be able
to develop a system for identifying the good supplier later who can become a strategic sourcing partner.
The other metrics in all the four components should be identified and included in the process.
References
Alessandro Ancaraniand George A. Zsidisin (2009),Supplier evaluation in local public service:
Application of a model of Value for customer, Journal of Purchasing and Supply
Management, Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. 33-42.
Alessandro Ancarani, and George A. Zsidisin, (2010),Advancing research in purchasing and supply
management: Future directions for the Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management
Vol.16,Issue2, pp. 73-74.
Boudewijn A. DriedonksJosette M.P. Gevers and Arjan J. van Weele (2010), Managing sourcing team
effectiveness: The need for a team perspective in purchasing organizations, Journal of
Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 16, Issue 2, pp. 109-117.
Cees J. Gelderman,JanjaapSemeijn and Ronald De Zoete (2008), The use of coercive influence
strategies by dominant suppliers , Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 14,
Issue 4, pp. 220-229.
BMIC 2015| page103

Choi and Wu (2009), Taking the leap from dyads to triads: Buyersupplier relationships in supply
networks,Journal
of
Purchasing
and
Supply
Management
Vol. 15, Issue 4, pp. 267-268.
Cees J. Gelderman, Arjan J. and Van Weele (2003), Handling measurement issues and strategic
directions in Kraljic's purchasing portfolio model, Journal of Purchasing and Supply
Management, Vol. 9, Issues 5-6, pp.207-216.
Ednilson S. Bernardesand George A. Zsidisin (2008), An examination of strategic supply management
benefits and performance implications, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol.
14, Issue 4, pp. 209-219.
ElissavetaZaharieva, Matthew Gorton and John Lingard (2003), Procurement mechanisms and the
emergence of new governance structures in the CEECs,Journal of Purchasing and Supply
Management, Vol. 9, Issues 5-6, pp.235-245.
Elmer F. Bakker, and Dirk-Jan F. Kaman (2007), Perception and social factors as influencing. Supply
management: A research agenda, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management Vol. 13,
Issue 4, pp. 304-316.
Henk-Jan van Mosse and Wendy van der Val (2008), Securing customer satisfaction through
component service specifications: Purchasing maintenance services for social rented housing,
Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 14, issue 4, pp. 241-252.
HolgerSchiele (2007), Supply-management maturity, cost savings and purchasing absorptive capacity,
Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 13, Issue 4, pp. 274-293.
Kai FoerstlCarsten Reuter,Evi Hartmannand Constantin Blome (2010), Managing supplier
sustainability risks in a dynamically changing environment- sustainable supplier management
in chemical industry, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 16, Issue 2, pp.
118-150
Katrina LintukangasSatuPeltola and Veli-MattiVirolainen(2009), Some issues of supply management
integration,Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 15, Issue 4, pp. 240-248.
K. Karjalainen and K. Kemppainen (2008), The involvement of small- and medium-sized enterprises in
public procurement: Impact of resource perceptions, electronic systems and enterprise size,
Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 14, Issue 4, pp. 230-240.
Marc Day and Scott Lichtenstein (2006), Strategic supply management: The relationship between
supply management practices, strategic orientation and their impact on organizational
performance, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 12, Issue 6, pp. 313-321.
Martin Johanson (2004), Chains, holes, and links: Organization of activities in supplier relationships in
the Russian transition economy, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 10,
Issue 6, pp. 233-245.
Michael Essig and Alexander Batran (2005), Publicprivate partnershipDevelopment of long-term
relationships in public procurement in Germany, Journal of Purchasing and Supply
Management, Vol. 11, Issues 5-6, pp. 221-231.
MunnukkaJuha and JrviPentti (2008), Managing risks in organizational purchasing through adaptation
of buying center structure and the buying process, Journal of Purchasing and Supply
Management, Vol. 14, Issue 4, pp. 253-262.
Nigel Caldwell, Helen Walker, Christine Harland, Louise Knight, Jurong Zheng and Tim Wakeley(
2005), Promoting competitive markets: The role of public procurement, Journal of Purchasing
and
Supply
Management,Vol.
11,
Issues 5-6, pp. 242-251.
Stephan M, Wagner and Christoph Bode (2006), an empirical investigation into supply chain
vulnerability,Journal of Purcasing and Supply Management Vol. 12, Issue 6, pp. 301-312
BMIC 2015| page104

Thomas Y. Choi, and Zhaohui Wu (2009), Buyersupplier relationships in supply networks, Journal of
Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 15,Issue 4, pp.263-266.
Qin SuYong-tao Song, Zhao Li and Ji-xiang Dang (2008), The impact of supply chain relationship
quality on cooperative strategy, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 14, Issue
4, pp. 263-272.
Wendell C. Lawther and Lawrence L. Martin (2005), Innovative practices in public procurement
partnerships, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 11, Issues 5-6, pp. 212-220
Xinxing Luo Chong Wu Duska Rosenberg and David Barnes (2009) Supplier selection in agile supply
chains, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 15, Issue 4, pp. 249-262.
REFERENCES (Books)
Aberdeen Group (2005), The Supplier Performance Measurement
Benchmark Report.
Bhote, K.R. (1989). Strategic Supply Management - A Blueprint for

Supplier Partnership. New York.
Revitalizing the Manufacturer-
Bossert, J.L. (1994), Supplier Management Handbook. Milwaukee.

Carter, P.L., et al. (1998). The Future of Purchasing and Supply: Measuring
Satisfaction: Survey Design, Use, and Statistical Analysis Methods.
Customer
Danny Ertel (2004), Getting Past Yes: Negotiating as if Implementation Mattered, Harvard Business
Review, pp. 60-68.
Don Gabor, (1995), The Supplier Management Handbook, by ASQ Customer-Supplier Division.
Douglas M. Lambert and Michael Knemeyer A. (2004), We're in This Together, Harvard Business
Review, pp. 114-122.
Gordon, and Sherry R., (2005) Seven Steps to Measure Supplier Performance, Quality Progress, pp.
20-25.
Hau L. Lee (2004),The Triple-A Supply Chain, Harvard Business Review, pp. 102-112.
Jahns,
Christopher,
(2005),
Supply
NeuePerspektiveneinesManagementansatzesfrEinkauf and Supply.
Management.
James L. Bossert, Sixth Edition, (2004) "Seven Tactics for Tactful Conversations," 1995. pp. 24-26.
Juran, J.M. and Gryna, F.M. (1993),. Quality Planning and Analysis, Third Edition. New York
Maass, R.A., Brown, J.O., and Bossert, J.L. (1994) Supplier Certification - A Continuous Improvement
Strategy. Milwaukee.
Morse, W.J., Roth, H.P., and Poston, K.M. (1987). Measuring, Planning and Controlling Quality Costs.
Stanley, L.L. (1994). An Empirical Study of the Link between Buyer-Supplier
Relationships and Purchasing Performance. Tempe: Arizona State University
BMIC 2015| page105

How Sustaining ERP Project Legitimacy?

Two Cases of Successful Implementations
Rgis Meissonier and Emmanuel Houze
Abstract
Over the last decades, the global economy challenge forced a large part of large and medium
enterprises to implement ERPs to reengineer and standardise their business processes. Even if these IT
implementations represent a high-cost high-risk endeavor, organizations still invest precious financial,
human and time resources in these projects. In this paper, we aim at uncovering how implementers
practices sustain ERP project legitimacy. The preliminary analysis of our results compares data collected
from two of our three targeted cases studies: a North-American university and an Asian corporation. Our
results reveal that, while legitimating practices must be enforced at both the organizational and individual
levels, the path to achieve such legitimacy will likely be different from one context to another. While our
results confirm that the pragmatic, moral and cognitive aspects of legitimacy are critical to ensure the
achievement of an ERP project, our cases also suggest that the timing and saliency of a given legitimacy
aspect will be different from an organization to another.
Keywords:legitimacy; ERP; project management; case studies
1. Introduction
In both research and practice, much attention has been devoted to issues related to enterprise
systems (ERPs) implementation. In the business world, ERPs (Enterprise Resource Planning) represent the
most important cost item of the IT budget of most organizations. Yet, ERP implementation results remain far
from stellar, with failure rates exceeding 50%, even when implementations are supported by consultants and
best practices (Hung et al. 2012). Despite the fact that ERP implementations represent such a high-cost highrisk endeavour, business organizations are still choosing to invest precious financial, human and time
resources in these projects. A large part of large and medium enterprises have implemented ERPs over the
last decades (van Vuuren and Seymour, 2013). In information technology (IT) research, there is a wealth of
papers that are focusing on issues related to ERPs (Seddon et al. 2010; Strong and Volkoff, 2010). The fact
that ERPs now represent a standard in many industries seems to be an important rationale for enterprise
system organizational investments and might contribute to explain such a paradox, that is the fact that
organizations are continuing to invest resources in these implementations despite their high failure rate.
Indeed, research has shown that conforming to standards contributes to bring in legitimacy for organizations
(Meyer and Rowan 1977; Oliver 1991; Suchman 1995). While the importance of organizational legitimacy
has been widely acknowledged in the management literature (Bitektine 2011; Suchman 1995; Tost 2011), in
IS research, we still need a thorough understanding as to how IT legitimacy can be achieved and sustained
all along the course of an IT implementation project. More precisely, we aim at uncovering how
implementers practices affect ERP project legitimacy at both the organizational and the individual levels.
The preliminary analysis of our results compare data collected from 2 of the 3 targeted cases studies: a
Canadian university and a Thai corporation.
BMIC 2015| page106

2. Conceptual Foundations
Neo-insitutionalist theorists (Meyer and Rowan 1977; Oliver 1991; Suchman 1995) showed how
organizational legitimacy depends on the way structures, processes and procedures are shaped in a way
perceived as consistent with cultural patterns and widely accepted beliefs. Legitimacy is viewed as an
ambivalent evaluative process of the social fitness (Oliver 1991, p. 160) of the way the organization
behaves. With his integrative model of legitimacy, Bitektine (2011, p. 156) has stressed on the variety of
stakeholders likely to judge an organization legitimacy: investors, advocacy groups and organization's
insiders. Employees of a firm also perceive its features, its structural attributes, and the results of its activity
from both economic and social perspectives. Depending on the perceived legitimacy of strategic changes
that are likely to modify existing cultural or value patterns, employees can adopt them more or less
enthusiastically or exhibit dissident behaviors (Boiral 2003). In this sense, legitimacy is dependent of
rhetorical strategic discourses between promoters and opponents of strategic change (Suddaby and
Greenwood 2005). But the legitimacy judgment is not only about the objectives of the project but also about
the way change is managed. If legitimacy has been acknowledged as an important issue in information
systems, few research have adopted this alternative theoretical lens (Flynn and Du 2012). However, one can
assume that when IT project legitimacy is sustained, users are likely to develop positive attitudes toward its
implementation. Conversely, resistance may be viewed as an attitude resulting from the lack of legitimacy
granted by users. Some recent studies have shown that legitimation had a significant influence on IS
adoption and IT project success (Flynn and Du 2012; Hussain and Cornelius 2009; Kaganer 2010). This
focus on the IT legitimation process is all the more important that a lot of IT implementations involve
dramatic organizational changes.
To capture and make sense of the diversity of the IT legitimating practices used during an ERP
implementation, this article propose to build upon the pragmatic, moral, cognitive typology of Suchman
(1995) and adapt it at organizational and individual levels. As explained by Suchman (1995), pragmatic
legitimacy is associated with how organizational stakeholders perceive legitimacy depending on their selfinterested motives. Moral legitimacy refers to a positive normative evaluation of the organization and its
activities, where stakeholders perceive that they should provide their support towards such activities as it is
the right thing to do. Cognitive legitimacy borrows mainly from institutional theory in that when particular
activities become familiar and widely accepted in society (...) and taken-for- granted for success. (Flynn
and Du 2012, p. 214). This model was deemed relevant in this study, as it expands the traditional
institutionalism perspective of legitimacy to encompass instrumental, psychological and societal dimensions
(see Table 1 for details). Little research in IS has investigated how implementers enforce different types of
legitimating strategies.
3. Methodology
The main objective of our research project is to understand how legitimacy was achieved and how
the implementers legitimating practices evolve during the course of an ERP implementation, and this at
both the organizational and individual levels. To do so, we examine issues related to pragmatic, moral and
cognitive legitimacies. To observe differences we conducted two case studies with organizations that have
successfully implemented an ERP in very different contexts: a university in Canada and a corporation in
Thailand. Because of the complexity of the organizational and social phenomena related to our research
question, we chose a standard technique of qualitative data collection (Boyatzis 1998; Eisenhardt 1989;
Miles and Huberman 1984). While we also rely on observation and document analysis, our research design
is primarily based on semi-directive interviews and at this point, we have conducted semi-structured
interviews with key actors (n=8) in both sites. These respondents played an important role in the ERP
implementation project, either at the governance (e.g. steering committee member) or at the operational
level (e.g. project manager). While all the interviews were conducted in English, for the Thailand case, to
reduce potential cultural biases in the interpretation of the answers, we solicited the assistance of a native
Thai researcher, expert in cross-cultural management and Buddhist culture. All interviews were audiorecorded and transcribed to facilitate data analysis.
BMIC 2015| page107

In line with analytic inductive data analysis principles (Patton 2002), we begun with a first round of
deductive data coding. The initial codes were based on the categories derived from Suchmans model and
included pragmatic, moral, cognitive dimensions of legitimacy. Next we proceeded to a round of open
coding and inductively identified new themes, for example saliency, values, conflicts, etc. During the overall
process of data coding, as a team, we reviewed and discussed the codification until we had reached a
consensus; this helped eliminate any potential discrepancy (Larsson 1993; Bullock et al. 1987).
4. Findings
2.1. Canadian University Case Study
This top-ranked Canadian University (here referred to as CU) includes 13 Faculties (Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences, Arts and Science, Dentistry, Education, Engineering, Law, Management,
Medicine, Music, Religious Studies, Science, Environment). The ERP implementation project we are
studying was launched in 2009 and lasted for more than two years. It included the implementation of
finance, human resources and payroll modules, with major modifications to the original Banner solution2that
was chosen. The initial objective of the project, as described by the steering committee, was the willingness
to harmonize data and procedures among the 13 faculties, as CU encountered problems in terms of data and
administration governance over the whole campus. At the outset, the aim was also to align CU practices on
that of other universities in terms of IS integration.
Building upon the theoretical lens that we adopted, it seems that pragmatic legitimacy was an
important aspect in justifying the project launched, given the importance of resolving issues related to nonintegrated systems as well as redundant and inconsistent processes across faculties.
() one of the interesting things about this implementation was we were trying to eliminate or
reduce the amount of work that was done in silos across the institution. We had separated systems for HR,
for finance, for students; and that meant that in the old system if you were more than one of those roles you
had to run around and update your address and personal (Respondent 1).
An additional challenge for the steering committee was to convince that the chosen ERP was more
appropriate than alternative IT solutions (vs. a software developed by the IT department for example). CU
hired a project manager who had implemented Banner in two neighboring Universities, one in Canada and
the other in the US. This decision was consistent with the belief that it was an opportunity to benefit from
best practices in term of ERP implementation (cognitive legitimacy). In addition, given the fragmented
culture (Kappos and Rivard 2008) of CU and the difficulty to harmonize processes, the steering committee
decided to solicit the support of a large consulting firm (KPMG) because of their reputation in process redesign.
(...) The culture is almost the reverse of transparency. (...) For example in admissions the
information is private. One faculty didnt want another faculty seeing what their information is like, whos
applying, what their information was, etc. (Respondent 1) The culture of McGill is totally opposed to
transparency or efficiency values. In many ways it is as decentralized as units and centers of power exist.
() At McGill though youd have to negotiate with 13 faculties and even today when we work on new
systems theres a lot of negotiations that need to take place to get a process that all, everyone (sounds like)
will common stand it out and will agree upon works for the whole institution. (Respondent 4)
To support the internal team, for the actual implementation, the choice of another consultant firm
that had a strong experience in ERP implementation, not only in the education sector, but also in medical
sector was considered as a better fit with the culture of CU, where the Faculty of medicine faculty was a
powerful player. This moral legitimacy was not based on the university values as a whole but on the ones of
the most important Faculty, which was considered by the steering committee as one of the key stakeholders.
It must be noted that the Faculty of medicine adherence to the solution was all the more hoped for by the
project team given that it was the strongest bottleneck in terms of process specificities. Its cooperation was a
sine qua non condition for success.
2
Banner is an ERP for the education sector edited by Ellucian
BMIC 2015| page108

Banner works less for example for some kinds of programs than others. Medicine because they
have rotations rather than real courses you know medical residencies they dont have courses at all. So, how
do you register students? So we had to work a lot with the individual faculties to try and come up with
workarounds to meet their needs (Respondent 1).
Our interviews revealed that academics also played a role of moral legitimacy providers at the
organizational level. Indeed some of the procedures were created from ages and some of them as embedded
in the history of the university. As a consequence, from a cultural perspective, modifying a procedure was
not only the business of administration but had to be validated by academics even if they were not concerned
by all processes.
at McGill, procedures are sacrosanct and we often had to go to academic committees to say the
new software doesnt support how we do our business right now do we modify the software or do we
modify our policies.(Respondent 1). we always need to go to them and say this is what were
proposing because you know it will make things much easier and its sustainable. But if academic
committee decided no thats against our policies and were not changing our policies then we had to come
up with a work around. (Respondent 2)
At individual level, the most conflictual debate about the way to adapt the system to cross-faculty
processes concerned the differences between undergraduate and graduate programs.
You had the undergraduate team who said well you guys are just, you grad people are so different
from us that we dont even want to have to take that into account; you should just have to do what we have
already decided and the graduate group who was looking at the undergraduate people on the team saying
but that doesnt work, you dont understand the world I live in. (Respondent 1)
Both the undergraduate and the graduate programs wanted their own existing processes to be
implemented. While this underestimated issue created some challenges for the implementation team, its
resolution was key in ensuring the adherence of the project by the end-users (pragmatic legitimacy). Indeed,
it ultimately contributed to facilitate their daily work by streamlining the work. Moreover, to ensure change
acceptance at the individual level, the ERP implementers ensured to involve key users who were in a
position of relying potential interests for end-users in each faculty (cognitive legitimacy). To give a feeling
of the importance of these key users, the project team had created an Enrolment Service devoted to the
recruitment of champion users (Finance Information System Specialists and Student Information Systems
Specialists). Finally, the interviews revealed that other important arguments to make changes accepted at
individual level were the onesabout the quality of services delivered to students. The example of the on-line
registration procedure was well illustrative of one of the moral legitimating practices used by the project
managers in this instance.
It was so easy to convince people that we needed a new system when you showed them what the
student now had. (...) Everybody cares about the students you know were all here for the students; so that
was really important. We all shared the value that the students needed to have a good experience when they
came here. () You know a lot of students expected an online system not a telephone registration system.
() that telephone system handled 40 people simultaneously okay. Now were handling hundreds of people
simultaneously and the student theyre just expecting that. () The 24/7 service because people are trying to
apply from around the world so their clock isnt the same as ours. So I think thats what we could count on
that people wanted to do a good service to the student (Respondent 2).
All in all, the analysis of the CU case shows how implementers favored several different
implementation practices associated with all three types of legitimacy pragmatic, moral and cognitive. It
also reveals how these practices were enacted at both the individual and organizational levels and how they
played a role in the achievement of the project.
2.2. Thai Corporation Case Study

The Thai corporation we labeled TC in this paper is in charge of water distribution across the
whole country. The company developed several activities related to water storage, treatment, quality
expertise, infrastructure maintenance, etc. TC decided to adopt the SAP solution in January 2011 and to
implement the Accounting-Finance and Facility Management modules in the head-office and the five
BMIC 2015| page109

subsidiaries. SAP became the main IT system for 300 users in less than one year. The growth of the business
outside Thailand was the triggering motive to adopt an IS solution consistent with the ones of potential
partners, customers and suppliers. Indeed, at the international level, the company participates to cooperation
projects with competitors from other Asia countries. The creation of the ASEAN common market in 2014
questions the new business boundaries of TC. In this economical context, the ERP project of the company
was legitimated by the objective of implementing a standard IS to be able to adapt their IT infrastructure
with potential partners. In this perspective, the project director relied on moral legitimating practices,
focusing on the idea that, because the Asia common market adopting an ERP was the right thing to do in
terms of decisive acts for the development of the company.
Given the context, there was a willingness to proceed with a vanilla implementation (without any
customization) to maximize the standardization effect. Initially, the solution proposed by Microsoft was the
preferred one because of its compatibility to existing applications and data transfer processes with existing
databases. However, to sustain the legitimacy of the IT solution in terms of alignment, the implementers
finally decided to support the SAP solution, even if it was much more expensive. Then, they promoted this
choice based on the wide-belief that SAP being the most diffused ERP solution around the world, it was the
one most likely to be used by potential partners (cognitive legitimacy). This decision could potentially have
been de-legimated by potential opponents to the project. For example, so far, only a minor part of the
companies in Asia in water distribution sector are SAP or ERP fitted. Moreover, even if potential partners
have, or would decide to adopt, the same ERP, the modules implemented can differ from the ones
implemented by TC:
At the outset, the decision was made to proceed to a 'vanilla implementation' like it is done
everywhere around the world. This is why we decided to adopt SAP because of its leader position. Initially,
I was not enthusiastic by the editor proposition because of the cost estimated. However, if in the middleterm we need to develop our business through partnerships, we must endorse standard processes. We are not
here to change the world, but to be adapted to the world! (the project director)
When the project was launched, the choice of the SAP solution was further legitimated by the need
of the company to have a financial and accounting system that would be more efficient and useful for
decision making (pragmatic legitimacy). For this purpose, the Accounting-Finance module implemented
was the cornerstone of the first phase of the ERP project. The enterprise system was expected to allow the
implementation of an integrated database of accounting and analytical reports with the subsidiaries. This
finance-centric justification for the project was in line with the way the company had evolved. Until 1997,
TC was a public company. At this period it had sold its capital at the Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET).
While Waterworks Regional Authorities kept 40% of the capital, the rest was bought by banks and finance
institutes. This marked a shift from the public sector culture of TC to a finance-oriented strategy. TC
received several awards (in 2003, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2013) from the SET, Thai investor associations, for its
performance and profitability for shareholders. In the same perspective, the company aimed to pursue its
development abroad while, long-term quality services were less prioritized. For example, despite its R&D
activity, TC was still not providing drinking water to the Thai population.
At the organizational level, the ERP project was nonetheless seen as legitimate because of the
expected benefits in term of cost reduction, process optimization and harmonization of accounting and
finance reporting with the subsidiaries. This pragmatic legitimacy was in part achieved through a symbolic
act: instead of naming a manager from the CIO as project director, the board nominated the finance Director
as project manager. The IT managers were subordinated to him with regards to the decisions that had to be
made.
Surprisingly, at the individual level, champion end-users or key end-users were not considered
legitimacy providers. In fact, the project director did not even perceive them as important stakeholders.
We chose key users among middle-managers only. We only took into account their demands.
Lower-level employees don't have abilities to understand what the challenge is! We (ndrl: the top managers)
only had to explain to them the company gave a one million dollar tool to their disposal, and it was not for
nothing! We are the big ones and they are the small ones (ndlr: he represents a form of a pyramid with
his hands), and we must remind them. They said (ndlr: he looked to the sky and imitated an employee asking
a question to a superior). 'Sir, why have we to work with this new software now?' (ndlr: he looked to the
BMIC 2015| page110

floor speaking to somebody below him). 'Hey! Now you have to work with SAP because it is the
international standard and because we are telling you this is the right way'. (the project director)
The change management style at TC took the form of an authoritarian management style giving the
impression of white collars blue collars relationship duality. However, our analysis of the Buddhist
culture incites us not to consider this situation as a form of enslavement of employees feared by potential
hierarchical sanctions or blames. Actually, despite their personal dissatisfactions, the ERP acceptance was
associated more with the fact that the employees trusted top managers (moral legitimacy). This point highly
refers to the Bunkhun (or Katanyu) principle of the Buddhism. Bunkhun is often translated as
thankfulness and corresponds to the gratitude of Buddhists toward the ones providing help. Family
members, professors, monks, elders, etc. represent the building blocks of the moral order (Niffenegger et
al. 2006). Professional relationships are also governed by these symbolist rules. As representative of power
and professional experience, hierarchical superiors are considered as Phu Yai (big people) and are worth
of a similar gratitude of the Phu Noi (little people). Indeed, a kind of moral obligation between the two
categories shades the asymmetry. Phu Yai have to provide assistance and support to Phu Noi in
exchange of marks of respect. In other words, the legitimacy of a Phu Yai is function of his social role as
well as his hierarchical position. In other words, from the employees perspective, the legitimacy of the
project was directly linked to the moral legitimacy associated with the top implementers of the project.
If the moral legitimacy of the project ensured the ERP acceptance, this does not mean that users did
not express any resistance. Until the SAP implementation, the employees of the finance department did not
have to meet stringent deadlines, as managerial practices were less short-term oriented. The board of the
directors made most of the decisions more progressively, in several steps, and employees had more time to
put together the required data. It was common to extend reporting over several board meetings; decisions
were being made after several months only. SAP imposed a detailed financial budget being established
before a project activity could be created. The project director recognized that the most disturbing point for
the end-users was the new frame imposed by more urgent strategic decision-making needs, which had to be
enforced due to the growing competition.
Users acts of resistance were expressed using with a Thai style where resisting does not mean
avoiding to do what one has to do. One respondent explained that while employees did not ask for any
module customizations, they were however expecting top managers to play their role of Phu Yai and give
compensations for SAP usage, for example training, career plan, and/or financial incentives. These
pragmatic legitimating practices, which were indeed enforced at individual level, represented some kind of
moral counterpart to the Bunkhun principle shaping relationships between project stakeholders.
5. Discussion and Conclusion

The interviews we conducted reveal how legitimacy was achieved and what were the legitimating
practices carried out by implementers at the governance and at the operational levels during the course of
the implementation of an ERP project. While several of these practices are consistent with what are
considered project management best practices (Nelson, 2007; Wagner & Newell, 2004), some appear to be
more symbolic and aimed at ensuring the adherence of the stakeholders to the ERP project.
Data collected show that the legitimacy of the project evolves during the course of the
implementation. In some way, it reveals what we call a legitimacy trajectory. At CU, initially, implementers
favored argumentation strategies that belonged to the pragmatic and/or cognitive legitimacy categories.
They first relied on organizational pragmatic legitimacy to convince stakeholders that the project was indeed
needed (e.g. to streamline existing processes) and on cognitive legitimacy to demonstrate that they were
intending to build upon best practices to ensure the success of the project. At the individual level, project
managers made sure to demonstrate that the new ERP would contribute to facilitate the end-users daily
work (pragmatic legitimacy) and involved champion users to add credibility to the process (cognitive
legitimacy). However, at the organizational level, the global acceptance of the project by the stakeholders
relied more on the moral legitimacy aspects, i.e. the fact that the implementers ensured that academics were
adhering to the project (key stakeholders) and that the project recognized the special status of the Faculty of
medicine. The moral legitimacy aspect of the project also played a role, although less significant, at the
individual level. Here, it had been important to show that the implementation of the ERP would allow
BMIC 2015| page111

providing better services to students, an important fact in light of the mission of the organization; it
contributed to end-users acceptance of the project.
Our second case study suggests a different legitimacy trajectory of the ERP project. The interviews
we conducted at TC revealed that implementers initially used moral legitimating practices to convince the
stakeholders of the appropriateness of the ERP project, in that there was a need to adapt the corporation to
the Asian common market (ASEAN 2014). These arguments were reinforced by the symbolic actions of the
project director, who selected an IT solution that was seen as the standard and which was well diffused one
in that business sector. Here, the decision to go ahead with the vanilla implementation of SAP modules
instead of the preferred one of Microsoft translates cognitive legitimacy, as the Microsoft solution was
perceived as better aligned with TC needs, but less likely to be adopted by potential foreign partners. At the
organizational level, implementers justified the SAP adoption decision by arguing that there would be
improvement in the management of the subsidiaries. These pragmatic legitimating practices were congruent
with the way the culture of TC had evolved from having a public service mission to becoming a more
finance-centric business since the quotation of the company to the Stock Exchange of Thailand. At the
individual level, implementers only considered middle-managers as legitimacy providers and enrolled them,
instead of employees, as champion users given that the latters received very little consideration (cognitive
legitimacy). Actually, moral legitimacy played a dominant role at individual level because of the Buddhist
culture was contributing to shape behaviors. Indeed, from the employees perspective, the legitimacy of the
project director (as Phu Yai) was linked to the legitimacy of the project itself and it contributed to ensure
the ERP acceptance by end-users. Finally, the pragmatic legitimacy practices that were enacted played a
relative minor role in the project achievement; they mainly consisted as compensations provided for the
inconvenience of using the new system.
The legitimacy trajectories were different in each case and this put forth the overall influence of the
socio-cultural context in the way IT project achievement can be achieved. One common point in the two
cases is the dominant influence of moral legitimating practices, in terms of change management fit with
values and beliefs shared both at organizational and individual levels. We do acknowledge that these results
are only preliminary and that more data analysis and theory development are needed to exploit the richness
of our data. However, our results already have some interesting implications for the IT legitimacy and IT
implementation streams of literature. Indeed, our cases indicate that ensuring IT legitimacy is a critical issue
for ERP project implementations. They also show that legitimacy has to be perceived at both the
organizational and the individual levels to ensure the achievement of such projects. These results, can at
least to some extant contribute to explain the high failure rate of ERP implementation projects. For an ERP
package to be acquired, organizations have to make sure that organizational legitimacy is recognized by the
stakeholders. However, our two cases indicate that the legitimating practices that are successfully enacted at
the organizational level can be quite different from the ones that can ensure legitimacy at the individual
level. This is in line with recent IT studies that have shown how legitimacy providers play an important
role in IT projects (Flynn and Du 2012). Our results also reveal that, while legitimating practices must be
enforced at both the organizational and individual levels, the path to achieve such legitimacy will likely be
different from one context to another. While our results confirm that the pragmatic, moral and cognitive
aspects of legitimacy (Suchman 1995) are critical to ensure the achievement of an ERP project, the timing
and saliency of a given IT legitimacy aspect will be different from an organization to another.
References
Bitektine, A. 2011. Toward a theory of social judgments of organizations: The case of legitimacy,
reputation, and status, Academy of Management Review (36:1), pp. 151179.
Boiral, O. 2003. ISO 9000: Outside the iron cage, Organization Science (14), pp. 730737.
Boyatzis, R. 1998. Transforming qualitative information: thematic analysis and code development,
California: Sage.
Bullock, R. J. and Tubbs, M. E. 1987. "The Case Meta-Analysis for OD" in Research in Organizational
Change and Development, R. W. Woodman and W. A. Pasmore (ed.), Greenwich: pp.171-228
Eisenhardt, K. M. 1989. Building theories from case study research, Academy of Management
BMIC 2015| page112

Review(14:4), pp. 532550.
Flynn, D., and Du, Y. 2012. A case study of the legitimation process undertaken to gain support for an
information system in a Chinese university, European Journal of Information Systems (21:3), pp.
212228.
Hung, S.-Y., Yu, W.-J., Chen C., Hsu J.-C. 2012. Managing ERP Success by Enhancing Key Project
Management And Organizational Fit Factors. Proceedings of PACIS Conference, paper 89.
Hussain, Z. I., and Cornelius, N. 2009. The use of domination and legitimation in information systems
implementation, Information Systems Journal (19:2), pp. 197224.
Kaganer, E. 2010. Building Legitimacy for IT Innovations: The Case of Computerized Physician Order
Entry Systems., Journal of the Association for Information Systems. Jan2010 (11:1), pp. 133.
Larsson, R. 1993. "Case Survey Methodology: Quantitative Analysis of Patterns across Case Studies,"
Academy of Management Journal (36:6), pp. 1515-1546.
Meyer, J., and Rowan, B. 1977. Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony,
American Journal of Sociology (83), pp. 340363.
Miles, M., and Huberman, M. 1984. Qualitative data analysis: A source book for new methods, Sage
Publications.
Nelson, R. R. 2007. IT project management: infamous failures, classic mistakes, and best practices, MIS
Quarterly Executive, (6:2), pp. 6778.
Niffenegger, P., Kulviwat, S., and Engchanil., N. 2006. Conflicting Cultural Imperatives in Modern
Thailand: Global Perspectives, Asia Pacific Business Review (12:4), pp. 403420.
Oliver, C. 1991. Strategic responses to institutional processes, Academy of Management Review (16:1),
pp. 145179.
Parsons, T. 1960. Structure and Process in Modern Societies, Glencoe: Free Press.
Patton, M.Q. 2002. Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pfeffer, J., and Salancik, G. 1978. The External Control of Orga- nizations, New York: Harper & Row.
Seddon, P., Calvert, C., and Yang, S. 2010, A Multi-Project Model of Key Factors Affecting
Organizational Benefits from Enterprise Systems, MIS Quarterly (34:2), pp. 305-A11.
Strong, D. M.; and Volkoff, O. 2010. Understanding Organization - Entreprise System Fit: a Path to
Theorizing the Information Technology Artifact, MIS Quarterly 34(4), pp. 731756.
Suchman, M. C. 1995. Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches, Academy of
Management Review (20:3), pp. 571610.
Suddaby, R., and Greenwood, R. 2005. Rhetorical Strategies of Legitimacy., Administrative Science
Quarterly. Mar2005 (50:1).
Tost, L. P. 2011. An integrative model of legitimacy judgments, Academy of Management Review (36:4),
pp. 686710.
Urquhart C, Lehmann H and Myers M.D. 2010. Putting the theory back into grounded theory: guidelines
for grounded theory studies in information systems. Information Systems Journal (20), pp. 357381.Walczuch, R., Lemmink, J., and Streukens, S. 2007. The effect of service employees
technology readiness on technology acceptance, Information & Management (44:2), pp. 206215.
van Vuuren, I.J., and Seymour, L.F. (2013), Towards a model for user adoption of enterprise systems in
SMEs, Enterprise Systems Conference , pp. 1-9
Wagner, E., and Newell, S. 2004, Best for whom?: the tension between best practice ERP packages and
diverse epistemic cultures in a university context. Journal of Strategic Information Systems,
(13 :4), pp. 305328.
BMIC 2015| page113

Weber, M. 1968. Economy and Society: An Interpretive Sociology, (R. Guenther and W. Ciaus, eds.)New
York: Bedminister Press.
Yin, R. 1994. Case study research: Design and methods, Beverly Hills: Sage Publishing.
BMIC 2015| page114

Utilizing In-house Residents to Enhance the Performance of the EDC-UUM: A

Supply Chain Model
Engku Muhammad Nazri and Masnita Misiran
Abstract
This article proposed a supply chain model for the Executive Development Center of Universiti
Utara Malaysia (EDC-UUM). Characteristic of a hotel supply chain is studied and further maps the supply
chain to suit the characteristic of EDC-UUM. The proposed model involves with the extensive utilization of
in-house campus residents, e.g. lecturer and students.
Keywords: supply chain model; service; mapping
1. Introduction
Since the 1970s, quality management has been a preeminent strategic focus of companies. In the
1980s, topics like lean and flexible manufacturing, and just-in-time became the means for companies to gain
a competitive advantage in a quality-management environment. Now, globalization and the evolution of
information technology have provided the catalysts for supply chain management (SCM) to become the
strategic means for companies to manage quality, satisfy customers, and remain competitive (Russell and
Taylor, 2005).
The term "supply chain management" arose in the late 1980s and came into widespread use in the
1990s. Prior to that time, businesses used terms such as "logistics" and "operations management" instead
(Hugos, 2003).
SCM can be defined as the systematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions
and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the
supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the
supply chain as a whole (Mentzer and Min, 2001). Prior to that, Harland (1996) elaborately defined SCM as
managing business activities and relationships (1) internally within an organization, (2) with immediate
suppliers, (3) with first and second-tier suppliers and customers along the supply chain, and (4) with the
entire supply chain. Interested readers can refer to some other definitions in Hines (2004), and Lambert
(2008), to name just a few.
Supply chain, on the other hand is the alignment of firms that bring products or services to
market (Lambert, Stock, and Ellram, 1998). It can also be defined as a network of facilities and
distribution options that performs the functions of these materials into intermediate and finished products,
and the distribution of these finished products to customers (Ganeshan and Harrison, 1995). It consists of
all stages involved, directly or indirectly, in fulfilling a customer request. The supply chain does not only
include the manufacturer and suppliers, but also transporters, warehouses, retailers, and customers
themselves (Chopra and Meindl, 2001). Furthermore, it also includes purchasing, manufacturing,
warehousing, transportation, customer services; demand planning, supply planning and SCM. It is made up
of the people, activities, information and resources involved in moving a product from its suppliers to
customers.
Recognized or not, supply chains exist in both service and manufacturing organizations, although
the complexity of the chain may vary greatly from industry to industry and from firm to firm. Every
organization has a unique chain (Roberts, 2003).
BMIC 2015| page115

Supply chain exists externally and internally, thus requiring cross-functional effort, and more
importantly, it is multi-tiered in the sense that it spans beyond the hotels immediate suppliers and customers
(Roberts, 2003). However, it is not logical to focus on each tier extensively. In some cases, a fourth-tier
supplier might not even be known. However, understanding that the supply chain has multiple tiers, beyond
just a supplier and a customer, will help the hotel management know what to focus their efforts and time on
while making good decisions that do not negatively affect other tiers.
Any hotels supply chain applications should comprise of relationships of the hotel with its
suppliers (backward linkage) and tourism/customers intermediaries (forward linkage) (Ozturen and Sevil,
2009). Among the key factors to consider in a hotel supply chain model are financial and non-financial
measures, as well as high collaborators and low collaborators (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). Furthermore,
for the non-financial measures, in addition to product flows, all information flows and services must be
traced as well (Roberts, 2003).
Information is crucial in any hotels supply chain. It is used for two purposes namely, in
coordinating daily hotel activities related to the functioning of the other drivers in the chain, and in
forecasting and planning to anticipate and meet future demands (Hugos, 2003). Other than information, the
hotel must also have the ability to meet the dynamic competition that exists in todays market environment
(Prahalad and Hamel, 1990). To remain competitive, the hotel management should place more emphasis on
understanding its competencies or capabilities (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994).
Until very recently, there are limited researches, both empirical and conceptual, which examine the
concept of SCM within tourism sector (Muchina and Popovici, 2008; Kozak et al., 2008; Zhang et.al., 2009;
Simon and Roy, 2009; Pibbonrungroj and Disney, 2009; Rusko et al., 2009). Piboonrungroj and Disney
(2009) reported that there were only 44 TSCM studies prior to 2009 with 66% published in the year 2008
and 2009. Out of those, none focuses on hotel supply chain.
Intercontinental Hotel Groups enhanced their supply chain strategy for 2013-2017 by integrating
corporate responsibility criteria into the selection and evaluation process for all suppliers and tracking as
well as reporting supply chain diversity (http://www.ihgplc.com/index.asp?pageid=764).
2. Executive Development Center Hotel, UUM (EDC-UUM)
The Executive Development Centre of Universiti Utara Malaysia (EDC-UUM) started its
operations in September 2006 as a training and seminar venue cum hotel. Specifically, EDC-UUM was
established to perform four objectives as below:
To act as Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM)s training hotel, not only to the students and staff of
UUM, but also to all the other learning institutions as well as other government institutions and corporate
bodies.
To generate income for UUM.
To provide a unique, friendly, pleasant service, and atmosphere for UUM guests.
To create employment opportunities in the hotel industry to the potential local community.
At the time this study was conducted, Mr. Mohd Fauzi Zainal Abidin is the General Manager who
is responsible for the entire operation of the EDC-UUM establishment. He holds responsible over the overall
EDC-UUM operation and answerable to the Vice Chancellor of UUM. He is accountable to the management
team, overall management of hotel staff, budgeting and financial management, creating and enforcing
business objectives and goals, managing projects and renovations, management of emergencies and other
major issues involving guests, employees, or the facility, public relations with the media, local governments,
and other businesses.
At this point in time, the demand for training and seminar rooms as well as hotel rooms mostly
come from UUM itself with some occasional demand from outside of UUM. Although the yearly revenue
generated has already exceeded its operating cost for the past three years, record shows that the utilization
rate of the seminar and training facilities as well as hotel rooms is still rather low (62% and 35%
BMIC 2015| page116

respectively) and the demand pattern is very seasonal. Thus, there is a need for the EDC-UUM management
to increase its effort to improve and enhance its marketability and usability.
UUM and its surroundings have a lot to offer. As a management university, UUM has plenty of
management training experts. Its well-preserved training grounds, green campus, large student population,
good highway connection, and its location that is very near to Thailand as well as other universities such as
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (Unimap) and Universiti Teknologi MARA, Arau Branch (UiTM Arau) are some
other plus points. All these should be capitalized by the EDC-UUM management to generate optimal
revenue.
Currently, however, there is no concerted effort done by either the EDC-UUM management or the
UUM management to really think of how to utilize the available opportunities. Therefore, it is high time for
both the management teams to properly strategize EDC-UUMs functions.
Specifically, this study embarks on the following objectives:
To determine the resources available and opportunities that can be grabbed to strengthen the
functions and usability of EDC-UUM.
To develop a supply chain model for EDC-UUM that will incorporate all the resources and
opportunities so that the demand for and the utilization of the training/seminar rooms and hotel rooms can be
increased. (This requires the inclusion of innovation and marketing strategies).
3. Algorithm for Supply Chain Model
3.1 Suggested Approach

In developing a supply chain model for EDC-UUM, Roberts (2003) suggests the following steps:
Step 1: Defining and understanding the characteristics of the hotel supply chain. This includes
knowing the market the hotel serves (Hugos, 2003). Anticipating demands for hotel services is paramount
since customers' demand is the catalyst to the supply chain. In the case of EDC-UUM, these demands come
in the form of:
Rooms
Training facilities
Restaurant (F& B)
Recreational activities (spa, health centre, jungle trekking, etc.). The recreational venues and
facilities belong to UUM and therefore are not under EDC-UUMs direct management, but since EDCUUM is a part of UUM, and some users of these recreational activities opt to stay in EDC-UUM, it is
appropriate to include these recreational activities as a part of the demands.
Step 2: Mapping the supply chain. This will help EDC-UUM to identify its links and gaps in its
services. The map will show, graphically, where the hotel's time and efforts would be best spent.
To map this EDC-UUMs supply chain, we relied on a model suggested by Kottler and Armstrong
(2006), which later used as a framework for getting started, as suggested by Cavinato, Flynn, and Kauffman
(2006).
3.2 The Proposed Approach

Taking into consideration Roberts suggestion, and with slight modification, we followed these
following steps to develop the supply chain model for EDC-UUM:
BMIC 2015| page117

Step 1: Data gathering
This study began with the determination of some factors that are believed to be the sources of
EDC-UUM's superior performance in terms of both financial and non-financial aspects, as well as the high
and low contributors in EDC-UUM. This was achieved by conducting the SWOT analysis for EDC-UUM.
SWOT analysis can be better achieved through scanning, market research, problem-solving inquiries, or
direct experience (Day, 1994). Thus, for EDC-UUMs SWOT analysis, we sought information from EDCUUM's board of directors as well as from some of its loyal customers and literature.
Step 2: Develop the supply chain model.

Normally, this phase will depend on the type of model that is to be built. It is possible that the
model's construction phase will use a number of different approaches. We reviewed some supply chain
frameworks such as the Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF), the American Productivity & Quality Center
(APQC), Process Classification Framework (PCF) SM, and the Supply Chain Best Practices Framework.
The most significant framework was then being applied for EDC-UUM.
In this case, we followed the suggestion by Kottler and Armstrong (2006), i.e. a supply chain can
be divided into two linkages: supplier-oriented linkages (involving raw materials, information, capital, and
expertise) and customer-oriented linkages. Thus the chain for EDC-UUM could be represented as shown in
Figure 1 below.
IT
Executive
managemen
t
Product
Legal
Sales&
Financ
e
Supply
side
Customer
Market
side
Supply
managem
Accoun
t
Account
Operatio
n
Figure 1: Supply chain model for EDC-UUM

(Adapted fromRichard Tapper, Environment Business & Development Group, 2003)
When mapping, it can be useful to ask questions and diagram the answers, as suggested by Anna E.
Flynn, Ph.D., C.P.M., vice president as well as associate professor for ISM. Questions may include:
Who is the final customer?
Where do products or services end up after each element?
BMIC 2015| page118

Who are the major players in each chain?
Who is paying whom?
Whom does each member sell to?
Because an organization may end up with an enormous supply chain map if it considers every
customer and every supplier, Flynn suggests using an ABC, Pareto, or 80/20 analysis to determine which
customers and suppliers to include in the map. Perhaps, initially, those suppliers and customers involved
with the greatest amount of spend for an organization would be mapped.
4. EDC-UUM Supply Chain Links
Now that the focus areas have been identified, we combined the strengths and the opportunities,
whenever possible, for the construction of the specific supply chain model. In this paper, we proposed a few
supply chain models that involve the utilization of students and experts of UUM and the available facilities
in UUM.
UUM
Trainer
EDC-UUM (Rooms,
Participants
restaurant, training
rooms)
Figure 2: Supply chain involving UUM Trainer
EDC-UUM (Rooms,
UUM Students
(Conference
Participants
rooms)
Figure 3: Supply chain involving UUM Students
UUM Students
(Agriculture
Business
EDC-UUM (Rooms,
rooms)
Figure 2: Supply chain involving Students from Agriculture Business Programme
BMIC 2015| page119
Inhouse or
walk in guests

The supply chain model that involves the utilization of students and experts of UUM and the
available facilities in UUM
Specifically, we proposed that these in-house residents of UUM to be utilized for the following
purposes:
Staff of UUM
Students of UUM
UUM facilities
5. Conclusion
The EDC-UUM supply chain comprises of all goods and services that go into the delivery of EDCUUM products to consumers. It includes all suppliers of goods and services whether or not they are directly
contracted by EDC-UUM or its agents. It also involves many components including accommodation,
transport and excursions, food and restaurants, souvenirs, and the infrastructure that supports EDC. In this
paper, we illustrated only supply chain models involving services that can be enhanced and new services
that can be introduced through the utilization of the available local community. The next action is for the
EDC-UUM management to form a working committee to plan and properly execute the suggestions.
Perhaps, if EDC-UUM is not ready to implement all at one go, the management must prioritize their action
plan.
Stable contracts and foreseeable contracting conditions including prices are paramount, both to
facilitate the necessary investments by the supplier and to cement the trust in the relationship. Three
conditions in the EDC-UUM-supplier relationship are important for the success of supply chain initiatives:
long-term partnership, fair pricing and a consistent volume of operations.
We encourage EDC-UUM to source goods and services locally and in addition to supporting local
suppliers. We also understand the need to promote responsible business practices by those same suppliers.
By doing so, EDC-UUM would be able to not only reduce its operating cost, but at the same time enhance
the quality of the service. Some specific suggestions are as stated below:
Leveraging on the pool of available Agri-business students in UUM.
Taking advantage of UUM experts, UUM facilities and infrastructure, and training programmes.
Making use of the ongoing community works undertaken in UUM to enhance the function and
visibility of EDC (lots of opportunities - flood victims, orphanage).
Effective communication is believed to be a significant indicator for successful supply chain as
indicated by Chen and Paulraj (2004) and Krause, Ragatz, and Hughley (1999). This includes
communication between the entities within EDC-UUM itself as well as communication with the external
entities involved in the supply chain. After all, proper selection of suppliers and establishing close
relationships with them could lead to a higher customer satisfaction and better financial performance in
EDC-UUM (Bensaou, 1999, Stanley and Wisner, 2001).
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Universiti Utara Malaysia for funding this research project and allowing us
to attend this conference.
BMIC 2015| page120

References
Bensaou, M., 1999. Portfolios of buyer-supplier relationships, Sloan Management Review, 40, p. 35-44.
Bucklin, L.P. and Sengupta, S., 1993. Organising successful co-marketing alliances, Journal of Marketing,
57(2), pp. 32-46.
Cavinato, J.L., Flynn, A.E. and Kauffman, R.G., 2006. The Supply Management Handbook, Seventh
Edition,
United States: The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Chen, I. J. and Paulraj, A., 2004. Towards a theory of supply-chain management: the constructs and
measurement, Journal of Operations Management, 3, p.199-207.
Chopra, S. and Meindl, P., 2001. Supply Chain Management: Strategy, Planning, and Operations, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Corporate Responsibility Criteria, http://www.ihgplc.com/index.asp?pageid=764, accessed on 12 June 2012.
Day, G.S., 1994. The capabilities of market-driven organizations, Journal of Marketing, 58, p. 37-52.
Ganeshan, R. and Harrison, T.P., 2002. An introduction to supply chain management,
http://mason.wm.edu/faculty/ganeshan_r/documents/intro_supply_chain.pdf.
Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C.K., 1994. Competing for the Future, Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Harland, C.M., 1996, Supply Chain Management Relationships, Chains and Networks, British Journal of
Management, 7 (special edition), p. 63-80.
Hines, T., 2004. Supply Chain Strategies: Customer Driven and Customer Focused. Oxford: Elsevier.
Hugos, M., 2003. Essentials of Supply Chain Management, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, inc.
Kotler, P. and Armstrong G., 2006. Marketing. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Kozak, N., Uysal, M. and Birkan, I., 2008, An Analysis of Cities Based on Tourism Supply and Climatic
Condition in Turkey, Tourism Geographies, 10(1), p. 81-97.
Krause, D. R., Ragatz, G. L. and Hughley, S., 1999. Supplier development for the minority suppliers
perspective, Journal of Supply Chain Management, 35, p. 33-41.
Lambert, D. M. Supply Chain Management: Processes, Partnerships, Performance, 3rd edition, 2008.
Lambert, D.M., Stock, J. R. and Ellram, L.M., 1998, Fundamentals of Logistics Management, Boston, MA:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Mentzer, J.T. and Min, S., 2001. Defining Supply Chain Management, Journal of Business Logistics, 22(2),
p.
1-25.
Municina, S. and Popovici, V., 2008. Logistics and Supply Chain Management in Tourism, The Logistic of
Merchandise, 10(24), p. 122-132.
Ozturen, Ali ve Sevil, Guven, 2009. Supply Chain Management as a Sustainable Performance. Booster for
the
Accomodation Enterprise: Evidence from North Cyprus Tourism Sector, International Journal of Business
and Management, 4(2).
BMIC 2015| page121

Piboonrungroj, P. and Disney, S.M., 2009. Tourism Supply Chains: A Conceptual Framework, PhD
Network
Conference, Nottingham, UK, 1-3 July, p. 132-149.
Prahalad, C.K. and Hamel, G., 1990. The core competence of the corporation, Harvard Business Review,
68(3), p. 79-91.
Rusko, R.P., Kylanen, M. and Saari, R., 2009. Supply Chain in Tourism Destinations: The Case of Levi
Resort in Finnish Lapland, International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(1), p. 71-87.
Russell,S. Roberta and Taylor, W. Bernard, 2006. Operations Management: Quality and Competitiveness in
a
Global Environment (5th Edition). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Roberts, J. S., 2003. The Buzz About Supply Chain, Inside Supply Management, 14(7), 24 27.
Simon, V. and Roy, J., 2009. Global Service Supply Chains: AN Empirical Study of Current Practices and
Challenges of a Cruise Line Corporation. Tourism Management, 30, p. 128-139.
Stanley, L.L. and Wisner, J.D., 2001. Service quality along the supply chain: implications for purchasing,
Journal of Operations Management, 19, p. 287-306.
Zhang, X., Song, H. and Huang, G.Q., 2009. Tourism Supply Chain Management: A New Research
Agenda,
Tourism Management, 30(3), p. 278-287.
BMIC 2015| page122

A study of customer loyalty towards Caltex gas station in Thailand

Phorphan Chanprasert and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
This study has been conducted to explore the relationship between loyalty program, trust,
satisfaction, perceived price fairness and customer loyalty towards Caltex gas station. The purpose of
customer loyalty relates to increase the market share as loyalty has received important attention in the
business operation. In this study, the sample included 400 existing customers of Caltex by distribute
questionnaires to 5 sites of Caltex gas stations. The target audience is the motorists who fill gasoline at
Caltex. The sampling procedure used judgment sampling, Quota Sampling and Convenience Sampling, the
data collection was conducted by considering of geographic area as central, northern, eastern, southern and
northeast .The result of this study showed positive relationship between loyalty program, trust, satisfaction,
perceived price fairness and customer loyalty.
Loyalty program; Trust; Satisfaction; Perceived price fairness; Customer loyalty
Introduction
Since ten years gasoline stations in Thailand became more competitive when many foreign
companies came to invest here and selling gasoline as the core business, now time has changed, there are
many factors which persuade customers and their decisions so, the company relies on factors which could
gain customer loyalty and repurchase intention, each company uses a differentiation strategy to make their
company become successful, for example, a strategy to increase level of service provide has become more
important for customer decision to repurchase, creating brand image to represent social responsibility and
the most important for business success is quality, which should meet the need to satisfy customers.
Despite the fact that price is one of the main factors that affect customer decisions although the Thai
government sets fair standard for all types of gas, there are still small differences that each company can set
prices vary based on tax, location and company policy. There are more variable factors which affect
customer loyalty and convince them to buy more product or services and ensure that the customer will stay
with the company in the long term.
Ganesh et al., (2000) defined that customer loyalty could be used to indicate a held commitment
that the customer will repurchase and prefer products or services consistently in the future. Oliver (1999)
conceptualized customer loyalty as the repurchase intention to buy the same product or service, or buying
the same brand, in varying situations.
Caltex gas station has been recognized as an American company which operates retail business
for Chevron, there are 350 stations in Thailand (From Caltex location report of active sites as of June 2015).
Caltex gas station has a market share of 7% and was ranked number five in the market. In the year 2015,
Caltex expected to expand more 30 sites and change the investment plan by representing 100% for retail
invest from their own assets and land with an approximate cost 15 million baht to motivate retailers to
continue to develop efficient of products and services. Although the name of Caltex is familiar for Thai
people for a long time, only some people know that Caltex was acquired by Chevron and it insisted to use
the name Caltex instead Chevron, unlike other gas stations that use the same name as the company
itself; there are three strategies that Caltex uses, which are the business for sustainable growth, focus on the
quality of products and safety.
BMIC 2015| page123

This research aims to study customer loyalty, the factor which affects purchasing decision
towards Caltex gas stations in Thailand, which could encourage the retailers to develop and maintain
customer loyalty, the researcher measures the factors that could increase customer loyalty from customer
loyalty programs, trust, satisfaction and perceived price fairness, by using the survey method by distributing
400 questionnaires to motorists who fill gasoline at Caltex, separated by geographic areas of central,
northern, eastern, southern and north eastern of Thailand to find the relationship between the variables show
below.
Research Objectives
1. To study the relationship between customer loyalty program and trust towards Caltex gas station.
2. To study the relationship between customer loyalty program and satisfaction towards Caltex gas
station.
3. To study the relationship between perceived price fairness and satisfaction towards Caltex gas
station.
4. To study the relationship between perceived price fairness and loyalty towards Caltex gas
station.
5. To study the relationship between trust and loyalty towards Caltex gas station.
6. To study the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty towards Caltex gas station
Literature Review
Theory
Customer loyalty program: Dholakia et al. (2006) conceptualized the loyalty program as reward
programs applied as marketing tools to increase customer relationships between seller and customer which
benefit to their customer, contribute to purchasing activities by giving them the exclusive or unique
identifier.
Trust: Chow and Holden (1997) defined trust as the confidence well placed in a person or
confident on something or someone based on their experience, in terms of merchandise, trust represents the
confidence in a product, service or brand between the seller and customer.
Satisfaction: Bitner (1990) defined satisfaction is an alternative outcome when customer meets or
surplus their expectation and also use to measure the level of their happiness from shopping experience, also
used satisfaction as a marketing tool to predict sale in the future causing if the customer satisfies product or
service, the sale volume would increase due to customer would repurchase in the future.
Perceived price fairness: Athanassopoulos, et al. (2000) defined the perceived of price fairness as
acceptable on price, reasonable price or satisfaction on price and worthy compare with product or service
received. Thibaut and Walker (1975) conceptualized price fairness as the customer judgments on price if it
is worthy to compare with product or service received. Herrmannet al. (2007) defined perceived fairness
price is an important element affecting to purchase decision and rebuy intentions.
Loyalty: Ganesh et al. (2000) conceptualized that loyalty tends to increase repurchase intention,
commitment or recommendation intention and continue to repurchase in the future the same product or
brand when customers have faithfulness in a brand. Oliver (1999)defined customer loyalty as the deep
commitment to rebuy a product or service consistently in future.
BMIC 2015| page124

Related Review Literature
Relationship between customer loyalty program and trust
Sirdeshmukh et al. (2002) defined the relationship between trust and loyalty program as longterm relationships. Loyalty program is the part of effective marketing plan by reward, discount or give the
unique identifier if compare with non-member, the loyalty program has considered as an importance
variable which leading trust of the customer. An effective loyalty program could reduce customer
dissatisfaction; maintain an ongoing relationship between buyer and seller. A good loyalty program has a
positive effect and increases sales volume, likewise reflecting a higher level of trust.
Relationship between customer loyalty program and satisfaction
Shoemaker and Lewis (1999) explained that good loyalty programs should enhance customer
satisfaction in terms of reducing the conflict or dissatisfaction between buyers and sellers, in the retail
business, the higher rating respond with loyalty program can specify higher level of customer satisfaction
towards product or service provided. Huang and Liu (2010) studied how to increase the level of customer
satisfaction and loyalty in brand and the result shows that providing rewards or giving discounts is an
effective way to reach customer satisfaction.
Relationship between perceived price fairness and satisfaction
Anderson (1994) studied the relationship among perceived fairness of price and satisfaction that
customer always compared prices before deciding to buy a product or service, if the customer was satisfied
on price, its means they perceived a fairness price. Zeithaml and Bitner (2000) defined that when a customer
paid a higher price than others, but received the same or less quality of products or services. It influenced
satisfaction.
Relationship between perceived price fairness and loyalty
Varki and Colgate (2001) defined perceived price fairness has a direct effect to loyalty. Xia et
al., (2004) studied the psychological dimensions of repurchase behavior which is determined by quantitative
perspectives such as pricing strategy and price modeling which influence customers to purchase products
and leads the loyalty of a brand.
Relationship between fairness and loyalty
Jarvenpaa et al. (2000) found that trust was always gained by directly interactions between
buyers and sellers face-to-face, as when customers perceived greater trust, the greater the loyalty they will
perceive. Corbitt et al. (2003) suggested there are many relationships have been presented between
satisfaction, trust and loyalty. The consumer who trusts a product or service is more willing to remain loyal
and also willing to pay the premium price for it, In accordance with the theory between trust and loyalty, it is
consequently concluded that trust has been identified as the major factor to drive customer loyalty
(Garbarino and Johnson, 1999).
Relationship between satisfaction and loyalty
Anderson and Fornell (1994) stated that the customer satisfaction is used to determine the
customers attitudes towards products or services provided, when they satisfy, it created loyal behavior
which profited to the company. Wunderlich (2006) studied that the customer satisfaction and customer
loyalty establishes along in long term goals of business. Yi (1990) studied at behavioral loyalty can
generated and become customer satisfaction and it demonstrated repurchase intention with the same brand or
same kind of product or service. Oliver and Swan (1989) studied satisfaction and found that they are both
associated directly and indirectly with repurchase intention.
BMIC 2015| page125

Conceptual Framework
Research Hypotheses
H1o: There is no significant relationship between customer loyalty program and trust.
H1a: There is a significant relationship between customer loyalty program and trust.
H2o: There is no significant relationship between customer loyalty program and satisfaction.
H2a: There is a significant relationship between customer loyalty program and satisfaction.
H3o: There is no significant relationship between perceived price fairness and satisfaction.
H3a: There is a significant relationship between perceived price fairness and satisfaction.
H4o: There is no significant relationship between perceived price fairness and loyalty.
H4a: There is a significant relationship between perceived price fairness and loyalty.
H5o: There is no significant relationship between trust and loyalty.
H5a: There is a significant relationship between trust and loyalty.
H6o: There is no significant relationship between satisfaction and loyalty.
H6a: There is a significant relationship between satisfaction and loyalty.
Methodology
Descriptive research is defined as either quantitative or qualitative analysis which is used to

describe the population by using the survey technique to distribute the questionnaires and collect primary
data for describing characteristics of target respondents by transforming the raw data to another form which
helps to interpret and understand easily. In order to generate descriptive information is used to understand
the major problem but it does not answer questions of who, what, when and where (Zikmund, 2003). This
research is to study factors or variables which have an effect on loyalty towards Caltex: gas station in
Thailand based on the relationship between customer loyalty program, perceived price fairness, trust and
satisfaction. This research use collect data by distribute 400 questionnaires to 5 sites of Caltex gas stations.
The target audience is the motorists who fill gasoline at Caltex gas station; separately distribute
questionnaires equally by considering of geographic area as central, northern, eastern, southern and
northeastequally as 80 questionnaires per site. The selections of sites were the provinces where Caltex gas
stations were located with the largest population from each region (http://th.wikipedia.org). Those are
BMIC 2015| page126

Bangkok, Chiangmai, Chonburi, Suratthani and Nakhonratchasima and also focus only site which has the
high purchasing volume from Chevron Thailand based on Chevron Sale Report of year 2014, the selection
site are Easy Stop, Star Corporation Airport, Sri Sai Thong, PM Oil and Pakchonge Santisuk.
Zikmund (2003) defined the sampling procedure as the action of processing to select samples from
the group or population by select the subset from larger population to study or investigating a sample then
the researcher can make conclusions from the outcome. In the research, the researchers can observe only a
part of the population by finding from the sampling by selecting a group from a much larger population that
is similar in its trait distribution of the larger population. Findings made from studying the group can then be
generalized to the larger population which is randomly chosen and non-probability sampling. On the other
hand, Nonprobability Sampling is any sampling procedure that cannot specify the probability that each
member of a population has of being selected (Picciano, 2010). Non-probability sampling has four sampling
techniques such as convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgment sampling and snowball sampling. In
this study, the researchers applied judgment, quota and convenience sampling.
Malhotra (2007) defined the primary data as the original data from the researcher for specific
purpose or analyze the research problem. In this research, the primary data were collected by using the selfadministered questionnaire distributed to 400 respondents of the target population. The target population is
the motorist who fills gasoline at Caltex gas station, separately distributed questionnaires equally
considering by geographic area of central, northern, eastern, southern, and northeasternequally distributed 80
questionnaires per site. The selection site base on the province has Caltex gas station locate with the largest
population from each region. Which are Bangkok, Chiangmai, Chonburi, Suratthani and Nakhonratchasima.
Findings
Summary of Hypothesis testing
Table 1: Summary the result of Hypothesis testing for Caltex gas station
Correlation
Hypothesis
Level of significance
Result
.765**
Rejected
.673**
Rejected
.645**
.678**
Rejected
.745**
Rejected
.786**
Rejected
coefficient
H1o: There is no significant relationship
between customer loyalty program and trust.
H2o: There is no significant relationship between
customer loyalty program and satisfaction.
H3o: There is no significant relationship between
Rejected
perceived price fairness and satisfaction.

between perceived price fairness and loyalty.
between trust and loyalty.
between satisfaction and loyalty.
BMIC 2015| page127

Discussion
Recommendation
The result of answers from questionnaires shows a strong relationship, therefore the researcher
would like to make some recommendations for Caltex gas station to maintain and increase customer loyalty
by following:
The result of hypothesis one shows the strong relationship between loyalty program and trust. The
researcherwould recommend Caltex to continue the loyalty program along with Earn and Burn point,
currently Caltex gas station has only redeem points by corporates with business one partner True as
burning True point at Caltex gas station instead pay cash, the significance of earning points should be easily
recognizable, for example, corporates with reputation by enhancing the credit card holders to earn or collect
point to their credit card in order to fill gas at Caltex gas stations such as 100 baht can earn or collect 10
points otherwise the credit card holders can burn or redeem points from their credit card instead of paying
cash at Caltex gas stations. The significant loyalty program consists Earn and Burn point has considered
as marketing plan that leading customers trust in brand which supported by Morgan and Hunt (1994).
The result of hypothesis two shows a strong relationship between loyalty program and satisfaction,
the research would recommend Caltex gas station to play loyalty program with other products or service, not
only for filling gas. For example, the customer redeems their point to buy the lubricants or burning point
from their credit card to buy product from mini mart in Caltex gas station. Moreover Caltex gas station
should continue maintain physical appearance and cleanliness of every component area such as the
cleanliness of mini mart, car wash to motivate customer satisfaction as the loyalty program can increase
sales and encourage participation through increased interaction and improve consumer acceptance which is
supported by Kim et al., (2007).
The result of hypothesis three shows a strong relationship between perceived price fairness and
satisfaction. The researcher would recommend Caltex gas station to continue to provide customers a fair
price. The manager should assign staff in the morning shift to check price on board and price on credit card
terminal as daily schedule checking at 5 am every morning because the price always effective at 5 am to
assured the price is correct in every day. As the study from by Anderson (1994) shows that perceived price
fairness is an effective factor to determine the level of satisfaction.
The result of hypothesis four shows a strong relationship between perceived price fairness and
loyalty, the researcher would suggest Caltex gas stations to provide premium gifts to customers who fill gas
for more than 500 baht; the premium gift could be different from competitors. Basically, many gas stations
provide free bottles of water as the same promotion, by the way, the differentiation gifts should be
alternative and more effective to create loyalty but based on cost too, for example the tissue with packaging
of Caltex brand which looks different and could not be found in the market, the discount for the next
purchase. As supported by Padula and Busacca (2005) that the psychological factor which influences
consumers loyalty is perceived price fairness. The customers may recommend family and friends to use
Caltex gas stations and also continue being Caltexs customer if they are satisfied with Caltex gas stations,
In contrast, the customers may switch to use other gas brands if they are not satisfied with price based on the
study from Yieh, Chiao & Chiu (2007).
The result of hypothesis five shows a strong relationship between trust and loyalty, the researcher
would recommend to Caltex to form a team to check each site under Caltex brand in terms of oil quality, the
quality of equipment and security system such as extinguishers, camera system and fuel dispensers, those
directly create trust to customers when they believe that they are secure and can drive customers to be loyal
with product and service from that brand in the long run. When consumers perceived greater trust, it
increases loyalty towards the brand, which is supported by Jarvenpaa et al. (2000) and the good relationship
between customers and sellers can create trust and drive loyalty to repurchase and help them to continue
being customers in the future which is supported by Doney and Cannon (1997).
The result of hypothesis six shows a strong relationship between satisfaction and loyalty, the
researcher would give the recommend to Caltex to send the trainer to train staff attendant at site basely a
time per month to meet the standard of Caltex in term of service and knowledge in product causing a high
percentage of staff turnover at site, when the new staff come, Caltex should be sure that they can perform
BMIC 2015| page128

work and offer customers the same standard. The staff attendant is a one of factor affects the customer
loyalty. Based on the studied from Anderson and Fornell (1994) defined that when the customer is satisfied
with service provided, they will continue being a customer in the future.
This research aims to study the only some factors which affect customer loyalty at of Caltex gas
stations. However, there are many relevant factors which are related to gas stations that the researcher could
take more advantage of for future study, the research would describe the attention of future studies by
grouping as below:
1. Future studies should examine service quality towards Caltex gas stations by emphasizing
factors which are related to customer satisfaction such as responsiveness, reliability, empathy, tangibles.
2. The future study of customer satisfaction between Caltex gas stations with other comparative
brand, for example Esso, Shell which are both similar as American companies, the result of the study could
benefit Caltex to find opportunities to improve the business in the competitive market and help future
development.
3. Based on categories by demographics in Thailand as north, central, west, east, south and north
east regions, The researcher skipped the survey over west as the number of Caltex sites is less in the west,
however future researchers should study to all parts of Thailand as people are different which may lead to
more varieties of answers.
References
Athanassopoulos, A. D. (2000). Customer satisfaction cues to support market segmentation and explain switching behavior. Journal of
Business Research, 47(3), 191-207.

Chow, D.K.H. (2003). Service quality in grocery retailing: the study of a Japanese supermarket in Hong
Kong. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16 (1), 71-87.
Dholakia, U.M. (2006), How customer self-determination influences relational marketing outcomes:
evidence from longitudinal field studies, Journal of Marketing Research,Vol. 43, pp. 109-20.
Ganesh, J., Arnold, M.J. and Reynolds, K.E. (2000), Understanding the customer base of service providers:
an examination of the differences between switchers and stayers, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 64
No. 3, pp. 65-87.
Lien-Ti Bei Yu-Ching Chiao, (2006),"The determinants of customer loyalty: An analysis of intangible
factors in three service industries", International Journal of Commerce and Management, Vol. 16
Iss 3/4 pp. 162 177.
Moorman, C., Zaltman, G. and Deshpande, R. (1992) , Relationships between providers and users of
market research: the dynamics of trust within and between organizations, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. 26 , pp. 314-28.
Oliver, R.L. (1999), Whence consumer loyalty?, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63 No. 4, pp. 33-45.
Varki, S., & Colgate, M. (2001). The role of price perceptions in an integrated model of behavioral
intentions. Journal of Service Research, 3(3), 232-240.
Yi, Y. and Jeon, H. (2003), Effects of loyalty programs on value perception, program loyalty, and brand
loyalty, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 229-40.
Zeithaml, V.A. (2000), Service quality, profitability and the economic worth of customers: what we know
and what we need to learn, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 6785.
BMIC 2015| page129

A Relationship between Satisfaction, Attitude, Service Quality, Trust,Social

Influence and iPhone Repurchase intention, in Bangkok, Thailand
Phanuthat Dilokwilas and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
This study, the researchers focus on the relationship between satisfaction, trust, positive attitude,
core service quality and social influence affecting repurchase intention toward iPhone in Bangkok, Thailand.
The independents and dependents variable were been analyzes in this research.The price of an iPhone quite
expensive compare to other smartphone so, the researcher target the working people who has potential on
buying an expensive smartphone and working in crowed area at Silom, Sathorn Sukhumvit and Asoke by
conduct from the respondents who has experienced owning an iPhone.
Repurchase intention; Satisfaction; Trust; Positive attitude; Social influence; Core service quality
Introduction
The demand and supply of smartphones in Thailand has encountered a sharp increase in the last
few years. Peoples have more alternative choices for buying a smartphone which makes the competition
becoming more intense in the present day. Thus, in order to maintain market share, different marketing
strategies require for each different brand that must be based on proper targeting with the right marketing
mix. The key factors that determine the success of those brands is the customers. So, knowing what the
customers needs is very important for the enterprise to achieve customer repurchase intention.
The demand for iPhones has been increasing since the first model was launched on the market. The
popularity of this smartphone make the supply of the iPhone is not enough for the first couple of months of
its launch, this happened in almost every country not just only in Thailand even though, iPhones more
expensive than the other smartphone brand available, but its still the leading smartphone in Thailand.
Research Objectives
To study the relationship between satisfaction and trust.

To study the relationship between satisfaction and positive attitude.
To study the relationship between satisfaction and repurchase intention
To study the relationship between trust and repurchase intention.
To study the relationship between positive attitude and repurchase intention. To study the relationship
between core service quality and satisfaction.
To study the relationship between core service quality and repurchase intention. To study the
relationship between social influence and repurchase intention
BMIC 2015| page130

Literature Review
Repurchase intention
Hellier et al., (2003) repurchase intention is the customer repeats process of purchasing products or
services from the same particular brand and the key reason is in experience after shopping. Additionally, the
repurchase intention is also actual behaviour resulting in the repeat buying of the same product or service
more than one time.Customer buy the same product repeatedly from the same sellers and most buying
represent a series of event not just a single isolated event.Retention can also consider as repurchase
(Zineldin, 2006), which considered in relationship market (Fullerton,2005). Repurchase intent is defined as
customers decision to purchase or engage in the future activities with the sellers or the supplier (Hume,
2007).
Satisfaction
Satisfaction is defined as overall level of consumer pleasure and contentment from their experience
with the service or particular product (Hellier, 2003).This study given the meaning of satisfaction as the
perceived level of contentment with regard to consumers prior purchase experience with the product or
service (Anderson&Srinivasan,2003).Oliver(1997) defined satisfaction as a Complete Customer
Response. In fact, its the outcome of the consumers judgment regrading this issue that of which extent
features of a service or a product are able to satisfy the customers desirable expectation. The definition
highlights the evaluating nature of satisfaction through it the consumer specifies whether a branded product
meets the expectations of a customer or not. Kolter (2000) describes satisfaction as an individuals feelings
and emotion of pleasure or disappointment from comparing the outcomes of purchasing in relation to his/her
expectations. Satisfaction determines the customers intentions to buy or not buy the product again in the
future (Tsai, 2007)
Trust
Chow and Holden (1997) defined trust is existed when the customer know well that the company
has ability to provide the product or service that meet the needed of customers. The trust is combined of
three sub-concepts: competency means the ability to do something successfully or efficiently; benevolence
means being friendly, generous, and considerate by follows moral and ethical principles, the last is
institutional trust means the evaluation from customer in term of trustworthiness the vendor. Ganesan (1994)
pointed out that sometime trust is conceived of having two components those are performance trust and
benevolence trust. Moorman et al (1993) defined trust as experientially and logically a critical variable in
relationships.
Positive attitude
Positive attitude is a personals internal positive evaluation of a branded product, this is crucial
concept in marketing. Macinnis (1997) defined positive attitude as relatively global, lasting evaluation of
an issue, object or action. There are two key reason for this long term relationship. First, similar to
Macinnis (1997), positive attitude are mostly considered relatively stable in the lasting tendency for buyer to
act particular way (Fishbein, 1997). So, consequently, positive attitude should be useful predictors for
consumers behaviour toward repurchase intention of a product or service (Oskamp, 1999). Second, several
theoretical model of the positive attitude construct can be found in social psychology literature like the study
of Fisbein (1975) that have stimulated positive attitudinal research in marketing.
BMIC 2015| page131

Relationship between satisfaction and trust

Satisfaction of the customer will make customer trust in specific branded product (Ozanne, 1985).
Overall buyers satisfaction from the buying experience has an impact on individual trust of the product
provider. Therere widely confirmed from many authors that therere close relationship of satisfaction and
trust
(Kenedy et al., 1999; Geyskens, 2001; Andaleeb, 2000). Customers will probable trust the product
provider in the future if the results from their purchases are satisfied (Ganesan et al., 1994).
Relationship between satisfaction and positive attitude

Suh (2010) have examined customers perception of quality of service from the sellers to
understand the relationship of quality of service, positive attitude, customers satisfaction and the associated
usage of the online websites. The result is that therere a significant relationship and a positive relationship
of positive attitude and customers satisfaction, which means positive attitudes of the customers can be
predict by buyers satisfaction. Olsen (2010) describe that customers satisfaction and prior attitude is
influence on attitudinal loyalty of the customer.
Relationship between satisfaction and repurchase intention

A model that relate repurchase intention, behavior of repurchasing and satisfaction have developed
by Triotsou (2006) and Seiders (2005).These two authors propose satisfaction of the customer has a very
strong
influence on intention to by in the future. Satisfaction of the customer can have influence attitudinal
change that in turn affect intention to repurchase (Stauss,1997; Oliver,1985;Innis,1991). Overall satisfaction
of the customer has a direct relationship with the intention to repurchase again in the future can be found in
several studies (Sullivan et al., 1993; Cronin et al., 1992; Fornell, 1992; Taylor,1994)
Relationship between trust and repurchase intention

Trust not just linked to repurchase intention but have an important role in linking in many outcomes
(Klee et al., 1997).It also supported by Bart (2005) which his study find trust influence on customer
intention to repurchase. Grefen (2003) peoples will not buy any products and services from the vendor that
they dont trust even those vendor provide the products or services that they really need and difficult to find
from other vender.
Relationship between positive attitude and repurchase intention

Customers who has a positive attitude toward the vender, they will likely to stick with their vendor
that they has experience buying a product with (Sullivan et al., 1993).The statement also been supported by
Arman (2001) which from his study found that positive attitude can influence on several variables such as
trust, repurchase intention, positive word of mount. Building positive attitude to customer is one of the most
important factor that let them have an intention to repurchase from their vendor even they found other
vender provide a cheaper product (Salganik et a., 2006)
Relationship between core service quality and satisfaction
BMIC 2015| page132

Core service quality and satisfaction has been examined by Suh (2010) which the result is that core
service quality has a positive influence toward satisfaction. Which also supported by Parasuraman (1996)
who found several sub variable of service quality that positively influence on satisfaction, such as price
fairness, perceived ease to use and service quality. Gummesson (2004) states that core service quality will
lead to customer satisfy with the product and closer the gap between expectation and actual outcome.
Relationship between core service quality and repurchase intention

According to Dixon et al. (2005), core service quality not just affecting on customer repurchase
intention but also satisfaction and perceived value. From this researcher studied, core service quality has a
moderate positive relationship to repurchase intention and other factor that has direct influence on
repurchase intention such as satisfaction, perceived value. Sawan and Trawick (1981) state that a good
service quality will make the customer believe that the vendor is very professional in the industry.
Relationship between social influence and online repurchase intention

According to Hofstede (1991), repurchase intention has many factors that influenced including
social influence. When customers facing load of complicated amounts of information, they tend to follow
other people rather than believe in their own judgment (Bonabeau et al., 2003). People tent to imply that
popularity mean better product and better quality (Lin, 2011) which mean social has an influence on
individual judgment that they believe that the reason why this specific product is popular because it has a
better quality, which will lead to repeat purchase the product/service. Conceptual Framework
Research Hypotheses
According to the conceptual framework, eight hypotheses were developed to investigate the
influences that affect customers intention to repurchase iPhone:
H1o: There is no significant relationship between satisfaction and trust.
H1a: There is a significant relationship between satisfaction and trust.
H2o: There is no significant relationship between satisfaction and positive
attitude. H2a: There is a significant relationship between satisfaction and positive
attitude.
BMIC 2015| page133

H3o: There is no significant relationship between satisfaction and repurchase
intention. H3a: There is a significant relationship between satisfaction and repurchase
intention.
H4o: There is no significant relationship between trust and repurchase intention.
H4a: There is a significant relationship between trust and repurchase intention.
H5o: There is no significant relationship between positive attitude and repurchase
intention. H5a: There is a significant relationship between positive attitude and repurchase
intention.
H6o: There is no significant relationship between core service quality and
satisfaction. H6a: There is a significant relationship between core service quality and
satisfaction.
H7o: There is no significant relationship between core service quality and repurchase intention.
H7a: There is a significant relationship between core service quality and repurchase intention
H8o: There is no significant relationship between social influence and repurchase
intention. H8a: There is a significant relationship between social influence and repurchase
intention
Methodology
The type of research in this study is descriptive research. Descriptive research is used to
describe the population through the use of survey technique in distributing questionnaires to collect
primary data for describing characteristics of population or a phenomenon. The descriptive research is to
find out what and how the facts are, in order to look for the answers, including a method of research
concentrating on characteristics and behavior of the population when they confront with different
variables (Zikmund, 2003). The research is a study of all factors and relations which affect customer
repurchase intention towards iPhone in Bangkok ,Thailand based on relationship between core service
quality, satisfaction, trust, social influence, positive attitude and repurchase intention of an iPhone.
This research collecting data by research method which distribute questionnaire to crowed area
where people work a lot including Silom, Sathorn, Sukhumvitand Asoke. This survey method is quick,
inexpensive and efficient which can reach target group effectively. The survey research method in which
information is collected from a sample of people using questionnaire (Zikmund, 2003).
Data Collection
Malhotra (2003) defined convenience sampling trying to obtain a sample of convenient

elements, the researcher select the respondents because they are in the right place at the right time to
gather information from people who are most conveniently available. The advantages of this type of
sampling are the availability and the quickness with which data can be gathered. Its a quick appoch to
know the respondents information
(Hair et al., 2000), This sampling method was used to gather information from working people
in Silom, Sathorn, Sukhumvit and Asoke area by focused on people who are available to answers
questions from researchers. The researchers distributed questionnaires to 100 respondents equally to each
working areas Silom, Sathorn, Sukhumvit and Asoke.
BMIC 2015| page134

Findings
Summary of Hypothesis testing
Correlation
Level of
coefficient
significance
H1o: There is no significant relationshipbetween satisfaction and trust
.562**
.000
Rejected
H2o: There is no significant relationship betweensatisfaction and positive

attitude.
.455**
.000
Rejected
H3o: There is no significant relationshipbetween satisfaction and repurchase

intention.
.401**
.000
Rejected
H4o: There is no significant relationshipbetween trust and repurchase intention
.296**
.000
Rejected
H5o: There is no significant relationshipbetween positive attitude and

repurchase intention
.634**
.000
Rejected
H6o: There is a no significant relationshipbetween core service quality and trust.
.455**
.000
Rejected
H7o: There is no significant relationshipbetween core service quality and

repurchase intention.
.455**
.000
Rejected
H8o: There is no significant relationshipbetween social influence and

repurchase intention.
.455**
.000
Rejected
Hypothesis
Result
Discussion and Implications

The finding from using Pearson Correlation Coefficient of all variable which are core
service quality, satisfaction, positive attitude, trust, and social influence towards repurchase
intention of iPhone (2 tailed test at 0.000 ) show that both independent and dependent variables
has positive relationship.
The descriptive analysis shows majority of respondents are female and the age range is
31- 40 years old from crowed area of working people in Bangkok (Silom, Sathorn Sukhumvit and
Asoke). The researcher focuses only crowed area of working people which has potential of buying
an expensive smartphone. Most respondents education level are Bachelor degree with 296 (74%),
most of them work as private employee with 260 (65%) and most of them income level are higher
than 40,000 baht a month with 245 (61.3%).
The result of hypothesis 1 that measure the relationship between satisfaction and trust is
.562 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a moderate positive relationship between this
2 variables.
When Apple iPhone gain satisfaction of an iPhone from customer, they will also gain trust
from them. Satisfaction of the customer will make customer trust in specific branded product
(Ozanne, 1985). Overall buyers satisfaction from the buying experience have an impact on
individual trust of the product provider. Therere widely confirm from many authors that therere
close relationship of satisfaction and trust (Kenedy et al., 1999; Geyskens, 2001; Andaleeb, 2000).
Customers will probable trust the product provider in the future if the result from their purchases
are satisfied (Ganesan et al., 1994).
BMIC 2015| page135

The result of hypothesis 2 that measure the relationship between satisfaction and positive
attitude is .455 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a moderate positive relationship
between this 2 variables.
When Apple iPhone gain satisfaction of an iPhone from customer, they will also gain
positive attitude from them. Suh (2010) have examined customers perception of quality of service
from the sellers to understand the relationship of quality of service, positive attitude, customers
satisfaction and the associated usage of the online websites. The result is that therere a significant
relationship and a positive relationship of positive attitude and customers satisfaction, which
means positive attitudes of the customers can be predict by buyers satisfaction. Olsen (2010)
describe that customers satisfaction and prior attitude is influence on attitudinal loyalty of the
customer.
The result of hypothesis 3 that measure the relationship between satisfactions and
repurchase intention is .401 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a weak positive
relationship between this 2 variables. When Apple iPhone gain satisfaction of an iPhone from
customer, the customer will have an intention to repurchase the iPhone again in the future. A
model that relate repurchase intention, behavior of repurchasing and satisfaction have developed
by Triotsou (2006) and Seiders (2005).These two authors propose satisfaction of the customer has
a very strong influence on intention to by in the future. Satisfaction of the customer can have
influence attitudinal change that in turn affect intention to repurchase (Stauss,1997;
Oliver,1985;Innis,1991). Overall satisfaction of the customer has a direct relationship with the
intention to repurchase again in the future can be found in several studies (Sullivan et al., 1993;
Cronin et al., 1992; Fornell, 1992; Taylor,1994)
The result of hypothesis 4 that measure the relationship between trust and repurchase
intention is .296 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a weak positive relationship
between this 2 variables.
When Apple iPhone gain trust of an iPhone from customer, the customer will have an
intention to repurchase the iPhone again in the future. Trust not just linked to repurchase intention
but have an important role in linking in many outcomes (Klee et al., 1997).It also supported by
Bart (2005) which his study find trust influence on customer intention to repurchase. Grefen
(2003) peoples will not buy any products andservices from the vendor that they dont trust even
those vendor provide the products or services that they really need and difficult to find from other
vender.
The result of hypothesis 5 that measure the relationship between positive attitudes and
repurchase intention is .634 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a strong positive
relationship between this 2 variables.
When Apple iPhone gain positive attitude of an iPhone from customer, the customer will
have an intention to repurchase the iPhone again in the future. Customers who has a positive
attitude toward the vender, they will likely to stick with their vendor that they has experience
buying a product with (Sullivan et al., 1993).The statement also been supported by Arman (2001)
which from his study found that positive attitude can influence on several variables such as trust,
repurchase intention, positive word of mount. Building positive attitude to customer is one of the
most important factor that let them have an intention to repurchase from their vendor even they
found other vender provide a cheaper.
The result of hypothesis 6 that measure the relationship between core service quality and
satisfaction is .437 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a moderate positive
BMIC 2015| page136

When Apple iPhone gain good perception about the service from the customer, the
customer will satisfy. Core service quality and satisfaction has been examined by Suh (2010)
which the result is that core service quality has a positive influence toward satisfaction. Which
also supported by Parasuraman (1996) who found several sub variable of service quality that
positively influence on satisfaction, such as price fairness, perceived ease to use and service
quality. Gummesson (2004) state that core service quality will lead to customer satisfy with the
product and closer the gap between expectation and actual outcome.
The result of hypothesis 7 that measure the relationship between core service quality and
repurchase intention is .474 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a moderate positive
When Apple iPhone gain When Apple co. gain good perception about the service from the
customer, the customer will have an intention to repurchase the iPhone again in the future.
According to Dixon et al. (2005), core service quality not just affecting on customer repurchase
intention but also satisfaction and perceived value. From this researcher studied, core service
quality has a moderate positive relationship to repurchase intention and other factors that has
direct influence on repurchase intention such as satisfaction, perceived value. Sawan and Trawick
(1981) state that a good service quality will make the customer believe that the vendor is very
professional in the industry.
The result of hypothesis 8 that measure the relationship between social influence quality
and repurchase intention is .437 at significant level of 0.000. Meaning that it has a moderate
positive relationship between this 2 variables.
When social has an influence on customer, they tend to rebuy the new model of iPhone
when it came out. According to Hofstede (1991), repurchase intention has many factors that
influenced including social influence. When customers facing load of complicated amounts of
information, they tend to follow other people rather than believe in their own judgment (Bonabeau
et al., 2003). People tent to imply that popularity mean better product and better quality (Lin,
2011) which mean social has an influence on individual judgment that they believe that the reason
why this specific product is popular because it has a better quality, which will lead to repeat
purchase the product/service.
Conclusion
According to the result from previous chapter, all hypotheses 1-8 all of them have positive
relationship. That mean all factors that been studied in this research have a significant effect
toward the customerrepurchase intention of an iPhone. This study mainly focusing on factor that
effect the repurchase intention of the customer, hypothesis 5 is the studied of a relationship
between positive attitude and repurchase intention got the highest level of relationship of .634
which mean the most important factor that effect the repurchase intention of the customer is
customers attitude toward the product. In order to gain customers positive attitude they must first
gain satisfaction from customer, this is based on hypothesis 2, that showed the result that
satisfaction has a moderate positive toward positive attitude of .455. All other that has a direct
impact on repurchase intention are trust, satisfaction, core service quality and social influence
which trust and satisfaction has a weak relationship toward repurchase intention while core service
quality and social influence has a moderate relationship toward repurchase intention.
BMIC 2015| page137

Recommendations
In this part, the researcher will have some recommended based on the data and the result
that get from the questionnaire.
From the previous chapter, the hypothesis testing show that positive attitude is the most
influence factor that effect the customer want to rebuy the iPhone again in the future, the question
that ask the customer to mark the score of level of agreement showed that iPhone are very
enjoyable to buy and willing to rebuy iPhone again if I want a new cellphone both scored the
highest of 3.92. Apple co. should make the customer believe that the new iPhone that coming out
is has some minor change and improvement from the previous model.
In order to gain positive attitude from customer, based on this studied framework
satisfaction of the customer is the factor that Apple co. should focusing on, respondents mark
very pleased that I buy this iPhone the highest, In order to make customer please about buying
the iPhone the developer should keep the product to be as promise such as the new feature new
design and other improvement.
Core service quality and social influence also has a direct impact based on this studied
framework, social influence is an external factor that might be difficult to control but core service
quality is internal factor that can be controlled by product provider, The staffs of the store are
very professional is the statement on the questionnaire that the respondent mark the highest of
3.97. Customer who visit the shop are very delight about the knowledge of the staffs about the
product they interested, Apple co. should maintain this strong point and also continues improving
the service.
The last variables that also important is trust. iPhone keep its promise to customer who
buy it is the highest score from trust, show that customer expect the product to be as promise,
Apple co. should improving the new iPhone and whatever promise to customer, they should keep
their promise.
Future study
This research study only some factors which believe to have an effect of customer
repurchase intention of iPhone. However, there still many other factors that might have effect on
customer repurchase intention of iPhone.
1.
The future research should examine other independent variables that might have an
effect on customer repurchase intention of iPhone such as perceived ease of use, product feedback
about performance.
2.
This studied focuses on respondents who had experiences owning iPhone only in
Bangkok, Thailand in crowed working people are, however, in different country and different city,
people might have different perception. Thus, Future research should focuses in other geographies
areas.
BMIC 2015| page138

References
Athanassopoulos, A. D. (2000). Customer satisfaction cues to support market segmentation and explain
switching behavior. Journal of Business Research, 47(3), 191-207.
Chow, D.K.H. (2003). Service quality in grocery retailing: the study of a Japanese supermarket in Hong
Kong. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16 (1), 71-87.
Dholakia, U.M. (2006), How customer self-determination influences relational marketing outcomes:
evidence from longitudinal field studies, Journal of Marketing Research,Vol. 43, pp. 109-20.
Ganesh, J., Arnold, M.J. and Reynolds, K.E. (2000), Understanding the customer base of service providers:
an examination of the differences between switchers and stayers, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 64 No.
3, pp.
65-87.
Lien-Ti Bei Yu-Ching Chiao, (2006),"The determinants of customer loyalty: An analysis of intangible
factors in three service industries", International Journal of Commerce and Management, Vol. 16 Iss
3/4 pp. 162 177.
Moorman, C., Zaltman, G. and Deshpande, R. (1992) , Relationships between providers and users of
market research: the dynamics of trust within and between organizations, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. 26 , pp. 314-28.
Oliver, R.L. (1999), Whence consumer loyalty?, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63 No. 4, pp. 33-45.
Varki, S., & Colgate, M. (2001). The role of price perceptions in an integrated model of behavioral
intentions. Journal of Service Research, 3(3), 232-240.
Yi, Y. and Jeon, H. (2003), Effects of loyalty programs on value perception, program loyalty, and brand
loyalty, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 229-40.
Zeithaml, V.A. (2000), Service quality, profitability and the economic worth of customers: what we know
and what we need to learn, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 67-85.
BMIC 2015| page139

An Antecedence of Repurchase Intention towards TARAD.COM Online

Shopping
Prakaymars Phornpromsri and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
This research is a study on the relationship between price fairness, perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, trust and satisfaction towards TARAD. COM Co., Ltd. The purpose in this research examines
the effect on online shopping continues. In this study, the sample collected 400 working people. The
sampling procedure used judgment sampling, quota sampling, and convenience sampling. The data
collection was conducted at top four crowded areas with working people at MRT stations. Descriptive
analyses method used to transform raw data which shown as standard deviation, mean, frequency or
percentage. Besides, Inferential Analysis use to apply to test all hypothesis setting as Pearson correlation.
Pearson correlation coefficient technique measure the strength of association between two variables through
implied the correlation of two variables by itself. As a result, the independent variables include satisfaction;
which has a strong positive relationship or effect on online shopping continues while perceived usefulness
has weak relationship or effect on online shopping continues at TARAD.COM.
Price fairness; Perceived ease of use; Perceived usefulness; Trust; Satisfaction; Online shopping continues
Introduction
Online shopping market has been in continual growth not only in Bangkok, even though the greater
value sales in Bangkok area accounts for more than half of the total market. There are many factors which
support this continual growth in online shopping such as the operational systems of online-goods-purchase
services, the increasing number of smartphone devices and tablet users, improved infrastructure for internetbased, trends of increasing the number of using credit and debit cards in Thailand and improve security
through observation electronics transactions. Therefore, a more complete study of the motivations of
customers under continue shopping online should be address issues related to fairness (Yen and Tsung,
2012). TARAD.COM is online shopping retailers that also serve for B2C group through to provide an
insight into pioneer in online shopping business and developed the competitive ecommerce market of
Thailand. Using knowledge of the success of Rakuten, TARAD.COM plan to expand business to establish
new online shopping market in Thailand which is deemed to be another high potential business in online
shopping business.
This study examines the effect on TARAD.COM online shopping continuance. Online shopping
continues can measure their online shopping websites, which there contain with five factors such as the price
fairness, trust, satisfaction, perceived ease of use for purchasing and perceived usefulness of products and
service
Research Objectives
To study the relationship between price fairness and satisfaction in online shopping continues.
To study the relationship between perceived ease of use and trust in online shopping continues.
BMIC 2015| page140

To study the relationship between perceived ease of use and perceived of usefulness in online
shopping continues.
To study the relationship between perceived usefulness and satisfaction in online shopping
continues.
To study the relationship between perceived usefulness and online shopping continues.
To study the relationship between trust and satisfaction in online shopping continues.
To study the relationship between trust and online shopping continues.
To study the relationship between satisfaction and online shopping continues.
Literature Review
Online shopping
Cho and Fiorito (2009, p.391) conceptualized online shopping as the online purchasing of products
or services
Price fairness
Bolton (2003, p.474-91) defined as a judgment of reasonable, acceptable, or just price by
judgments a comparison of pricing strategy with a relevant standard, reference, or norm.
Perceived ease of use

Davis (1989) defined the perceived ease of use that regard as the concentration both of physical and
mental effort that a user expects to receive into using of technologies such as the degree to use a particular
technological system by feeling free from effort.
Perceived usefulness
Monsuwe et al (2004, p.5) conceptualized the perceived of usefulness in term of e-commerce refer
consumer perceptions who using internet for online shopping enhance their online.
Trust
Holden (1997) defined trust, as belief of customers who have confidence on his/her expectation of
what the product provider will provide based on previous experience.
Satisfaction
Chen and Li (2009, p.5) conceptualized the satisfaction is the level to measure a consumers
happiness from their shopping experience or how they feel with internet retail experience in terms of
comparison with traditional retail stores.
Online shopping continues

Koppius et al. (2005, p.5) referred to the online shopping continues as the intention to repurchase or
desire to buy again from customer who had an online shopping experience.
BMIC 2015| page141

Relationship between perceived ease of use and trust
Ramlah (2005) suggested that perceived ease of use is positively related with consumer behavior in
online shopping intention and links to trust and perceived usefulness in online shopping repurchase context.
Relationship between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness

Monsue (2004) stated that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use represent utilitarian
motivation to attract customers to shop through the internet.
Relationship between perceived usefulness and satisfaction

Davis (1989) refered perceived usefulness as a basic factor towards information system acceptance.
Bhattacherjee (2011), Koufaris (2002) and Wen (2011) showed that perceived usefulness towards a website
is associated with customer satisfaction towards online shopping on websites.
Relationship between perceived usefulness and online shopping continues

Koufaris (2002) concluded that perceived usefulness predicts a consumer visiting in the future and
intend to repurchase with products. Agarwal and Prasad (1997) which mean technology is equivalent to the
success of the system will led Online shopping continues.
Relationship between trust and satisfaction

Pavlou (2003), Yousafzai, Pallister and Foxall (2003), Gefen and Straub (2004), Wu and Cheng
(2005), Favian and Guinaliy (2006) found that trust drives as a key factor to create satisfaction and
expectation of outcomes in online business.
Relationship between trust and online shopping continues

Gefen (2003) refered to Technology Acceptance Model found that online shopping continues to be
influenced by trust, which will be gained more after they repeat their online purchase from those websites.
Relationship between satisfaction and online shopping continues

Oliver (1980), Oliver and Swan (1989) found that satisfaction is associated with both directly and
indirectly of intention to continue online shopping. Wen (2011) found that individual satisfaction has a
relationship with repurchase intention by online shopping environments.
Relationship between price fairness and satisfaction

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1994) implied that price fairness should be an influence for
satisfaction. Zeithaml (1988), Fornell (1992) stated that when a consumer decides to pay a higher price of
product or service than others or a consumer receives a less quantity or quality, perceived negative price
unfairness occurs.
BMIC 2015| page142

Research Hypotheses
H1: Price fairness has a relationship with satisfaction.

H2: Perceived ease of use has a relationship with trust.
H3: Perceived ease of use has a relationship with perceived usefulness.
H4: Perceived usefulness has a relationship with satisfaction.
H5: Perceived usefulness has a relationship with online shopping continues.
H6: Trust has a relationship with satisfaction.
H7: Trust has a relationship with online shopping continues.
H8: Satisfaction has a relationship with online shopping continues
Methodology
This study uses descriptive research to explain the population by survey technique and distributing
questionnaires to gather primary data for describing the characteristics of population or a phenomenon. The
descriptive research investigates what and how the truth is, looks for the answers, including a method of
research concentrating on characteristics and behavior of the population when they face the different
variables (Zikmund, 2003).
Data Collection
The targeted population of this research is the working people, who work in the crowded and do not
have enough time to go to shops but are able to pay and also have experience of online shopping with
TARAD.com from Sukhumvit, Silom, Paholyothin and Huai Khwang. The researcher design to collect the
data should be rounded up to 400 for more accuracy and reliability collected 100 respondents for each area.
The researcher marked a five point as Likert scale for questionnaire. The questionnaire contained three parts
as screening questions, the questionnaire was based on independent five variables leading to online shopping
continues, the questionnaire was based on online shopping and demographic factors such as gender, age,
education, career and income.
BMIC 2015| page143

Findings
The distribution variables of the sample indicated that the majority of respondents are equal to the
number of respondents at 69.3 % of demographic female, aged between 31 to 40 years old with 44 %,
education level of bachelors degree at 75.3 %, career as private company employees of 68 % and the
income per month between 20,001 30,000 of 61 %.
The result from hypothesis one, the researcher found that there is a relationship between price
fairness and satisfaction at the 0.01 significant level. At 0.477, it means that there is a moderate positive
relationship between and price fairness and satisfaction.
The result from hypothesis two, the researcher found that there is a relationship between perceived
ease of use and perceived usefulness at the 0.01 significant level. At 0.597, it means that there is a moderate
positive relationship between and perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness.
The result from hypothesis three, the researcher found that there is a relationship between perceived
ease of use and trust at the 0.01 significant level. At 0.605, it shows that there is a moderate positive
relationship between perceived ease of use and trust.
The results from hypothesis four, the researchers found that there is a relationship between
perceived usefulness and satisfaction at 0.01 significance levels. At 0.400, it means that there is a weak
relationship between perceived usefulness and satisfaction.
The results from hypothesis five, the researchers found that there is a relationship between
perceived usefulness and online shopping continues at 0.01 significance levels. At 0.322, it means that there
is a weak relationship between perceived usefulness and online shopping continues.
The result from hypothesis six, the researchers found that there is a relationship between trust and
satisfaction at the 0.01 significance level; at 0.460, it means that there is a moderate positive relationship
between trust and satisfaction.
The result from hypothesis seven, the researchers found that there is a relationship between trust
and online shopping continues at 0.01 significance levels. At 0.431, it means that there is a moderate
relationship between trust and online shopping continues.
The result from hypothesis eight, the researchers found that there is a relationship between
satisfaction and online shopping continues at the 0.01 significance levels. At 0.641, it means that there is a
strong relationship between satisfaction and online shopping continues.
Discussion
The results of hypothesis analysis testing, shows that most customers were female who chose at
shop on TARAD.COM aged between 31 to 40 years old. Most of the customers had bachelors degrees,
private company employees and income between 20,001 30,000 baht per month .The research result found
that eight hypotheses have a significant relationship between each other.
As a result from hypothesis one, if the customers gain high price fairness, they will also have more
satisfaction from TARAD.COM; meanwhile, it is strongly supported by Zeithaml and Bitner (1996).
As a result from hypothesis two, if the customers get perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
use in online shopping at TARAD.COM, they will continue shopping on TARAD.COM; meanwhile, it is
strong supported by Davis (1989).
As a result from hypothesis three, if the customers understand the procedures to shop at
TARAD.COM, the website also offers customization of products or services; meanwhile, it is strong
supported by Chau (2007).
BMIC 2015| page144

As a result from hypothesis four, if the customers get perceived usefulness in online shopping on
TARAD.COM, they will also get satisfaction towards online shopping experience; meanwhile, it is strong
supported by Bhattacherjee (2011), Koufaris (2002) and Wen (2001).
As a result from hypothesis five, if customers found that TARAD.COM is useful for them, they
will intend to repurchase products in the future; meanwhile it is strong supported by Al-Maghrabi and
Dennis (2010), Al-Maghrabi (2011) and Wen (2011).
As a result from hypothesis six, if customer perceived the greater trust with TARAD.COM, they
will be satisfied with online shopping on website; meanwhile it is strong supported by Pavlou (2003),
Yousafzai, Pallister and Foxall (2003), Gefen and Straub (2004), Wu and Cheng (2005), Favin and Guinaliy
(2006).
As a result from hypothesis seven, the reliability of TARAD.COM has an influence on trust and
purchase intention for online shopping; meanwhile it is strong supported by Jarvenpaa and Tractinsky
(1999), Gefen and Straub (2004).
As a result from hypothesis eight, if customers are satisfied with TARAD.COM, they will still
intend to shop on TARAD.COM; meanwhile it is strong supported by Oliver (1980), Oliver and Swan
(1980).
Recommendation
Price fairness has affected with satisfaction. The researcher recommends that TARAD.COM should
provide price fairness for its customers by considering setting a pricing policy related with customer
satisfaction.
Perceived ease of use has affected perceived usefulness. The researcher recommends that
TARAD.COM should provide a simple process which it makes an easy procedure in searching information
of some products through flexibility to clarify and understand the interaction of the website.
Perceived ease of use has affect with trust. The researcher recommends that TARAD.COM should
provide perceived ease of use for customers together with the product quality together with renovate the
website under the shop with confidence.
Perceived usefulness has affect satisfaction. The researcher recommends that TARAD.COM should
develop website pages and promote e-commerce business to perfection the international standard expose
new look of TARAD.COM. The product categories of each lifestyle should also be divided for choosing
product easily and update trendy all time through providing a team shop assistant.
Perceived usefulness has a weak relationship towards online shopping continues. The researcher
recommends that TARAD.COM should enhance shopping online experience for customers.
customers by ensuring that the products and services on the website are safe for every transaction.
Trust has affect with online shopping continues. The researcher recommends that TARAD.COM
should be trustworthy in terms of products and financial services.
Satisfaction has affect with online shopping continues. The researcher recommends that
TARAD.COM would create pleasure and happiness for online shopping.
Furthermore, all variable factors proved to be related to others. So, TARAD.COM should continue
improving their online service to increase the possibility that the customers will come back to visit their
website regularly in the future.
BMIC 2015| page145

Further Studies
This research examines the effects of online shopping towards TARAD.COM. The researcher
proposes some factors to be investigated in the future as follows:
1. Further studies should survey different geographic areas for example; customers in department
store areas have different attitudes and behaviors from shopping between online and department stores.
2. Further studies should determine individual attributes in terms of lifestyle and preference which
affect customer satisfaction toward online shopping of TARAD.COM experience to the group of people
who have used TARAD.COM.
3. Further studies should emphasize the influence of trust has effect on online shopping and focus
on the attributes of trust, such as honesty, consistency and loyalty ,which refer to customer intent and
willingness to shop in the future.
4. Future studies should also study customer satisfaction by comparing TARAD.COM and
LAZADA, as they are popular e-commerce sites in Thailand, in order to examine: the weak points that have
to be improved in business.
Reference
Ahmad, N., Omar, A. and Ramayah, T. (2010). Consumer lifestyles and online shopping continuance
intention, Business Strategy Series, 11(4), 227-243.
Bolton, L.E., Warlop, L. and Alba, J.W. (2003). Consumer perceptions of price (un)fairness, Journal of
Consumer Research, 29, 474-91.
Chen, Y.-T. and Chou, T.-Y. (2012). Exploring the continuance intentions of consumers for B2C online
shopping: perspectives of fairness and trust, Online Information Review, 36(1), 104-125.
Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information
technology, MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-340.
Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P. and Warshaw, P.R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: a
comparison of two theoretical models, Management Science, 35(8), 982-1003.
Gefen, D. and Straub, D. (2003). Managing user trust in B2C e-services, e-Service Journal, 2(2), 7-24.
Gefen, D., Karahanna, E. and Straub, D.W. (2003b). Trust and TAM in online shopping: an integrated
model, MIS Quarterly, 27(1), 51-90.
Hira Cho Susan S. Fiorito, (2009), Acceptance of online customization for apparel shopping", International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37(5), 389 407.
Koufaris, M. (2002). Applying the technology acceptance model and flow theory to online consumer
behavior, Information Systems Research, 13(2), 205-223.
Norshidah Mohamed, Ramlah Hussein, Nurul Hidayah Ahmad Zamzuri, Hanif Haghshenas. 2014. Insights
into individual's online shopping continuance intention. Industrial Management & Data Systems
114:9, 1453-1476.
Oliver, R. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions, Journal
of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460-9.
Yen-Ting Chen Tsung-Yu Chou, (2012). Exploring the continuance intentions of consumers for B2C online
shopping. Online Information Review, 36(1), 104 125
Zeithaml, V.A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: a means-end model and synthesis
of evidence, Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2-22.
BMIC 2015| page146

Competitive Benchmarking Of Hotels Service Quality Using Analytic

Hierarchy Process
Engku Muhammad Nazri, Ku Ruhana Ku-Mahamud and Muharis Mohamed
Abstract
In the wake of increasing competition, a growing number of hotels have begun to realize the
importance of service improvements that can be converted to a competitive advantage. One way in which
hotel managements may innovate and learn, as they respond to their competitive environment, is by means of
benchmarking. Current practice in hotel benchmarking involves gauging guests satisfaction and perception
through either guests comment cards or reports from the hotels guest satisfaction studies conducted by an
outside firm. These approaches unfortunately do not measure the hotels performance against that of
competing hotels. Thus, in this study, we proposed the use of Analytic Hierarchy Process to comparatively
benchmark any hotel against its competitors. We applied the technique to comparatively rank eight hotels
along the Batu Feringghi and Tanjung Bungah beach areas in Penang, Malaysia. The hotels were ranked
based on four key main attributes namely, the hotel, the front-office personnel, other than the front-office
personnel, and the room values. Four members were asked to check in at all the hotels for two nights each
and do pairwise comparison evaluations on all the attributes and sub-attributes as well as pairwise
comparison evaluations on the hotels with regards to each attribute and sub-attribute. The results obtained
from the comparison processes were the rankings or the relative standings of each hotel compared to the
other hotels with regards to each attribute, sub-attribute and the combination of all the attributes and subattributes. The output from this study provides a useful framework for operationalizing the level of
competition in the hotel industry in the sense that the output helps the hotel manager to determine where the
hotel stands on service performance relative to its competitors and, consequently, identify specific areas of
comparative advantages and disadvantages.
Keywords: Guest satisfaction; Analytic hierarchy process; competitive benchmarking; service performance;
hotel performance
1. Introduction
In todays hospitality environment, the true measure of company success lies in an organizations
ability to continuously satisfy customers. Increasingly customers are demanding value for money in terms of
both price and the quality of product or service being offered (Zeithaml et al., 1993). In order to ensure
market success, hospitality organizations of all types are being forced to stand back and take a long, hard
look at the way they are currently doing business. The Malaysias hotel industry is no exception to this rule.
Over the last few years, the Malaysias hotel industry has grown steadily thanks to the 1998
Commonwealth Games, the booming economy, and government initiatives in promoting the Visit
Malaysia 2007 and 2014 campaigns. As the Malaysias hotel industry continues to thrive, it has resulted in
over-construction of hotels, and rivalry among hotels subsequently has increased. In the wake of increasing
competition, a growing number of hotels have begun to realize the importance of service improvements that
can be converted to a competitive advantage. One way in which hotel managements may innovate and
identify the areas for improvements, as they respond to their competitive environment, is by means of
benchmarking (Saleh and Ryan, 1991).
BMIC 2015| page147

Benchmarking as a strategic planning management tool was first developed by the Japanese (Ohno,
1988) and Rank Xerox pioneered the tool in the Western world in 1979 (Bresada, 1991). David T. Kerans,
chief executive officer for Xerox Corporation defined benchmarking as the continuous process of
measuring products, services, and practices against the toughest competitors or those companies recognized
as industry leaders (Phillips and Appiah-Adu, 1998). Benchmarking has become a part of the business
exercise and the three basic types of benchmarking currently utilized are internal, functional and competitive
benchmarking (Yasin and Zimmerer, 1995).
Competitive benchmarking in the hotel industry may involve both customer and competitor
benchmarking exercises (Jennings and Westfall, 1992). Customer benchmarking is where the hotels
products or services are compared against customer needs and expectations while in competitor
benchmarking, the performance of the competition is assessed to guide strategic action planning. According
to Low Gee Tat, managing director of Capitol Hotel, although all hotels are offering almost the same kind of
package, other aspects can give a hotel the edge (Utusan Malaysia, 4 May 1998). Customers expectations
and needs for services have substantially increased (Lockwood, 1995; Lee et al., 2000) and customers will
search for services that offer the best value for their money ((Lee et al., 2000).
2. Analytic Hierarchy Process
AHP is a scoring method that was designed and introduced by Saaty in 1977 (in Saaty, 1999) to visually
structure a complex decision-making problem involving multiple attributes and sub-attributes into a simple
hierarchy and then develop priorities in each level of the hierarchy by carrying out pair-wise comparisons of
the relative importance of decision criteria, attributes and alternatives. Since its invention, AHP has been a
tool at the hands of decision makers and researchers; and it is one of the most widely used multiple criteria
decision-making tools. Many outstanding works have been published based on AHP. They include
applications of AHP in planning (Arbel and Orger, 1990; Raju and Pillai, 1999), selecting the best alternative
(Ferrari, 2003; Ngai, 2003), resource allocations (Ramanathan and Ganesh, 1995; Saaty, 2003), resolving
conflict (Saaty, 1983), optimization (Greenberg and Nunamaker, 1994), etc.
The basic procedure to carry out the AHP consists of the following steps (Saaty, 1999):
1.
Structuring a decision problem, listing of decision alternatives, and selection of criteria.
2.
Priority setting of the criteria and sub-criteria by pairwise comparison (weighing).
3.
Pairwise comparison of decision alternatives on each criterion and sub-criterion (scoring).
4.
Checking for consistency in every pairwise comparison exercise.
5. Obtaining an overall relative score for each option.
Through the use of hierarchic frameworks, AHP can combine both quantitative factors having different
scales and qualitative factors that have bearing on the decision. As such, the use of AHP is appropriate for
competitive benchmarking of hotels which involves the evaluation of both quantitative (e.g. size, price,
service time) and qualitative attributes (e.g. cleanliness, comfort, employee courtesy) affecting the overall
service quality of hotels. Furthermore, AHP can provide the ranking order of hotels in terms of their overall
service quality as well as their relative standings measured on a numerical scale. In addition, AHP also
allows hotel managers to investigate the sensitivity of the ranking of hotels due to changes in the level of
importance of service attributes.
BMIC 2015| page148

3. The competitive benchmarking
The importance of service quality to business performance has been established both in hospitality
(Bowen and Shoemaker, 1998; Pizam and Ellis, 1999) and in a broader business context (Antony et al.,
2004; Bloemer, 1998; Zeithaml et al., 1996), and it is generally accepted that service quality is antecedent to
customer satisfaction (Caruana, 2002; Bolton and Drew, 1991; Parasuraman and Berry, 1991) and that
customer satisfaction is antecedent to customer loyalty (Buttle, 1996; Caruana, 2002). There has been an
increase in research on service quality measurement in the hotel industry due the recognition of SERVQUAL
(Parasuraman et al., 1985) and some other hotel service quality measurement such as LODGSERV (Knutson
et al., 1991), and HOLSERV (Wong Oii Mei et al., 1999). Some of the studies are by Borkar amd Koranne
(2014), Ryglova et al. (2013), Abukhalifeh and Mat Som (2012), Sarangarajan and Tamilenthi (2012),
Murasiranwa et al. (2010), Markovic and Raspor (2010), Cristea (2009), Grzinic (2007), Akbaba (2005),
McCaina and Shiang-Lih (2005), Lun and Allan (2004), Raymond and Choi (2001), Ekinci and Riley
(1998), Jones (1997), Ropeter and Kleiner (1997), Armstrong et al. (1997), Min and Min (1996a),
Baldacchino (1995), Akan (1995),and Lewis (1987). However, among those, we found only three studies on
comparative benchmarking and two studies sparked our interest to conduct a similar study.
In the first study, Ropeter and Kleiner (1997) compared three American hotels, namely, Hilton,
Sheraton and Marriots based on eight basic principles outlined by Peters and Waterman in In Search of
Excellence regarding what companies should do and follow in order to achieve superior quality in their
company over their competition. Those eight principles are: (1) A bias for action, (2) Staying close to the
customer, (3) autonomy and entrepreneurship, (4) productivity through people, (5) hands-on, value driven,
(6) sticking to the knitting, (7) simple form, lean staff, and (8) simultaneous loose-tight properties.
The second study was by Akan (1995) who studied the importance of service attributes for both four and five
star hotels in Istanbul. Respondents were asked to state the level of satisfaction with respect to each service
attributes based on a Likert scale. The attributes were grouped in three main categories which are the hotel,
the personnel and the service process. Each main category is divided further into sub-categories as shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Main hotel service attributes and their sub attributes utilized by Akan (1995)
Main
Category
Sub Category
The hotel
exterior appearance, interior appearance, furniture, ease of access, name/image, and products offered for use (soap,
shampoo, sheets and towels).
The
knowledge and training, experience, physical appearance, understanding, friendliness, respect, and speaks well.
personnel
The service
accuracy of reservations, accuracy of food orders, accuracy in billing, prompt service, information about hotel services,
process
advance information about prices, anticipating customers needs, recognizing the customer, calling the customer by name,
giving special attention to the customer, listening to and understanding the customer, giving information that is easy to
understand, speed of transactions, ease of access to the personnel, listening to complaints, solving problems and offering
the service the way customer wants.
The third study was by Min and Min (1996b) who listed two sets of criteria, namely the room
values and the front-office service, as the benchmarking criteria for six of South Koreas luxury hotels. A
total of seven attributes were chosen to represent room values. They are cleanliness, atmosphere, comfort,
fixture, size, price, and complimentary items. Meanwhile for the front-office service criterion, seven
BMIC 2015| page149

attributes were identified. Those attributes are courtesy, reservation, complaint, promptness, sports facility,
business center, and guide. AHP was used to rank the hotels with respect to each service attributes.
Some of the attributes used by the three studies above are consistent with the attributes that guests
find important when evaluating the performance service quality. Some of those qualities are cleanliness,
security and safety, employees empathy and competence, convenient location, value for money, and
physical facilities (Atkinson, 1988; Gundersen et al., 1966; Choi and Chu, 2001).
4. Our approach
According to Yasin and Zimmerer (1995), benchmarking process can be implemented by following
a series of these sequential and logical stages:
1. Think identify what is to be benchmarked.
2. Act form the benchmarking team or teams, identify benchmarking patterns and collect
benchmarking data.
3. Evaluate analyse the data and determine performance gaps.
4. Plan develop and implement plans.
5. Look ahead achieve benchmark goals and think continuous improvement.
Our study consisted 3 phases which are consistent with the first three stages as suggested by Yasin
and
Zimmerer (1995) above. The three phases are:

Phase 1: The selection of hotels to be evaluated
Eight hotels along the Batu Feringghi and Tanjung Bungah beach areas in Penang, Malaysia, were
chosen based on their location, which is next to the beach and their star ratings, which are four and five stars.
To protect the identity and the reputation of the hotels we simply referred the hotels as Hotel 1, Hotel 2,
Hotel 3, Hotel 4, Hotel 5, Hotel 6, Hotel 7, and Hotel 8 respectively.
Phase 2: The identification of hotels service quality attributes and the determination of the number of
evaluators
Four evaluators consisting of one evaluator who frequently travels and stays at luxury hotels, one
evaluator who frequently travels but does not necessarily stay at luxury hotels, one young evaluator who
does not have much experience staying in a hotel, and one evaluator who happens to be an expert in hotel
management were chosen to conduct the pairwise comparisons. Although the number of evaluators is small,
we believed that the four evaluators were enough to provide the intended evaluation results. Afterall, in
reality, positive word of mouth would influence other potential guests (Reichheld and Sasser, 1990) and It
only takes one bad experience to turn a customer off, but several good ones to make him happy. Indeed, a
dissatisfied customer will tell ten people, compared to a happy customer telling only three (Ropeter
andKleiner, 1997).
Based on previous studies by other researchers (Akan, 1995; Min and Min, 1996b; Ropeter and Kleiner,
1997) and discussion between the three researchers who also acted as three of the four evaluators, we
grouped the service quality attributes into four categories. They are:
1.
C1: Hotel
2.
C2: Front office personnel
3.
C3: Other than front office personnel
4.
C4: Room values
BMIC 2015| page150

Under each category, we also identified several sub-attributes that we felt suitable for evaluation. We
summarized the sub-attributes in Table 2 below.
Table 2: The main attributes and sub-attributes to evaluate
Main Attributes
C1: Hotel
C2: Front office personnel
C3: Other than front office
C4: Room values
personnel
Sub-Attributes
C11: Exterior appearance
C21: Courtesy
C31: Knowledgeable
C41: Cleanliness
C12: Interior appearance
C22: Reservation
C32: Physical appearance
C42: Atmosphere
C13: Furniture
C23: Promptness
C33: Understanding
C43: Comfort
C14: Ease of access
C24: Calling customer by
C34: Friendliness
C44: Fixture
C15: Name or image
name
C35: Respect
C45: Size
C16: Facilities (parking,
C25: Physical appearance
C36: Speaks well
C46: Room rate
swimming
pool,
C47: Complimentary items
spa, gym, etc.)

spa, gym, etc.)
C17: Beach facilities
C18: Buffet breakfast
Phase 3: The application of AHP

Step 1: To begin the evaluation process, each evaluator determined the importance of each main
attribute in determining the comparative benchmarking of the hotels by making a pair-wise comparison of
the attributes based on a scale of 1 to 9 as follows:
Table 3: Preference scale for AHP pair-wise comparisons
Preference Level
Numeric Value
Equally preferred
Equally to moderately preferred
Moderately preferred
Moderately to strongly preferred
Strongly preferred
Strongly to very strongly preferred
Very strongly preferred
Very strongly to extremely preferred
Extremely preferred
To illustrate, we show in Table 4 below the pairwise evaluation comparison by evaluator 1.

Table 4: Pairwise comparison matrix for main attributes (Evaluator 1)
BMIC 2015| page151

C1
C2
C3
C4
C1
3*
C2
1/3
**
C3
1/5
1/5
C4
The value 3 (noted with *) simply means that Evaluator 1 moderately preferred C1 over C2 while the value
(noted with **) means that Evaluator 1 moderately to strongly preferred C4 over C1.
Next, the evaluator determined the weight of each sub-attribute under each main attribute using the
sameapproach. Once again, we illustrate in Table 5 the pairwise comparison matrix by evaluator 1 for the
sub-attributes under the main attribute, C2: The front office personnel.
Table 5: Pairwise comparison matrix for the sub-attributes under C2 (Evaluator 1)
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C21
C22
1/3
1/3
C23
C24
1/5
1/3
1/5
1/2
C25
1/4
Step 2: To evaluate the hotels based on the main attributes and the sub-attributes, each evaluator
spent two nights at each hotel to experience the service rendered by the hotel. Each service experience was
made up of a series of individual evaluator discrete service encounters during which the evaluator made
these evaluations. Each evaluator set his/her own dates to visit all the hotels (i.e. the four evaluators did not
go to the hotels together). At the same time, the hotels were also not aware of the purpose of their visits,
thus eliminating any bias judgments. The same pairwise comparisons were utilized by the evaluators to get
the weights for each hotel with respect to the main attributes and the sub-attributes. Table 6 shows the
evaluation done by Evaluator 1 on the hotels with regard to sub-attribute C21: Courtesy.
Table 6: Evaluator 1s Hotel pair-wise comparison under sub-attribute C21: Courtesy
Hotel 1 Hotel 2 Hotel 3 Hotel 4 Hotel 5 Hotel 6 Hotel 7 Hotel 8

Hotel 1
1/3
1/2
1/2
Hotel 2
1/3
1/2
Hotel 3
Hotel 4
1/3
1/2
Hotel 5
Hotel 6
1/3
Hotel 7
1/5
1/7
1/5
1/6
1/2
1/4
1/6
1/4
1/5
1/3
Hotel 8 1/3
The weights and the scores in Phase 1 and 2 were calculated with the help of AHP- software
called ExpertChoice. To complete the process, all comparison matrices in Step 1 and Step 2 were tested for
theirconsistencies. Once again, with the help of Expert Choice, we found that all comparisons were
consistent with all the consistency values to be less than 0.1 which is the maximum consistency ratio set by
BMIC 2015| page152

Saaty to justify consistent pairwise comparison. Please refer to Taylor (2010) for the explanation on the
consistency test.
Step 3: Finally, the two sets of weights obtained from Step 1 and Step 2 were combined to obtain
the final score for each hotel with respect to each service quality attribute and with respect to each category.
Table 7 shows the result for the ranking along with the weight obtained by the hotels based on the
evaluations by Evaluator 1 for the main attribute C2: The front office personnel.
Table 7: Ranking of hotels under C2 by Evaluator 1
Hotel
Weight
Rank
0.062
0.062
0.310
0.132
0.208
0.075
0.075
0.075
Step 4: To get the cumulative score for the hotels, the scores from each evaluator were averaged
out. Although Saaty suggested that geometric mean should be used, here we only used arithmetic mean due
to the small number of evaluators.
5. Selected results
In this section, some of several important results based on the evaluation done by all the evaluators
are given. Overall, combining all the main attributes and the sub-attributes, the evaluation done by all the
evaluators, results in Hotel 4 being the best, followed closely by Hotel 5 with an average score of 0.229 and
0.196 respectively. Hotel 8 receives the lowest mean score which is 0.067, losing very narrowly to Hotel 7
by 0.001. Table 8 below gives the score for the eight hotels evaluated.
Table 8: Overall ranking of hotels by all evaluators
E1
E2
E3
E4
Mean
Hotel
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
Weight
0.192
0.085
0.136
0.156
0.187
0.091
0.084
0.069
Rank
Hotel
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
Weight
0.139
0.133
0.111
0.182
0.146
0.103
0.078
0.107
Rank
Hotel
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
Weight
0.145
0.054
0.088
0.239
0.239
0.145
0.054
0.035
Rank
Hotel
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
Weight
0.143
0.084
0.137
0.189
0.212
0.124
0.057
0.055
Rank
Hotel
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
BMIC 2015| page153

Weight
0.155
Rank
0.089
0.118
0.229
0.196
0.116
0.068
7
0.067
8
The final scores above were obtained using the combination of weights for the main attributes and
the sub-attributes as listed the Table 9 below.
Table 9: Weights used for main attributes and sub-attributes
Main Attribute
C1
C2
C3
C4
Weight
0.318
0.122
0.073
0.487
Sub Attribute under C1
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
C17
C18
Weight
0.047
0.081
0.047
0.047
0.197
0.302
0.081
0.197
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
Weight
0.354
0.145
0.354
0.058
0.090
C31
C32
C33
C34
C35
C36
Weight
0.190
0.048
0.190
0.190
0.190
0.190
C41
C42
C43
C44
C45
C46
C47
Weight
0.244
0.085
0.244
0.062
0.040
0.244
0.080
Finally, the hotel rankings with regards to each individual main attribute are given in Table 10.
Table 10: The hotel scores and rankings for each main attribute
C1: The Hotel
Hotel H1
H2
Score0.174 0.078
Rank
3
H3
H4
H5
0.082
0.200
0.211
H6
H7 H8
0.111 0.0830.062
4
C2: Personnel The Front Office

Hotel H1
H2
Score0.093 0.123
Rank 6
H3
H4
H5
0.282
0.097
0.206
H6
H7 H8
0.116 0.0440.038
4
C3: Personnel Other Than The Front Office

Hotel H1
H2
Score0.107 0.160
Rank 5
H3
H4
H5
0.197
0.158
0.103
H6
H7 H8
0.075 0.1400.060
7
C4: Room Values

Hotel H1
H2
Score0.244 0.068
Rank 1
H3
H4
H5
0.132
0.137
0.180
H6
H7 H8
0.074 0.0830.083
7
BMIC 2015| page154

6. Discussion and conclusion
In this study, AHP was used to comparatively rank eight hotels along the Batu Feringghi and
Tanjung Bungah beach areas in Penang, Malaysia, that were chosen based on their location, which is next
to the beach and their star ratings, which are four and five stars. The hotels were ranked based on four key
attributes namely the hotel, the front-office personnel, other than the front-office personnel, and the room
values.
Based on the mean value of scores obtained from all the evaluators, we can conclude that from
their perspective, Hotel 1 is the best while Hotel 8 is the worst. It is important to note here that all these
hotels are good, but comparatively Hotel 1 performs the best. However, if we look at the score for Hotel 1
under each main attribute, Hotel 1 is ranked third under C1, sixth under C2, fifth under C3, and first with
respect to C4. Thus, although Hotel 1 is ranked first overall, it still has some improvement to make with
regards to main attributes C1, C2, and C3 while simultaneously maintaining its first ranking under C4. On
the other hand, Hotel 8, which came in the last position overall, is also ranked last with respect to three
main attributes, namely, C1, C2, and C3. Hotel 8 came in fifth under C5. Therefore, the hotel management
has to work very hard in almost all aspects in order to remain competitive.
This study is by no means perfect. Firstly, it involves only four evaluators thus making the overall
results slightly biased. Increasing the number of evaluators is therefore suggested for the future study.
Secondly, we were not able to include all the relevant attributes since we wanted to make this study
manageable. For example, we did not include some important attributes which were suggested by Weaver
and McCleary (1991). The attributes were safety and security, free newspapers, and cable TV, among
others.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Universiti Utara Malaysia for sponsoring this research.
References
Abukhalifeh, A. N. and Mat Som, A.P., 2012. Service quality management in hotel industry: a conceptual
framework for food and beverage departments, International Journal of Business and
Management, 7(14), p. 135.
Akan, P., 1995. Dimensions of service quality: a study in Istanbul, Managing Service Quality, 5(6), p. 39.
Akbaba, A., 2005. Measuring service quality in the hotel industry: A study in a business hotel in Turkey,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25, p. 170.
Antony, J, Antony, F.J, and Ghosh, S., 2004. Evaluating service quality in a UK hotel chain: a case study.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(6), p. 380.
Arbel, A. and Orger, Y.E., 1990. An application of AHP to bank strategic planning: The merger and
acquisitions process, European Journal of Operational Research, 48(1), p. 27.
Armstrong, R., Connimo, F.M and Go, A.C., 1997. Yhe importance of cross-cultural expectations in the
measurement of service quality perceptions in the hotel industry, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 16(2), p.181.
Atkinson, A., 1988. Answering the eternal question: What does the customer want? The Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 29(2), p.12.
Asiah Bujang. (4 May 1998). Utusan Malaysia.
BMIC 2015| page155

Baldacchino, G., 1995. Total quality management in a luxury hotel: A critique of practice, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 14(1), p. 67.
Bloemer, J., 1998. Investigating drivers of bank loyalty: the complex relationship between image, service
quality and satisfaction, International Journal of Bank Marketing, 16(7), p. 276.
Bolton, R.N. and Drew, J.H., 1991. A longitudinal analysis of the impact of services changes on consumer
attitudes, Journal of Marketing, 55, p. 1.
Borkar, S. and Koranne, S., 2014. Study of service quality management in hotel industry, Pacific Business
Review International, 6(9), p. 21.
Bowen, T. J. and Shoemaker, S., 1998. Loyalty: a strategic commitment, Cornell Hospitality Quarterly,
39(1), p. 12. Bresada, A., 1991. Benchmarking, Financial World, 160 (September), p. 28.
Buttle, Francis., 1996. SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda, European Journal of Marketing,
30(1), p. 8.
Caruana, A., 2002. Service Loyalty: The effects of service quality and the mediating role of customer
satisfaction, European Journal of Marketing, 36(7), p. 811.
Choi, T.Y. and Chu, R., 2001. Determinants of hotel guests satisfaction and repeat patronage in the Hong
Kong hotel industry,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20(3), p. 277.
Cristea, A.A., 2009. The reassessment of the service quality system within the Romanian hotel industry a
premise for increasing the competition of the tourist offer, Quality Management in Services,
XI(26), p. 451.
Ekinci, Y. and Riley, M., 1998. A critique of the issues and theoretical assumptions in service quality
measurement in the lodging industry: Time to move the goal-posts?, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 17(4), p. 349.
Ferrari, P., 2003. A method for choosing from among alternative transportation projects, European Journal
of Operational Research, 150(1), p. 194.
Greenberg, R.R. and Nunamaker, T.R., 1994. Integrating the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) into multiobjective budgeting models of public sector organizations, Socio Economic Planning Sciences,
28(3), p. 197.
Grzinic, J., 2007. Concepts of service quality measurement in hotel industry, Ekon. Misao Praksa Dbk Gd,
XVI, p. 81.
Gunderson, M.G. Heide, M. and Olsson, U.H., 1996. Hotel guest satisfaction among business travelers:
What are the important factors?, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
37(2), p. 72.
Jennings, K. and F. Westfall. 1992. Benchmarking for strategic action, Journal of Business Strategy,
May/June, p. 22.
Jones, N., 1997. A study of service quality in small hotels and guesthouses, Progress in Tourism and
Hospitality Research, 3(4), p. 351. Knutson, B., (1988). Frequent travelers: Making them happy
and bringing them back, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly, 29(1), p.83.
Knutson, B., Stevens, P. Wullaert, C. and Patton, M., 1991. LODGSERV: A service quality index for the
lodging industry, Hospitality Research Journal, 14(7), p. 277-284.
Lee, H., Lee, Y., and Yoo, D., 2000. The determinants of perceived service quality and its relationship with
satisfaction, Journal of Service Marketing, 14(3), p. 217.
Lewis, R.C., 1987. The measurement of gaps in the quality of hotel services, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 6(2), p. 83.
BMIC 2015| page156

Lockwood, A.,1995. Applying service quality concepts to hospitality education, Education and Training
Journal, 37(4), p. 38.
Lun, S. and Allan, Y., 2004. Customer satisfaction measurement practice in Taiwan hotels, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 23(4), p. 397.
Markovic, S. and Raspor, S., 2010. Measuring perceived service quality using SERVQUAL: a case study
of the Croatian hotel industry, Management, 5(3), p. 195.
McCaina, C. and Shiang-Lih, C., 2005. Service quality gap analysis toward customer loyalty: practical
guidelines for casino hotels, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 24(3), p. 465.
Min, Hokey, and Min, Hyesung., 1996a. Competitive benchmarking of Korean luxury hotels using the
analytic hierarchy process and competitive gap analysis, The Journal of Services Marketing, 10(3),
p. 58-72.
Min, Hokey, and Min, Hyesung., 1996b. Benchmarking the quality of hotel services: managerial
perspectives, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 14(6), p. 582.
Ngai, E.W.T., 2003. Selection of websites for online advertising using AHP, Information and Management,
40(4), p. 233. Ohno, T., 1988. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large Scale Production,
Cambridge: Productivity Press, p. 24.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L., 1985. A conceptual model of service quality and its
implication for future research, Journal of Marketing, 49, pp. 41.
Parasuraman, A. and Berry, L.L., 1991. Marketing for Services: Competing Through Quality. New York:
The Free Press.
Phillips P. and Appiah-Adu, K., 1998, Benchmarking to improve the strategic planning process in the hotel
sector, The Service Industries Journal, 18(1), p. 1.
Pizam, A. and Ellis, T., 1999. Customer satisfaction and its measurement in hospitality enterprises,
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(7), p. 3269.
Raju, K.S. and Pillai, S.S.R., 1999. Multi-criteria decision making in river basin planning and development,
European Journal of Operational Research, 112(2), p. 249.
Ramanathan, R. and Ganesh, L.S., 1995. Using AHP for resource allocation problems, European Journal of
Operational Research, 80(2), p. 410.
Raymond, C. and Choi, T.Y., 2001. Determinants of hotel guests satisfaction and repeat patronage in the
Hong King hotel industry,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20(3), p. 277.
Reichheld, F.F. and Sasser, E.W., 1990. Zero defections: quality comes to services, Harvard Business
Review, 68(5), p. 105.
Ropeter, C. J. and Kleiner, H. B., 1997. Practices of excellent companies in the hotel industry, Managing
Service Quality, 7(3), p. 132. Ryglova, K. Vajcnerova, I. and Sacha, J., 2013. Approaches to
quality management in hotel industry, Acta Universitasis Agriculturae et
Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, LXI, p. 2693.
Saaty, T. L., 1983. Conflict Resolution and the Falkland Island invasions, Interfaces, 13(6), p. 68.
Saaty, T. L., 1999. Decision Making for Leaders: The Analytic Hierarchy Process for Decisions in a
Complex World. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: RWS Publications.
Saaty, T. L., 2003. The allocation of intangible resources: The analytic hierarchy process and linear
programming, Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 37(3), p. 169.
Saleh, F. and Ryan, C., 1991. Analysing service quality in the hospitality industry using SERVQUAL
model, Services Industries Journal, 11(3), p. 324.
BMIC 2015| page157

Sarangarajan, V. and Tamilenthi, S., 2012. A study on service management in hotel industry by an
application of structural equation modeling (2012). International Journal of Current Research,
4(5), p. 98.
Taylor, W. Bernard., 2010. Introduction to Management Science, 10 th Edition, Boston: Pearson, p.357.
Weaver, P.A. and McCleary, K.W., 1991. Are frequent guest programs effective?, The Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 32(2), p. 38.
Wong Ooi Mei, Dean, A.M. and White, C.J., 1999. Analysing service quality in the hospitality industry,
Managing Service Quality, 9(2), p. 136.
Yasin, M.M. and Zimmerer, W.T., 1995. The role of benchmarking in achieving continuous service
quality, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 7(4), p. 27.
Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L.L., and Parasuraman, A., 1996. The behavioral consequences of service quality,
Journal of Marketing Management, 60(April), p. 31.
BMIC 2015| page158

A study of repurchase intention in the context of organic food in Bangkok,

Thailand
Kanokkwan Fleur-Marie Amornsin, Kriengsin Prasongsukarn and Sirion
Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate consumers repurchase intention concerning organic food in
Bangkok, Thailand. The self-administered questionnaires were distributed among 480 respondents in
supermarkets known to carry organic food in central Bangkok, Thailand. The collected data were processed
using statistical analysis software. A descriptive and an inferential analysis were applied to analyse the primary
data. The results indicated that all variables tested by Pearson Correlation Coefficient have positive correlation
with consumer repurchase intention concerning organic food. Among these variables, subjective norms showed
the highest correlation with repurchase intention. The other variables were tested using Multiple Linear
Regression Analysis (MLR). The result showed that ways of shopping is the most influential factors
determining repurchase intention, followed by quality aspects, purchasing motives, and cooking methods,
respectively, while consumption situations do not influence repurchase intention concerning organic food.
Keywords:Repurchase intention; organic food; consumer behaviour; Thailand
1. Introduction
Until recently, purchasing organic food required a trip to a specialty store or a natural foods outlet. As
interest in organics is growing rapidly, organic food has now become widely available in conventional grocery
stores in many developed and emerging countries. Today, consumers can find a large selection of organic
products in various types of supermarket chains. Major retailers have started to expand their organic selection
and many conventional retailers now dominate organic retailers for their share of organic food sales. As a result,
organic food producers and vendors have come to realise that their businesses are getting closer to mainstream
(Torres, 2006). As competition and costs of attracting potential customers increase, keeping the existing
customers or making them repurchase the products seems to be the most cost-effective approach for organic
food businesses. They soon learned that the easiest way to get more customers is not to lose them (Marketing
Wizdom, 2013). That is why customer retention has been appreciated as a key to business success and the
essential element of competitive advantage for their businesses and industry (Croninet al., 2000). However,
keeping customers can be challenging, which is why businesses must know the reason their customers keep
buying the same products. According to Ajzen (1991), consumer repurchase intention is a useful predictor of
repeat purchase behaviour. In using repurchase intention to anticipate the actual purchase of organic food, it is
critical for academic researchers and marketers to understand the significant factors or determinants of
repurchase intention. As Thailands domestic market and interest for organic food continue to grow, the
researcher is highly interested in conducting a research on repurchase intention towards organic food among
Thai consumers. However, only a few studies concerning organic food repurchase intention have been
conducted in Thailand. Therefore, the researcher is interested in studying this topic and the main studys
objective is to investigate the variables that may have an impact on customer repurchase intention concerning
organic food. The study focuses on Thai adults aged twenty years old and above who used to purchase organic
food products. The independent variables focused in this research include knowledge and education,
environmental attitudes, attitudes towards organic food, perceived behavioural control, subject norms, perceived
value and food-related lifestyles in terms of ways of shopping, cooking methods, quality aspects, consumption
situation, and purchasing motives.
BMIC 2015| page159

1.1. Repurchase intention

Ajzen (1991) indicated that intention is the best predictor of behaviour. According to Hellier
et al. (2003), repurchase intention refers to the subjective probability associated with intention that
consumer will continue to purchase the products in the future. Similarly, Zeithaml et al. (1988)
described repurchase intention as the judgment of an individual about purchasing a product or service
again.
1.2. Knowledge and education
The idea of consumer knowledge can be seen as the scope of experience and understanding
that consumers have of a product before they undertake an external search (Alba and Hutchison,
1987), and knowledge can be received through education (Rahman, 2013). von Alvesleben (1997)
indicated the importance of organic food knowledge and information as the only tool that consumers
use to differentiate organic food product attributes from the conventionalones.
1.3. Environmental attitudes
Milfont (2007) defined environmental attitudes as a psychological tendency expressed by
evaluating ideas or beliefs concerning the natural environment, with some degree of favour or
disfavour. Grunert and Juhl (1995) indicated that positive attitudestowards environmental issues are
positively related to organic food purchases and the frequency of purchase. Fraj and Martinez (2007)
conducted a study which focused on environmental attitudes as important predictors of environmental
behaviour. Regarding their study, environmental attitudes proved to have a significant impact on
environmental behaviours such as purchasing organic products.
1.4. Attitudes towards organic food
Various definitions of attitude have been given in previous research. However, most researchers
generally refer to attitude as an individuals favour or disfavour of a certain attitude object. According to
Blackwell et al. (2006), attitude refers to the evaluation of performing a certain behaviour concerning the
attitude object. Previous studies indicated that positive attitudes towards organic food attributes such as taste,
texture and freshness positively influence organic food consumption (Al -Swidi et al., 2014; Aryal et al. 2009;
de Magistris and Gracia, 2008; Chen, 2007).
1.5. Perceived behavioural control
Perceived behavioural control refers to the individuals beliefs about their capabilities to engage in a
given behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). It is usually formed by perceived barriers (such as price and availability) and
perceived abilities (such as financial resources) that determine organic food purchasing behaviour (Thgersen,
2009). Regarding perceived abilities, several previous studies have applied income or financial resources as
important determinants of willingness to purchase organic foods (Riefer and Hamm, 2008; Gracia and de
Magistris, 2007; Zepeda and Li, 2007).
1.6. Subjective norms

According to Ajzen (1991), subjective norms concern the perceived social influence to comply with
expectations regarding the performance of a particular behaviour which should determine the intention of an
individual to perform (or not to perform) the behaviour. Theory of needs given by McClelland (1987) indicated
that individuals are more likely to reveal a behaviour that is appreciated and respected by their reference groups,
BMIC 2015| page160

as they pursue relationships and group associations. In this case, if purchasing organic food is viewed as a
socially desirable behaviour, then, the person is more likely to purchase organic food. Based on previous
research, organic food can be perceived as socially desirable in the way that organic food products are more
tasteful, better quality, and fresher than conventionally alternative foods (Shaharudin et al., 2010; Lea and
Worsley, 2005; Baker et al., 2004).
1.7. Perceived value
Zeithaml (1988) described perceived value as the consumers overall assessment and evaluation of the
utility of a product or service based on perceptions of what is obtained and what is given. Previous studies
suggested consumers repurchase intention relies on the value obtained in their previous purchases (Kaynak,
2003; Wathne et al., 2001; Bolton et al., 2000). If a previous transaction provided ahigh level of value, customer
would return and repurchase the product infuture (Lee et al., 2011). Many previous study results revealed
positive value perceptions towards organic food products such as more freshness, superior quality, better in taste
etc. compared to conventional foods (Shaharudin et al., 2010; Lea and Worsley, 2005; Baker et al., 2004)
1.8. Food-related lifestyles
The concept of food-related lifestyles (FRL) was formed in mid-1990s as segmentation tool, which is
adapted to the consumers role as a food shopper. Grunert et al (1996) described food-related lifestyles as the
means of using food consumption to achieve personal life values. The FRL instrument is used to measure
consumer attitudes and behaviours regarding the purchase, preparation, and consumption of food products
(Bredahl and Grunert, 1998). According to Ryan et al. (2004), a total of 69 items of FRL instrument is
segmented into 23 FRL dimensions, and the following five distinguished domains: ways of shopping, cooking
methods, quality aspects, consumption situations, and purchasing motives.
2. Hypotheses development
Based on several previous studies, there are many independent variables that have impacts on
repurchase intention concerning organic food. Chong et al. (2013) implied that knowledge and education are the
strongest predictors of repurchase intention. Knowledge is perceived by consumers as the only tool that they use
to differentiate organic food product attributes from the conventionalones (von Alvesleben, 1997). Besides
knowledge and education, attitudes are widely used by researchers in studying consumers repurchase intention
(Lee and Goudea, 2014; Balla and Ibrahim, 2012; Kaveh, 2012). In the context of organic food, attitudes
towards the environment and towards organic food are proved to be the most influential factors explaining
repurchase intention (de Magistris and Gracia, 2008). In the theory of planned behaviour, perceived behavioural
control and subjective norms are often applied as independent variables of behavioural intention, such as
repurchase intention. Al-Swidi et al. (2014) applied perceived behavioural control and subjective norms to study
online organic food purchase intention. Their study results indicated these two factors significantly affect online
purchase intention towards organic food. Another important independent variable of repurchase intention is the
consumers perception of the products value. Previous researches stated that consumers repurchase intention
relies on the value obtained in their previous purchases (Olaru et al., 2008; Kaynak, 2003; Wathne et al., 2001;
Bolton et al., 2000). Hume (2008) concluded that perceivedvalue is the most important predictor of repurchase
intention. Finally, repurchase intention is claimed to be influenced by consumers lifestyles. According to Engel
et al. (1988), lifestyles are influential external factors in the consumers buying behaviour. Many previous
studies demonstrated that the willingness to purchase organic food is influenced by lifestyle (Chryssohoidis and
Krystallis, 2005; Sanjuan et al., 2003; Gil et al., 2000). This study proposes the following hypotheses:
H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between knowledge and education, and repurchase
intention concerning organic food.
H2: There is a statistically significant relationship between environmental attitudes, and repurchase
H3: There is a statistically significant relationship between attitudes towards organic food, and
repurchase intention concerning organic food.
BMIC 2015| page161

H4: There is a statistically significant relationship between perceived behavioural control, and
H5: There is a statistically significant relationship between subjective norms, and repurchase intention
concerning organic food.
H6: There is a statistically significant relationship between perceived value, and repurchase intention
concerning organic food.
H7: Food-related lifestyles in terms of ways of shopping, cooking methods, quality aspects, purchasing
motives, and consumption situations have influence on repurchase intention concerning organic food.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
Knowledge and Education
H1
Environmental Attitudes
H2
Attitudes towards Organic Food
Perceived Behavioural Control
Subjective Norms
Perceived Value
H3
H4
H5
Repurchase Intention concerning
organic food
H6
Food-related lifestyles
-
Ways of shopping
Cooking methods
Quality aspects
Consumption situations
Purchasing Motives
H7
7
3. Methodology
2.1. Research Method Used
A descriptive analysis and an inferential analysis were used in this study. Gall et al. (1996)
recommended descriptive research for its ability to provide statistical information regarding aspects of a study
that is of interest to policy makers and researchers. Sekeran (2003) claimed that inferential analysis exhibits how
variables relate to each other or whether there is any difference between two or more groups. Pearson
Correlation Coefficient and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis were also employed for data analysis. In
addition, a survey method was adopted to gather information from respondents because of its empirically
BMIC 2015| page162

relevant advantages such as cost-effectiveness and flexibility. Aaker et al. (2000) described survey as a research
technique that is used in collecting primary data from representative sample of target population.
2.2. Data Collection

The target populations of this research were Thai consumers aged twenty years and above who
purchased organic food during the past six months. The primary data were collected through self-administered
questionnaires from 480 respondents in supermarkets known to carry organic foods in central Bangkok area.
Bangkok was chosen as location for the data collection because the city is the hub for nearly all commercial and
economical activities in the country. Bangkok is also known to both locals and visitors as an attractive place for
food lovers from many countries around the world. Many supermarkets and food stores in Bangkok provide
large selections of domestic and imported goods. However, compare to conventional mass-produced food that
can be easily found from grocery shopping options all over the city, organic food is less accessible and available
in variety mostly in dedicated organic food retailers. Most stores known to carry organic foods tended to be
upscale supermarket chains which are mainly located in Bangkok. So, the researcher selected the locations for
gathering information from respondents based on the availability of organic products and convenience, and
where most target respondents were expected. The list of four selected super market brands includes Gourmet
Market, Central Food Hall, Villa Market, and Lemon Farm, where two branches of each supermarket chain were
surveyed. The researcher collected the primary data on week days (Monday to Friday) from 4.00 pm to 8.00 pm
where the visitors flow rate tended to be higher than during the daytime, and on weekends (Saturday and
Sunday) from 10.00 am to 6.00 pm. The data were collected in the course of two months from June to August
2015.
4.
Results
The majority (65 per cent, 312 respondents) of respondents who have experience in purchasing organic
food during the past six months were female. At 480 respondents, 41-to-50-years were the largest age group of
organic buyers (35.6 per cent, 171 respondents). Overall, 74 per cent (355 respondents) of respondents reported
they were married at the time of survey. Most of the respondents (57.3 per cent, 257 respondents) have
bachelors degree and monthly income between 45,000-54,999 Baht.
Table 1. The Summary of Demographic Factors
Demographic Factors
Major Group
Percentages and numbers
Gender
Female
65% (312)
Age
41-50 years
35.6% (171)
Marital status
Married
74% (355)
Education
Bachelors degree
57.3% (275)
Income level (per month)
45,000 - 54,999 Baht
29.4% (141)
According to the hypotheses tested by Pearson Correlation Coefficient method, all independent
variables (knowledge and education, environmental attitudes, attitudes towards organic food, perceived
behavioural control, subjective norms, perceived value) were found to have positive correlation with repurchase
BMIC 2015| page163

intention concerning organic food. Among these variables, subjective norms showed the highest correlation with
repurchase intention, in which r-value equals 0.767.
Table 2. The Summary of hypotheses testing results by Pearson Correlation
Hypotheses
Results
Significance
R
Value
Hypothesis 1
There is a statistically significant relationship between knowledge and education, and

0.000
0.619
Hypothesis 2
There is a statistically significant relationship between environmental attitudes, and

0.000
0.634
Hypothesis 3
There is a statistically significant relationship between attitudes towards organic food, and
0.000
0.712
Hypothesis 4
There is a statistically significant relationship between perceived behavioural control, and

0.000
0.695
Hypothesis 5
There is a statistically significant relationship between subjective norms, and repurchase

0.000
0.767
Hypothesis 6
There is a statistically significant relationship between perceived value, and repurchase

0.000
0.695
Based on the hypothesis tested by Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, food related-lifestyles in terms
of ways of shopping is the most influential factors determining repurchase intention (Beta = 0.510), followed by
quality aspects, purchasing motives, and cooking methods, respectively, while consumption situations do not
influence repurchase intention concerning organic food.
Table 3. The summary of hypotheses testing results by multi linear regression analysis
Hypothesis
H7o: Food-related lifestyles in terms of

ways of shopping, cooking methods,
quality aspects, consumption
situations, and purchasing motives
have no influence on repurchase
Sub Variables
Beta
Significance
Results
Ways of shopping
0.510
0.000
Reject Ho
Cooking methods
0.084
0.003
Reject Ho
Quality aspects
0.283
0.000
Reject Ho
BMIC 2015| page164

Consumption
situations
Purchasing motives
0.027
0.419
0.092
0.009
Failed to
reject Ho
Reject Ho
5. Discussions and Implications

The descriptive analysis of the demographic factors in this study demonstrates that most consumers
who purchased organic food during the past six months and have the intention to repurchase organic food are
largely composed of married females, aged between 41 to 50 years and have at least a bachelors degree with an
income between 45,000 to 54,999 Baht per month,which are presumed to be mothers. So, it should be expected
that their repurchase intentions concerning organic food products are related to the wellbeing of family
members. This finding is similar to the previous studies carried out by several researchers such as Liang (2014),
Liang (2011), and Roitner-Schobesberger et al. (2008). Therefore, the results from demographic factors analysis
may facilitate effective analysis of hypotheses results in this research as follows.
According to the first hypothesis, consumers who have higher knowledge and education present more
intention to repeat the purchase of organic food. This demonstrates that increasing consumers knowledge of
organic food is relevant to the development of organic food demand. Therefore, information on organic food
production as well as its benefits should be available to consumers by different media channels in order to
increase consumers organic knowledge and encourage consumer demand for organic food. The results of the
second hypothesis show that consumers who are more concerned about the protection of the environment and
more involved in environmental friendly practices reveal more willingness to repurchase organic food products.
Therefore, marketing communication campaigns should focus on the benefits of organic food concerning the
environmental protection. For example, consumers may be informed that organic food production is
environmentally friendly because organic farming methods completely exclude the use of synthetic pesticides
and chemical fertilizer and focus on enhancing soil fertility and biodiversity.
The results of hypothesis 3 testing show a high positive relationship between attitudes towards organic
food and repurchase intention. It can be said that consumers who believe that organic food is more nutritious,
tastier, causing less disease than conventional food, and processed without chemicals and preservatives, will
have more intention to repurchase organic products. As recommendations, marketers might apply marketing
communication campaigns to highlight these organic foods positive attributes by pointing out the difference
between the production method of organic food and conventional food, especially the fact that organic food is
processed without chemicals and preservatives, which causes less disease than conventional food. However,
marketers must be cautious in using particular health claims such as organic food is more nutritious than
conventional food for the marketing campaigns because organic food is currently not scientifically proved to be
more nutritious than conventional food.
Based on hypothesis 4, the result demonstrates that consumers who think that they have more time and
financial capability are more likely to repeat organic food purchase. In order to encourage more sales of organic
food, business could determine whether lowering the price of some products would strengthen consumers
beliefs that they have the financial capability to repurchase organic food. As price premium and exclusive
distribution of organic food have been viewed as key barriers (Shaharudin et al, 2010), it is important that
organic food be available at a more affordable price. Regarding hypothesis 5, most respondents reported that
people around them believe consuming organic food is better for health, and that they are appreciated and
supported by friends and families to repurchase organic food. This means that consumers intentions to
BMIC 2015| page165

repurchase organic foods are highly affected by social pressure and the opinions of others. Therefore, marketers
might focus on the existing group of opinion leaders who are willing to spread positive word of mouth about
organic food consumption.
Regarding hypothesis 6, the findings indicate that the perceived value of organic food has a positive
relationship with repurchase intention. The positive value perception towards organic food in this study is that
organic food is more natural, safer, of superior quality, and tastier than non-organic food. Therefore, an effective
awareness program for organic food products value and benefits such as advertisement and exhibition should be
regularly carried out, as positive image of organic food portrayed in mass media and from marketing activities
may help develop positive value perception concerning organic food. The results of hypothesis 7 testing indicate
that food-related lifestyles in terms of ways of shopping is the strongest influencing factor on repurchase
intention, followed by quality aspects, purchasing motives, and cooking methods, respectively. Ways of
shopping in this research indicate how consumers are attached to the importance of product information, love
shopping for food, and prefer shopping in the specialty stores where they can get expert advice. As
recommendations, the legislation on organic product labelling should focus on providing organic food
information on the product labels. The physical environment of organic food stores should also be pleasant for
shopping where customer assistants should also be presented to provide information or give advice to
customers.
Based on food-related lifestyles in terms of quality aspects in this study, most organic consumers who
focus on consumption of food relating to product qualities are those who always buy organic food, preferably
fresh and natural products without preservatives or additives. Therefore, the organic food industry could
highlight the naturalness and fresh quality of organic food using the point of purchase display in the stores
during the seasonal sales of fresh vegetables and fruits. Consumers should also be informed that organic foods
are fresher and more natural because they do not contain neither preservatives to make them last longer nor
additives to enhance the taste and appearance or to preserve flavour.
According to food-related lifestyles in terms of purchasing motives, the researcher found that the sense
of security, stability, and self-esteem are the main motivations for consumers repurchase intention towards
organic foods. Thus, marketer could point out the ill-effects and serious threat of chemical residues in food by
using fear appeal in advertising. If consumers were aware of food safety, they would consider repurchasing
organic food rather than conventional ones. Finally, based on food-related lifestyles in terms of cooking
methods, the results show that organic buyers are those who very much enjoy cooking. They love to spend
ample time in the kitchen as well as planning for cooking. Therefore, marketer should try to associate organic
food consumption with cooking activities. For example, firms could organise cooking activities for organic food
lovers such as a cooking contest that allows participants to use only organic ingredients, as well as providing
attractive incentives and rewards for the winner. However, food-related lifestyles in terms of the consumption
situation do not have influence on consumers repurchase intention. Thus, marketer should pay less attention to
this aspect and focus on only factors that influence organic food repurchase intention.
6. Further Study
In this study, the researcher identified some areas where further research is needed. First, this research
applied non probability samplings where paper questionnaires were employed to perform sampling in Bangkok,
Thailand. As the number of the population who purchased organic food in Bangkok was unknown, the data were
collected from consumers who shopped in supermarket chains based on the convenience sampling method
which could demonstrate bias. Thus, future research could perform sampling using a different sampling method
such as probability sampling so that the sampling bias can be eliminated since the respondents are randomly
chosen. Second, the researcher only tested eleven independent variables. However, there are several variables
that influence organic food repurchase intention. Therefore, further research could perform an examination of
other variables such as trust, satisfaction, brand image, and loyalty. Finally, the collection of data was
undertaken in only eight supermarkets chains in central Bangkok where many supermarkets in Bangkok and
other regions in Thailand were excluded from this study, which may limit the profile of respondents to a certain
BMIC 2015| page166

category.Therefore, further research could examine different sampling regions to study the population who may
have different perceptions, attitudes, and lifestyles. In addition, this research studied consumers repurchase
intention concerning organic food in general. Thus, further research could focus on specific brand of products
and supermarkets in order to obtain more insight into the organic food brands.
References
Aaker, A., Kumar, V.D., & George, S. (2000). Marketing research. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
50(2), 179-211.
Alba, J. W. & Hutchinson, J. W. (1987). Dimensions of Consumer Expertise, Journal of Consumer Research,
13, 411-454.
Al-Swidi, A., Huque, S.M.R., Hafeez, M.H., & Shariff , M.N.M. (2014). The role of subjective norms in theory
of planned behavior in the context of organic food consumption, British Food Journal, 116 (10), 1561
1580.
Aryal, K.P., Chaudhary, P., Pandit, S., & Sharma, G. (2009). Consumers willingness to pay for
organic products: a case from Kathmandu valley, The Journal of Agriculture and
Environment10(6), 12-22.
Baker, S., Thompson, K. E., & Engelken, J. (2004). Mapping the values driving organic food Choice, European
Journal of Marketing, 38 (8), 995-1012.
Balla, B.E., & Ibrahim, S.B. (2012). Impact of Corporate Brand on Customers Attitude towards Repurchase
Intention. International Journal of Science and Research, 3(11),2319-7064.
Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2006). Consumer behavior. (10 th ed.). Mason, OH:
Thomson/South-Western.
Bolton, R., Kannan, P., & Bramlett, M. (2000). Implications of loyalty program membership and service
experiences for customer retention and value, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28 (1), 95108.
Bredahl, L., & Grunert,G. (1998). Consumerss Cognitions with regards to Genetically Modified Foods
Results of Qualitative Study in Four Countries, working paper No. 59. MAPP, Aarhus, Denmark.
Chen, M.F. (2007). Consumer attitudes and purchase intentions in relation to organic foods in
Taiwan: Moderating effects of food-related personality traits, Food Quality and Preference, 18, 1008-1021.
Chong, C.W., Shamsollahi, A., & Nahid, N. (2013). Factors influencing on purchasing behaviour of organic
foods. Human and Social Science Research, 1 (2), 93-104.
Chryssohoidis, G.M., & Krystallis, A. (2005). Organic consumers personal values research: testing and
validating the list of values (LOV) scale and implementing a value-based segmentation task, Food
Quality and Preference, 16, 585-99.
Cronin, J.J., Brady, M.K., & Hult, G.T.M. (2000). Assessing the effects of quality, value, and
customer satisfaction on consumer behavioral intentions in service environments. Journal of Retailing, 76(2),
193-218.
de Magistris, T., & Gracia, A. (2008). The decision to buy organic food products in Southern
Italy, British Food Journal, 110 (9929-47.
Engel, J.F., Kollat, T.d. & Blackwell, R.D. (1988). Consumer Behavior (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: HoltSaunders International Editions.
BMIC 2015| page167

Fraj, E.,& Martinez, E. (2007). Ecological Consumer Behaviour: An Empirical Analysis, International Journal
of Consumer Studies, 31, 26-33.
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational Research: An Introduction (6th ed.). White Plains,
NY: Longman.
Gil, J.M., Gracia, A., & Sanchez, M. (2000). Market segmentation and willingness to pay for
organic products in Spain, International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 3, 207-26.
Gracia, A., & de Magistris, T. (2007). Organic food product purchase behaviour: a pilot study for urban
consumers in the South of Italy, Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 5 (4), 439-451.
Grunert, K.G., Baadsgaard, A., Larsen, H.H. & Madsen, T.K. (1996). Market Orientation in Food and
Agriculture. London, England: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Grunert, S.C, & Juhl, H.J. (1995). Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic
foods, Journal of Economic Psychology, 16, 39-62.
Hellier, P. K., Geursen, G. M., Carr, R. A., & Rickard, J. A. (2003). Customer repurchase intention: A general
structural equation model, European Journal of Marketing, 37(11/12), 17621800.
Hume, M. (2008). Understanding core and peripheral service quality in customer repurchase of the performing
arts, Managing Service Quality, 18 (4), 349-69.
Kaveh, M. (2012). Role of trust in explaining repurchase intention. African Journal of Business Management,
6(14), 5014-5025.
Kaynak, H. (2003). The relationship between total quality management practices and their effects on rm
performance. Journal of Operations Management, 21,405-35.
Lea, E., & Worsley, T. (2005). Australians organic food beliefs, demographics and values.
British Food Journal, 107 (10/11), 855-869.
Lee, C.H., Eze, U.C., & Ndubisi, N.O. (2011). Analyzing key determinants of online repurchase intentions,
Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23, (2), 200221.
Lee, H.J., & Goudea, C. (2014). Consumers beliefs, attitudes, and loyalty in purchasing organic foods, British
Food Journal, 116 (6), 918 930.
Liang, A.R.D. (2014). Enthusiastically consuming organic food. Internet Research, 24 (5), 587 607.
Liang, A. R. D., & Limb, M.M. (2011). Exploring the online buying behavior of specialty food shoppers,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30, 855865.
Marketing
Wizdom.
(2013).
20
Customer
Retention
http://marketingwizdom.com/strategies/retention-strategies
Strategies.
Retrieved
from
McClelland, David C. (1987). Human Motivation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Milfont, T. L., & Duckitt, J. (2010). The environmental attitudes inventory: A valid and reliable measure to
assess the structure of environmental attitudes. Journal of Environmental Psychology,30, 8094.
Olaru, D., Purchase, S., & Peterson, N. (2008). From customer value to repurchase intentions and
recommendations, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing,23 (8), 554565.
Rahman, M. (2013). Green Products: A Study on Young & Native Swedish Consumers Purchase Intentions of
Green
Products.
Retrieved
from
http://www.diva
portal.org/smash/get/diva2:668539/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Riefer, A., & Hamm, U. (2008). Changes in families organic food consumption. Paper presented at 12th
Congress of the European Association of Agricultural Economists EAAE, August 26-29, Ghent.
Roitner-Schobesberger, B., Darnhofer, I., Somsook, S., & Vogl, C.R. (2008). Consumer perceptions of organic
foods in Bangkok, Thailand. Food Policy,33, 112121.
BMIC 2015| page168

Ryan, I., Cowan, C., McCarthy, M., & OSullivan, C. (2004). Segmenting Irish food consumers using the foodrelated lifestyle instrument, Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing, 16 (1), 89-114.
Sanjuan, A.I., Sanchez, M., Gil, J.M., Gracia, A., & Soler, F. (2003). Brakes to organic market enlargement in
Spain: consumers and retailers attitudes and willing to pay, International Journal of Consumer
Studies, 27(2), 134-44.
Sekaran, U. (2003) Research methods for business: A skill-building approach (4th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Shaharudin, M. R., Pani, J. J., Mansor, S. W., & Elias, S. J. (2010). Purchase intention of organic food;
perceived value overview. Canadian Social Science, 6(1), 70-79.
Thgersen, J. (2009a). Consumer decision-making with regard to organic food products. In T. d. N. Vaz, P.
Nijkamp & J.-L. Rastoin (Eds.). Traditional food production and rural sustainable development. A
European challenge (pp. 173-192). Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Torres,
B.
(2006,
March
17).
Organic
Food
Goes
Mainstream.
https://www.organicconsumers.org/news/organic-food-goes-mainstream
Retrieved
from
von Alvesleben, R. , in Padberg, D.I., Ritson, C. & Albisu, L.M. (1997) Consumer behaviour. New York, NY:
CAB International
Wathne, K., Biong, H., & Heide, J. (2001). Choice of supplier in embedded markets: relationship and marketing
program effects, Journal of Marketing, 65(2), 54-66.
Zeithaml, V. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A means-end model and synthesis of
evidence, Journal of Marketing, 52, (3), 2-22.
Zepeda, L. & Li, J. (2007). Characteristics of organic food shoppers, Journal of Agricultural
Applied Economics, 39 (1), 17-28.
BMIC 2015| page169

Path Analysis of Psychological and Situational Factors on Trust in the

Government
Naksit Sakdapat, Duangjai Kaewmali and Pornpong Sakdapat
Abstract
The purposes of this research were to 1 )study both direct and indirect psychological and situational
factors on trust in the government of the high school students, and 2 )study the relationship between crucial
psychological and situational factors on trust in the government of the high school students.
The crucial research results revealed as follows: )1theexogenous latent variable of situations, which was,
Social Norms, it had the statistical significance, and the weight was equal to 8.458. This indicates that the
exogenous latent variable had indirect factors on trust in the government, but the Love and Reason Oriented Child
Rearing Practices had the factor loading equal to 0. 616which had indirect factors on trust in the government, and
2)endogenous latent variable of psychological factors was the Openness to Experience, which had the indirect
factors on trust in the government, with the negative path coefficient(-)115..
For the relationship of psychological and situational factorson trust in the government, it was found
that )1the Ego-Identityand Openness to Experiencehad the positive relationship by statistical significance on
trust in the government, and 2)the Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices, and Social Normshad the
positive relationship by statistical significance on trust in the government.
It is necessary to change the development of Openness to Experiences to be in accordance with the
society, and increase the development of Social Norms, and Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices
more.
KEYWORDS:Psychological and Situational Factors / Trust in the Government / Social Background
Introduction
It is generally accepted that trust in the government is really necessary and crucial for the stability of
government; namely, trust is the requirementof the governmentfor attendingof conductiontowards others based
on positive expectation related to the individual behaviors under the risk and dependence conditions. Trust
indicates the dependence or confidence in some situations conducted by the government. Moreover, trust
reflects the expectation of positive results. Trust also shows some risks towards the expectation of the things
received, and some levels of uncertainty towards the results ( Mayer, Davis, &Schoorman, 1995). These suggest
that if there are a lot of trusts inthe government, it reflects that the government has done in accordance with the
peoples needs, vice versa,whenever trust towards the government becomes low, it reflects the dissatisfaction
from the people, for example, the problem solving policy is not directed to the point, the educational policy is
ineffective. Therefore, trust towards government is considered as the thinking concept which can indicate that
the government is effective and achieve the performances which are directed to the point, and satisfied by the
people.
However, to develop the trust of government, it really requires time, which is, Trust Takes Time;
namely, to createtrust or maintain trust, it takes time as a capital for creation and development. Even though
trust has happened, it is necessary to remain capital consistently. The development of trust no matter how short
or long time it is used, it is not soimportant as maintaining trust to be consistent. For the trust, it can be
developed to happen in a short time if the leaders open opportunities for the personnel to co-participate for
determining goals and responsibilities (Reynolds, )1997. Moreover, Trust has to be Tough; the government
which has high level of trust, the personnel will work at a high level to achieve successin accordance with the
BMIC 2015| page170

set standard, and work with quickness, strength, and patience, in order to be progress in their positions and
duties. Whereas the government which has the trust at a low level, the personnel will work when they can, and
the productivity got is low. In addition, Trust must be Practiced;the development of trust is like the athletes who
have to use numerous skills, practices, and spirits so that they can reach the required goals. Hence, to create trust
of government, it has to develop both skills and mind (Marshall, 6888). The above reasons show the importance
of trust towards government, which means, the government gets acceptance from most of the people, and the
people are confident with the words of politicians who say they will really do for their citizens. This is because
trust in the government is like the tools to bind between the government and people to live together with
affection, and have mutual participation towards the development (Kouzes & Posner, 1989).
According to the literature reviews, the concept of trust from Mishra 19 (6)9which indicates 4 trust
factors, which include, the dimensions of competence, openness, concern, and reliability. The researcher views
that these dimensions are clear and can be measured from the individuals feelings, as well as having scopes
covering the contents which need to be studied, therefore the researcher selects this concept to determine as the
conceptual framework for this study.
Objectives
1. To study the relationship between crucial psychological and situations on trust in the government of
the high school students.
2. To study the direct and indirect influences of the psychological and situations on trust in the
government of the high school students.
Research Methodology
This research is done by Quantitative Researchtype in order to study the opinions on trust in the
government of the high school students, and study the biosocial factors and background of the high school
students which affect the trust in the government. The sample group is 600 high school students from 3 schools.
The research methodology is carried out by using dontentenv pmap tne nevnoC. And when investigatingthe
completeness and correctness of the questionnaire, it is found that the questionnaires which can be used really
for this research are from 551 samples.
Research Instrument
The instrument used for measuring the variables in this research consists of the measurement formof 5
variables, which include, 1 )measurement form of trust in the government, )6 measurement form of
psychological traits group, this is divided into 2 factors; Ego-Identity, and Openness to Experience, )3
measurement form of the situational group, this is divided into 2factors; Love and Reason Oriented Child
Rearing Practices, and Social Norms
BMIC 2015| page171

Figure 1: Interactionism Model
Figure1 The relationship between thevariablesfrom Interactionism Model(Magnusson &Endle,1977; Tett&

Burnett, 2003;DuangduenBhanthumnavin, 1998)
For this research, there are 2 types of measurement, which include1 )measurement form which has high
standard from other researches applied by the researcher for 5measurement form, which are, measurement
formof Me and Government (DujdeuenBhanthumnavin), My New Thing( Naiyana Pet-In), measurement formof
Direct Experience ( DuangduenBhanthumnavin), measurement form of Personal Opinion ( UsaSrijindarat ),
measurement form of People around Me ( DujdeuenBhanthumnavinin). All sets of measurement formare
analyzed to find each item of quality, and quality of each measurement form. All sets of measurement formhave
the details as follows:
.1To find the validity of measurement formused in this research. This is to find the content validity by
bringing the created measurement form according to the operational definition in each variable to be considered
by the experts or advisor for its contents that how much or how the contents are comprehensiveand appropriate
to the samples population group, then the researcher improves and adjusts them for getting the complete
measurement form, and uses it as the testing.
2. To bring the measurement formto test with the target group which has the similar characteristics to the
sample group, which is, 100 high school students.
3. To analyze the quality of measurement form in each item by 2 types of statistics, which include,1 )to
analyze the item discrimination, or find the t-ratio. For the finding of item discrimination in this research, the
research finds all items of the measurement formcreated newly by using the t-ratio statistics. The 30
%techniques are used by the criteria as follows; the t-Value which has the significance at 85 .level, and a number
of persons are equal to 588 persons, which is, the t-Value is equal to 1.97, or 1.97 up,2 ) to analyze the
correlation coefficient between each item of scores and total scores of the measurement form not included that
item( Item Total Correlation), or r-Value. The criteria is that the r-Value must be higher than 0.20. Only the
items met the criteria will be selected, especially the criteria of t-Value is considered as the main. These
statements must cover the contents of variables in accordance with the chart of operational definition of each
variable.
.4To find the reliability for all measurement forms which have been approved, in order to find the
reliability in a type of AlphaCoefficient.
BMIC 2015| page172

Table1: The quality of instruments to measure the variables in the research
Group
Measurement
Number
Ranget
Ranger
Reliability
1.
Me and Government
15
2.91 - 6.99
.64 - .68
.868
2.
My New Thing
20
2.11 - 7.63
.08 - .51
.853
3.
SocialBackground
4.
Home Experience
12
2.90 5.44
.21 - .73
.878
5.
Personal Opinion
20
2.15 6.02
.12 - .42
.840
People Around Me
14
2.17 8.36
.12 - .55
.859
6.
Data Collection
The researcher contacts the teachers of each school to study the opinions about trust in the
government of high school students, and studies the biosocial factors and background of the high school
students. The researcher gives out the questionnaires with descriptions, and collects the data from the students.
The total data which can be collected are 600 questionnaires.
Data Analysis
The analysis of this research uses computer program of SPSS for Windows. The statistics used are as
follows:
1. DescriptiveStatistics; by finding the Frequency, Percentage, Mean, and Standard Deviation for basic
analysis, and consideration of sub-group categorization
2. Inferential Statistics; this is used to test the hypothesis as follows:
2.1To find the correlation coefficient of Pearsons Product Moment Correlation, to find the
relationship value of the variable used for this study.
2.2 To find the path analysis for finding the direct and indirect influences of the psychological
traits and situations.
Result
When considering the characteristics according to the biosocial factors and background (Table2), the
details are follows: 1)gender; gender is divided into 184 male students(33.4%), and 367 female students
66.6 (%), 2)age of students; the range is between 17years old and 18years old, the average is 17.16 years old,
themedian is 17 years old, and standard deviation is 485 . years old. When using the value of 17 years old and 18
years old as the criteria to divide the age of students into 2 groups,it makes the result that the students whose
ages are less than or equal to 17 years old are considered as the young age; 434 students78.8 ( %), and the
students whose ages are more than 18 years old are considered as the old age; 117 students61.6 ( %), 3)the grade
point average( GPA)has the range between 6.81 and 3.98, the average point is equal to 3.86, the median is 3.16,
and standard deviation is 8.45. When using the value of 6.88 3.88and 3.81 4.88 as the criteria to divide the
grade average point of the students into 2 groups, it can be divided into the students whose their grade point
average is less than or equal to 3.88 as the students who get a few scores of grade point averages; 69
BMIC 2015| page173

students41.6 (%), and the students whose their grade average points are more than 3.81are considered as getting
high grade average points;366 students 58.4 ( %), and 4 )the allowance got from parents monthly have the range
between 1,888 baht and 7,588 baht, the average is 3, 544.43 baht, the median is 3888 baht, and the standard
deviation is 1,739.66 baht. When using the value of 3 - 1,758 baht, and 3,7 - 751,588 baht as the criteria of
allowance got from the parents monthly to be divided into 2 groups, the students whose allowance got from
parents monthlyis less than or equal to 3,758 baht considered as getting a few monthly allowances from
parents;336students63 ( %), and students whose their monthly allowance is more than 3,751is considered as
getting much monthly allowance; 195 students37(%).
Table 2: Percentage and basic characteristics of the sample group
Analysis Result of Correlation Coefficient between Variables in the Research

correlation coefficient towards the trust in the government equal to ( 436 .p <.01) and .623( p <.01), 2)the
variable group of situations divided into 2 variables including Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing
Particulars
Gender
Number
Percentage*
Male
184
33.4
Female
367
66.6
eee
17
434
78.8
(N = 551)
18
117
21.2
2.08 - 3.00
229
41.6
4.88 - 3.81
322
58.4
1 - 3,758
332
63.0
3,751 - 7,500
195
37.0
(N = 551)
Grade Point Average( GPA)
(N = 551,
= 3.88, S.D. = 0.455)
Monthly money received from
parents (N = 527,
= 3,544.43,
S.D. = 1,739.661)
Practices, and Social Norms, has the correlation coefficient towards the trust in the government which has the
respective values equal to ( 556 .p <.01), and .589( p <.01), and the value of correlation coefficient between
independent variables has the highest value between Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices, and
Social Norms which has the value equal to 356.(p<.01).
Table3: Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlation Coefficient of Variables in the total group
BMIC 2015| page174

Analysis results of Psychological and Situational Factors on Trust in the Government
This data analysis uses the method of model testing by using the Latent Model, and analyzes the
Variables
1
2
verage
Trust in the Government
01.48
2.57
4
Openness to Experience
5.20
3 Love and Reason Oriented Child

Rearing Practices
4
A
D.
1.74
0.11
1
556**
.
.170**
1
623**
.
.040
0.35
7
589**
.
.073
.24
Social Norms
5.15
1
1
.
217**
356**
.
355**
1
.
NOTE: * p < .05 , ** p <.01 , n = 551

rawdata from 600 samples. When investigated the completeness and correctness, there are a number of data
which can be used really, and be the initial data for testing this model, which is, 551 students(Figure)6.
Figure6:Path analysis of causal relationship between the variables
The research results reveal that theorigin model according to the hypothesis have no harmonywith the
empirical data, therefore the model is adjusted, and gets the harmonious modelwith the empirical data, by
having the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), and have the direct and indirect influence value.
BMIC 2015| page175
9
432**
Eeo-ICenvtvy
.44
8
2.19

Table4: Goodness of fit index (GFI)
Statistics Value
Consideration
StatisticalValue in the Model
More than .90
2 = 2.867 , df = 1 , p-value =
Criteria
2
0.0904
SRMR
More than.05
0.024
CFI
More than.90
0.989
RMSEA
More than.60
0.058
TLI
More than.90
0.946
According to the Table 4and Figure 2, it appears that the exogenous latent variables of situations
consist of 2factors. The most components are Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices ( thefactor
loading is equal to 0.)616, secondly is Social Norms( factor loading is equal to )189 .- . The endogenous latent
variable interms of psychological traits consists of 1component. The component which has the most factor
loading is Openness to Experience ( factor loading is equal to )115 .-. The exogenous latent variable in terms of
situations is Social Norms by having the statistical significance, and weight equal to 8.458. This indicates that
the exogenous latent variable has the direct influence towards the trust in the government, and the endogenous
latent variable in terms of psychological traitshas the indirect influence on the trust in the government.The path
coefficient is negative( -)115 ., which means the students have the few psychological traits, namely, the openness
to the new experiences is little which will cause the trust in the government to be little. At the same time, the
more the students have high Social Norms it will make them to be highly trust in the government.
Evaluation
According to the research results, it suggests the influences of Openness to Experience which directly
affects the trust. This is similar to the research of Naiyana Pet-In6 ( 012)176 , about thepersuasive messages and
psycho-social casual factors which affect the acceptance of nuclear plant and agreement onnuclear plant
establishment, done with the 612 bachelor students, who were the third year undergraduate students from three
northern universities. The students were divided into the Science Program for 306 personsand Social
ScienceProgram for 386 students. The grade average points were6.64 , the median of the grade average point
was equal to 6.54, and standard deviation of the grade average point was equal to 8.48. The research results
concluded that the students who had high Openness to Experience was highly trust in the government )19.391 (,
and Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices had the indirect influence to the trust in the government.
This is similar to the research of DuangduenBhanthumnavin,OrapanChuchom, and NgamtaWanintanon(1985, )7
who studied about the ecological psychology on child rearingof Thai mothers, and the researches mentioned the
effects caused by the rearing that Love and Reason Oriented Child Rearing Practices was a characteristic of
rearing which parents acted to their children by expressing their love, concern, and happiness and sorrow of the
children much, they were closed with their children, did activities mutually with them, intimated, supported and
helped, as well asgiving precedence and giving what their children needed, therefore the children realized their
parents were important, and accepted, obeyed their parents. The impacts caused by the Love and Reason
Oriented Child Rearing Practicescan be considered as it is the crucial base of the children when they are
growing up till they feel affection and trust others. Moreover, they have good adjustment and good mental
health. When the children make a mistake, they will accept and confess their faults, and feel ashamed. In
addition, the children have a little aggression and give cooperation to others much. Love and Reason Oriented
Child Rearing Practicescan be found in the person who has highvirtuesand ethics. They are not against the rules
and regulations and laws. The Openness toExperiencealso has indirect influences. The research results found in
this study is in accordance with the research of NattawadeePanyasakulwong 6 (012)197 , who studied about the
Effects of persuasive reading and writing on acceptance of nuclear plant for the bachelors degree students. The
research was an experimental research by using the Posv tesv tn ywtvn donv1o 1orp oesten. TheRmnCoa
esstenaenvMethod was used in this research. The students were the second and third year of undergraduate
students from 2 universities, total 491persons, divided into male for 138persons, female for 353 persons. The
grade average point was 6.76, program in Science;615 persons, and Social Science; 676 persons. The research
BMIC 2015| page176

results concluded that the students who have high openness to the nuclear news would be the persons who had
high trust in the government)19.374( .
Recommendations
Recommendation received from this research

Firstly, this research found the results of relationship related to the trust in the government of the
students, which, was, Ego-Identity. It can be seen that this factor all directly relates to the ideas and behaviors of
the students. Hence, this research result supports the students to have their development on their ability to selfunderstanding, self goals setting, self-esteem, and have the ideas and beliefs, as well as realizing their own roles,
duties, and responsibilities, reasonably. This is not only the Ego-Identity, which the students have to think by
themselves, but there are also other factors which affect the trust in the government of the students, which is,
Social Norms. This is because the students who acknowledged thattheir influenced personsthought that what the
students should or should not do those behaviors, if the persons acknowledge that anyone who is important to
them thinks that how much more thepersons should act, they will have the motivation to act those behaviors. On
the other hand, if those persons acknowledgethat anyone who is important to them thinks that they should not do
those behaviors, the influenced person will pressure them to avoid those behaviors. This can be clearly shown
that it is necessary for the students themselves to have the typicality of the persons, in society, who behave well,
have highvirtues and ethics, in order to be the quality persons for the children.
Secondly, the research which should be adjusted the attitude and trust in the government newly is the
female group which has high grade point average and has less trust in the government that the female group
which has the low grade point average, actually has the high trust in the government is not always good, and the
little trust in the government is not good either. However, the students have to trust in the government at the
appropriate level, namely, the students have to help inspect the performance of government sector to be in
accordance with the purposes which should be. This is because the duties of all people are about investigating
the performance of government, following, and evaluating the policies. Although it is considered as
unimportant, it is necessary to focus on. According to the female group which has the little grade point average
is trust the government more, one of the causes is that the students acceptthe governmental performance and
think that the government does the right things in several issues. Meanwhile, the female group which has much
grade point average is found that the governmental performance which supports their own companions is
considered as cheat, policy corruption, and convenience buying. Thus, the female students group which has the
little grade point average should get real knowledge, and has to try to examine the correct data, while parents
should implant in the students to let them think critically, carefully, and should learn the governmental
performance much more. And the government itself should access the students in the depth views really;
namely, it should let the students mutually issue their policies by their own in order that they will be able to
improvethe creative opinions, and it should have the stage for students to exchange ideas and learn to one
another appropriately, as well as giving them the opportunity to ask, follow, and investigate the performance of
governmental sectors really.
Recommendation for further study
According to the research results, this can propose the research as follows; 1 )this research result is the
base of creating psychological and situations set to develop trust in the government appropriately, then testing
and evaluating further, 2 )it should study the research about trust in the government of the countries which have
high reliability in the part of social psychology, )3 for the further research, it should add the variables, such as
the variables in the psychological group according to the situations to help the research results of the trust in the
government clearer, and 4 )the further research should propose this information to the governmental
organizations sometimes in these issues, such as education, this should set the curriculumin general schools that
should insert the historical contents of administration,constitutional laws, humans rights, virtues and ethics, etc,
and these should be the compulsory coursebecause according to the study, it is found that the major problem in
Thai society of the present time is still from the economic overlap of people. The government should participate
to reduce the difference more. One of the methods for reducing the difference and increase social opportunity
more is that the students should get the education thoroughly and qualitatively in order to get the development
of life quality sustainably.
BMIC 2015| page177

Reference
Aiken, L.S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Part,
CA: Sage.
Magnusson, D.;&Endler, N.S. (1977). Personallity at the Crossroads : Current Issues in Interactionism
Psychology.
NewJersey : LEA Publishers: 18-21Stringer, R. (2002). Leadership and Organizational climate. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Yamane, Taro. (1967). Statistics : An Introduction Analysis. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row.
Devis Keith; & John, Newstrom W. (1989). Human Behavior At work. 8th. New York : McGraw-Hill.
Ajzen, Icek. (1985). From intentions to actions : A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhi& J. Beckmann(Eds.),
Action-control: From cognition to behavior . Heidelberg: Springer. 11-39.
Madrian, Bridgitte and Shea, Dennis. (2000). The Power of
SavingsBehavior.University of Chicago mimeo, February 2000.
Suggestion:
Inertia
in
401(k)
Ajzen, I. &Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Englewood Cliffs. NJ
: Prentice-Hall,Inc
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundation of Thought and Action. : A Social cognitive theory. New Jersey :
Prentice Hall
Burns. (1996, September). New Recommendation for Physical Activity as A Mean of Health
Promotion.NursePractition. 21 :18 19
Cohen,J.M. ;&Uphoff,N.T. (1977).Rural Development Participation: Concept and Measures for Project Design,
Implementation and Evaluation. New York.
Hair, Joseph,F.;& et al. (1998). Multiple Regression Analysis. In Multivariate Data Analysis141 213.Fifth
edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
House, J.s.(1986). The Nature of Social Support.In M.A. (ed.).Work Stress and Social Support Philadelphia :
AddisonWesley: 13 23.
Israel. Babara. A. (1985).Social network and social support : Implication of natural helper and
communityLevelIntervention. Health education quarterly.7: 1985: 66
Lazarus,RS. (1971).Phycological Stress and Coping Process. New York :McMraw Hill Book.Lee,c;&P.Bobko.
(1994,March). Self Efficacy Beliefs Comparison of FiveMeasures.Journal of Applied Psychology.79:
364
Weiss, W. (1974). Effect of The Mass Media of Communication in Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E. (eds.). The
Handbook ofSocial Psychology. V.S P.77-195. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Zimmerman,B.J. (1998). Academic Studying and Development of Personal Skill:A Self Regulatory
Perspective.Educational Psychologist. 32(2/3) :73 86.
Thoists, P.A. (1982). Conceptual, Methodological, and Theoretical Problem in Studying Social Support asa
Buffer Against Life Stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 23: 145-159.
Murdaugh,C, &Hinshaw.(1986). A.S.Theoretical model testing to identify personality Variables
effectingpreventivebehaviors. Nursing Research,35 (January-February).
Mayer, R. C.; Davis, J. H.; &Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model oforganizational trust. Academy of
Management Review, 20 (3), 709-734.
BMIC 2015| page178

A Comparison Study of Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction and Word of

Mouth between Thai and Cambodian Customers towards a Coffee Shop
Sothean Phorn and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
This study is to comparing the service quality, customer satisfaction and word of mouth between Thai
customers and Cambodian customers towards the True coffee shops. And this study also conducts to find the
relationship of service quality dimensions, customer satisfaction and word of mouth between Thai customers
and Cambodian customers. The researcher surveyed 400 respondents who have had experienced with the True
coffee shops, 200 respondents of Thai customers and 200 of Cambodian customers. Descriptive analysis and
inferential analysis were use to analyze the data. The results showed there were significant different between
Thai customers and Cambodian customers in Physical environment, customer satisfaction and word of mouth.
Service quality in terms of interaction quality and outcome quality were not significant different between Thai
customers and Cambodian customers. Based on the findings the researcher has made recommendations towards
to company
Keywords: Service Quality, Interaction Quality, Physical Environment Quality, Outcome Quality,
Customer Satisfaction, Word Of Mouth.
1. Introduction
The goal of every business is to satisfy the needs of the customers, in order to get the customer
satisfaction (Padma et al., 2009). The competitive business environment currently focused on customer
satisfaction, in order to market the business (Babin and Griffin, 1998; Oliver, 1999). Normally, the first
evaluation of a product or services performance of the company is customer satisfaction (Anderson and
Sullivan, 1993). If he or she perceives a high quality experience, he or she will leave as a satisfied customer and
surely will spread the word to family and friends, which leads to creating word of mouth. In addition, word of
mouth plays a very important role in service businesses, especially when it comes to the services of the food and
beverage business. Word of mouth can generate more customers or can reduce the number of the customers
depending on the service quality and customer satisfaction. In this study the researcher applied many
independent variables, which may impact on customer satisfaction and word of mouth towards the coffee shop
business. The coffee industry is not only entertaining but also it offers many provocations as it has become
increasingly demanding and competitive in all areas of operations for success. In this study, the researcher
studied about service quality, customer satisfaction and word of mouth towards the True coffee shop in
Bangkok, Thailand and Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
The reason that the researcher choses the True coffee shop among other coffee shops in Thailand
because True coffee shop is originally from Thailand, one of the premium and local cafs in Thailand that
provide a verity of products and standard services to customers. And the reason that the researcher chooses the
True coffee shop among other coffee shops in Cambodia is because the researcher wants to compare between
Thai customers and Cambodian customers. In order to compare a service or product, it is to make sure that the
subjects that are used to compare is actually the same industry or the same field and the researcher would like to
study the result or feedback from customers based on level of customer satisfaction and word of mouth in terms
of negative or positive feedback when compared between two countries. As, True coffee shop is also available
in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, the researcher decided to choose the True coffee shop for the study. True coffee in
Thailand is the name of the shop under the True Telecommunication and Multimedia service. The leading
company in this group is True Corporation, providing a fully integrated communication solution provider in
Thailand. The mother company is Charoen Pokphand Group (CP Group) (http://www3.truecorp.co.th/home,
accessed on 22/04/15). The researcher studied one of the services from True Company, which is the True Coffee
BMIC 2015| page179

Shop. True Coffee shop was established in the year of 2548 (2015). The first shop was located in Kao san road
in Bangkok, Thailand. Using the concept of from the earth to the cup, and to make customers escape from all
worries, sit, relax, sip and surf. Inside the coffee shop, besides premium coffee, the shop also provides high
speed Internet Wi-Fi to the customers. The customers of true coffee shop will be able to drink the good taste of
coffee at the same time using other services from True. Moreover, True coffee also provides a premium bakery,
sandwiches and coffee mugs. Nowadays, there are seventy-eight branches of True coffee shop in Bangkok,
Thailand in both individual and franchises.
G.T. Group Co., Ltd. Is a multi-business company established in 2004 in Cambodia. GT Group was
granted exclusive franchising for True coffee shop from Thailand to Cambodia in the year 2011, located at the
Paradise hotel (http://www.goldentree-group.com/index.php?action=ID1, accessed on 22/04/15). They believe
that What works in Thailand also works well in the Cambodian market as consumer perceptions are quite
similar. True coffee in Cambodia provides the same services as True coffee in Thailand (beverage, bakery,
coffee mugs). There is only one shop in Phnom Penh, Cambodia right now. And in the near future the company
is planning to expand and open more branches inside Cambodia (City and Provinces)
https://www.facebook.com/pages/TrueCoffeeCambodia/570295479677686?sk=info&tab=page_info, accessed
on 22/04/15).
1.1. Service Quality

The measurement of service quality is SERVQUAL or gap analysis and was developed by
Panasuraman et al. (1980) and is a tool to evaluate service quality based on the customers aspect by comparing
their perception with their expectations and if the customers experience does not match with their expectation a
gap will happen. However in this study, the researcher applied only service quality, which is one part of
SERVQUAL, known as SERVPERF. There are three service quality dimensions as follows interaction quality,
physical environment quality and outcome quality. Cronin and Taylor (1992) defined to measure the service
quality, should only from the customer perceptions. Service quality should compare customers desires and how
to fulfill customers needs
1.2. Interaction Quality

Interaction quality refers to the excellent service quality that is provided to the consumer, the
behaviour of the employees towards customers. According to HSQM, interaction quality is a function of
attitude, behaviour and expertise (Pollack, 2009). For the phone service, the most important factors for
interaction quality is attitude and behaviour and for the hairdresser and barber services the main driver of
interaction quality is attitude and expertise (Pollack, 2009). Mukherjee (2002) indicated that the service quality
interaction in franchise chains, exists and it can be influenced by different variables.
1.3. Physical Environment Quality

The physical environment is comprised of ambient conditions, design and social factors (Brady and
Cronin, 2001). For the phone industry, the most important factors of the present results suggest that ambient
conditions and social factors are important while ambient conditions and design are important for the
hairdresser/ barber sample (Pollack, 2009). In a retail store, consumer conduct was basically a passionate
reaction to the variables making up the retail environment. On a more general level, some researchers suggest
that physical settings can create certain expectations about how individuals should act. The physical
environment works discriminatingly and coordinates the activities of persons. People manage and react to their
surroundings in different personal ways because they are different.
1.4. Outcome Quality
Outcome quality refers to the outcome of the service performance and represents what the consumer
perceives from the service quality (Mansor et al. 2012). Service outcome refers to the outcome of the service
act, after the service delivery to the customer (Gronroos, 1984). Brady and Cronin (2001) stated that the
outcome quality consider the customers perception of the excellent service experience. There are three types of
services, in which the perceived quality of service outcomes positively influences customer satisfaction, i.e.,
BMIC 2015| page180

photograph developing shops, banks, and hospitals (Hsieh and Hiang, 2004). For the phone service and hair
dresser/Baber shops in terms of overall service quality all three primary dimensions are important for outcome
quality (Pollack, 2009). Also, Baker and Lamb (1993) defined that customers of each industry, regularly unable
to assess the technical quality of the outcome, must rely on the procedure measurements as an indicator of the
quality of service they have received.
1.5. Customer Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction refers to a judgment of customers about the products or service that the company
provided with a pleasurable level of customers based on fulfillment response (Pollack, 2009). Oliver (1992)
conceptualized that customer satisfaction is the preliminary step of evaluation in a customers decision and
emotional response to the overall product or service experience. Increasing customer satisfaction leads to
enhance the profits. Customer satisfaction is considered as a primary condition for customer loyalty that is an
important thing for increasing profits. The future trend in building marketing is to expand customer relationships
and marketer has become increasingly interested in keeping customers over the long run. Bolton (1998), Rust
and Zahorik (1993) and Zeithaml et.al (1996) suggested that customer satisfaction is a key decision of customer
holdings. By satisfying customers needs, companies can get up to 40 percent more of return customers
1.6. Word Of Mouth

Word of mouth refers to people talking about service or products based on their experiences to their
families, friends, co-workers, and others, which may influence the customer to repurchase. A measurement scale
for WOM has yet to be systematically developed and empirically validated (see J. Anderson and Gerbing 1988;
Churchill 1979). WOM may be defined as informal, person-to-person communication between a perceived
noncommercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization, or a service (E.
Anderson 1998; Arndt 1968; Buttle 1998). Following Churchill's (1979) recommendations for developing
marketing measures, once a construct is defined, the next step is to generate a set of items that capture the
domain of the construct (Churchill 1979). On the basis of the literature review, aspects of WOM appear to
include several aspects. One aspect is enthusiasm, which includes frequency (how often the individual engages
in WOM) and the number of contacts (E. Anderson 1998; Brown and Reingen 1987; Reingen and Kernan 1986)
Author Artwork.
Based on the previous studies, there are many different factors that lead to customer satisfaction and
word of mouth. However, the researcher applied three variables of service quality (interaction quality, physical
environment quality, and outcome quality) and another tow variables to the study (customer satisfaction and
word of mouth).
H1: There is no significant difference in service quality in terms of interaction quality between Thai
customers and Cambodian customers.
H2: There is a significant difference in service quality in terms of physical environment quality
between Thai customers and Cambodian customers.
H3: There is no significant difference in service quality in terms of outcome quality between Thai
customers and Cambodian customers.
H4: There is a significant difference in customer satisfaction between Thai customers and Cambodian
customers.
H5: There is a significant difference in word of mouth between Thai customers and Cambodian
customers.
H6: Service quality interms of interaction quality, physical environment quality, outcome quality do
not influence customer satisfaction of Cambodian customers.
BMIC 2015| page181

H7: Service quality in terms of interaction quality, physical environment quality, outcome quality do
not influence customer satisfaction of Thai customer.
H8: There is no significant relationship between customer satisfaction and word of mouth for Thai
customers.
H9: There is no significantrelationship between customer satisfaction and word of mouth for
Cambodian customers.
not influence word of mouth of Thai customers.
not influence word of mouth of Cambodian customers
3. Methodology
Descriptive research method was used in this study. Zikmund (2003) stated that descriptive stated that
descriptive research methodology is used to describe the answers to quantitative analysis that requires a
specification of who, what, when, where, and how questions. This method is one of the basic methods for a
researcher to obtain quantitative data. Descriptive research also can be use to estimate the proportion of the
respondents who behave in a certain way (Churchill, 1999)
BMIC 2015| page182

The purpose of this study is to compare the service quality, customer satisfaction and word of mouth
between Thai customer and Cambodian customers towards the True coffee shops. 400 questionnaires were
distributed and administered to the target population that divided into two groups, which are Thai customers 200
and Cambodian customers 200 who have had experience with True coffee shops in Thailand and Cambodia.
4. Results
The primary objective of this study was comparing between two nationalities service quality, customer
satisfaction and word of mouth towards True coffee shops in Thailand and Cambodia. The researcher collected
data from 400 respondents, which comprised 200 Thai respondents and 200 Cambodian respondents. Indicated
that a majority of respondents were females (64.5%) and most of them are aged from 21-30 years old with an
education level of a Master Degree and occupation in as private company employees. The income levels are
from 15.001 baht to 30.000 baht. The Cambodian demographic characteristics revealed that the highest
percentage of gender was males (58%) and most of the respondents were aged from 21
Table 1. The Summary of Demographic Factors
Consumer
Characteristics
Majority in Percentage
Thai Customers
64.5%
Cambodian Customers
Gender
Female
Male
58%
Age
21-30 years old
21-30 years old
Education
Master Degree
Bachelor degree
Occupation
Private company
Private company employee
Income levels
employee
$401-$900
15.001-30.000 baht
Table 2: Summary of Group I from Hypothesis Testing by Independent T-Test

Null Hypothesis
H1o: There is no significant different in service quality in terms of interaction

quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers.
Statistical
Level of
Treatment
Significance
Independent TTest
H2o: There is no significant difference in service quality in terms of physical
Independent T-
environment quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers.
Test
H3o: There is no significant difference in service quality in terms of outcome

quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers
H4o: There is no significant difference in customer satisfaction between Thai
customers and Cambodian customers
0.312
Independent T-
Failed to
reject Ho
0.002
Rejected Ho
0.077
Failed to
Test
Independent T-
Results
reject Ho
0.000
Rejected Ho
0.000
Rejected Ho
Test
H5o: There is no significant different in word of mouth between Thai customers

and Cambodian customers.
Independent TTest
BMIC 2015| page183

Table 3 Summary of Group II from Hypothesis Testing by Pearson Correlation
Null Hypothesis
Statistical
Treatment
Level of
Significance
Beta Coefficient
Values
Results
H8o: There is no
significant
relationship between
customer satisfaction
and word of mouth
of Thai customers
Pearson
Correlation
0.000
0.654
Rejected Ho
H9o: There is no
significant
relationship between
and word of mouth
of Cambodian
customers.
Pearson
Correlation
0.000
0.654
Rejected H0
Table 4 Summary of Group III from Hypothesis Testing by Multiple Regression

Null Hypothesis
H6o: Service quality in terms of
Statistical
Level of
Beta Coefficient
Results
Treatment
Significance
Values
0.448
-.076
Failed Ho
0.012
-.217
Rejected Ho
0.000
.865
Rejected Ho
0.032
.202
0.003
.326
0.038
.243
0.399
-.136
Failed Ho
0.028
-.301
Rejected Ho
0.000
1.015
Rejected Ho
Multiple
Regression
Interaction quality
Physical environment quality
Outcome quality
Are not influence on customer satisfaction of
Cambodian customers
Multiple
Regression
Interaction quality
Outcome quality
Are not influence on customer satisfaction of
Rejected Ho
Thai customers
Multiple
Regression
Interaction quality
Outcome quality
Are not influence on word of mouth of Thai
customers
BMIC 2015| page184

Multiple
Regression
Interaction quality
0.002
.232
0.002
.266
0.000
.578

Outcome quality
Are not influence on word of mouth of
Rejected Ho
Cambodian customers
Based on Hypothesis 1, the result indicates that the significant of service quality in terms of interaction
quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers are no different. Thai and Cambodian customers
perceived the same quality of interaction with the True coffees staff; they trust the employees at the same level.
Both nationalities believe that the attitudes of the True coffees staff are the same and the staff also responds
quickly to the needs of the customers in the same way. Based on Table 6.2 the total average mean of interaction
quality of Thai customers was 3.55 and Cambodian customers were 3.48. Even though, the result seems to be
good, in order to improve and sustain the business, the True coffee shops should keep improving the interaction
quality and the researcher would like to recommend to the True coffee shops in Bangkok, Thailand and in
Phnom Penh, Cambodia to focus more on the human resource management by providing training courses to the
staff of the True coffee shops for product improvement and for attitude towards customers. Train staff of the
True coffee shops in effective customer service techniques, by using the care concept which includes such
simple steps such as looking customers in the eye and smiling at them with greeting them promptly, as well as
measures such as anticipating their needs they should organize the event in order to build the relationship
between staff and the management team, to fill in the blanks between staffs and manger in order to respond
quickly and provide the right service to customers. True coffee shops should recruit the right people and put in
the right job by looking and hiring people that have a passion and really have a service mind. Once the staff is
happy to work then they will provide better interaction quality with the customers.
Based on Hypothesis 2, the result indicates that the significant of service quality in terms of physical
environment quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers are different. Based on the discussion
shows that in order to improve the physical environment quality of the True coffee shops in Cambodia, the
researcher recommends to the True coffee shop in Cambodia to improve the environment inside the shops, based
on the majority of respondents is the aged from 21 to 30 years old. The majority of this age is looking for a place
to sit not only for the coffee but they would like to use the facilities of the shop for their own personal lifestyle.
In the meantime, the parking lot is very important for customers, True coffee shop in Cambodian should consider
a location that provides a place for parking for customers. As in both countries Thailand and Cambodian, there
are many coffee shops growing day by day, which they are focus on the design to get more attention from the
customers. Only focusing on the products and services is not enough to support the needs of the customers with
this age group. In addition, the environment quality, the shops layout also is one of the main important to
approach the customers is the trend of the social media, if the True coffee shops focus on this; True coffee shops
will get more customers. Moreover, the researcher would suggest to the True coffee shops in Thailand and
Cambodia to corporate with universities, which are experts in interior design and organize the program for the
students to show their talents by designing the new layout which serves the needs of the coffee lovers and the
needs of the environment that the customers need for the next branch. By doing this the True coffee shops also
get to promote the brand of True Coffee throughout the universities as well. Most of the respondents are also
universities students.
Based on hypothesis 3, the result indicates that the significant of service quality in terms of outcome
quality between Thai customers and Cambodian customers are no different. Thai and Cambodian customers have
the same experiences with the True coffee shops. The feeling, the waiting, the products that the True coffee
shops offered to Thai customers and Cambodian customers are the same based on the Table 6.4 the total average
means of the outcome quality of Thai customers were 3.54 while the Cambodian customers were 3.42. The
outcome quality must rely on the procedure measurements as an indicator of the quality of service they have
BMIC 2015| page185

received. In order to improve and maintain the outcome quality the researcher recommends to the True coffee
shop in Thailand and Cambodia to improve the quality of the shops such as the overall of what the True coffee
shops provided to the customers, manage the waiting time, keep innovative by always trying to add new menus
and make them different from other coffee shops. They must keep improving the quality of the products such as
coffee and bakery. Timing is also an aspect of customer care. Serve drinks and bakery promptly; minimize the
waiting time. Not only talk with the customers but also give an opportunity to customers to provide feedback
(listen to the customers). Therefore, try to implement policy to improve the service based on specific customer
comments.
Based on Hypothesis 4, the result indicates that there is a significant difference in customer satisfaction
between Thai and Cambodian customers. Padma et al., (2009) the customer satisfaction depends on the
competence of the provider to converge customers needs, and no matter how good the services are the
customers will persistently expect better service. In order to gain more customer satisfaction for both
nationalities, for Thai customers, the researcher would like to recommend to the True coffee shops in Thailand to
improve their service quality, by always to getting feedback from Thai customers and observing the customer
behaviour every time that the customers visit the shop. Provide the best service as much as possible in order to
keep the customer satisfied. Introduce the promotions as well as introduce new menus or recommend to the
customers as fast as possible. As in Thailand there are many branches of True coffee shops, which can generate
more of customer satisfaction of Thai customers more than Cambodian customers. For Cambodian customers,
the first thing that the researcher would like to recommend is that based in Cambodia, it is a standalone shop,
there is an opportunity for True telecommunication to expand business to Cambodia or the True coffee shop in
Cambodia should cooperate with any Cambodian local telecommunication service in order get links to the True
coffee shops. Also the True coffee shops in Cambodia should consider expanding more branches in order to gain
more attention and more convenience for Cambodian customers to find, provide the best service as much as
possible to the Cambodian customers based on Cambodian customers who are not really familiar with the True
coffee brand. In order to gain a higher level of customer satisfaction, they need to get feedback to encourage the
customers to give their feedback and to share their opinions about their experience while using this service. This
will help the True coffee shops of both countries to improve and develop service to serve the customers needs.
The study results can help the True coffee shop to improve in the areas where it is lacking. It can improve by
motivating its employees so that the rest of the customers also could feel maximum satisfaction.
Based on Hypothesis 5, the result indicates that there is a significant difference in word of mouth
between Thai customers and Cambodian customers. This doesnt necessarily mean from the shop critics and the
usual media channels, but also from word of mouth via the people that matter to the customers. In order to
increase the word of mouth for both nationalities, the researcher would like recommend to the True coffee shops
in Thailand to provide some special privileges such as sending birthday vouchers on customers birthdays to
reward them, which can motivate them to have a good value perception and also create a positive WOM (word
of mouth) This means they will talk about the True coffee. Try to control from all the mass media because in
Thailand there are many branches of the True coffee shops, which can be difficult to follow up with the post
from the customers through their own social media. The researcher would like to recommend the True coffee
shop in Cambodia, to focus on the social media by responding quickly to questions and set up promotions more
often such as buy one get one for free, in order to create more word of mouth. Invite Cambodian celebrities to
experience the True coffee shop in order to create an image for the shop. Have a unique selling point that sets
them apart from other coffee shops. By having promotions and events, nothing brings a smile to customers more
than the opportunity to save some money when they buy drinks. The more positive word of mouth from satisfied
customers, the more customers will purchase the products or use the service of the True coffee shops, while
negative word of mouth from dissatisfied customers can affect the number of purchases or use of services of the
True coffee shops
Based on the Hypothesis 8, the result indicates that there is a significant relationship between customer
satisfaction and word of mouth of Thai customers. The researcher would like to recommend to the True coffee
shops in Thailand to build more customer satisfaction and order to create positive word of mouth. At any
moment, an unhappy customer can share their opinion through social media and the web that negatively affects
the business. That is why it is even more important than ever to create an excellent experience for the customers
to help develop customer satisfaction. From the results it is quite clear that the True coffee shops in Thailand
should solidify the relationship between customers and the shops such as treat the customers in the right way and
respect the customers.
BMIC 2015| page186

Based on the Hypothesis 9, the result indicates that there is a significant relationship between customer
satisfaction and word of mouth of Cambodian customers the researcher would like to recommend to the True
coffee shops in Cambodia to build more customer satisfaction and order to create the positive word of mouth.
Even though there is a positive relationship between customer satisfaction and word of mouth of Cambodian
customers but from the True coffee shop in Cambodia also have to straighten the relationship with the customers
such as always listen to the customers, hear what the customers are saying, continue to satisfy by offering on
going support and make them feel special
Based on Hypothesis 6, the results indicate that service quality in terms of interaction quality; physical
environment quality and outcome quality are influence on customer satisfaction of Thai customers. Based on
Table 5.27 show that interaction quality and physical environment are negative, the researcher would
recommend to the True coffee shops in Thailand to improve based on the results from the regression coefficient
at standardized coefficients the beta (B) of interaction quality is equal to -.076, meaning that the Thai customers
are not happy with the interaction quality of the True coffee shop, the researcher would recommend to improve
the quality of interaction between customers and the True coffees staffs such as try to remember the loyal
customers name by calling their name with a greeting and willing to recommend new menus and promotions to
the customers before the customers ask meaning more friendliness and respond quick to the customers. Also the
True coffee shops in Thailand should spend more for their staff such as salary, benefits and training costs to
ensure the staff could provide a better service to the customers. Using a standardized process to make the
operation flow and more speed. The beta (B) of physical environment quality is equal to -.217 meaning that the
Thai customers also not satisfied with the physical environment quality of the True coffee shop, the researcher
would like to recommend improving the store to be more modern looking in terms of layout and visuals to make
it more appealing. And the beta (B) of outcome quality is equal to .865 and the constant equal 1.657.Hernon
(2001) argues that satisfaction and service quality provide a conceptual framework that should prove useful in
understanding, thinking, and talking about the service quality and customer satisfaction, what they are, how they
are shaped and how a subject can involve both internal, controllable forces and external, uncontrollable factors.
Based the Hypothesis 7, the results indicates that service quality in terms of interaction quality, physical
environment quality and outcome quality are influence on customer satisfaction of Cambodian customers. From
the regression coefficient at standardized coefficients the beta (B) of interaction quality is equal to .202. The beta
(B) of physical environment quality is equal to .326; the beta (B) of outcome quality is equal to .243 and the
constant equal .711, meaning that the level of satisfied of Cambodian customers are not that high, the researcher
sees that there is an opportunity for expending the True telecommunication to Cambodia market, as there is the
positive connection between True telecommunication and the True coffee shops. Also recommend to the True
coffee shop Cambodia, if the True coffee would like to gain more customer satisfaction then they should
improve more the service quality of all dimensions such as interaction quality with Cambodian customers,
physical environment quality and outcome quality in order to gain more customer satisfaction.
Based on Hypothesis 10, the result indicates that service quality in terms of interaction quality; physical
environment quality and outcome quality are influence on word of mouth of Thai customers. From the regression
coefficient at standardized coefficients the beta (B) of interaction quality is equal to -.136. The beta (B) of
physical environment quality is equal to -.301; the result show negative, the researcher would like to recommend
to the True coffee shops in Thailand to focus and improving the interaction quality and physical environment
quality as mentioned in the hypothesis 6 in order to create positive word of mouth, in Thailand there are many
premium coffee shops that can provide a better interaction quality and physical environment to Thai customers
than the True coffee shops meaning that the customers have many choices. But the beta (B) of outcome quality is
equal to 1.015 and the constant equal 1.620. The researcher would like to recommend to the True coffee shops in
Thailand to maintain the outcome quality based on the level of the outcome quality is really good; it can be that
even though there are many choices for Thai customers but because of the True telecommunications it makes the
outcome quality positive.
Based on Hypothesis 11, the result indicates that service quality in terms of interaction quality;
physical environment quality and outcome quality are influence on word of mouth of Cambodian customers,
from the regression coefficient at standardized coefficients the beta (B) of interaction quality is equal to .232.
The beta (B) of physical environment quality is equal to .266; the beta (B) of outcome quality is equal to .578
and the constant equal to -.311. In order to gain more positive word of mouth, the researcher would like to
recommend to the True coffee shops in Cambodia to improve more on the service quality in order to get the
positive word of mouth and reconsider about expanding the True telecommunication to Cambodia or cooperate
BMIC 2015| page187

with any Cambodia local telecommunication in order to have links between the True coffee and
telecommunication that can create more positive word of mouth
6. Further Study
Consider studying about the comparison between the True coffee shops with other coffee shops such as
the Starbuck in Thailand, and the Brown coffee shops, which is one of the famous local coffee shops in
Cambodia, in order to know the strengths and weaknesses of the True coffee shop. Additionally, the further
research should collect data that involve more stores Moreover, extending this research on other food and
beverage businesses and so on. In this study focus on Thai customers and Cambodian customers for further
research can examine other nationalities in which animosity might play a role in customer satisfaction and word
of mouth.
References
Aderson, E. W., & Sullivan, M., (1993). The Antecedents and Consequences of Customer Satisfaction
for firms.Marketing Science, 12, 125-143
Babin, B.J. & Griffin, M., (1998). The Nature of Satisfaction: An updated examination and analysis.
Journal of Business Research, 41, 127-136
Baker, Julie (1986), The Role of the Environment in Marketing Services: The Consumer Perspective,
American Marketing Association 79-84.
Bolton, R. N., & Drew, J. H. (1991). A longitudinal analysis of the impact of service change on customer
attitude.Journal of Marketing, 55, 1-9.
Brady, M. K., & Cronin, J. J. Jr (2001), Some New Thoughts on Conceptualizing Perceived Service
Quality:
A Hierarchical Approach.Journal of Marketing, 65(3), 34-49
Cronin, J. J. Jr., & Taylor, S. A. (1992). Measuring service quality: a reexamination and extension.
Journal of Marketing, 56(3), 55-68.
Chaniotakis, I. E., and Lymperopoulos, c. (2009).Service quality effect on satisfaction and word of
mouth in
the health care industry.An International Journal, 19(2),229-242.
Churchill,G., (1979), A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal
Marketing Research, 16(February), 64-73.
of
Gronroos, C. (1982). Strategic Management and Marketing in the Service Sector. Swedish School of
Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki
Hsieh, Y. C., Hiang, S. T. (2004), A study of the impacts of service quality on relationship quality in
searchexperience credence service, Total Quality Management, 15(1), 43-58
Mansor, M. I., Nurul-Shafikah, M. N., Khairun, Y. &Siti-Azizah, M.N. (2012), Reproductive biology of
estuarine catfish, Arius argyropleuron (Siluriformes: Ariidae) in the northen part of Peninsular Malaysia,
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 2(3), 14-27
Oliver, R. L. (1993). A conceptual model of service quality and service satisfaction:compatible goals,
different concepts in Swartz, T.A., Bowen, D.E. and Brown, S. W. (Eds).Advances in Service Marketing
and Management: Research and Practice, 2nded., JAI Press Inc, Greenwich, CT, 65-85
Padma, P., Rajendran C., &Prakash, S.L. (2009). A conceptual framework of service quality in
healthcare:
BMIC 2015| page188

perspectives of Indian patients and their attendants.Benchmarking: An International Journal, 16(2), 157191
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A., & Leonard, L.B. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple item scale for
measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12-40
Pollack, B., L. (2009). Linking the hierarchical service quality model to customer satisfaction and
loyalty.
Journal of services marketing, 23(1), 42-50.
Rust, R. T., &Zahorik, A. J. (1993). Customer satisfaction, customer retention, and market share, J.
Retail.
Summer, 69, 193-215
Sivadas, E., & Prewitt, J. L. B. (2000). An examination of the relationship between service quality,
customer
satisfaction, and store loyalty .International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 9(1), 7-23
BMIC 2015| page189

A study of Factors Affecting Customer loyalty towards XYZ steak restaurant at

ABAC Huamark branch, Bangkok, Thailand
Ying wang
Abstract
This research is studied about the factors that affecting customer loyalty, such as service quality
dimensions, customer satisfaction, and customer perceived value towards Jeffer Steak restaurant in the ABAC
HuaMark branch. The research was conducted in Bangkok, Thailand. The data were acquired from 400
respondent questionnaires and analysed by using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Pearsons
correlation coefficient and partial correlation coefficient were applied to test the five hypotheses. From the
results, the researcher found that Jeffer steak restaurant has a strong positive relationship between customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty. At the same time, service quality significant influence customer satisfaction
and customer perceived value. Many empirical researchers supported the findings.
Customer loyalty; customer satisfaction; perceived value; service quality; restaurant industry
1. Introduction
Nowadays more and more people are too lazy to cook at home, but dine out (Unilever Food Solution,
2011). Even though there is a large demand in the restaurant industry, competition in the restaurant industry is
still very high. Customer loyalty has become the top important factor for companies that aim to maintain or
expand the in market share and profitability (Jacoby and Kyner, 1973). Several researchers mention that to
maintain existing customers will be more effective and efficient than attracting new customers (Kotler, 2003)
because the costs of attracting new customers is not cheap. The aim of those studies is useful for service
providers because service quality and customer satisfaction will lead to repeat purchase and positive word of
mouth, which will bring more new customers and maintain existing customers. Perceived value is the
customers overall assessment of the quality of a product or service based on the comparison of what is given
and what is received. In this study, the researchers will explores the various factors that affect customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty in Jeffer restaurant. The target population of this study is both Thai and foreign
customers, both males and females who have been to Jeffer restaurant in ABAC HuaMark branch. First of all,
Jeffer is a very popular local steakhouse restaurant specializing in beef and steak dishes that have nearly 80
branches nationwide. It aims to provide fresh and delicious food to customers along with a comfortable and
relaxing atmosphere. Second, since Jeffer was established in 2010, Jeffer has quickly established itself as a
leader among teenagers and young adults with quality Western style meals at an affordable price. Third, a new
strategy is an integrated Lifestyle& Entertainment restaurant.
2. Research objective
The purpose of this study is to know how service quality, perceived value, and customer satisfaction
influences customer loyalty. The objectives of this study are as follows:
First point examines the factors on service quality dimensions influence consumers perceived value
towards Jeffer restaurant.
BMIC 2015| page190

Second point examines the factors on under service quality dimensions influence customer
satisfaction with Jeffer restaurant.
Third point examines the service quality dimensions influencing consumer loyalty with Jeffer
restaurant.
Forth point study the perceived value influencing customer satisfaction in Jeffer restaurant.
Fifth point examines the perceived value and customer satisfaction influence on consumer loyalty
with Jeffer restaurant.
3.1 Service quality dimensions

Zeithaml et al. (1988) stated that service quality is customers overall evaluation about service
performance. Similarly, Parasuranman et al. (1998) stated that service quality is customers attitude toward the
performance of the total excellence or superiority service of a product.
3.1.1 Interaction quality
Yan (2000) defined interaction quality as the relationship between the restaurant and customer and the
increased interactivity between restaurant and customers can enhance the customized products and services to
fulfil customers individual specific demands. According to Bitner et al. (1992), the employees interpersonal
skills of a restaurant can also impact customer satisfaction too.
3.1.2 Food quality
Food quality includes many aspects such as menu variety, color, size, shape, consistency, safety,
freshness, nutrition, and aroma, etc. both cooked food at home and cooked food in the restaurant, food safety is
very important, especially in a restaurant because it can affect many people. Cronin et al. (2000) stated that food
safety in the restaurant industry is very important.
3.1.3 Facility quality
Nguyen and Leblanc (2002) defined facility quality as the environment and atmosphere of the
restaurant that has a significantly positive impact for new customers perceived value and customers revisit
intentions. Good facility management can play an important role to help the manager increased the efficiency
and reduced costs.
3.1.4 Product quality
Product knowledge is an important position among consumer behavior. So, it is important to study this
variable in this research. According to Bolton and Drew (1991), product knowledge consists of perceived
knowledge, objective knowledge, and experience-based knowledge.
3.2 Customer perceived value

Swaddling and Miller (2002) defined customer perceived value is previous judgment before they think
about all the benefits and all the costs of a restaurant. Miller (2003) said that customer perceived value could
provide more detailed information for companies to improve their ability to make better and reduce the
uncertainty of business rather than customer satisfaction. Also, Zeithaml et al. (1988) stated that customer
perceived value as customers overall evolution of the product or service compared to perceptions of what is
received and what is given.
3.3 Customer satisfaction

It is customers fulfillment response like an evaluation based on emotional response to a product or
service (Rust and Oliver, 1994). Its a sign of customers favorable attitude for a product or service. Oliver
(1980) stated that customer satisfaction is a result that after the prior feeling about the consumption experience,
BMIC 2015| page191

whether the result is satisfied or not. Similarly, Oliver (1997) stated customer satisfaction is responses that occur
after they experience a product or service.
3.4 Customer loyalty

Dabholkar et al. (1996) defined customer loyalty as positive word of mouth and repurchase intention
that customer is willing to recommend the product/service to others and willing to repurchase in the future.
Jacoby and Kyner (1973) stated the customer loyalty both as a behavioral approach and an attitudinal approach.
Westbrook (1987) defined that the willingness to recommend to others will include the experience, usage, or
characteristics of the product or service.
4. Related literature review
4.1 The relationship between service quality dimensions and perceived value
Zeithaml (1988) stated that service quality is a predictor of customer perceived value. Raza et al. (2012)
emphasized that the relationship between service quality, perceived value, and satisfaction in the restaurant
industry is positive. Chow et al., (2007) studied the relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction,
and perceived value of full-service restaurants. They found that interaction quality, physical quality, and
outcome quality are the main factors that influence service quality.
4.2 The relationship between service quality dimensions and customer satisfaction
Service quality is a key antecedent and an important factor that impacts on customer satisfaction in
many literatures. Lockyer and Tsais (2004) studied another measurement with a slightly different approach,
which is categorized into four dimensions: interaction quality, facility quality, food quality, and product
knowledge. In addition, Hofstede (1991) found that females focus on interpersonal relationships with service
providers more than males.
4.3 The relationship between service quality dimensions and customer loyalty
Dulen (1999) stated that menu variety, the restaurant layout, and food quality are the key factors
influencing repurchase intention and positive word-of mouth. Moreover, in order to improve customer loyalty by
improving customer repurchases intention, Soriano (2002) suggests increasing the variety of food such as
different tastes or different styles can be a good way. For Dulen (1999), the first concern of customer is
cleanliness followed by service. Dube et al., (1994) also stated that consistent food taste, atmosphere, an
efficient employee, and food variety are the major factors influence revisit intention and customer loyalty.
4.4 The relationship between perceived value and customer satisfaction

Several researchers have stated that customer perceived value has been widely accepted to be a reliable
predictor for the impacts of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty, which leads to repurchase intention and
positive word-of-mouth (Chiou, 2004; McDougall and Levesque, 2000). According to Andreassen and
Lindestad (1998), customer perceived value has a positive relationship with customer satisfaction within the
service industry. Even in the new trend Internet service industry, customer perceived value still be the important
factor to influence customer satisfaction (Chiou, 2004).
4.5 The relationship between perceived value, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty
Numerous studies confirm the positive and direct relationship between customer satisfaction and
customer loyalty (Han and Ryu, 2009; Kim et al., 2009; Kivela et al., 1999; Namkung and Jang, 2007; Oliver,
1999; Ryu et al., 2010; Ryu and Han, 2011). Kivela et al. (1999) mention that dining satisfaction significantly
BMIC 2015| page192

influenced post-dining behavioral intentions and customer loyalty toward the company. Moreover, for the midto-upscale restaurants, Namkung and Jang (2007) stated that there is a positive relationship between customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty.
5. Conceptual framework
6. Research hypotheses
H1o: Service quality in terms of interaction quality, food quality, facility quality, and product
knowledge are not influence on perceived value.
H1a: Service quality in terms of interaction quality, food quality, facility quality, and product
knowledge are influence on perceived value.
knowledge are not influence on customer satisfaction.
knowledge are influence on customer satisfaction.
knowledge are not influence on customer loyalty.
knowledge are influence on customer loyalty.
H4o: Perceived value is not influence on customer satisfaction.
H4a: Perceived value is influence on customer satisfaction.
H5o: Perceived value and customer satisfaction are not influence on customer loyalty.
H5a: Perceived value and customer satisfaction are influence on customer loyalty.
BMIC 2015| page193

7. Methodology
In this study, the researcher has applied the most suitable approach, which is descriptive research for
this study. Churchill (1999) stated that descriptive research is used to evaluate a group of people in a specific
population who behave in a certain way. Zikmund (2003) also mentioned that descriptive research is necessary
to define market segmentations, which explains the characteristics of a population and also defines who, what,
when, and how questions. Zikmund (2003) stated that in order to check how strongly they agree or disagree with
the constructed statement that range from a very negative attitude to very positive attitude, the five-point Likert
scale is a good choice. Hair (2000) also stated that five-point Likert scale is a cognitive-based scale measurement
that asks respondents to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of statement about a
specific object.
8. Data collection
Zikmund (2009) defined behavioural observations; interviews and survey questionnaire are methods
that we used to collect data. This study used both primary and secondary data to collect the data. Churchill
(1999) stated that the primary data is the data gathered and assembled specifically for the specific research
project. The researcher distributed the questionnaire to Jeffer restaurants customer in ABAC Hua Mark campus
branch, who are available to answer the questions to find out the impacting factors of Jeffer customer loyalty.
Zikmund (2003) also mentioned that a distribution questionnaire is a survey technique that is the most widely
accepted for collecting data in business research because it provides a quick, inexpensive, efficient and accurate
means of assessing information about a population. The 400 questionnaires were used for collecting information
from a sample of the target population who are male or female, who are convenient to answers the
questionnaires from June 15 July 31, 2015.
9. Findings
Table 1: Summary of Hypothesis testing results
Null hypothesis description
Beta Coefficient
Significance
H10: Service quality dimensions are not
Results
Reject
influence on perceived value

-Interaction quality
.381
.000
-Food quality
.022
.000
-Facility quality
.183
.647
-Product knowledge
.310
.000
H2o: Service quality dimensions are not
Reject
influence on customer satisfaction

.381
.000
-Food quality
.396
.000
-Facility quality
.196
.000
-Product knowledge
.321
.000
H3o: Service quality dimensions are not
Reject
Influence on customer loyalty
BMIC 2015| page194

.544
.000
-Food quality
.174
.003
-Facility quality
.388
.000
-Product knowledge
.366
.000
H4o: Perceived value is not influence on
.955
.000
Reject
H5o: Perceived value and customer
Reject
satisfaction are not influence on customer

loyalty
-Perceived value
.142
.016
-Customer satisfaction
.888
.000
10. Discussion
Based on the hypothesis testing results, service quality dimension had the positive influences on
customer perceived value, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty. Moreover, those variables influenced
each other also. Since the significant value is less than 0.05, all null hypotheses are rejected. The details are as
follows:
Based on hypothesis 1 to 3, interaction quality has the highest beta value at .544, which means that
interaction quality is the strongest factor under service quality to influence customer perceived value. And food
quality has the highest beta value .396, which means that food quality is the strongest factor under service
quality to influence customer satisfaction.
Based on hypothesis 4, the researcher can find that customer perceived value has a very high beta .955,
which means that customer perceived value very strongly influences customer satisfaction.
Based on hypothesis 5, customer satisfaction has the higher beta value of .888, which means that
customer satisfaction is the stronger factor to influence customer loyalty at Jeffer restaurant ABAC branch.
11. Recommendation
According to hypothesis H1 to H3, interaction quality has the highest beta coefficient with .381, which
influences customer perceived value. Therefore, Jeffer Steak Restaurant should know that interaction quality is
the most important factor that they should focus on and improve it in order to improve customer perceived value.
The researcher would like to suggest that Jeffer restaurant should train their employees to improve their
personnel service skills in order to build a strong relationship between customers and the restaurant. Such as
training employees provide prompt and quick service with passion, training employees knows very well about
the dishes on the menu, and training employees have a good communication skill. Jeffer manager also should
use better food quality control system to make sure the food is always fresh and consistent in taste. Bitner et al.
(1985) also stated that the interpersonal communication between employees and customers has the greatest
effect on the perception of service quality.
According to hypothesis H4, customer perceived value has the beta coefficient of .955 that strongly
influences customer satisfaction. The researcher would like to suggest that the manager could do advertising on
popular food websites, on social media, or in magazines to expand the brand image and brand awareness, create
a more attractive interior and exterior looking, and manager should try to maintain the high quality employees.
BMIC 2015| page195

According to hypothesis H5, customer satisfaction has the higher beta coefficient with .888, which
influences customer loyalty. The researcher would like to suggest that Jeffer restaurant should improve their
customer satisfaction by better and consistent food quality, better and consistent trained personnel service skills,
and more attractive design. Such as get feedback from customer directly, or using the rewarding program to pull
the customer loyalty into a higher level. Burton et al. (2003) also stated that there is a strong relationship
between customer satisfaction and behavioural intention. Customer satisfaction can lead to customer loyalty and
positive word of month.
12. Further study
In order to provide some development based on this research, the researcher would like to give some
suggestions for other researchers who want to study customer loyalty in the restaurant industry.
First of all, the researcher would like to add more independent variables that may influence customer
loyalty, such as price, brand image etc.
Second, the researcher can study more branches in Bangkok or other restaurants in any country. On the
other hand, the researcher can choose a specified nationality to study their consumer behaviour towards the
restaurant industry.
Third, the researcher can apply different theories, such as studying customer satisfaction or brand
reputation.
Acknowledgements
This individual research was completed with assistance and cooperation of many contributors. I would
like to avail this opportunity to express gratitude to all the people who sacrificed their precious time to provide
information and offer support for the completion of the research.
First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge deep indebtedness to my individual research advisor,
Assistant Professor Dr. Sirion Chaipoopirutana, for her generous guidance, insightful, statistical skill and
valuable suggestions, constructive criticism as well as consistent support and encouragement throughout the
individual research writing process. I have learned much from her and will be forever thankful for her
friendship.
I would like to express my gratitude to my grammar editor, Adrian Brian Terrell, for his great supports,
advice, guidance and helps. My special thanks are also extended to my friends who gave constant
encouragement and support during my individual research composing process with no hesitation.
Last but not least, my appreciation goes on my parents. I would like thanks for their love,
understanding, warmth, encouragement and inspiration to let me study abroad. Without their support, this
individual research would have never been accomplished.
Above all, my deepest thanks go to Jesus Christ for all the incredible blessing you have always given
me through my whole life and especially during these years. Thank you for providing the opportunity to meet
the nice and professional persons that had encouraged me all times when I need advices.
BMIC 2015| page196

References
Andreassen, T.W. and Lindestad, B. (1998), Customer loyalty and complex services: the impact of corporate
image on quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty for customers with varying degrees of service
expertise, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 7-23.
Bitner, M.J. (1992), Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees, Journal
of Marketing, Vol. 56, pp. 57-71.
Bolton, R.N. and Drew, J.H. (1991), A multistage model of customers assessments of service quality and
value, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 17, pp. 375-84.
Cronin, J.J., Brady, M.K. and Hult, G.T.M. (2000), Assessing the effects of quality, value, and customer
satisfaction on consumer behavioural intentions in service environments, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 76
No. 2, pp. 193-218.
Chow, I.H., Lau, V.P., Lo, T.Y., Sha, Z. and Yun, H. (2007), Service quality in restaurant operations in China:
decision- and experiential-oriented perspectives, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 698-710.
Chiou, J.S. (2004), The antecedents of consumers loyalty toward internet service providers, Information and
Management, Vol. 41 No. 6, pp. 685-95.
Churchill, G. (1999). Marketing Research : Methodological Foundations (6 th edition). Cengage Learning.
Dabholkar, P.A., Thorpe, D.I. and Rentz, J.O. (1996), A measure of service quality for retail stores: scale
development and validation, Journal of Academic Marketing Science, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 3-16.
Dulen (1999). Consumer survey on restaurant food quality. The Journal of Restaurant & Institution, 109(5),
pp38-41.
Dube, L., Renaghan, L.M., & Miller, J.M.(1994). Measuring customer satisfaction for strategic management.
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35, pp. 39-47.
Unilever Food Solutions (2011), World menu report, available at: www.unileverfoodsolutions.
com/company/media-center/world-menu-report (accessed 2 October, 2012).
Hofstede, G. (1991), Culture and Organizations, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Han, H. and Ryu, K. (2009), The roles of the physical environment, price perception, and customer satisfaction
in determining customer loyalty in the restaurant industry, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Research, Vol. 33 No. 4, pp. 487-510.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. and Anderson, R.E. (2010), Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global
Perspective, Prentice Hall, Upper Sadder River, NJ.
Jacoby, J and Kyner, D.B. (1973). Brand Loyalty Vs. Repest Purchasing Behavior. Journal of Marketing
Research, 10(Feb), 1-9.
Kotler, P. (2003), Marketing Management, 11th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Kim, W.G., Ng, C.Y.N. and Kim, Y.S. (2009), Influence of international DINESERV on customer satisfaction,
return intention, and word-of-mouth, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 No. 1,
pp. 10-17.
Kivela, J., Inbakaran, R. and Reece, J. (1999), Consumer research in the restaurant environment. Part 1: a
conceptual model of dining satisfaction and return patronage, International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, Vol. 11 No. 5, pp. 205-22.
Lockyer, T. and Tsai, M. (2004), Dimensions of Chinese culture values in relation to the hotel dining
experience, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 13-27.
McDougall, G.H.G. and Levesque, T. (2000), Customer satisfaction with services: putting perceived value into
the equation, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 5, pp. 392-410.
BMIC 2015| page197

Nguyen, N. and Leblanc, G. (2002), Contact personnel, physical environment and the perceived corporate
image of intangible services by new clients, International Journal of Service Industry Management,
Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 242-62.
Namkung, Y. and Jang, S. (2007), Does food quality really matter in restaurant? Its impact on customer
satisfaction and behavioral intentions, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp.
387-410.
Oliver, R.L. (1980). A cognitive model of the Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction Decision. Journal
of Marketing Research, 17 (September), 460-469.
Oliver, R. L. (1997). Satisfaction: Abehavioral perspective on the customer. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Parasuraman, A. (1998). Customer service in business-to-business markets: An agenda for Research. Journal of
Business and Industrial Marketing, 13 (4/5), 309-21.
Rust,R., and Oliver,(1994). Customer Satisfaction, Customer Retention, and Market Share. Journal of Retailing,
69(2), 193-215.
Raza, M.A.,Siddiquei, A.N., Awan, H.M., &Bukhari, K. (2012). Relationship between Service quality,
Perceived Value, Satisfaction and Revisit Intention in Hotel Industry. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Contempory Research in Business, 4(8), 788-805.
Ryu, K. and Han, H. (2010), Influence of the quality of food, service, and physical environment on customer
satisfaction in quick-casual restaurants: moderating role of perceived price, Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Research, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 310-29.
Ryu, K. and Han, H. (2011), The influence of physical environments on disconfirmation, customer satisfaction,
and customer loyalty for first-time and repeat customers in upscale restaurants, International Journal
of Hospitality Management, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 599-611.
Swaddling, D.C.& Miller, C. (2002) Dont measure customer satisfaction. Quality progress, 35 (5), 62.
Soeiano, D.R.(2002). Customers Expectations factors in restaurants: The situation in Spain.
Westbrook, R.A. (1987). Product /Consumption-Based Affective Responses and Post-purchase Processes.
Journal of Marketing Research, 24(August),258-270.
Yan, Y. (2000), Of hamburger and social space: consuming McDonalds in Beijing, in Davis, D.S. (Ed.), The
Consumer Revolution in Urban China, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, pp. 201-5.
Zeithaml, V.A. (1988), Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: a means-end model and synthesis of
evidence, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 2-22.
Zikmund, W.G. (2003). Business research methods, (7 th edition). Mason: Thomson South-Weatern.
Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B., Carr, J. & Griffin, M. (2009). Business Research Methods, (8 th edition). Cengage
Learning.
BMIC 2015| page198

The Impact of Trust, Customer Satisfaction, Service Quality and Perceived

Value on Repurchase Intention towards Apple iPhone users in Bangkok,
Thailand.
Vishakha Rai and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
The topic of this research study is The Impact of Trust, Customer Satisfaction, Service Quality and
Perceived Value on Repurchase Intention towards Apple iPhone users in Bangkok, Thailand. In this study, the
researcher has applied the Pearson correlation coefficient and Multiple regression methods to find out the
relationship among the variables: trust, customer satisfaction, service quality, perceived value and repurchase
intention in which the first four variables: trust, customer satisfaction, service quality and perceived value are
the independent variables whereas repurchase intention is the dependent variable. The sample sizes of 400
questionnaires have been distributed by using the 5-point Likert scale method. To analyze the data, the
researcher has applied the statistical software program. The researcher has found that all hypotheses have
moderately positive relationship with the variables.
Keywords: Repurchase Intention Trust Customer Satisfaction Service Quality Perceived Value
1.Introduction
Repurchase Intention is a persons determination of rebuying a product or service and being decided to
enlist in the companys forthcoming services (Hellier et al., 2003; Zeithaml et al., 1996). This study found out
that customer satisfaction is critical in business success and it can affect repurchase intention positively (Fang et
al., 2011). In addition, a research outcomes pointed out that trust has a strong relationship with customer
satisfaction, and repurchase intention is mostly influenced by customer satisfaction (Fang et al., 2011).
According to Hume et al. (2010), the study shows that perceived value can influence customer satisfaction in the
context of performing arts.
This research finds out how trust, defined as the customers acceptance and eagerness for sellers
products and services (Mayer et al., 1995); customer satisfaction, defined as the buyers knowledge of the
products superior value (Kotler et al., 2000); service quality, defined as a person understanding of the service
employees delivered quality (Zeithaml et al., 1988) and perceived value, defined as the customers perception
towards the comparison of what is being gained in relative to what is being paid (Zeithaml et al., 1988);
repurchase intention, which is defined as a buyer intention to repurchase the product repetitively (Fang et al.,
2011) in the context of a mobile and smartphones devices, specifically iPhone from the Apple company. There
are iPhone users switching to other brands or platforms such as Samsung, LG, HTC, Nokia, Windows, etc. Also,
some users from other brands switch to iPhone. So, this research is going to be useful to know the repurchase
intention of iPhone users because a new iPhone model is released every year and other brands are doing this as
well at a faster rate in the mobile phone industry.
1.1 Research Objectives

1. To study the relationship between trust and customer satisfaction.
2. To study the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction.
3. To study the relationship between service quality and perceived value.
BMIC 2015| page199

4. To study if trust has an influence on repurchase intention.
5. To study if customer satisfaction has an influence on repurchase intention
6. To study if service quality has an effect on repurchase intention.
7. To study if perceived value has an influence on repurchase intention.
2.1 Theory
2.1.1 Repurchase Intention:
Repurchase intention is a customers possibility to repeat purchasing a product from the same shop in
the future.
Zeithaml et al. (1996) defined repurchase intention as the willingness to pay cash for products.
Moreover, Hellier (2003) and Zeithaml (1996) defined repurchase intention as a persons determination and
acumen in rebuying a product and luxuriating a service.
2.1.2 Trust:
Trust is specified as the eagerness of one persons accountability towards the other persons conduct
based on the belief that the particular person will carry out the task substantially regardless of the capability of
that person (Mayer, 1995). Therefore, it is considered one of the most specific independent variables along with
others (Gefen, 2003).
Pavlou and Fygenson (2006) defined trust as an individual assumption of a sellers pleasant,
decent and adroit actions.
2.1.3 Customer Satisfaction:
According to Hellier et al., Geursen et al., Carr et al., and Rickard et al., (2003), customer satisfaction
is long-term happiness and gratification followed by the perception of a service and the usage of a product that
score customers inclinations and love.
Kolter (2000) defined satisfaction as the customers gratification perception and contentedness arising
from the contrast of their anticipations and actual results.
2.1.4 Service Quality:
Service quality is a comprehensive knowledge regarding to excellence and supremacy of the service
(Zeithaml and Bitner, 2003). Service quality implies that the opinion of the service offered by the seller meets
the buyers predictions which include the act of effectiveness in answering the questions that buyers ask along
with respecting their privacy (Parasuraman, 2005).
Zeithaml (1988) defined service quality as the overall evaluation of the products performance.
2.1.5 Perceived Value:
Perceived Value is a persons observation and comparison of their prospects and actual gain. Having
better knowledge of buyers assumptions could be beneficial in terms of customer satisfaction and therefore
repurchase intentions (Molinari, Abratt and Dion, 2008). Perceived Value is the crucial outcomes for products
or service promotions. If a product successfully creates a top value in the customers mind, it will be unable to
restrain customers to come forward to reuse the product in the future (Hume, 2008).
2.2 Related Literature Review
2.2.1 Relationship between trust and customer satisfaction
According to previous research, trust has a positive relationship with customer satisfaction (Lin and
Wang, 2006). Trust is also defined as buyer believe that seller treats them ethically and kindly (Pavlou and
BMIC 2015| page200

Fygenson, 2006). Following the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), in order to increase a customers
repurchase intention, favorable feelings from trust and beliefs must be created.
2.2.2 Relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction
Service quality has a positive influence on customer satisfaction (Edward and Sahadev, 2011).
According to Heskett et al., 1997, if a company has a tendency to provide best quality of service at a fair price to
its customers then it also has the power to satisfy those customers. Satisfaction is customer fulfillment and
happiness after using a product and service (Hellier, Geursen, Carr and Rickard, 2003).
2.2.3 Relationship between service quality and perceived value
The measurement of substantial performance and operation of a product with the speculated
performance creates the perceived value of a product and the perceived value of the product positively increases
as the quality of the product increases significantly (Hume and Mort, 2008 and Caruana, 2000). Zeithaml et al.
(1988) suggested that service quality leads to perceived value. Internal core features, external features and prices
were all found to positively contribute to service quality.
2.2.4 Relationship between trust and repurchase intention
Trust plays a major role in developing repurchase intention (Weisberg, 2011, Zboja and
Voorhees, 2006). Fang, Chiu and Wang (2011) found that trust had a positive and essential impact on
repurchase intention. According to a research done by Chie et al. (2009), concluded that trust had a major role to
motivate customers to rebuy the product.
2.2.5 Relationship between customer satisfaction and repurchase intention
Customer satisfaction builds the customers intention to rebuy the product, which is advantageous for
the company in terms of earning a high profit margin (Thurau and Klee, 1997). With repurchase intention,
customers continue to purchase again from a firm and attract more customers via positive word of mouth. Thus,
customer intent on following service encounters, especially with engaging in repurchase and/or positive word of
mouth transmission (Anderson, 1998 and Oliver, 1993).
2.2.6 Relationship between service quality and repurchase intention
Better service quality can inflate the customers buying intentions including repurchase intention
Boulding et al. (1993), Zeithaml et al. (1996), Bloemer et al. (1999), and Keillor et al. (2007). Service quality
has displayed a positive effect on the behavior of repurchase intention of the people in the sports business (Hill
and Green, 2000; Matsuoka, 2003; Trail, 2003; Dale, 2005; Tsuji, 2007; Theodorakis and Alexandris, 2008).
2.2.7 Relationship between perceived value and repurchase intention
According to Hume et al. (2008), perceived value is one of the most significant predictors of
repurchase intention. She further explained that consumers would eventually be attracted towards products in
terms of buying if the product has a high perceived value. Perceived value has a positive impact on repurchase
intention (Lee, Eze and Ndubisi, 2010).
BMIC 2015| page201

3. Conceptual Framework
Trust
H4
H1
Repurchase
Intention
H4
Customer Satisfaction
H4
H2
Service Quality
H4
H3
Perceived Value
3.1 Hypotheses
H10: There is no statistically significant relationship between trust and customer satisfaction.
H1a: There is a statistically significant relationship between trust and customer satisfaction.
H20: There is no statistically significant relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction.
H2a: There is a statistically significant relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction.
H30: There is no statistically significant relationship between service quality and perceived value.
H3a: There is a statistically significant relationship between service quality and perceived value.
H40: Trust, customer satisfaction, service quality and perceived value do not influence repurchase
intention.
H4a: Trust, customer satisfaction, service quality and perceived value influence repurchase intention.
4. Methodology
Descriptive research is a research method in which the researcher focuses on features and aspects of the
people, community and organization (Zikmund, 2010). In this research, the researcher has conducted the study
in the capital city of Thailand, Bangkok. The research has collected the data by distributing 400 questionnaires
in Central World, Siam Paragon, MBK, Terminal 21 and EmQuartier major department stores in the capital city
Bangkok; as the five mentioned shopping malls are the most popular area and shopping destination in the year
2015 for customers in Bangkok, according to a survey administered by BANGKOK.COM
(www.bangkok.com/top10-shopping-malls.htm).
A sampling procedure is a research design in which the researcher draws the consequences by
measuring a group of the population (Zikmund, 2010). In this study, the researcher used the nonprobability
BMIC 2015| page202

sampling; a sampling method to choose the sampling units because of having individual perception or comfort
and accessibility (Zikmund, 2010).
4.1 Data Collection

The primary data is collected directly from iPhone users who are living in Bangkok. Data was collected
from the date June 1, 2015 to August 1, 2015. Questionnaires were used to collect the primary data from 400
respondents. The target population is all the students, working professionals and people in Bangkok between the
age of 18 years old and above, both females and males, who use and have ever experienced Apple iPhone in
their lives.
4.2 Findings
4.2.1 Summary of results from the hypotheses testing
Null Hypothesis Statement
Statistical Test
Correlation
Coefficient
Significance
Results
(2-tailed test)
H10: There is no statistically

significant relationship
between trust and customer
satisfaction.
Pearson Correlation
.595**
.000
Rejected H0

between service quality and
customer satisfaction.
Pearson Correlation
.585**
.000
Rejected H0

between service quality and
perceived value.
Pearson Correlation
.561**
.000
Rejected H0
Multiple Linear
Regression
.000
Rejected H0
H40: Trust, customer

satisfaction, service quality
and perceived value do not
influence repurchase intention.
4.2.2 Summary of results from the hypothesis 4 testing
Hypothesis Statement
Variables
Significance
Results
(2-tailed test)
H40: Trust, customer
satisfaction, service quality and
perceived value do not
influence repurchase intention.
Trust
.047
.538
Failed to be
rejected H0
Customer Satisfaction
.577
.000
Rejected H0
Service Quality
-.040
.555
Failed to be
rejected H0
Perceived Value
.427
.000
Rejected H0
BMIC 2015| page203

5. Discussions
Based on the results of the descriptive analysis of the demographic factors, the researcher found out
that most users are female and purchasers of iPhone in Bangkok who are within the age group of 18-28 years
old and usually single, have a masters degree and an income level of less than 20,000 Baht per month and have
a higher repurchase intention towards iPhone.
Based on the result of hypothesis one, the researcher found out that there is a positive relationship
between trust and customer satisfaction at the 0.01 significance level. At .595**, it shows that there is moderate
relationship between trust and customer satisfaction.
Based on the result from hypothesis two, the researcher found out that there is a positive relationship
between service quality and customer satisfaction at the 0.01 significance level. At .585**, it means that there is
moderate relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction.
Based on the result of hypothesis three, the researcher found out that there is a positive relationship
between service quality and perceived value at the 0.01 significance level. At .561**, it shows that there is
moderate relationship between service quality and perceived value.
Based on the result of hypothesis four, the researcher found out that at least one independent variable
out of trust, customer satisfaction, service quality and perceived value will influence the repurchase intention at
the .05 significant level. At .000 both variables customer satisfaction and perceived value have an influence on
repurchase intention whereas at 0.538 and 0.555, trust and service quality do not have influence on repurchase.
5.1 Recommendations
The company should add more attributes and beneficial features into the product and should be offering
the same price that could forge trust in their minds and eventually it will lead to their satisfaction. In order to
form trust, the company should apply content marketing as a marketing technique. Other than that, the company
should add more testimonials in the Apple Inc. website, so that people can read what popular personalities are
saying about the product. Finally, the company should also believe in transparency by introducing customers to
their team members to create trust among the users.
The company should hire employees who are extremely caring towards people and have great technical
knowledge about the product, so that they can efficiently assist on-lookers in the retail shop. The company
should train their employees to be gentle and humble in front of their buyers. The companys human resource
management should conduct proper training sessions for their customer service employees on how to behave in
a satisfactory manner. The company should also be assured their working staffs are getting a good salary and
perks that would motivate them to work nicely.
The company should be finding better new ways in an attempt to satisfy customers demands and
willingness towards the iPhone. They should launch the next iPhone, iPhone 7 at a better price, most probably at
a fairer price than the current one iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 plus. In order to arouse perceived value among
consumers, the company should market their product effectively by exhibiting the products unique benefits and
features. The company can also have an influential celebrity or sports star to endorse their products that would
generate a sense of excitement among people to rebuy the product.
Furthermore, the company should focus more on the youth population and should launch the new
versions with innovative and cool features that would be appealing to them. This will embolden the youth
iPhone users to repurchase the latest version. Hence, amplified sales growth would increment high profit
margins for the company.
5.2 Further Study

In order to gain a broader and deeper knowledge of related subjects, this framework and concept can be
applied for further studies. In this study, the researcher has specifically focused on the city of Bangkok in
Thailand. For further studies it can be conducted in various major cities of Thailand, such as Chiang Mai,
Chiang Rai etc. The study can also be developed in other popular cities of South East Asia such as the capital
BMIC 2015| page204

city of Vietnam, Hanoi; other cities such as Ho Chi Minh City; other countries like Singapore, Malaysia where a
huge number of smartphone users have been escalating significantly in the last few years.
In this study, the researcher has only taken the four independent variables trust, customer satisfaction,
service quality and perceived value. For further studies, few more variables, such as buyers attitudes, the
product quality of the Apple iPhone company and retail shops and many more can be added to analyze and
study how much these variables influence consumer intention to rebuy the Apple iPhone products.
Since this study particularly focuses on Apple iPhone products, it can be applied to other Apple
products such as iPod, Mac, iPad or the brand Apple as a whole. Moreover, the framework and theory can also
be applied to different brand products such as Samsung, Nokia as well.
Finally, the other companies and multinational corporations can implement the concepts, theories and
insights into their business strategies to increase sales and high profit margins to meet their goals, missions and
vision.
References
Fang, Y. H., Chiu, C. M., & Wang, E. T. G. (2011). Understanding customers satisfaction and repurchase
intentions: An integration of IS success model, trust, and justice. Internet Research, 21(4), 479 503.
Molinari, L. K., Abratt, R., & Dion, P. (2008). Satisfaction, quality and value and effects on repurchase and
positive wordofmouth behavioral intentions in a B2B services context. Journal of Services Marketing,
22(5), 363 373.
Hume, M., & Mort, G. S. (2010). The consequence of appraisal emotion, service quality, perceived value and
customer satisfaction on repurchase intent in the performing arts. Journal of Services Marketing, 24(2),
170 182.
Lee, C. H., Eze, U. C., & Ndubisi, N. O. (2011). Analyzing key determinants of online repurchase intentions.
Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23(2), 200 221.
Patterson, P. G., & Spreng, R. A. (1997). Modelling the relationship between perceived value, satisfaction and
repurchase intentions in a businesstobusiness, services context: an empirical examination.
International Journal of Service Industry Management, 8(5), 414 434.
Edward, M., & Sahadev, S. (2011). Role of switching costs in the service quality, perceived value, customer
satisfaction and customer retention linkage. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23(3), 327
345.
Jones, Michael A., Mothersbaugh, D. L., & Beatty, S. E. (2003). The effects of locational convenience on
customer repurchase intentions across service types. Journal of Services Marketing, 17(7), 701 712.
Snoj, B., Korda, A. P., & Mumel, D. (2004). The relationships among perceived quality, perceived risk and
perceived product value. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 13(3), 156 167.
Sebastianelli, R., & Tamimi, N. (2002). How product quality dimensions relate to defining quality. International
Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 19(4), 442 453.
Dunk, A. S. (2002). Product quality, environmental accounting and quality performance. Accounting, Auditing
& Accountability Journal, 15(5), 719 732.
Jahanzeb, S., Fatima, T., & Butt, M. M. (2013). How service quality influences brand equity: The dual
mediating role of perceived value and corporate credibility. International Journal of Bank Marketing,
31(2), 126 141.
Chen, P. T., & Hu, H. H. (2010). How determinant attributes of service quality influence customer-perceived
value: An empirical investigation of the Australian coffee outlet industry. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22(4), 535 551.
BMIC 2015| page205

SMART MONET EFFECT OF RMF AND LTF FLOWS

Paween Praweenwongwut
Abstract
This study examines the mutual fund selection ability of investors in Thailand which calls Smart
money effect Using the open-end domestic equity fund in Thailand between 2004 and 2015.The results
indicate that the smart money effect dont appear in the overall investor in Thailand. By the way, this paper
separate the group of mutual fund into LTF, RMF (mutual fund which have individual tax benefit) and OTHER
(mutual fund which dont have individual tax benefit). After separate the group of investors in each type of
fund, it shows that the Smart money effect appear in the OTHER group, that is, they are able to move their
money into(out of) the future good(poor) performance. On the other hands, The dumb money effect is appear in
the group of fund which have the individual tax benefit. This results are important to provide the useful
information for regulators to review their rule and to remind the LTF,RMF investors to care about their portfolio
return.
Keywords: Type your keywords here, separated by semicolons ;
1.Introduction
In this age, Thailand mutual funds play an important role in the financial market. Data from morning
star Thailand show that in the year 2015, mutual fund asset is about 3.8 trillion baht and it is the portion around
0.25 percent in the SETs market. In 2004, the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand established a special
investment scheme which provides a significant tax reduction for any person with taxable income in Thailand,
in return for making a minimum five-year investment in one or more specialized funds set up and managed by
Thailand based money management firms. There are 2 types of fund such LTF and RMF. For LTF, the full tax
advantage of investing in an LTF the investment must be held for at least five years calendar and cant be
withdrawn without incurring substantial early withdrawal penalties. RMFs are identical to LTFs with the
exception that withdrawals made prior to the taxpayers 55th birthday are subject to substantial penalties,
making investment in these funds most attractive to investors who are nearing or past their 50th birthday.
Although LTF and RMF funds force their investor to be the long term investor but LTF and RMF
allow the investor to reinvest in the different fund in their group. Ex, LTF can reinvest in LTF and RMF can
reinvest in RMF. However, LTF and RMF have the special obligation which is when the LTF and RMF
investors reinvest the LTF and RMF in the different firm, they need to pay for the switching fee (the switching
fee for each firm is different).
For the past decade, it shows that RMF and LTFs total net asset have increased sharply from 12.24
billion Baht to 166.290 billion Baht and 5.63 to 271.023 billion Baht respectively. So, what type of investors
who invest in these kinds of funds? , Its seem that many LTF and RMF investors tend to invest in LTF and
RMF for the Tax-exempt only and they dont remind that which fund is provide the good return. Then, it can
say that LTF and RMF investor dont have the timing and selecting ability and Smart money effect call this
investor as Dumb investor. So, due to this reason and the LTF , RMF fee characteristic. These can lead to
interesting research question that are Do LTF and RMF investors are Dumb investor in the Smart money
effect? Gruber (1996)
What is Smart money effect? Answer is the situation that investor can invest in the good fund and
quit from the bad fund and call this investor as Smart investor. So, Dumb investor is the investor that do the
reverse investment style with Smart investor.
BMIC 2015| page206

The recent paper tries to study whether investors are smart enough to identify and invest in the outperforming fund. Gruber (1996) has called this phenomenon as Smart money effect. After that, Zheng(1999) has
confirmed this effect and in 2008, Keswani and Stolin are re-examined these by use the data set from UK.
Gruber(1996) and Zheng(1999) find that the out-performing funds are invested by a group of specialize
investors. Interesting that Gruber (1996) has pointed out the future research in these areas by distinguishing a
group of investors in the various dimensions such as Tax-disadvantage, sophisticated and institutional investors.
In 2014, Xunan-Feng has studied the smart money effect by separate the group of investor in institutional
investor and individual investor. However, it doesnt have any papers which answer the question about Taxadvantage investors are Smart or Dumb and the previous research dont put the effect of fee. So, this study
tries to answer this question and fulfill the research in this area.
The sample cover the on-going equity mutual fund from morning-star Thailand. This research separate
fund into 3 groups such as LTF, RMF and Other and begins the research with the GT-measurement (Grinblatt
and Titman 1993) to find the correlation between fund flow and future return. By the way, the GT-measure cant
extend the profit of mutual fund investor. Then I adapt the Zheng (1999) trading strategy to examine the trading
strategy in the LTF investors, RMF investors and Other investors. I use the expected flow to weight the portfolio
in Zheng trading strategy and revise the expected flow model to capture the monthly effect due to the special
characteristic of LTF and RMF mutual fund.
Many studies about Smart money effect are Gruber(1996),Zheng(1999),Sapp and Tiwari(2004),and
Keswani and Stolin(2008).Gruber try to study that about the active manager can not add value. He finds the
evidence that the group of sophisticated investor can identify and invest in the out performing fund and he call
this phenomenon as Smart money effect. Then, Zheng(1999) confirm this effect and show the evident that the
fund which is positive new money flow significantly outperform the negative new money flows fund and new
flow into the small rather than big fundd can be used to make risk-adjust returns. By the way, Sapp and
Tiwari(2004) assign the outperformance to the momentum effect(Jegadeesh and Titman(1993)) and find that the
smart money effect is an return continueation. In 2008, Keswani and Stolin re-study the smart money effect by
use the data set from UK and find the evidence that the new money portfolio weighted by inflows is
significantly beat the portfolio weighted by outflow. They also show that the smart money effect in UK appear
with the fund buying only(not selling) of both individual and institutional investors. They finally find the
insignificant of smart money effect in Sapp and Tiwari(2004) to the use of quarterly data and weight. In 2014,
Feng et al has studied the smart money effect by separate the group of investor in institutional investor and
individual investor. They find the evidence in China that Institutional investors are the smart investor and the
individual investors are the dumb investors.
This paper make second contributions. First, the typical mutual fund performance literature seen to
focus about the selection ability of mutual fund manager(e.g. Jensen(1986), Grinblatt and Titman(1989),
Elton,Gluber and Blake(1996),Bollen and Busse(2005)) but this paper try to examine the selection ability of
investor by use the smart money effect which can reflect the result into smart investor or dumb investor. This
thesis also separate the group of investor into tax-advantage investor and tax-disadvantage investor unlike the
research in this area which focus to separate investor into institutional investor and individual investor or
Specialist and Non-specialist investor. Second, this paper use the dataset in Thailand due to the tax exempt
fund(LTF,RMF) are play the significant role in this country and the LTF,RMF are new in Thailand mutual fund
market since it is established in only 10 years. So, from my knowledge, this is the new study about smart money
effect of LTF and RMF in Thailand. Then, it will shade the light on what type of investors in the Thailand
mutual fund market. To summarize, this paper try to fill the void and thus help us to understand the fund
investor in Thailand.
BMIC 2015| page207

2.Methodology
2.1 Sample
Collecting the data from Morning star Direct for the Net asset value (NAV) ,Load-adjusted
return(Return which adjusted for front-end fee and back-end fee ) and Total net asset value (TNA) in the
monthly. The sample includes all of open-end, equity and domestic mutual fund. I exclude the remainder
because the risk characteristic of these fund doesnt match with the return with I use for analysis in this paper.
To construct the cahart four factor model, this paper also use the data of set index from Thailand
security market. The Period of both data sets are collected since 2004 to 2015 because The RMF and LTF were
established in the year 2004 and to match the time horizon of data, the data from SET index should collect at the
same period.
Table 1. Summary of domestic equity mutual funds sample
number of domestic equity mutual
funds (till April 2015)
LTF
46
RMF
33
OTHER
213
2.2 GT-measurement (Grinblatt and Titman(1993))

This measurement is used to estimate the selective ability of fund investors. The assumption of this
measurement is no mutual fund selection ability. Then the correlation between the next-period expected return
and flow of the fund is equal to 0. However, if the result shows the number and it is positive, it means an
investor has the good selection ability due to they can increase (decrease) their weight on the out-performing
fund(low-performing fund). By the way, if it is negative, it means an investor has low selection ability.
(1)
This paper separates the GT model into 3 groups such as LTF,RMF and OTHER. Where OTHER
define the domestic equity fund which exclude the LTF and RMF fund.
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where
= the portfolio weight in fund i at time t

= TNA for fund i divide by TNA of all domestic equity fund
= GT weight
BMIC 2015| page208

= the next period return of fund i.
= the next period return of LTF i.
= the next period return of RTF i.
= the next period return of OTHER i.
Due to this paper developed the GT-measurement of each type of investor by use the specific data for
each investor. For LTF investor, GT-measurement use data only in LTF fund. For RMF investor, using data in
RMF fund. And for OTHER investor, using data with exclude LTF and RMF fund. So, the data from each group
is totally separated unlike the previous study which using the same data set then it can see that the GTmeasurement in this paper can reflect the value of GT-measurement in each group of investor.
2.3 Unexpected flow
I follow Zheng(1999), Sapp and Tiwari(2004) and Keswani and Stolin(2008) to find the actual
flow of each mutual fund.
(
(5)
Where
= Flow of fund i during time t

= TNA of fund i at the end of time t
= return of fund i during time t-1 to t
In this paper, I use the actual fund flow as a percentage change from the last period in Total net asset
value(TNA) so,
(
(
6)
To construct the Zheng trading strategy, I use the unexpected flow to divide the group of fund
into 2 cases which is a positive unexpected flow and negative unexpected flow. The unexpected flow is the
difference between actual flow and expected flow. For expected flow, it can be estimated by the lag of fund
return and fund flow in the previous 12 months (Chevalier and Ellison,1997; Sirri and Tufano,1998; Coval and
Stafford,2007). The normal form of unexpected flow from Fama and Macbeth (1973) is
Where
(
7)
= unexpected flow of fund i in period t
However, due to LTF investor and RMF investor tend to have some specific characteristic of buy and
sell .For LTF, the minimum holding period is 5 year calendar so investors in LTF tend to buy at the end of the
BMIC 2015| page209

first year and sell at the start of the fifth years. Then the investor in LTF can hold around 3-4 years of this
strategy. However, for RMF investor, they need to hold the fund until they meet the retirement at 55 years old
and they cannot quit from the long position until they reach the exact date and month which they invest in this
fund. So, like the LTF investor, RMF investor tends to buy the fund at the end of the year for exempt tax in that
year. By the way, the quit period of these fund are different because LTF can quit from the fund in the first
month, but RMF can only quit at the same month that they invest. For these reasons, I develop the unexpected
flow equation to capture the month effect of these funds to find the exact fund flow. So, the new unexpected
flow for LTF and RMF investor is
(8)
Where month dummies try to capture the month effect.
2.4 Zheng(1999) Trading strategy

Due to GT-measurement can observe only aggregate investor and it cant show the return of a mutual
fund. So, Zheng provide the trading strategy to examine the selection ability. Then I develop the trading strategy
which is consistent which Zheng for separate the group of investor into LTF RMF and Other. To sum up, I
provide in 16 trading strategies.
Portfolio I: all funds with + unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio II: all funds with - unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio III: LTF with + unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio IV: LTF with - unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio V: RMF with + unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio VI: RMF with - unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio VII: OTHER with + unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Portfolio VIII: OTHER with - unexpected flow weight by proportion of unexpected flow
Where OTHER define fund, which exclude the LTF and RMF.
Each of portfolios shows the new flow in or flow out of funds. I reconstruct the portfolios at the end of
each month. Then, I show the return of each portfolio by use
and check the robustness result by
using
and
. I compare the difference of alpha between positive new money portfolio and negative
new money portfolio to see whether alpha from the money flow in is more than flow out or not.
2.5 Measurement fund performance

Follow by Zheng(1999) and Sapp and Tiwari(2004), I use
portfolio and recheck for the robustness result with
and
.
To measure the return of the
Cahart (1997) 4-factors model
(9)
BMIC 2015| page210

(10)
Fama and French 3-factors model
(11)
Jensen(1986) market-adjusted model

(
Where
= return of mutual fund i in time t.

= risk free rate in time t.
=
, the excess market return in time t.
= rate of return in the mimicking portfolio for the size factor.

= rate of return on the mimicking portfolio for the book-to-market equity factor.
= rate of return on the mimicking portfolio for the momentum factor.
3.Results and Discussions
3.1 GT-measurement (Grinblatt and Titman(1993))
The GT-measurement model can reflect the smart money effect of investor in the overall
view. Table 2 present the means GT-measure by show in three group which are LTF, RMF and OTHER. I use
the monthly data to calculating the GT-measurement. The results indicate that the smart money effect is appear
in the group of investors in OTHER group which show the significant p-value by t-test at 0.0682 or 10 percent
significant level. However, the result of the LTF and RMF dont significant and cant reflect anything.
Table 2. Grinblatt and Titman(1993) performance measure(GT measure)
GT measure
t-Statistics
LTF
-0.009728
-0.8351
RMF
-0.000146
-0.014
OTHER
0.0230074
1.499*
The table present the mean value of GT-measure for each type of mutual fund. * indicate 10%
significant
3.2 Unexpected flow

The results of equation 8 are show in the table 3 and all month dummies results are show the
significant. That mean the buy and sell behavior of Thai investors are fully correlate with the time. Interesting
BMIC 2015| page211

that for the investor in the individual tax exempt mutual fund (LTF and RMF) are have the abnormal buy power
at the last quarter of the year especially in the last month. This can explain that the investor of LTF and RMF
may be buy the fund for exempt the individual tax in this year. So, it support the model in this paper in the next
section that use the unexpected flow to weight the portfolio and this may be also support that the investor in the
LTF and RMF group tend to buy the fund for tax exempt propose only and they dont mind about their return
with show the dumb investor in smart money effect.
Table 3. month dummies

Months
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
LTF
RMF
OTHER
0.0052
0.0145***
0.0066**
(0.532)
(0.009)
(0.022)
0.0123
0.0130**
0.0085***
(0.134)
(0.017)
(0.003)
0.0142*
0.0219***
0.0078***
(0.085)
(0.000)
(0.007)
0.0235***
0.0256***
0.0116***
(0.005)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.0295***
0.0250***
0.0147***
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.01560*
0.0227***
0.0090***
(0.072)
(0.000)
(0.002)
0.0162*
0.0208***
0.0140***
(0.055)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.0194**
0.0353***
0.0154***
(0.023)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.0336***
0.0393***
0.0156***
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.0425***
0.0444***
0.0162***
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.1510***
0.1094***
0.0159***
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
BMIC 2015| page212

Con
-0.0194***
-0.0272***
-0.0159***
(0.001)
(0.000)
(0.000)
This table present the monthly dummies variable of each type of fund from equation 8. *, ** and ***
indicate 10%, 5% and 1% significant respectively.
3.3 Zheng(1999) Trading strategy

Table 4 shows the result of cahart 4 factors model byuse the portfolio from Zheng trading strategy and
reconstruct each portfolio at the end of the month. For portfolio I,
is 0.0089, while portfolio II over
performs by 0.0096. However, the difference between
of portfolio I and II is not significant and that
mean the smart money effect dont appear in the overall investors in Thailand. By the way, when separate the
group of investor into LTF, RMF and OTHER group, the smart money effect is appear in the OTHER group and
the difference of
is 0.00539 and significant at 10 percent level. In line with hypothesis, The RMF group
show the reverse of the smart money effect which call dumb money effect and it significant at 10 percent level.
Unfortunately that for LTF group, the difference of
isnt significant. By the way, the result of LTF
group is in line with the Dumb money effect and the difference of
is -0.0028.
Table 4. Regression analysis of zheng trading strategies

Panel A: Carhart(1997) four factor model
All investors
LTF investors
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Portfolio I
Portfolio II
Portfolio III
Portfolio
IV
Alpha
0.0089
0.0097
0.0073
0.0102
RMRF
0.6762
0.6838
0.6988
0.6267
SMB
-0.2553
-0.2474
-0.2162
-0.2985
HML
-0.1480
-0.1186
-0.1423
-0.1415
UMD
-0.0095
-0.0030
-0.0230
0.0004
Alpha difference
-0.0007
(-0.427)
-0.0029
(-1.031)
Panel A: Carhart(1997) four factor model

RMF investors
OTHER investors
Positive
Negative
Positive
Portfolio V
Portfolio VI
Portfolio VII
Negative
Portfolio
BMIC 2015| page213

VIII
Alpha
0.0071
0.0126
0.0121
0.0067
RMRF
0.6865
0.6296
0.6465
0.7862
SMB
-0.2649
-0.2581
-0.2784
-0.1882
HML
-0.1762
-0.0492
-0.1299
-0.1557
UMD
-0.0106
-0.0040
0.0044
-0.0048
Alpha difference
-0.0054*
(-1.7817)
0.0054**
(1.903)
Panel B: Fama and French(1993) three factor model

All investors
LTF investors
Positive
flow
Negative flow
Positive
Negative
Portfolio I
Portfolio II
Portfolio III
Portfolio IV
Alpha
0.0089
0.0097
0.0074
0.0102
RMRF
0.6762
0.6838
0.6931
0.6268
SMB
-0.2553
-0.2474
-0.2246
-0.2983
HML
-0.1480
-0.1186
-0.1402
-0.1415
Alpha difference
-0.0007
(-0.427)
-0.0028
(-1.004)
Panel B: Fama and French(1993) three factor model

RMF investors
OTHER investors
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Portfolio V
Portfolio VI
Portfolio
VII
Portfolio VIII
Alpha
0.0071
0.0126
0.0121
0.0067
RMRF
0.6865
0.6296
0.6465
0.7862
SMB
-0.2649
-0.2581
-0.2784
-0.1882
HML
-0.1762
-0.0492
-0.1299
-0.1557
BMIC 2015| page214

Alpha difference
-0.0054*
(-1.7817)
0.0054**
(1.903)
Panel C: Jensen(1968) model

All investors
LTF investors
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Portfolio
I
Portfolio II
Portfolio
III
Portfolio IV
Alpha
0.0088
0.0092
0.0073
0.0102
RMRF
0.7288
0.7373
0.6988
0.6267
Alpha difference
-0.0005
(-0.262)
-0.0021
(-0.687)
Panel C: Jensen(1968) model

RMF investors
OTHER investors
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Portfolio
V
Portfolio VI
Portfolio
VII
Portfolio VIII
Alpha
0.0070
0.0118
0.0117
0.0067
RMRF
0.7369
0.6948
0.7095
0.8190
Alpha difference
-0.0048
(-1.472)
0.0050*
(1.652)
The table Panels A,B and C presents the results of fund analysis of zheng trading strategies and the
difference of alpha. * and ** indicate 10% and 5% significant, respectively.
4.Conclusion
The aim of this paper is to consider the selection ability and timing ability of Thai mutual fund
investors which call Smart money effect. The results indicate that the smart money effect is not appear when
consider overall investors in Thailand. By the way, the smart money effect is appear in the investors who invest
in the fund which dont have the individual tax benefit and the dumb money effect is show in the group of
investor who invest in the individual tax exempt fund (LTF and RMF).
The flow model of this paper show that investor of LTF and RMF have the abnormal buying power in
the last month of the year. This can support that LTF and RMF investor tend to buy the fund for tax propose
BMIC 2015| page215

only and they dont remind about their return. This result are in line with the smart money effect test which are
GT-measurement and Zheng trading strategies. For GT-measurement model is construct to see the smart money
effect of investor which define by Grinblatt and Titman(1993) and the result of this model indicate that OTHER
investors show the smart money effect but the LTF and RMF investor cant conclude in this model. By the way,
the Zheng trading strategies is answer all the questions. It shows that OTHER investors show the smart money
effect which in line with the GT-measurement model and the individual tax exempt investors shows the dumb
money effect. Even though the LTF group is not clear but the result is in line with the dumb money effect.
This paper casts doubts on the argument that laws should be established to protect all kind of investors
and the individual tax exempt investors should put their intention on the return of their portfolio to protect
themselves for losing money. Finally, it will be interesting for the future research to re study the smart money
effect in Thailand by using the different tool and strategies to measure them.
Acknowledgements
Thank you for everyone who support me especially my advisor and my classmate.
References
Zheng, Lu. "Is money smart? A study of mutual fund investors' fund selection ability." The Journal of
Finance 54, no. 3 (1999): 901-933.
Sapp, Travis, and Ashish Tiwari. "Does stock return momentum explain the smart money effect?." The
Journal of Finance 59, no. 6 (2004): 2605-2622.
Elton, Edwin J., Martin J. Gruber, and Christopher R. Blake. "The persistence of risk-adjusted mutual fund
performance." (1995).
Carhart, Mark M. "On persistence in mutual fund performance." The Journal of finance 52, no. 1 (1997): 57-82.
Fama, Eugene F., and Kenneth R. French. "Common risk factors in the returns on stocks and bonds." Journal of
financial economics 33, no. 1 (1993): 3-56.
Fama, Eugene F., and James D. MacBeth. "Risk, return, and equilibrium: Empirical tests." The Journal of
Political Economy (1973): 607-636.
Grinblatt, Mark, and Sheridan Titman. "Mutual fund performance: An analysis of quarterly portfolio
holdings." Journal of business (1989): 393-416.
Grinblatt, Mark, and Sheridan Titman. "The persistence of mutual fund performance." The Journal of
Finance 47, no. 5 (1992): 1977-1984.
Grinblatt, Mark, and Sheridan Titman. "Performance measurement without benchmarks: An examination of
mutual fund returns." Journal of Business(1993): 47-68.
Jensen, Michael C. "The performance of mutual funds in the period 19451964." The Journal of finance 23, no.
2 (1968): 389-416.
Keswani, Aneel, and David Stolin. "Which money is smart? Mutual fund buys and sells of individual and
institutional investors." The Journal of Finance 63, no. 1 (2008): 85-118.
Chevalier, Judith, and Glenn Ellison. Career concerns of mutual fund managers. No. w6394. National Bureau of
Economic Research, 1998.
Jegadeesh, Narasimhan, and Sheridan Titman. "Returns to buying winners and selling losers: Implications for
stock market efficiency." The Journal of finance48, no. 1 (1993): 65-91.
Jensen, Michael C. "Agency cost of free cash flow, corporate finance, and takeovers." Corporate Finance, and
Takeovers. American Economic Review76, no. 2 (1986).
Elton, Edwin J., Martin Jay Gruber, and Christopher R. Blake. "Survivor bias and mutual fund
performance." Review of Financial Studies 9, no. 4 (1996): 1097-1120.
BMIC 2015| page216

Bollen, Nicolas PB, and Jeffrey A. Busse. "Short-term persistence in mutual fund performance." Review of
Financial Studies 18, no. 2 (2005): 569-597.
Feng, Xunan, Mingshan Zhou, and Kam C. Chan. "Smart money or dumb money? A study on the selection
ability of mutual fund investors in China." The North American Journal of Economics and Finance 30
(2014): 154-170.
BMIC 2015| page217

Free Float Effect on Stock Performance with Divergence of Opinion Hypothesis

Chuenbunluesook Yudhavee
Abstract
This research investigates the effect of free float on stock performance under an assumption that
investors have divergence of opinion. The objective of this study is to provide an empirical evidence of free
float effect in a different viewpoint and to answer whether effect of free float on stock performance should be
considered together with the effect of opinion divergence. The empirical results reveal that investors degree of
opinion divergence affects the sensitivity of stock price to free float. This evidence is consistent with the
prediction of this research. However, the results show that free float is negatively related to stock future return,
which appears to be against the researchs prediction. This negative relation is in line with the theory which
proposes that free float is a proxy of stock liquidity risk. The author finds the supportive evidence to this
argument and it reveals that the results of relationship between free float and stock future return might be
dominated by the liquidity effect. As a result, we can reconcile the conflicting results and conclude that the
predicted effect of free float holds true.
Keywords: Free Float; Opinion Divergence; Dispersion of Analysts Earnings Forecasts; Idiosyncratic
Volatility; Future Return; Current Return
1. Introduction
Investors and academic researchers have recently started to concern the effect of free float since the
collapse of internet bubble in the late 1990s. A growing literatures in finance suggest that free float is the main
catalyst of the event due to the significant increase of floating shares of many firms during that time. If we
consider free float as the stock supply, it is economically reasonable to hypothesize that the increase of free float
will cause the equilibrium prices of stocks lower, the opposite is true for the case of decreasing free float. This
implies that a dramatic change of free float is likely to cause a dramatic change of stock prices. However, if
investors have divergence of opinion as argued by Miller (1977), the demand curve of stock will be downward
sloping. The more opinions diverge, the steeper the demand curve of stock and the higher equilibrium price.
Hence, this logic suggests that the equilibrium prices of stocks are affected by both free float and investors
degree of opinion divergence. This research attempts to investigate the effect of free float to the stock
performance in such a framework.
During the collapse of internet bubble in the late 1990s, several researchers found that free float of
internet companies increased substantially and was credited to be the cause of crisis. The concerns about free
float have encouraged a number of large stock index companies to revise their indexes to be adjusted by free
float because it can reflect the extent of tradable shares more accurately. Liam, Lin and Michayluk (2011) have
provided evidences to support the notion that free-float adjusted methodology can help reducing price
distortions which is created by unbalanced demand and supply for low free float stocks. Many investment banks
have also come to realize the importance of free float in recent years. For instance, Morgan Stanley Capital
Internationals indexes used to ignore the concept of free float, leading them to suffer negative effect during
East Asia financial crisis. Hence, they have changed the methodology of calculating the weights of its indexes.
FTSE indexes is another one which encountered the same experience and revised their methodology (Aggarwal,
Klapper and Wysocki, 2005). Weights of the stocks constituted in the indexes have been adjusted by free float
since the start of 2001 to reflect government holdings and restricted ownership to ensure a more accurate
representation of freely tradable stocks in the market. Free float-adjusted methodology is also used with Tokyo
BMIC 2015| page218

Stock Price Index. Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE) announced an initiative to implement free-float adjustment of
the TOPIX in February 2004 (Ide 2004).
Stock prices of companies with low free float tend to be easily manipulated. Major shareholders can
quickly change the stock price to conduct the market value of that particular firm to their target. On the other
hand, companies, especially large companies, with higher free float percentage are less likely to be exposed to
such situation. Bostanci and Kilic (2010) explain that a low amount of floating shares implies thin market.
Hence, there are two types of possible effect of free float. First, low free float ratio will discourage investors to
invest in that particular stock. The intuition is that low free float companies have weak corporate governance
structure and investors are not willing to risk with the possibility of expropriation. Second, lower free float
indicates lower liquidity which can harm the value of stocks because investors dislike illiquidity, this is also
argued by Weill (2008). However, divergence of opinion hypothesis proposed by Miller (1977) can be used as
an alternative explanation for effect of free float to stock performance if we consider free float as a stock supply
while assuming that rational investors have a different assessment of value estimates.
In economics sense, determining the equilibrium price of an asset needs two components, which are
supply and demand. Free float can be simply used as a proxy for stock supply. However, to determine the proxy
for investors demand appears to pose a challenges. There are many researchers attempt to determine the
characteristic of stock demand curve, one of those is Miller (1977) who proposed the mispricing theory in a
demand-supply viewpoint under short-sale constraints which includes divergence of opinions hypothesis into
the picture. He argues that when investors have divergence of opinions and bind by short-sale constraints,
pessimistic investors will not sell the stocks causing stock prices to be upwardly biased. In other words, stock
prices are more likely to reflect the valuation of the optimistic participants when there are trading frictions that
prevent pessimists to trade against them. The key point of his model is that the slope of demand curve depends
on the degree of opinion divergence amongst investors. Demand curve will be steeper when the degree of
opinion divergence is greater. The opposite is true for the case of lower degree of opinion divergence. Many
researches have been motivated by Millers theory, and Miller conjecture, perhaps not surprisingly, leads to the
critiques on Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) for unrealistic assumption which plays on paradigm of
homogeneous expectations. Hence, divergence of opinion has been incorporated in many models such as Capital
Asset Pricing Model to relax the homogeneous expectations assumption. Researchers found that opinion
divergence can change the equilibrium of the stock prices and several researches have interestingly shown that
opinion divergence has a predictive power for future stock returns which are considered as anomalies from the
CAPM viewpoint (Fama and French 1996). For example, Goetzmann and Massa (2001) showed that
heterogeneous beliefs can affect aggregate market returns. Diether, Malloy and Scherbina (2002) revealed that
opinion divergence causes stock prices to be upwardly biased which is strongly supportive to Millers
predictions. To conclude, Millers logic implies that the greater the opinion divergence, the higher the
equilibrium prices of the stocks relative to its true value and hence the lower expected returns.
Millers predictions offer an intuitively appealing idea and have received a great deal of attention, yet
the evidence for Millers theory seems to be meager and inconclusive. More importantly, most of the researches
tested the theory by mainly studying on the opinion divergence which reflected in the slope of the demand curve
of stocks, but there were a few researches that attempt to test the theory by investigating the impact of free float,
which is reflected in stock supply, to the subsequent stock performance. This is the main motivation of this
research to fill this gap.
The intuition that free float can affect asset prices relies on a few simple assumption. Greenwood
(2006) explained that when risk averse investors estimate the asset values differently and bind by short-sale
constraints, assets will be allocated to the most bullish investors and prices will be consequently set by them.
Under such context, the most bearish investors (i.e. pessimists) will not be willing to participate in the market
because the asset prices are overvalued regarding to their estimates. If free float is decreased, more of the
pessimistic investors will be forced out and the assets will be priced by only the most bullish investors. In
extreme case, if free float is reduced to zero and investors are unable to go short due to short-sale constraints,
the particular asset will be priced by estimation of the most optimistic investors in the market alone.
Theoretically, the greater the opinion divergence about the value estimates of assets, the larger the free float
effects on the asset prices. To conclude, when investors have heterogeneous expectations in the market (i.e.
downward sloping demand curve), the amount of floating shares tend to have a negative relation with the stock
prices which implies that lower free float tends to increase the equilibrium prices of stock relative to its true
value and hence lower future returns.
BMIC 2015| page219

According to Miller (1977), the broader the array of value estimates made by all investors in the
market, the steeper the demand curve will be. If we assume that the stock supply is constant, the movement in
price will be caused by shifts of the demand curve only. This implies that the stocks with the highest steep of
demand curve will exhibit a greatest fluctuation in price. As discussed in the next section, several authors
mainly studied on opinion divergence effect and found their results consistent to Miller (1977)s prediction.
However, it is critically important to note that the essence of this research does not center around the opinion
divergence effect in stock performance but rather on the free float which is the part of the stock supply. In other
words, the author examines the free float effect in the Millers framework and assumes that a demand
component is fixed by an attempt to control investors degree of opinion divergence in proposed regression
model.
A major challenge in controlling opinion divergence is determining proxies that can effectively capture
the degree of investors opinion divergence. Academic researchers have used a variety of opinion divergence
proxies to test Millers prediction. For instance, Diether, Malloy and Scherbina (2002) used dispersion of
analysts earnings forecast, Chen, Hong, and Stein (2001) used breadth of ownership, and Baker, Coval, and
Stein (2004) used idiosyncratic volatility. In addition, Berkman et al. (2008) note that multiple proxies of
opinion divergence should be employed. Hence, it is essential that the author adopts multiple proxies of
divergence of opinion to obtain robust results. In this study, the author decided to employ two proxies namely
dispersion in analysts earnings forecast and idiosyncratic volatility.
This study attempts to examine free float effect on future returns of the stocks in U.S. market to
provide the empirical evidences in different perspective from other researches related to free float or divergence
of opinion hypothesis. The author also examines the effect of free float changes on stock prices when each stock
has different level of opinion divergence, which is another gap in this research and offer a more complete
picture of how free float affects stock price. Moreover, Miller (1977) explains that short selling allows investor
to effectively introduce the additional stocks into the market, which implies more supply of the stocks. That is,
short sales move the supply curve to the right and lower the price of an asset. Thus, to effectively investigate the
free float effect, the author had to add a value of outstanding short position for each stock in proposed regression
model to separate its effect from free float effect on stock performance. The author believes that this research is
the first to include value of outstanding short position to investigate free float effect under the assumption that
investors have a divergence of opinion.
The effect of free float on liquidity is the most popular subject for the researchers. Nevertheless, few
researches have been investigated directly on the effect of free float to the stock price and returns, especially in
the framework of divergence of opinion hypothesis. As discussed above, this valuation effect of divergence of
opinion can also be related to free float which reflected in the stock supply. With free float as a direct proxy of a
stock supply and divergence of opinion as a proxy for slope of a demand curve, the author can investigate the
effect of free float in the different viewpoint from other researches. To be specific, this research combines free
float effect with the divergence of opinion hypothesis proposed by Miller (1977) to investigate the effect of free
float in a new perspective. To the best of authors knowledge, this is the first of the study that directly
investigate the effect of free float on stock performance with such a framework.
2. Methodology
2.1. Free float ratio
Since Thomson Reuters is capable of providing first class strategic holding information through the
free float datatypes available in Datastream Products, the free float data in this research are then retrieved from
Thomson Reuters Datastream.
Free float is calculated by determining the types of ownership and no holdings will be identified as
strategic investors if they are less than five percent of a companys share capital. According to Thomson Reuters
Datastream, the data is derived from several sources such as SEC filings, annual and interim reports, stock
exchanges, official regulatory bodies, third party vendors, company websites, and direct contact with company
investor relation departments. Moreover, Datastream updates value of free float on the 10 th and 30th of each
month. This means the data of monthly free float reported in Datastream clearly reflect the most recent free float
BMIC 2015| page220

level of each firms. Hence, there is unlikely to have an issue of measurement error problem in the obtained
empirical evidences.
Free float data using in this research is defined as the total amount of shares available to ordinary
investors, expressed as a percentage of total number of shares outstanding. Note that the total number of shares
are subtracted by the strategic holdings
2.2. Short sale ratio

The mispricing theory proposed by Miller (1977) explained that when investors can short sell, investors
effectively create a stock in a company. Short sale investors agree to pay dividends to the owner of that
particular stocks, and have to redeem the borrowed share when stock owners demand. Practically, from the
stock owners viewpoint, the stocks are created in the similar means of the stock issuing from listed companies
and still satisfies his or her need to hold the companys stocks. As a result, stock supply in the market increases
by the amount of short interest (i.e. amount of the outstanding short position) and also subsequently moves the
vertical supply curve to the right and ultimately lower the equilibrium price. Also, the joint effect of opinion
divergence and short-sale constraints on asset prices was emphasized by Scheinkman and Xiong (2003). Hence,
to effectively investigate the free float effect on stock performance, the author has to add the amount of
outstanding short position into the proposed regression model. The data of outstanding short position are
retrieved from Bloomberg database.
The short sale value in this research is defined as total value of outstanding short position expressed as
a percentage of total number of floating shares.
2.3. Divergence of opinion measure based on dispersion in analysts earnings forecast
Dispersion in analysts earnings forecasts used as a proxy for opinion divergence is suggested by
Diether, Malloy and Scherbina (2002). They argued that dispersion in analyst forecast reflects the extent of
disagreement among analysts and investors. Prices will reflect optimistic views when investors with the lowest
valuations do not trade. The friction that prevents the revelation of negative opinions may include the incentive
structure of the analysts that impede them to issue very negative forecasts even when they are sufficiently
pessimistic. Forecast consensus tends to be upwardly biased when there is a large divergence of opinion because
the analysts are reluctant to share their negative opinions, which results in overvaluation of stocks.
Dispersion in analysts earnings forecasts is defined as the ratio of monthly standard deviation of
analyst earnings per share forecasts to the absolute value of the mean of the analysts forecast. Standard
deviation in monthly analyst earnings forecasts and the mean monthly analyst forecasts are retrieved from the
Thomson Reuters Datastream, and earnings forecasts with a mean of zero are excluded from the estimation
sample of DISP. Furthermore, Diether, Malloy and Scherbina (2002) also suggested that a stock must have a
minimum of two analyst forecasts in a month to be included in the sample. Specifically, the formula for
dispersion of analysts earnings forecasts is as follows:
DISP
Std ( forecast )
Mean( forecast )
The stocks that have higher earnings could potentially have higher levels of standard deviation of
earnings forecasts. Hence, to make the number comparable across stocks, the monthly standard deviation of
analysts earnings forecasts are then scaled by the mean of analysts earnings forecasts.
2.4. Divergence of opinion measure based on idiosyncratic volatility

A number of researches have been used idiosyncratic volatility as a proxy for several economics effect
as well as divergence of opinion. Baker, Coval and Stein (2004) explained that if investors are risk averse and
have heterogeneous expectations (i.e. opinion divergence), an increase in idiosyncratic volatility will cause the
demand curve to be steeper. The intuition is that idiosyncratic volatility reduces the size of trading positions, as
a result of the willingness of investors to take a position with any given valuation are diminished. Additionally,
Wurgler and Zhuravskaya (2002) also obtained empirical results that are fairly supportive to the validation of
BMIC 2015| page221

using idiosyncratic volatility as a proxy for slope of demand curve (i.e. opinion divergence). They showed that
when firms stocks with higher idiosyncratic volatility were included to S&P 500 index, the impact on stock
prices was stronger than stocks with lower idiosyncratic volatility.
Similar supportive empirical evidences were from Eastley et al. (1998) and Ang et al. (2003), they
interestingly showed that stocks with higher idiosyncratic volatility are more likely to offer a lower future return
than stocks with lower idiosyncratic volatility. Thus, their empirical results seemed to support the validation of
idiosyncratic volatility and the divergence of opinion hypothesis proposed by Miller (1977). Similarly, Guo and
Savickas (2008) also found that the idiosyncratic volatility has a negative relationship with the future stock
returns. They indicated that the possible explanation for this empirical result is that the idiosyncratic volatility is
a measure of divergence of opinion, which, as argued by Miller (1977), could lead a stock to be overvalued and
the investors will subsequently suffer capital losses if they are bind by short-sale constraints.
In this research, idiosyncratic volatility is defined as the standard deviation of the residuals on the
contemporary three factors (MKT, SMB, and HML) of Fama-French (1993) estimated from the time-series
regression of the daily returns on stock i in month t. The author excludes the sample that have less than 18 daily
return observations as suggested by Hwang and Qian (2011). Specifically, the author determines idiosyncratic
volatility with respect to the Fama-French model using the following regression:
ri = i + iMKT + siSMB + hiHML + ei
Where ri is the daily excess return of stock i. The idiosyncratic volatility of stock i is determined by
measuring the standard deviation of the residuals ei as follows.
IDV
1 T 2
t 1 eit
T
2.5. Summary statistics

The sample includes all ordinary common stocks listed on the S&P 500 index in 2000 to 2014. All data
are retrieved from Thomson Reuters Datastream. This research employs all data based on monthly basis as
suggested by Dimson (1979). The reason is that the model specification requires monthly data because when
using data with smaller time-frame, there will be a concern on the factors that should be included in the
regression model. Dimson (1979) stated that the more frequent data, the more frequency of trading. Investors
may not possibly capture only relevant information on that time during high frequency data. As a result, the
model regressions have to necessarily include the lag or lead terms of the variables in the model. Hence, using
all data based on monthly basis can avoid this issue. Table 1 describes the summary statistics of dependent
variables used in this research.
Table 1. Summary statistics of dependent variables.
Variables
Observations
Mean
Std.Dev.
Min
Max
FFR (%)
70714
77.5425
20.9531
100
SSR (%)
89460
3.4904
4.316
62.3291
DISP (%)
80959
7.51
4.919
45
IDV (%)
89460
1.36419
1.109751
36.0434
MKT (%)
89460
0.3331
4.5555
-17.23
11.35
SMB (%)
89460
0.3564
3.5068
-16.41
22.02
HML (%)
89460
0.4538
3.3094
-12.61
13.89
Number of firms
497
2.6. Testing Strategy

The author examines free float effect on stock performance using values of investors opinion
divergence, as proxied by dispersion in analysts earnings forecast and idiosyncratic volatility, that are measured
in month t and linked with stock performance data (i.e. stock future returns) in the following k (k is equal to 1, 2,
3, 6 and 12) month(s). Specifically, cross-sectional data of next k months stock performance is regressed on
BMIC 2015| page222

free float ratio and degree of opinion divergence in month t. As argued by Fama and French (1996), many of the
CAPM average-return anomalies are related, and they are captured by the three-factor model in Fama-French
namely market beta, size and book-to-market. Size is proxied by market capitalization and book-to-market is
defined as net tangible assets divided by market capitalization.
The k-period performances of stocks in the authors research are controlled by Fama-French (1993)
three-factor model to ascertain the robustness of the results. To be precise, three factors (i.e. MKT, SMB, and
HML) in the same period of stock performance also used to ascertain the robustness of any relationship between
free float ratio and next k months stock performance. The intuition for using different periods of k for
measuring future stock performance is that the speed of price adjustment may vary. Hence, using different
period of k can offer a more precise picture of how free float affects the future stock performance. Moreover,
short sale ratio at the end of month t is also included into one of the control variable because, as explained by
Miller (1977), it is one of the stock supply components. This can be shown in Figure 1.
Since in Millers model stock prices will reflect an optimistic valuation if investors are bind by shortsale constraints. Optimists will hold the stocks because they have the highest estimates. However, they suffer
losses in expectation because the best value estimate is the average opinion. This implies that the greater the
divergence of opinion, the higher the stock prices relative to the true value and the lower its future returns. This
is illustrated in Figure 2.
Based on Figure 2. If stock A and stock B are identical but stock A has a greater degree of opinion
divergence than stock B (i.e. demand curve of stock A is steeper than demand curve of stock B), stock A will
have a higher price relative to the true value and have lower future return than stock B.
As previously discussed, many studies found strongly supportive evidences to Millers conjecture. For
example, Diether, Malloy and Scherbina (2002) found a negative relationship between level of investors
divergence of opinion and stock future returns. They found that the stocks with higher dispersion in analysts
earnings forecast tend to offer a lower future returns than otherwise similar stocks. Ackert and Athanasakkos
(1997) also documented that high degree of divergence of opinion could forecast low future stock returns.
This logic leads to the first research question. This research will examine free float effect on stock
future return based on the Millers conjecture. Greenwood (2006) explained that a decrease in supply of stock
on the market moves the vertical supply curve to the left, make the prices higher and cause the stocks to be more
overvalued, which potentially implied lower future return. This is illustrated is Figure 3, when free float level
moves from FF1 to FF2 which decreases by x, the price will increase by y and this potentially leads to lower
future return for this stock. To be precise, this logic implies that lower free float stocks tend to have lower future
return. The opposite is true for higher free float stocks.
Fig. 1. Testing strategy.
BMIC 2015| page223

Fig. 2. Effect of investors degree of opinion divergence on equilibrium price of stocks.
Fig. 3. Effect of change of free float on equilibrium price of stocks.
Hence, the author hypothesizes that free float ratio will have a positive relationship with stock future
returns when controlling degree of opinion divergence. The author uses the following designated regression
model to test this hypothesis. If Millers conjecture is valid, 1will be statistically significant in positive
direction:
FRi,t+k = 0 + 1(FFRi,t) + 2(DIVi,t) + 3(FFRi,t.DIVi,t) + 4SSRi,t + 5(SSRi,t.DIVi,t) + b1MKTt+k + s1SMBt+k +
h1HMLt+k + 1.
Where FR is future return of stock i in each t+k period(s), FFR is free float ratio, DIV is a degree of
opinion divergence based on two proxies (i.e. DISP and IDV) in month t, SSR is short sale ratio month t, MKT is
return of market portfolio minus risk-free rate, SMB is excess return of small stocks over big stocks, and HML is
excess return of value stocks over growth stocks. The Fama-French three factors are used in the same t+k
periods with FR. The author adds an interaction term of FFR and DIV into the regression model because, as
Greenwood (2006) stated, the effect of free float will vary with different degree of opinion divergence. To be
precise, the greater the opinion divergence, the stronger the free float effects on the stock prices. Moreover,
since short sale ratio (SSR) is also one of the stock supply components, the interaction term of SSR and DIV is
also necessary.
The formula of future return is as follows:
Future return (FR) = log(Pt+k / Pt).
Where Pt+k is the stock price of the future k period, Pt is the stock price of the current periodBased on
Millers framework, free float effect should be larger for stocks that higher degree of opinion divergence and
vice versa. This is illustrated in Figure 4, when stock A have greater degree of opinion divergence than stock B
(i.e. demand curve of stock A is steeper than demand curve of stock B), the equal increment of free float (FF 2
FF1) will cause stock A to drop more than stock B (i.e. length of a is greater than the length of b). The opposite
BMIC 2015| page224

is true for the case of decreasing free float. In other words, the greater the opinion divergence, the greater the
sensitivity of stock prices to free float.
To test this conjecture, the author uses the following designated regression model:
CRi,t = 0 + 1(FFRi,t FFRi,t-1) + 2(DIVi,t-1) + 3[(FFRi,t FFRi,t-1).DIVi,t-1] + 4(SSRi,t SSRi,t-1) +
5[(SSRi,t SSRi,t-1).DIVi,t-1]+ 3MKTt + s3SMBt + h3HMLt + 3.
Fig. 4. Effect of free float on equilibrium price of stocks when there are different degrees of opinion divergence.
Where CR is current return of stock i. FFRi,t FFRi,t-1 and SSRi,t SSRi,t-1are the difference of ratio on
each particular period. Other variables are still used as same reason as regression model discussed above. Note
that current return (CR) is basically the price difference. The reason the author uses current return instead is that
it will make the number comparable across stocks. The formula of current return is as follows:
Current return (CR) = log(Pt / Pt-1).
If the Millers argument holds and hence free float effect is stronger when opinion divergence is
greater, the coefficient of interaction term of FFt FFt-1 and DIV should positively contribute in explaining
price differences.

3.1 Effect of free float on stock future returns
This section displays the results in respect of free float effect on stock future return. Table 2 and 3
displays the results based on dispersion in analysts earnings forecasts and idiosyncratic volatility respectively.
Future returns of stocks are measured in each k period period after the date that given independent variables are
measured and are reported in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th column respectively.
Table 2 reveals a negative coefficient estimates and are statistically significance at the 1% level, which
implies that there are of a relationship between future return in all periods and FFR. However, these evidences
are inconsistent with the researchs prediction and also the Millers conjecture. Turning to table 3, two out of
five coefficient estimates are statistically significant in a negative direction at the 1% level. Again, the evidences
are also inconsistent with the prediction of this research. These results can be interpreted as evidence that stocks
with higher free float are more prone to yield lower returns despite the fact that they have a higher stock supply
in the market. As a result, the regression results seem to suggest that the Millers theory may not hold true.
In the broad view, the empirical results on this section shows that even when the degree of opinion
divergence is controlled, the evidences still show the negative relationship between free float and stock future
returns. However, this pattern of relationship appears to be consistent to the proposition from Weill (2008) who
BMIC 2015| page225

suggests that liquidity premium of an asset is inversely proportional to its free float. This implies that the higher
free float, the lower liquidity premium of an asset and hence lower future return.
From Weill (2008)s argument, we can conclude that stocks with higher free float imply stocks with
lower liquidity risk. If this type of risk is priced in the market, then this group of stocks will yield lower
expected returns. This may explain that why free float is negatively related to future return as shown in the
empirical evidences. We will discuss this particular issue in more detail in section 3.3.
3.2 Sensitivity of stock price to free float

This section presents the results regarding the effect of free float on stock prices, which focuses how
the change of free float affects the stock price when there are different levels of divergence of opinion among
investors. Panel A of table 4 reports the results based on dispersion in analysts earnings forecasts as a proxy for
investors degree of opinion divergence. While Panel B reports the results based on idiosyncratic volatility as a
proxy for investors degree of opinion divergence. Current returns are used as a price difference to regress on
the independent variables.
Table 2. This table presents the regression results regarding the effect of free float on future stock
returns in U.S. market when using analysts earnings forecasts as a proxy for investors degree of opinion
divergence. The sample period is 2000 to 2014. FFR is free float ratio determined by the total amount of shares
available to ordinary investors, expressed as a percentage of total number of shares outstanding. DISP is
dispersion in analysts earnings forecasts defined as the ratio of monthly standard deviation of analyst earnings
per share forecasts to the absolute value of the mean of the analysts forecast. SSR is short-sale ratio defined as
total value of outstanding short position expressed as a percentage of total number of floating shares. MKT, SMB
and HML are controlled variables which calculated by method used in Fama-French (1993) three factor model.
Note that three factors are determined in the same period of each future return. Hence, there will be different
controlled variables for different dependent variables. Standard errors are reported in parentheses. Significance
at the 1%, 5% and 10% level are denoted by ***, **, and *, respectively.
Variables
Observations
Mean
Std.Dev.
Min
Max
FFR (%)
70714
77.5425
20.9531
100
SSR (%)
89460
3.4904
4.316
62.3291
DISP (%)
80959
7.51
4.919
45
IDV (%)
89460
1.36419
1.109751
36.0434
MKT (%)
89460
0.3331
4.5555
-17.23
11.35
SMB (%)
89460
0.3564
3.5068
-16.41
22.02
HML (%)
89460
0.4538
3.3094
-12.61
13.89
Number of firms
497
Table 3. This table presents the regression results regarding the effect of free float on future stock returns in U.S.
market when using idiosyncratic volatility as a proxy for investors degree of opinion divergence. The sample
period is 2000 to 2014. FFR is free float ratio determined by the total amount of shares available to ordinary
investors, expressed as a percentage of total number of shares outstanding. IDV is idiosyncratic volatility
determined by calculated the standard deviation of residuals on the contemporary three factors (MKT, SMB, and
HML) of Fama-French (1993) estimated from the time-series regression of the daily returns on stock i in month
t. SSR is short-sale ratio defined as total value of outstanding short position expressed as a percentage of total
number of floating shares. MKT, SMB and HML are controlled variables which calculated by method used in
Fama-French (1993) three factor model. Note that three factors are determined in the same period of each future
return. Hence, there will be different controlled variables for different dependent variables. Standard errors are
reported in parentheses. Significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level are denoted by ***, **, and *, respectively.
BMIC 2015| page226

Variables
FFR
DISP
FFR.DISP
SSR
SSR.DISP
One-month MKT
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
One-month period
return
Two-month period
return
Three-month period
return
Six-month period
return
Twelve-month
period return
-0.00212
-0.00488
-0.00256
-0.0184***
-0.0688***
(0.00257)
(0.00364)
(0.00445)
(0.00632)
(0.00902)
0.3364***
0.6985***
1.507***
3.466***
6.675***
(12.09)
(17.15)
(20.86)
(29.32)
(40.86)
-0.00239
-0.00581***
-0.01334***
-0.02462***
-0.04360***
(0.148)
(0.209)
(0.255)
(0.358)
(0.498)
0.0439***
0.0650***
0.0866***
0.102***
0.357***
(0.0118)
(0.0168)
(0.0205)
(0.0290)
(0.0408)
-0.00404
0.00291
0.00805
0.03163***
0.02239
(0.486)
(0.690)
(0.839)
(1.182)
(1.647)
1.087***
(0.00795)
One-month SMB
0.164***
(0.0143)
One-month HML
0.158***
(0.0138)
Two-month MKT
1.135***
(0.00764)
Two-month SMB
0.106***
(0.0157)
Two-month HML
0.136***
(0.0124)
Three-month MKT
1.155***
(0.00752)
Three-month SMB
0.0435***
(0.0151)
Three-month HML
0.112***
(0.0124)
BMIC 2015| page227

Six-month MKT
1.182***
(0.00723)
Six-month SMB
-0.142***
(0.0150)
Six-month HML
0.170***
(0.0131)
Twelve-month MKT
1.126***
(0.00683)
Twelve-month SMB
-0.336***
(0.0150)
Twelve-month HML
0.181***
(0.0141)
Constant
-0.193
-0.328
-1.011***
-1.746***
-0.701
(0.217)
(0.308)
(0.376)
(0.534)
(0.759)
Observations
70,219
69,724
69,229
67,744
64,780
R-squared
0.270
0.309
0.323
0.368
0.373
Table 4. This table presents the regression results regarding the effect of free float on current returns of stocks in
U.S. market when using multiple proxies for investors degree of opinion divergence (i.e. analysts earnings
forecasts and idiosyncratic volatility). The sample period is 2000 to 2014. FFRt FFRt-1 is a difference of free
float ratio in each particular period, where free float ratio is determined by the total amount of shares available
to ordinary investors, expressed as a percentage of total number of shares outstanding. IDV is idiosyncratic
volatility determined by calculated the standard deviation of residuals on the contemporary three factors (MKT,
SMB, and HML) of Fama-French (1993) estimated from the time-series regression of the daily returns on stock i
in month t. SSRi,t SSRi,t-1 is a difference of short-sale ratio in each particular period, where short-sale ratio is
defined as total value of outstanding short position expressed as a percentage of total number of floating shares.
MKT, SMB and HML are controlled variables which calculated by method used in Fama-French (1993) three
factor model. Note that three factors are determined in the same period of future return. Hence, there will be
different controlled variables for different dependent variables. Standard errors are reported in parentheses.
Significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level are denoted by ***, **, and *, respectively.
Panel A
Variables
FFRt FFRt-1
Panel B
Current returns
0.00191
Variables
FFRt FFRt-1
(0.00615)
DISP
-0.122
Current returns
0.0321
(0.0310)
IDV
(0.105)
BMIC 2015| page228
-0.6266***
(6.033)

(FFRt FFRt-1).DISP
-0.0543**
(FFRt FFRt-1).IDV
(0.0239)
SSRi,t SSRi,t-1
0.136***
(0.00667)
SSRi,t SSRi,t-1
(0.0519)
(SSRi,t SSRi,t-1).DISP
0.371***
1.099***
(SSRi,t SSRi,t-1).IDV
0.177***
MKT
0.158***
SMB
0.0539
0.184***
(0.0269)
HML
(0.0278)
Constant
1.071***
(0.0144)
(0.0271)
HML
-0.05681*
(2.954)
(0.0144)
SMB
0.256***
(0.0776)
(0.0808)
MKT
-0.0215***
0.148***
(0.0276)
Constant
(0.0607)
0.952***
(0.104)
Observations
19,879
Observations
20,341
R-squared
0.267
R-squared
0.266
Panel A reveals that the coefficient estimate of the interaction term of FFRt FFRt-1andDISP is -0.0543
and statistically significant at the 5% level. While panel B also display the negative coefficient estimates which
is -0.0215 and statistically significant at the 1% level.
These results suggest that the increase of free float makes the stock price lower,which makes sense in
term of economics theory. Furthermore, the results also suggest that the increase of degree of opinion
divergence is likely to make the negative effect of free float on stock price stronger. This evidence is consistent
with the researchs prediction and also in line with Greenwood (2006)s argument which states that firms have a
strong incentive for float manipulation when there is a great degree of opinion divergence in the market.
However, the interesting fact is that the coefficient estimates of FFRt FFRt-1 as shown in both panel A and B
are not statistically significant at any conventional level, these results may be interpreted as evidence that the
effect of free float on stock price, based on Millers framework, will not occur if there is no divergence of
opinion among investors. This implication is theoretically reasonable if consider the effect on demand-supply
viewpoint. Based on Millers framework, the demand curve of investors will be horizontal line when the
investors opinions do not diverge. This implies that the shift of supply curve (or the change of free float) cannot
affect the equilibrium price of the asset. Clearly, this is one of the important implications offered by this
research.
Since Hong, Scheinkman and Xiong (2006) suggest that stocks with lower free float are more prone to
bubble, the evidences from this research somehow add more potential fact from their suggestion by stating that
such stocks are even more prone to bubble if there is a higher degree of opinion divergence.
2.1.
Potential Explanations
As mentioned in section 3.1, even when the author controls the investors degree of opinion
divergence, the empirical evidences still suggest that free float is negatively related to stock future returns,
which are inconsistent with the prediction from hypothesis 1. Nonetheless, these evidences appear to be
consistent with the proposition from Weill (2008) who argues that free float can be used as a liquidity proxy.
The Float-adjusted return model (FARM) proposed by Weill (2008) suggests that free float and liquidity risk
BMIC 2015| page229

have an inverse relation, which means stocks with lower free float tend to have higher liquidity risk. If this type
of risk is reflected in stock prices, such stocks should offer higher liquidity premium and hence higher expected
return. The opposite is true for the case of stock with higher free float. This logic implies the negative relation
between free float and stock future returns. Therefore, the evidences from section 3.1 seem to suggest that free
float does not affect the stocks in the manner that derived from Millers framework.
However, the results from section 3.2, offer two facts to this research. First, the results show that the
coefficient estimates of interaction term of FFRt FFRt-1and proxy of degree of opinion divergence (i.e. DISP
and IDV) are negative and statistically significant. This evidence implies that the degree of opinion divergence is
one of the factors that affects the sensitivity of stock price to free float. To be precise, the greater degree of
opinion divergence, the greater negative effect of free float on stock price. Second, since the coefficient
estimates of FFRt FFRt-1are not statistically significant at any conventional level, the effect of free float, based
on Millers framework, will not be likely to occur if there is no divergence of opinion among investors. These
two facts suggest that if we assume that the opinions among investors diverge, free float will be negatively
related to the stock prices. If we differentiate the regression model of hypothesis 3 with respect to FFRt FFRt-1,
we will obtain the following equation that can mathematically explain the logic:
dCRi,t / d(FFRi,t FFRi,t-1) = 3DIVi,t-1.
Since the results from section 3.2 indicate that the estimate value of 3 is negative and significant but
estimate value of 1 is not significant at any conventional level, this equation then puts forward to the evidence
that if there is a divergence of opinion among investors (i.e. the values of DIV exist) and the difference of free
float between month t and month t-1 increases further by one unit, the current return will decrease by the
absolute value of 3DIVi,t-1 and hence the decrease in stock price. The opposite is true for the case that the
difference of free float decreases. This suggests that free float tends to work as a stock supply and the effect of
free float based on Millers framework may exist because if we assume that there are two identical stocks with
different level of free float, the stock with lower free float should exhibit higher equilibrium price and yield a
lower future return.
Although the evidences from section 3.1 and 3.2 seem to be conflicting, there is a possibility that the
effect of free float based on Millers framework still exists because it might be the case that we cannot observe
such pattern of evidences for the reason that it is somehow dominated by the liquidity effect. The negative
coefficient estimates in section 3.1 do not necessarily suggest that the predicted effect does not exist because
evidences from section 3.2 argue that the increase of free float tends to make the stock prices lower, and if
higher free float stock is compared to the identical stock with no change of free float, the stock with higher free
float should exhibit a lower equilibrium price and hence a higher expected return. However, as explained by
Weill (2008), the change of free float also changes the liquidity risk of stock. Hence, if the liquidity effect
dominates the predicted effect of free float, we will observe the negative relationship between free float and
stock future return despite the fact that the predicted effect still hold true.
To reconcile the inconclusive results, the author uses turnover of stocks as a proxy for liquidity, as
suggested by Pastor and Stambaugh (2003), to observe its relationship with free float and stock future return. By
using stock turnover as a liquidity proxy, the author finds supportive evidences for the conjecture discussed
above. Turnovers of each stock are retrieved from Thomson Reuters Datastream and is defined as a ratio of total
amount of share traded to total number of shares outstanding. The turnover data are already adjusted for capital
events or corporate actions. For stocks that are traded in more than one exchange, only default turnover based on
primary market are retrieved. Table 5 presents the summary statistics of turnover ratio
According to Weill (2008), higher free float implies higher liquidity (or lower liquidity risk), which
suggests that turnover should be positively related to free float. Based on this logic, the author determines their
relationship by running a pooled cross-sectional regression of the monthly turnover (TOV) on monthly free float
(FFR). The equation is as follows:
TOVi,t = i + iFFRi,t + i.
Where TOV represents the turnover ratio of each stock i which is measured at the end of month t.
Table 6 reports the regression results regarding the relationship between TOV and FFR. The coefficient
estimates is 0.0538 and statistically significant at the 1% level. The results suggests that stock turnover and free
float is positively related. In other words, stock with higher free float is likely to offer a higher liquidity to
BMIC 2015| page230

investors. The opposite is true for the case of stock with lower free float. Hence, the evidence is consistent with
argument from Weill (2008).
Table 5. Summary Statistics of stock turnover (TOV).
Variables
Observations
Mean
Std.Dev.
Min
Max
TOV (%)
81503
22.2669
23.87
0.0069
1045.032
Number of firms
497
Table 6. Regression results regarding the relationship between turnover ratio (TOV) and free float (FFR)
Variables
TOV
FFR
0.0538***
(0.00414)
Constant
0.189***
(0.00332)
Observations
69,924
R-squared
0.021
Table 7. Correlation matrix of turnover ratio (TOV) and k-period future returns
Correlation Matrix
TOV
One-month
period return
Two-month
period return
Three-month
period return
Six-month
period return
TOV
1.0000
One-month
period return
-0.0174
1.0000
Two-month
period return
-0.0178
0.7208
1.0000
Three-month
period return
-0.0211
0.5791
0.8257
1.0000
Six-month
period return
-0.0021
0.4277
0.6066
0.7327
1.0000
Twelvemonth period
return
0.0127
0.2941
0.4124
0.5040
0.7092
Twelvemonth period
return
1.0000
Additionally, the author also computes the correlation matrix between stock turnovers (TOV) and stock
future return in each k month(s) period which is displayed in table 7. The results show that correlation
coefficients of stock turnover and stock future return in all periods are negative except for twelve-period future
return. These evidences indicate that stock future return is likely to be negatively related to the stock turnover,
BMIC 2015| page231

which is the same direction of relation between free float and stock future return as reported in section 3.1.
Hence, the evidences from table 6 and 7 seem to suggest that free float is linked with the level of stocks
liquidity and the results from section 3.1 are likely to reflect the liquidity effect on stock future return.
Based on the evidences discussed above, free float seems to affect stock liquidity and equilibrium price
simultaneously. Hence, the authors conjecture is that the predicted effect of free float on stock future return
might still be valid but we cannot observe such pattern of evidences because the liquidity effect dominates the
results. If this conjecture is true, the results shown in section 3.1 will be unsurprised because the regression
model is not designed for distinguishing between predicted effect and liquidity effect. Since the liquidity effect
of free float on stock performance is beyond the scope of this paper, this will remain an important topic for
future research.
4. Conclusion
This research is basically build on the literatures regarding free float and divergence of opinion
hypothesis. Several previous works have been mainly focusing on free float effect on liquidity or stock
performance but fail to consider under the assumption that investors have a divergence of opinion. Hence,
empirical results in this research can provide effect of free float on stock performance in the different viewpoint.
The objective of this study is to provide empirical evidences in regard to the effect of free float on stock future
return when the investors degree of opinion divergence is controlled, and also to provide evidences in regard to
effect of free float change on stock prices when divergence of opinion varies. Lack of free float analysis on this
framework is the gaps filled in this research.
The empirical results show that even when the author controls the investors degree of opinion
divergence, free float and stock future return still exhibit the negative relation and most of coefficient estimates
are significant at the 1% level. This evidence is inconsistent to the prediction and possibly implies that Miller
(1977)s theory might not hold true. However, the results show that divergence of opinion affects the sensitivity
of stock price to free float in the negative direction. The coefficient estimates of the interaction term of
difference of free float and investors degree of opinion divergence are statistically significant at the 5% and 1%
level. This evidence is consistent with the prediction of this research. However, the interesting fact is that most
of the coefficient estimates of difference of free float alone does not exhibit a statistical significance. This
evidence suggests that the effect of stock supply will only occur if the opinions among investors diverge. This
logic makes sense in term of economics theory because if there is no divergence of opinion, demand curve of
investors will be horizontal line. Therefore, the shift of supply curve is unable to affect the equilibrium price of
an asset. As a result, the evidence is supportive to Miller (1977)s theory.
Overall, the results seem to be conflicting. If free float affects stocks in a manner that derived from the
mispriced theory, the results should show a positive relation between free float and stock future return.
However, the author finds that these evidences are in line with the proposition from Weill (2008) who suggests
that free float should be used as a proxy for asset liquidity. He explains that higher free float means higher
liquidity and hence lower liquidity risk. Therefore, stock with higher free float should offer lower expected
return. As a result, this logic argues that free float should be negatively related to stock future return. The author
finds the supportive evidence to this logic by using stock turnover as a proxy for stock liquidity and determines
the relationship between free float and stock turnover by running the pooled cross-sectional regression. The
results indicate the positive relation between free float and stock turnover in which the coefficient estimates are
statistically significant at the 1% level. This evidence informs that free float is positively related to liquidity as
suggested by Weill (2008).
Based on all of the evidences discussed above, free float therefore seems to affect stock
liquidity and equilibrium price simultaneously. Hence, the author conjectures that the predicted effect of free
float to stock future return is still valid but such evidences are unobservable because the liquidity effect
dominates the results. If this conjecture is true, the conflicting results will be expectable because the regression
model is not designed to exclude the liquidity effect from free float. Since the liquidity effect of free float on
stock performance under the divergence of opinion hypothesis is beyond the scope of this paper, this serves as
an important topic for future study.
BMIC 2015| page232

The main implication of this study is that when investors aim to analyze the effect of free float
on stock price, they should also consider the effect of opinion divergence along with its effect. Moreover, this is
also important to the regulators because the implication suggests that a dramatic change of free float of the
stocks that have a significantly high degree of opinion divergence implies the dramatic change of the
equilibrium price. Regulators should be careful with such stocks and design some specific regulation to control
the level of free float to mitigate its effect.
Acknowledgement
It is genuine pleasure to express my deep sense of thanks and gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Narapong
Srivisal. His dedication and keen interest above all his overwhelming attitude to help his students had been
mainly responsible for completing this research. His timely advice, meticulous scrutinize, scholarly advice and
mathematics approach have been helpful to a very great extent to accomplish this task. I am grateful to the
committees, Dr. Nuttawut Jenwittayaroje, and Dr. Tanakorn Likitapiwat for their valuable guidance and their
time they devote to listen, challenge, and comment to improve this study. Without them, this study would never
be whole. Lastly, I would like to thank to my family for always supporting and encouraging me.
References
Ackert, L. F., and Athanasakkos, G. 1997. Prior uncertainty, analyst bias, and subsequent abnormal returns,
Journal of Finance Research. 20, 263-273.
Aggarwal, R., Klapper, L., and Wysocki, P.D. 2005. Portfolio preference of foreign institutio nal investors.
Journal of Banking and Finance. 29, pp. 2919-2946.
Baker, M., Coval, J., and Stein, Jeremy. 2004. Corporate financing decisions when investors take the path of
least resistance. Journal of Financial Economics. 84, 2, 266-298.
Berkman, H., Dimitrov, V., Jain, P.C., Koch, P.D., and Tice, S. 2008. Sell on the news: Difference of opinion,
short-sales constraints and returns around earnings announcement. Journal of Financ ial Economics
Forthcoming.
Bostanci, F., and Kilic, S. 2010. The effects of free float ratios on market performance: An empirical study on
The Istanbul Stock Exchange. The ISE Review. 12 (45), pp. 1-25.
Chen, J., Hong, H., and Stein, J. C. 2001. Breadth of ownership and stock returns. Journal of Financial
Econimics Forthcoming.
Diether, K., Malloy, C., and Scherbina, A. 2002. Differences of Opinion and the Cross -Section of Returns,
Journal of Finance, 57, 2113-2141.
Dimson E. 1979. Risk Measurement when shares are subject to infrequent trading. Journal of Financial
Economics. 5, 263-278.
Eastley, D., OHara, M., Paperman, J., 1998, Financial analysts and information -based trade. Journal of
Financial Markets 1. 175-201.
Fama, E. F., and French, K. R. 1992. The cross section of expected stock returns. Journal of Finance 46. 427 466.
Fama, E. F., and French, K. R. 1993. Common risk factors in the returns of stocks and bonds, Journal of
Financial Economics 33. 3-56.
Goetzmann, W. N., and Massa, M. 2001. Heterogeneity of trade and stock returns: Evidence from index fund
investors. ICF Working Paper No. 00-28, Yale University.
Greenwood, R. 2006. Float manipulation and Stock Price. HBS Working Paper Number: 05-079.
Guo, H., and Savickas, R. 2008. Average idiosyncratic volatility in G7 countries. The Review of Financial
Studies. 21, 1259-1296.
BMIC 2015| page233

Hong, H., Scheinkman, J., and Xiong, W. 2006. Asset float and speculative bubbles. Journal of Finance, 10731117.
Hwang, C. Y., and Qian, X. 2011. Differences of opinion, retail investor sentiment and overvaluation. Journal of
Financial Markets. Vol 19, 219-246.
Liam, D., Lin, B. X., and Michayluk, D. 2011, Demand and supply and their relations hip with liquidity:
Evidence from the S&P 500 change to free float. Financial Analyst Journal, 61(1), 55-71.
Miller, E. M. 1977. Risk, uncertainty, and divergence of opinion. Journal of Finance 32, 1151-1168.
Pastor, L., Stambaugh, R., 2003. Liquidity risk and expected stock returns. Journal of Politics Economy 111,
642-685.
Scheinkman, J., and Xiong W. 2003. Overconfidence and speculative bubbles, Journal of Political Economy
111, 1183-1219.
Weill, P. O. 2008. Liquidity premia in dynamic bargaining markets. Journal of Economic Theory, 140, 66-96.
Wurgler, J., and Zhuravskaya, E. 2002. Does arbitrage flatten demand curves for stocks?. Journal of Business
75: 583-608.
BMIC 2015| page234

Factors affecting customer loyalty: A case study of BCEL bank in Lao PDR.
Lathtanaphone Thykeo, Kriengsin Prasongsukarn and Sirion Chaipoopirutana
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine the factors affecting customer loyalty of a BCEL bank in
Vientiane, Lao PDR. The conceptual framework was developed to represent the relationship between customer
loyalty (dependent variable) and its influencing factors which including service quality (tangibility, reliability,
responsiveness and assurance), switching cost, trust, reputation, habit, customer satisfaction (independent
variable). The researcher surveyed on 400 respondents who had experienced with BCEL bank in Vientiane for
more than three years. Then, this research has five hypotheses and the collected data was analysed by using
SPSS program, Person Correlation Coefficient and Multiple Linear Regression to test the relationship among
factors. The result shows that between all five sub-variables of service quality and trust, switching cost,
reputation, habit, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty have a positive relationship. Moreover, trust and
customer satisfaction with customer loyalty have a positive correlation. Finally, trust has a statistical significant
effect on customer satisfaction.
Keywords: Customer loyalty; BCEL bank; Lao PDR:
1. Introduction
The banking industry in Lao has traditionally operated in a fairly stable environment for decades.
However, modern banking has been very much influenced by globalization. Regulatory, structural and
technological factors are significantly changing the banking environment throughout the world, which is leading
to very intense competitive pressures (Grigoroudis, Politis and Siskos, 2002). At the same time, the Government
of Lao has taken several steps and reforms for its banking industry such as privatizing a number of banks, which
further increases the competition among banks. The competitiveness and dynamic nature of the financial system
is creating a great need to focus more on the customers rather than the product in order to be competitive.
Customers are considered very critical for any organizations success. Maintaining existing customers for
organizations is ever more important than the ability to capture new ones (Wang, Lin and Su, 2003). Hence, the
traditional product-oriented is becoming increasingly customer-oriented, which focuses more on customer
loyalty (Gilmar, 2007). Loyalty and profits are strongly linked to value created for customers; customers are
loyal to a company as long as it offers them superior value compared to its competitors. When they are loyal to a
firm, consumers may minimize time expended in searching and in locating and evaluating purchase alternatives
(Yang and Peteron, 2004). The banking industry in Lao PDR continue to grow, the researcher is highly
interested in conducting a research on customer loyalty towards BCEL bank among Lao consumers. However,
only a few studies concerning customer loyalty of BCEL bank have been conducted in Lao PDR. Therefore, the
researcher is interested in studying this topic and the main studys objective is to investigate the variables that
may have an influence on customer loyalty toward BCEL bank among Lao customers.
1.1 Customer loyalty

According toOliver (1997), Customerloyalty is a deeply held commitment tore utilizes or re-buys a
preferred product or service consistently in the futureeven though the situational influences and the marketing
efforts will have the potential to cause switching behaviour.The willingness of customers to purchase the same
products and retain the same profitable relationship with the particular company (Inamullah, 2012).
BMIC 2015| page235

1.2 Service quality

Parasuraman et al. (1988) defined that service quality is the difference between customer expectation
towards service providers performance and the evaluation of the customer to the services that they experienced
before. Uhl and Upaj (1983) stated that service is intangible and incapable of accompanying a product. In this
study, the researcher applied the definition of Parasuraman et al., (1988) for a good example of operating a
standardized framework of service quality is the SERVQUAL model. There are five generic dimensions in
SERVQUAL model. However, in this study the researcher selected only four variables as follow:
Tangibility: Tangibility is the appearance of physical ability like operational facility and other
equipment (Zeithaml et al., 1988).
Reliability: Reliability is the ability to perform the service consistently and accurately (Zeithaml et
al., 1988).
Responsiveness: Responsiveness is the willingness of a companys staff to help customers and
provide prompt service (Parasuraman et al., 1988).
Assurance: The knowledge and civility of employees and their abilities to convey trust and
confidence (Fitzsimmons, 1994).
1.3 Trust
Gill et al. (2006) described that trust is a critical variable to contribute towards healthy and longtermcustomer relationships, and trust is also considered to become stronger when customers are used to dealing
with the same service provider for a long period of time. Ostrom and Lacobucci (1999) indicatedtrust as the
willingness of customers to completely rely upon an exchange service partner in whom one has complete
confidence. Customers trust upon service might differ depending of their trust towards the firm or the service
provider.
1.4 Switching cost

Shergill and Bing (2006) indicated that switching cost is another determinant of brand loyalty and
which can bethe financial, technical or psychological factor and make expensive or difficultly for customers
tochange to the other brand or service provider. Aydin and Ozer (2005) also observed that switching cost can be
a cost that deters customers from demanding a rival firm's brand.
1.5 Reputation
Hellier (1993) defined that reputation as the perception of quality in the service associated with the
brand name. Herbig and Milewicz (1993) also mentioned that reputation is the estimation of the consistency
over time of an attribute of an entity. Aaker and Keller (1990) defined reputation as a perception of quality
associated with a firms name.
1.6Habit
Kernerman (1996) defined habit as something which a person is used to doing usually or regularly.
Gefen (2003) also indicated that habit is an individual usually does when there is a behavioural preference in the
present. Aarts et al. (1998) stated that most of the habitual behaviours arise and proceed effortlessly, efficiently,
and unconsciously and habit also can predict the customers future behaviour.
1.7Customer satisfaction
BMIC 2015| page236

Brown (1992) indicated that customer satisfaction is a state in which customers wants, needs and
expectations through the products or services life are met to their requirements or exceed their resulting from
repurchase, loyalty and positive word-of-mouth. Levesque and McDougall (1996) also indicated that
satisfaction is a totally perfect attitude of customers towards the service providers.
Based on several previous studies, there are many independent variables that have impacts on customer
loyalty concerning banking industry. Though, Zahorik and Rust (1992) assumed that modeling of perceived
service quality is a predicator of customer loyalty and which can provide significant diagnostic result. Fornell et
al. (1996) also explored that firms, which have a high level of the perceived service quality will also have a high
level of customer loyalty. Besides trust, switching cost, reputation, habit and customer satisfaction are widely
used by researchers in studying consumer loyalty. (Lau et al., 2013; Anka et al., 2013; Yee and Yeung, 2004;
Fakhraddin, 2013; Stan et al., 2013). Sanjit Kumar et al. (2011) indicated that trust is a crucial factor to maintain
and develop on good relationship with customers especially for long-term relationships with the customers. Kon
(2004) explored that if the costs of switching to other brands are higher for the customer, there will be a greater
probability that the customers will remain loyal in terms of repurchase behavior as a consequence of the expense
or risk involved in switching and the accompanying decrease in the appeal of other alternatives. Nguyen and
Leblanc (2001) also explored that reputation is an important determinant of customer loyalty and good corporate
reputation will reinforce customer to repurchase the samebrand. Andreassen and Lindestad (1998) stated that
reputation is the stronger driver and an antecedent of customer loyalty. Liao et al. (2006) also stated that if the
behaviour is driven by habit, it is considered to have more effects on customer repurchase or loyalty. Finally,
Han and Ryu (2009) stated that there is a positive and direct relationship between customer satisfaction and
loyalty. Mittal and Lassar (1988) also mentioned that customer satisfaction is the important determinant for
customer loyalty in the service industry. This study proposes the following hypotheses:
H1: Service quality in terms of tangibility, reliability, responsiveness and assurance do statically
significantly influence with customer satisfaction with BCEL bank.
H2: Service quality in terms of tangibility, reliability, responsiveness and assurance do statically
significant influence customer loyalty with BCEL bank.
H3: There is a statistically significantly relationship between trust and customer satisfaction with
BCEL bank.
H4: Trust, switching cost, reputation and habit do statically significantly influence customer loyalty
with BCEL bank.
H5: There is a statistically significantly relationship between customer satisfaction and customer
loyalty with BCEL bank.
BMIC 2015| page237

3. Methodology
The researcher applied descriptive research to develop this study. Aaker et al. (2000) defined that
descriptive analysis is the procedure to collect, summarize, classify and present data. Zikmund (1999) also
stated that descriptive analysis is the transformation of raw data into a form, which will make them easy to
understand and interpret. Sekeran (1992) claimed that inferential analysis exhibits how variables relate to each
other or whether there is any difference between two or more groups. Pearson Correlation Coefficient and
Multiple Linear Regression Analysis were also employed for data analysis. In addition, a survey method was
adopted to gather information from respondents because of its empirically relevant advantages such as costeffectiveness and flexibility.

The researcher applied both primary and secondary data to achieve the objective of this study. The
researcher applied the survey technique for collecting data as primary data. Even though the distributed numbers
of questionnaires are 420 copies, the researcher use only 400 questionnaires for the analysis of data to reduce
errors in this study. The target populations of this research were both male and female customers who had
experienced with BCEL Bank in Vientiane for more than three years. The research conducted in BCEL banks
service centers in Vientiane. There are a total of 13 service centers in Vientiane. In this research the researcher
selected 6 most populated service centers in Vientiane. The researcher collected the primary data on weekdays
(Monday to Friday) from 11.00 am to 5.00 pm and on weekend (Saturday and Sunday) from 10.00 am to 5.00
pm. The data collected at a specified time during June and July 2015.
BMIC 2015| page238

4. Results
The major group is the female group (65 per cent, 260 respondents). The majority of the respondents
are between 35 and above years old (50 per cent, 200 respondents). The largest personal income in a month is
between 700,001 - 800,000 Kip (26.3 per cent, 105 respondents) with a bachelor degree (43.80 per cent, 175
respondents) as the highest educational level and most are private company employees (41.3 per cent, 165
respondents).
Table 1: the summary of demographic factors

Demographic Factors
Major Group
Percentage sand numbers
Gender
Female
65%(260)
Age
35 and above
50%(200)
Education level
Bachelor Decree
43.80%(175)
Income level (per moth)
700,001-800,000 Kip
26.3%(105)
Occupation
Private company Employee
41.3%(165)
Based on the hypothesis tested by Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, Services quality in term of
(tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance) and trust, switching cost, reputation, and habit influence
customer loyalty toward BCEL bank. By considering the beta coefficient the assurance has the highest beta
value (Beta= 0.419), followed by reputation, tangibility, switching cost, trust and habit.
Table 2. The summary of hypotheses testing results by multi linear regression analysis
Hypothesis
Sub variables
Significance
Beta
Result
H1: Service quality in terms of tangibility,

reliability, responsiveness and assurance statically
significantly influence customer satisfaction with
BCEL bank.
-Tangibility
.000
.267
Rejected
H1o
-Reliability
.286
-.065
-Responsiveness
.000
.302
Rejected
H1o
-Assurance
.120
.109
Failed to
reject H1o
Failed
reject
to
H1o
BMIC 2015| page239

H2a: Service quality in terms of tangibility,
reliability, responsiveness and assurance statically
significant influence customer loyalty with BCEL
bank.
H4a: Trust, switching costs, reputation and habit

statically significant influence customer loyalty
with BCEL bank.
-Tangibility
0.086
.074
Failed to
reject H2o
-Reliability
0.037
.091
-Responsiveness
0.057
.107
Failed to
reject H2o
-Assurance
0.000
.419
Rejected
H2o
-Trust
.000
.195
Rejected
H4o
-Reputation
.868
.008
Failed to
Reject
H4o
- Switching cost
.000
.256
Rejected
H4o
-Habit
.006
.145
Rejected
H4o
Rejected
H2o
According to the hypotheses tested by Pearson Correlation Coefficient method, A Pearsons correlation
coefficient value between trust and customer satisfaction variables is 0.277, and coefficient value between
customer satisfaction and customer loyalty is 0.238 which means that there are a weak positive relationship, the
researcher can conclude that these variables move in the same direction.
Table 3. The Summary of hypotheses testing results by Pearson Correlation.
Hypotheses
Results
Significant
Correlation
Coefficient
Hypothesis 3
There is a statistically significant relationship between trust

and customer satisfaction with BCEL bank.
0.000
0.277**
Hypothesis 5
There is a statistically significant relationship between

customer satisfaction and customer loyalty toward BCEL
bank
0.000
0.238**
The researcher studied about the influencing factors which affect customer loyalty toward BCEL bank
Vientiane, Lao and the primary data are collected from the respondents have maintained an account with BCEL
bank for more than three years. In order to analyze the relationship between the variables, the researcher
collected data samples from the (6) most crowded BCEL service centers in Vientiane, Lao during July and
August of 2015. The researcher applied (5) demographic factors; gender, occupation, age, monthly income,
highest education level in this study.
BMIC 2015| page240

The researcher utilized the Pearson correlation and Multiple Linear Regression to test the correlation of
each hypothesis in this study. The researcher designed five hypotheses and (10) variables; tangibility,
responsiveness, reliability, assurance, trust, reputation, switching costs, habit, customer satisfaction and
customer loyalty in this study. The detailed results of this study are as follows;
The results of hypothesis one showed that there is a statistically significant effect of service quality in
terms of tangibility and responsiveness, which has a statistically significant effect on customer satisfaction.
However, reliability and assurance had no statistically significant effect on customer satisfaction. By
considering the beta coefficient the researcher showed that tangibility and responsiveness have a positive
influence on customer satisfaction with BCEL bank. Responsiveness has the highest beta value which is equal
to .302, which means that it affects customer satisfaction with BCEL bank the most and tangibility has the
lowest beta value which is equals to .267. This result was supported by Sabiret al.(2014), where study was to
analyze the impact of service quality on customer satisfaction in the banking sector in Pakistan, and the results
showed that there is a positive relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction.
The results of hypothesis two showed that there is a statistically significant effect of service quality in
terms of reliability, and assurance has a statistically significant effect on customer loyalty. However, tangibility
and responsiveness have no statistically significant effect on customer loyalty. By considering the beta
coefficient, the researcher showed assurance and reliability have a positive influence on the customer
satisfaction on BCEL bank. Assurance has the highest beta value, which is equal to .419, which means it affects
customer loyalty toward BCEL bank the most and reliability has the lowest beta value, which is equals to
.091.The result of this hypothesis was supported by the study done on perceived service quality and customer
loyalty in retail banking in Kenya and the results pointed out that service quality has a very strong significant
positive relationship with customer loyalty (Aukaet al., 2013).
The results of hypothesis three show, there is a weak positive relationship between trust and customer
satisfaction. This result indicates that trust in BCEL bank influences consumers satisfaction. The result is also
supported by the study about the impact of trust on customer satisfaction and the result indicated that trust has a
very strong significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction (Nazaripour, 2013). The BCEL bank has
been accredited with the international standard of ISO 9001-2008 for banking operations and international
services, which is basically a trust-building image in their customers. It has also been awarded the prestigious
Platinum technology award for quality and best trade name for the year 2013 and BCEL has been operating for
more than two decades with incredible profit margins, which reinforces trust in BCEL bank among its customer
base.
The result of hypothesis four showed that there is a statistically significant effect of trust, switching
costs and habit on customer loyalty. However, reputation has no statistically significant effect on customer
loyalty. By considering the beta coefficient the researcher indicated trust, switching costs and habit have a
positive influence on customer loyalty with BCEL bank and beta weights are coefficients of regression for unstandardized data, which really helps to understand the relative importance of the independent variable in the
model. Switching costs has the highest beta value, which is equal to .256 and it means customer loyalty toward
BCEL is strongly affected by its switching costs and habit has the lowest beta value, which is equal to .145, and
means customer loyalty toward BCEL bank is less affected by habit.
The result is also supported by the study about the factors affecting customer loyalty of using internet
banking in Malaysia and the result indicated that trust and habit have a strong significant positive relationship
with customer loyalty (Yee and Faziharudean, 2010).
The results of hypothesis five showed that there is a weak positive relationship between customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty. This result indicates that customer satisfaction with BCEL bank influences
consumer loyalty. The result is also supported by the study about the factors affecting customer loyalty in
financial services of commercial banks in Jordan,and the result indicated that customer satisfaction has a very
strong significant positive relationship with customer loyalty (Megdadiet al., 2013).
BMIC 2015| page241

6. Further Study
This study was designed to understand the factors affecting customer loyalty toward BCEL bank in
Vientiane, Lao. The following are the recommendations pointed out for future studies. Frist, the researcher in
this study focused only on ten variables because of the limited timeframe and the cost. Further studies could
focus on other variables; such as customer value, which was supported by Pin Luarnet al. (2003); who studied
the factors affecting customer satisfaction of e-banking: 7Ps;which was supported by Mohammed (2015) who
studied the affect of 7Ps on customer satisfaction in the retail banking sector in Nigeria. Second, this research
was only focused on BCEL bank. Further studies could be conducted on other regional banks such as the Lao
development Bank, Phongsavanh Bank and foreign banks such as ANZ Bank, ICBC Bank, and Indochina Bank.
Third, further studies should use the qualitative method to get a much deeper inside understanding and to
explore the causal relationship among variables by using other research techniques such as observation, in-depth
interviews and focus groups. Fourth, in this study the researcher just studied about the relationship between
reputation, trust and customer loyalty. Further studies could be conducted to understand about drivers leading to
reputation and trust. Finally, This study is conducted in Vientiane, Lao and this research can only represent the
customer loyalty of BCEL bank customers who live at Vientiane. Further research could be conducted in other
provinces of Lao such as Champasak province, Savannakhet province or Luangprabang province.
References
Aaker, D. A., Kumar, V., and Day, S. G. (1997). Marketing Research, (6th ed.), New York, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc
Aaker, D. A., Kumar, V., and Day, S. G. (2000). Marketing Research, (7th ed.), New York, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc
Aarts, H., Verplanken, B., and VanKnippenberg, A. (1998), Predicting Behavior from Actions in the Past:
Repeated Decision Making or a Matter of Habit? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(15), 13551374
Akbaba, A. (2006). Measuring service quality in the hotel industry: A study in a business hotel in Turkey.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25, 170-192
Ali, E., Ma, E., and Hailin, Q. U. (2014). Customer Loyalty with Fine Dining: The Moderating Role of Gender.
Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(5), 513-535
Aliabadi., Navid., and Namamian. (2013). Identification and Exploration of Customer Trust of Customer Trust
in E-Banking in Iran. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social, 4(8), 12-21
Andaleeb, S. S., and Conway, C. (2006). Customer satisfaction in the restaurant industry: An examination of the
transaction-specific model. Journal of Services Marketing, 20(1), 3-11
Andreassen, T. W., and Lindestad, B. (1998), Customer Loyalty and Complex Services: The impact of corporate
image on quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty for customers with varying degrees of service
expertise, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 9(1), 7-23
Anca, C., and Daniel, M. (2013).The characteristics of sales forces in relation with marketing activities carried
out by the Romanian companies. ProcediaSoc. Behav.Sci, 62,198-202
Anka, C., Motawa, A., and Vijap, P. (2013). Measuring consumer perception on service quality using
SERVQUAL in public transportation. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 3 (1), 21-34
Annamalah, S., Munusamy, J., Chelliah, S., Sulaiman, M., and Pandian, S. (2011). Service Quality
Transformation and its Impact on Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty in Malaysian Retail Banking
Sector. World Applied Sciences Journal, 15 (10), 1361-1368
Auka, D, O., Bosire, J, N., and Pandian, S. (2013). Perceived Service Quality and Customer Loyalty in Retail
Banking in Kenya. British Journal of Marketing Studies, 1 (3), 32-61
BMIC 2015| page242

Aydin, S., andOzer, G. (2005).The analysis of antecedents of customer loyalty in the Turkish
mobiletelecommunication market. European Journal of Marketing, 39 (7/8), 910-925
Babakus, E., and C. C. Bienstock, J. R. V. Scotter. (2004). Linking perceived quality and customer satisfaction
to store traffic and revenue growth. Decision Sciences,35 (4), 713-737
Babbie, R. E. (2001). Educational Researcher, 30, 3-13
Bae, J., and Cameron, G. T. (2006).Conditioning effect of prior reputation on perception of corporate giving.
Public Relations Review, 32(2), 144-150
Bagozzi, R. P. (1992). The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions, and behavior.Social Psychology Quarterly,55
(2) 178-204
explaining customer loyalty: an extension to the ECSI model. European Journal of Marketing, 38(9/10), 12721293
Beatty, S. E., and Smith, S. M. (1987).External Search Effort An Investigation Across Several Product
Categories, Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (June), 83-95
Beerli A., Martin JD., and Quintana A (2004). A model of customer loyalty in the retail banking market,
European Journal of Marketing, 38(1/2), 253-275
Bei, L., and Chiao, Y. (2006), The determinants of customer loyalty: an analysis of intangible factors in three
service industries. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 16(3), 162-177
Bejou, D., and Palmer, A. (1998). Service failure and loyalty: an exploratory empirical study of airline
customers. Journal of Services Marketing, 12(1), 7-22
Bell, D. D., and Brown, S. W. (2005). Service loyalty: Its nature, importance, and implications. International
Service Quality, 171-180
Blackwell, S. (1999). The antecedents of customer loyalty: an empirical investigation of the role of personal and
situational aspects on repurchase decisions. Journal of Service Research, 1(4), 362375
Bloemer, Josee., Ko de Ruyter., and Martin Wetzels (1999). Linking perceived service quality andservice
loyalty: a multi-dimensional perspective. European Journal of Marketing, 33 (11/12), 1082-1106
Blut, M., Evanschitzky, H., Vogel, V., andAhlert, D. (2007). Switching Barriers in theFour-Stage Loyalty
Model, Advances in Consumer Research, 34, 726-734
Bennett R. (1996). Relationship Formation and Governance in Consumer Markets: Transactional Analysis
versus the Behavioural Approach, Journal of Marketing Management, 12 (5), 417-436
Berenson, M. L., and Levine, D. M. (1996). Basic Business Statistics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey
Brown, Tom J., Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr., and J. Paul Peter. (1992). Improving the Measurement ofService
Quality, Journal of Retailing, 69 (1): 127-139
Carman, J.M. (1990), Consumer perceptions of service quality, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 66, 33-55
Chen, J. V. (2009). The acceptance and diffusion of the innovative smart phone use: A case study of a delivery
service company in logistics. Information and Management, 46(4), 241-248
Chen, S., and Quester, G. (2006). Modeling store loyalty: perceived value in market orientation practice. Journal
of Services Marketing, 20(3), 188-198
Chun, R. (2005). Corporate reputation: Meaning and measurement. International Journal of Management
Reviews,7(2), 91-109
Cronin, J.J., and Taylor, S.A. (1992).Measuring service quality: A re-examination and extension. Journal of
Marketing, 56(3), 56-68.
BMIC 2015| page243

Measuring Investors Behavioral Bias from the Movement of Currency Forward

Rate
Busakorn Wongwanit
Abstract
This research investigates how behavioral finance can explain the failure of forward rate unbiasedness
hypothesis (FRUH) by using the combined influence of two main psychological factors as the explanations:
representativeness (over-reaction) and anchoring heuristic (under-reaction) to explain bias in the trading activity
observing on eight major currencies: Australian Dollar (AUD), Canadian Dollar (CAD), Swiss Franc (CHF),
Euro (EUR), British Pound (GBP), Japanese Yen (JPY), New Zealand Dollar (NZD) and Mexican Peso (MXN).
Also, this research examines whether risk aversion factor is the determinant of the failure of FRUH and
investigates behavior of investors in the trading of foreign exchange rates at how they behave when the risk
level of the market changes by using risk aversions factor as the measurement variable. Apart from this, this
research studies the unbiasedness that may occur from anchoring. The result shows that the over-reaction and
under-reaction can explain some errors in the forecast as investors are systematic under-reaction at short-horizon
and over-reaction at medium- and long- horizons for every currency pairs. For a specific anchoring bias testing,
this research finds that anchoring can also explain some errors in the forecast since the more of anchoring
components when compared to the current forecast of future spot rate, the greater the forecast errors. Therefore,
unbiasedness in the forecast of future spot exchange rate does not occurs from the anchoring. Moreover, the
result indicates that general investors tend to be risk averse during the examined period. Specifically, individual
investors are risk seeking, while institutional investors tend to be risk averse.
Keywords: FORWARD RATE BIAS / BEHAVIORAL BIAS / MARKET RATIONALITY / RISK AVERSION
1. INTRODUCTION
The relationship between spot and forward rates is significant for market participants for a hedging and
a speculating perspective. Many prior studies have found that forward premium is a biased forecast of the future
change in the spot exchange rate. Froot and Thaler (1990) looked at the coefficient on the forward premium ()
from lots of papers observed on major currencies and found that the coefficient are not only smaller than the
theoretical standard value of 1, but their average value is in the negative sign, which means the forward rate
actually points in the wrong direction. These lead to the fact that the forward exchange rate is a biased predictor
of the future spot exchange rate named in the literature as the forward premium (discount) puzzle, which is the
failure of FRUH. Many researchers have tried to find potential explanations of the failure of FRUH including
the risk premium theory, systematic expectations theory and statistical issues theory. Previous empirical studies
generally test for the rationality of the forecasts on general properties such as bias or autocorrelation in errors,
which provide limited insights into behavioral interpretations behind inefficient forecasts.
Behavioral finance is one of the most dynamic and promising fields of economic research as there is an
increasingly large number of empirical researches that cannot be explained by the standard tools and approaches
of mainstream economics; however, it can be reasonable explained by behavioral finance that gives psychologybased theories to explain investors behavior as well as market anomalies. Until now, only currently few
researchers explore on behavioral finance to explain the failure of FRUH by using behavioral factors to explain
such variation of the forward rate bias across currencies.
BMIC 2015| page244

Risk aversion is generally human behavior to avoid risk or uncertainty, especially for consumers and
investors. Risk averse investors stay away from high risk investments and tend to prefer investments that give a
certain return. Rieger et al (2011) studied about the prospect theory around the world and discovered that risk
aversion of each countries are different. Emerging countries tend to be more risk averse. The causes are not only
from economic condition, but also cultural factors. They stated that cultural difference do not create the
qualitatively difference of risk preference as most people worldwide tend to follow behavior of prospect theory
introduced by Kahneman and Tversky (1979): risk averse in gains, risk seeking in losses and loss aversion since
most people tend to value gains and loss differently and feel that loss have emotional impacts than the similar
amount of gain. Mohanram and Gode (2013) and Aggarwal, Lucey and Conner (2014) find that there is a strong
linkage between risk aversion factor and analysts forecast errors for asset markets such as equity and gold
markets. Since forecast revisions may be influenced by behavioral bias that allow price to deviate from market
rationality, this paper aims to capture the behavioral bias of investors. Thus, risk aversion might be the
determinant of the failure of FRUH in foreign exchange market and to my knowledge, there is no research
recently has been studied about the risk aversion factor and forecast errors in foreign exchange market. Structure
1.1 Objective of the Study

As the sources of forward rate bias are still unclear and only few researches have examine the possible
explanation of the failure of FRUH across currencies using behavioral finance, the main objective of this
research is to shed possible explanations on the failure of FRUH using the combined influence of two main
psychological factors as the explanations: representativeness (over-reaction) and anchoring heuristic (underreaction) to explain bias in the trading activity observing on eight major currencies listed in the Chicago
Mercantile Exchange (CME), which are Australian Dollar (AUD), Canadian Dollar (CAD), Swiss Franc (CHF),
This research examines whether risk aversion factor is the determinant of the failure of FRUH by using Put-Call
ratio as the measurement variable. Also, this research aims to gauge investors behavior in the trading of foreign
exchange rates, which are dealer intermediary, asset manager, leverage fund and others reportable at how they
behave when the risk level of the market changes. Furthermore, this research aims to investigate whether the
unbiasedness that may occur from anchoring. The research questions are as following:: Does risk aversion factor
plays an important role in explaining the failure of forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis (FRUH)?, How
representativeness (over-reaction) and anchoring heuristic (under-reaction) of the trading activity explain errors
in the forecast of future spot exchange rates? And does the unbiasedness occur from anchoring?
1.2 Contribution
Previous empirical studies generally test for the rationality of forward rate as forecast of the future spot
rate for broad property which is bias or autocorrelation in errors. Many researchers try to find possible
explanations of the failure of FRUH such as the risk premium theory, systematic expectations theory and
statistical issues theory. Such studies provide limited insight to the behavior factors that driving to the failure.
One motivation behind this work is aiming to investigate behavior of investors in the trading of foreign
exchange rates and look at how investors behave when the risk level of the foreign exchange market has
changes. Also, this research aims to test whether risk aversion factor is the determinant in the failure in the
forecast of future spot exchange rate. Specifically, I study the over- and under- reaction of the trading activity on
how can they explain some errors in the forecast. Moreover, this research examines whether the unbiasedness
occurs from the anchoring and whether anchoring shed possible explanations in forecast errors of future spot
exchange rate.
The organization of this thesis is as follows: Chapter 1 present the Introduction and motivation behind
this thesis while Chapter 2 provide the literature reviews of past related researches in the efficient market
hypothesis, behavioral decision theory, rationality test of forward rate as forecast of future spot rate, forward
rate unbiasedness hypothesis and possible explanations of failure of FRUH. Chapter 3 present the developed
hypothesis. Chapter 4 shows data and descriptive statistic of the sample. Chapter 5 shows the methodology to
answer the research questions. Chapter 6 provides the conclusions of this thesis.
BMIC 2015| page245

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The Efficient Market Hypothesis

To begin with, the efficient market hypothesis (EMH) was firstly introduced by Fama (1970). This
theory consists of three types of market test with the market efficiency concepts based on various information
sets (i) The Weak Form: Past information is already reflected on price, or the foreign exchange rate forecasting
based on historical exchange rate. (2) The Semi-Strong Form: Public information is united in the asset price, or
the prediction of foreign exchange rate based on the availability of public information and (3) The Strong-Form:
All available information, together with the private information is reflected in the asset price, or forecasting of
foreign exchange rates made by agents, such as the central bank, who may have more information than others.
Lots of researchers support the weak-form tests, which show that the technical analysis model, which
observes on the basis of past realized spot rate is a technique for predicting changes in foreign exchange rate, do
better than the fundamental analysis model at predicting foreign exchange rate in the short run. The results of De
Nederlandsche Bank and the Bank of Canada also state that although the central bank own more information in
term of monetary and exchange rate policy, they cannot predict the future spot rate. Many researchers conclude
that fundamental analysis models using publicly available macroeconomic variables to estimate exchange rates,
such as inflation and interest rates, are not successful in predicting foreign exchange rate in the short-run.
Grossman and Stiglitz (1976) contributed an important message that information is costly to collect and analyze,
so not all information will be collected. Therefore, market will never be fully efficient or strong-form.
2.2. Behavioral Decision Theory
A large number of empirical researches in behavioral decision making has shown that intuitive
predictions of people are directed by heuristics influence that sometimes lead to biases. Heuristics are the using
of past experiences to make quick decisions that normally systematically deviate from normative statistical
rules. As stated by Staw (1981) that people tend to have a strong commitment to a course of action once a
choice is made. Many researchers investigate whether such heuristics affect the predictions of important
financial variables such as earnings [Amir and Ganzach, 1998; DeBondt and Thaler, 2009; Marsden,
Veeraraghavan and Ye, 2007]. The developments in behavioral decision theory indicate that the forecasters are
often affected by two main heuristics principles: representativeness heuristic (over-reaction) and the anchoring
and adjustment heuristic (under-reaction).
The representativeness heuristic leads to excessively extreme predictions or overreaction. Overreaction
means people place too much weight on recent information in forming their expectations regarding future
events. It was firstly defined by psychologists named Kahneman and Tversky in the 1970s. It is a decisionmaking shortcut that use recent past experiences to guide the decision-making process. In the psychological
term, it refers to the conception that when people confront with a new experience and have to make decision in
that situation, they automatically rely on the current past experiences as mental representations to guide their
decisions. Relying on past experiences allow for quick conclusions, but the accuracy might be bias because the
fact that a new situation and the situation exists in the memory cannot be comparable. Shefrin (2000) said that
representativeness is about reliance on stereotypes. The Gamblers Fallacy is one of examples of representative
heuristics. The example situation is that if a coin was flipped 10 times, and each time it landed with the "heads"
side facing up, someone relying on gambler's fallacy would believe the chance of it being heads the 11th time
would be very low. However, in reality the probability does not change. The probability of a coin being heads or
tails is still 50 percent no matter how many times the coin is flipped. Another example is that investors may
conclude earning growth from a consistent past histories earning growth of some companies too far into the
future. Then, investors over-value and overprice these companies and become disappointed in the future when
the forecasted earnings growth is not as expected because they use the representativeness heuristic without
considering that a history of high earnings growth is unlikely to repeat itself. Kahneman and Tversky stated that
people have tendency to be overly influenced by the judgment of representativeness since representativeness is
the automatic adjustment to assess similar outcomes and then to use these assessments of similarity as a basis of
judgment. Shiller (2000) stated that representativeness heuristic is another aspect of overconfidence as people
tend to make judgments to uncertain situations by looking for past familiar patterns and assuming that future
patterns will repeat past ones, frequently without enough consideration of the reasons. Such overreaction tends
to drive prices to be above their fair or rational market value, only to have rational investors take opposite side
BMIC 2015| page246

of the trades and bring prices eventually back in line. In other words, investors interpret the data of recent past
earning using the representativeness heuristic in forecasting of future earnings. Therefore, the representativeness
heuristic is the evidence of overreaction described above.
The anchoring and adjustment heuristics leads to under-reaction. Under-reaction means people
place too little weight to recent information. Kahneman and Tversky (1974) also introduced the concept of
anchoring and adjustment. They stated that in many situations, people make decisions by starting from an initial
value and adjusted to yield the final answer. However, the adjustments are naturally insufficient as stated by
Slovic and Lichtenstein (1971) because the different starting points lead to different estimates, which biased
toward the initial values. During decision making, individuals tend to rely too heavily on an initial piece of
information offered to make subsequent judgments. For example, Donoho (2003) used anchoring and
adjustment to explain why sales employees often introduce the premium brand first. Some salesmen might
promote the most expensive model rather than a typical model first, such as the premium TV because the
salesman is trying to make the customer anchored to the high price, so when they offer a lower price, the
customer will estimate that the lower price is a good value one. Individuals are usually conservative, so their
final judgment is usually biased towards the initial point of departure. Anchoring heuristic causes investors to
underreact to updated information. For stock markets, Montier (2002) found that it has a tendency to under-react
to fundamental information, and past prices are likely to act as anchoring for todays prices.
2.3. Rationality Test of Forward Rate as Forecast of Future Spot Rate

The FRUH states that the forward rate should be an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate.
The k-period forward exchange rate agreed at time t should be equal to the expectation of future spot rate
formed at time t to the forecast of future spot exchange rate at time
, where k is the length of forward
contract.
To test for rationality, the typical analysis involves running regression with the forecast of future spot
exchange rate at time
,
, which is the dependent variable regressed on the forecast available prior to
the data release or
. If the hypothesis for rationality holds, the intercept () should be zero and slope ()
should be indifferent from one. Also, the error term should not be auto-correlated.
2.4. Forward Rate Unbiasedness Hypothesis(FRUH)

The theoretical foundation of the FRUH forms in the Uncovered Interest Parity (UIP) condition and
Covered Interest Parity (CIP) condition. If UIP holds the expected changes in spot exchange rate for a k-period
)should be indifference from the difference of the domestic and foreign nominal interest
horizon( (
)
rate (
). CIP states that the nominal interest rate differential between two countries (
) must not be
different to the countries forward exchange rate premium or discount (
).
Using UIP and CIP condition, FRUH can be formulated by simply substituting the expected changes in
the spot rate with the ex-post changes in the spot rate plus an error term. FRUH is the joint hypothesis of the
conditions of UIP and rational expectations under the assumption of risk neutrality. Therefore, the future change
in spot exchange rate for a k-period horizon should be equal to current forward premium. Isard (2008) stated
that if the ex-post spot exchange rate appreciation (depreciation) should be equal to the forward exchange rate
premium (discount) including a random forecasting error.
To perform empirical tests of the FRUH, most of the research commonly use the Fama Regression
(Fama, 1984) to test whether the current forward premium (
)is an unbiased predictor of the future spot
exchange rate return(
) by regressing current forward premium on the future spot exchange rate
return. The main focus of FRUH is not on how accurate of the forward exchange rate forecast, but it is rather on
whether the forecast errors are systematically biased.
Algebraically, the regression equation is
+ (
)+
where
is the ex post
future percentage depreciation defined as (
) , and
is the forward discount with the maturity that
matching to the ex post depreciation defined as ( - ). Also, is equivalent to the log of the spot exchange
rate at time t and
is equivalent to the log of the forward exchange rate at time t.
BMIC 2015| page247

If the rational expectations are true, the forward exchange rates fully reflect available information about
the expectation of investors, so forward rate should be unbiased forecasts of future spot rates, so the null
hypothesis of unbiasedness is = 1, which imply that there is no systematic time-varying component to the
prediction errors:
= or
. With null hypothesis of = 1, if the null hypothesis are rejected,
it means that FRUH does not hold. The implication as the null hypothesis rejected is that market participants
may make systematic, time varying forecast errors, which mean the forward exchange rate does not correctly
predict the future spot rate movement on average. This null hypothesis is a joint hypothesis between two distinct
conditions, which are rational expectations:
, where
is the mathematical expectation
(within-sample), and st e is the expectation held by investors, and no time-varying risk premium:
Also, the error term {
} is serially uncorrelated.
Numerous empirical researches frequently found slope ( ) to be closed to -1 rather than 1 which
required by FRUH observed on developed market currencies (Froot and Thaler, 1990); (Gospodinov, 2009). It
means that the forward bias puzzle is commonly accepted, which implies that the forward exchange rate is a
biased predictor of the future spot rate and high interest rate currencies tend to be appreciate rather than
depreciate. Frankel and Rose (1994) argued that
( )less than zero may only occur to freely-floating
exchange rate system since as they observed on Euro currencies and found that their estimated slope ( ) were
much closer to zero because the currencies pegged to Euro.
2.5. Possible Explanations of Failure of FRUH

The first theory that have been commonly used to explain the failure of the hypothesis is a risk
premium theory. Bernoth et al (2005) found that a time-varying approach leaded to the failure of risk premium
as it is negatively correlated with expected spot exchange rate since variance of risk premium is greater than the
variance of the expectation errors. Frankel and Poonawala (2010) found that forward rate biasedness is less
pronounced for developing market currencies than for developed market currencies as they found the slope
coefficient is much close to zero for the developing market currencies, but it is less than zero for developed
market currencies. Therefore, they suggested that a time-varying exchange rate risk premium may not be the
explanation for bias since to invest in emerging market probably be riskier, but the finding shows that bias in
their forward rate is smaller, which might be because high riskiness in emerging market currencies may not
entirely embedded in the exchange rate risk premium. Engel (1996) and Burnside et al. (2010) also concluded
that time-varying exchange rate risk premium do not explain the forward rate bias.
The second theory is the systematic expectations theory, which explains that market participants make
systematic prediction errors. The main idea is that market participants make irrational expectations as they are
not risk neutral and rational as assumed. One subcategory under the systematic expectations theory that
commonly used to explain the failure is The Carry Trade Effect, which causes the short-term bias from
fundamentals. The recent studies suggested that the momentum inherent in carry trades may lead to worsen
biasedness (Spronk et al,2013; Verschoor and Zxinkels, 2013).
The final board theory used to explain the failure is the sample bias or misspecification. For example,
sampling error (Breuer and Wohar,1996) , near co-integration (Maynard, 2003), small sample sizes and serial
correlation in the forward premium(discount) (Baillie and Bollerslev,2000), nonlinearities in the data (Clarida et
al., 2001), and omitted variables (McBrady, 2005; Pippenger, 2011). Also, Barnhart and Szakmary (1991) stated
that conflicting results of FRUH may due to the different time period that examined and specific factors during
the period. Lothian and Wu (2003) identified that their sample data in 1980s resulted in the negative slope
estimates due to the changes of monetary policy in US and UK.
As a time varying risk premium as well as other theories are proved that they do not helpful, the
question then becomes how the findings of bias can be interpreted as behavioral factors. In the field of
behavioral finance, which recently has not been much studied to explain the failure of FRUH, there are only the
research of DeGrauwe et al (2005) and Aggarwal and Zong (2008). DeGrauwe et al stated that behavioral
bubble or wave of optimism leads asset prices to be higher than its true value causes biasedness in forward
exchange rates as investors stick on the trading strategies in the prior periods that have been profitable.
Aggarwal and Zong found that the FRUH of nine industrialized currencies is firmly rejected and market
overlook is pessimism in that period of time. Also, forecast revisions in forward rates as forecast of future spot
BMIC 2015| page248

rates reflect systematic under-react to new information since the slow reaction to new information lead to such
bias.
3. HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
The primary objective of this study is to measure investors behavioral bias from the movement of
currency forward rate. Particularly, this research aims to find out whether risk aversion factor can offer possible
explanations to the failure of FRUH since forecast revisions generally reflect changes in fundamental such as
economic conditions and interest rates, then there are economically rational as it should be upwards after
positive news and downwards after negative news. However, when exchange rates move for reasons unrelated
to fundamentals, it implies that the professional forecasters revise their forecast based on noise rather than
changes in fundamentals, where noise is generated by psychological factors. This research uses risk aversion
factor as the representative for noise that might lead to inaccurate forecast values of future spot exchange rates
of professional forecasters since people value gains and loss differently and feel that loss have emotional
impacts than the similar amount of gain. . This research firstly predicts that after controlling for risk aversion
factor, forecast errors are expected to drop since risk aversion might be the determinant of the failure of FRUH.
Moreover, to measure investors behavioral bias, this study predicts that the anchoring and adjustment
heuristic (under-reaction) will dominate the prediction overtime because in reality, people learn slowly and are
usually conservative, so they difficultly shake off their initial value memories; therefore, when information is
processed, currency traders are less likely to deviate from the previous anchors to make the forecast. Therefore,
the last prediction is that foreign exchange forecasters will place more weight on the anchoring of series of
realized spot rate over time rather than the current forward rate because most people tend to stick to their pasts
when making decisions.
Hypothesis 1: After controlling for risk-aversion, the forecast errors will be decline.
Hypothesis 2: The anchoring heuristic (under-reaction) will dominate the prediction overtime.
Hypothesis 3: Forecasters place more weight on the anchor of series of realized spot rate rather than the
current forecast of future spot rate.
4. DATA AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTIC

This research uses the data of the aggregate value of put/call open interests on currency future options
on each currency pair listed in the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME Index) for the eight major currencies,
which are available dating back to June 13, 2006 till 2014 at weekly frequency. Since the research of Cochrane
(2001) identified risk aversion as a concept in asset pricing model, which does not frequently change over dayto-day due to the fact that it reflects preference. It changes over the horizon that the excess returns are predicted.
Therefore, this research studies in weekly frequency.
Options on futures use the basic concepts such as delta, time value and strike price similar to options,
except for different in each product specifications such as price specification (e.g. A 1$ change in an option is
equivalent to $1, but with a $1 change in futures contract is worth $250.). It is the options that are traded on the
underlying futures contracts, so future index, volatility and time-value decay are the key factors influencing
priced of the options. The purchaser of a futures option contract has the right but not obligation to a particular
futures position at a specified price or strike price at any time before the option expires. When a futures option is
exercised, it is opened at the predetermined strike price in the both account of buyer and seller. Future options
generally expire almost the end of the month before the delivery month of the underlying future contract. The
following table shows that buyer positions are equivalent to long- call and short- put open interest, while seller
positions are converted from short- call and long- put open interest.
BMIC 2015| page249

Futures Positions Assumed Upon Option Exercise
Buyer Position- Open Interest
Seller Position- Open Interest
Call Option
Long Futures Position
Short Futures Position
Put Option
Short Futures Position
Long Futures Position
The data and detail can be found on U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission or the CFTC
website, which is an independent agency of the US government created in 1974 aiming to regulate futures and
option markets. The CFTC establishes the Commitments of Traders (COT) reports which provide detail legacy
reports of open interest in weekly frequency on every Tuesday for the whole market and the concentration of
positions held by the largest four types of reportable traders: dealer intermediary, asset manager, leverage fund
and others reportable, who generally fill a statement with the commission on CFTC Form 40 defined as
following:
(1) Dealer Intermediary
Dealer intermediary includes large banks both US and non-US banks and dealers in securities, SWAPS
and other derivatives. Those are sell- side participants, who receive commissions on selling financial products.
Their duty is to accommodate clients.
(2) Asset Manager
Asset manager consists pension funds, endowment funds, insurance companies, mutual funds and
portfolio/investment managers whose clients are mainly institutional investors.
(3) Leverage Funds
Leverage funds are generally hedge funds and money managers. These types of traders may trade on
behalf of individual investors since their duty is to help one-on-one with clients after their investments such as
gathering information and market research to provide to clients and suggests possible way for them to make the
investment decisions and to reach their financial goals. However, the last decision depends on the client himself.
Therefore, this type of traders is considered to be the representative of individual investors.
(4) Other Reportable
This type of traders are not placed into any one of the prior three categories. The traders in this
category generally use markets to hedge for business risk, which including of corporate treasuries, central banks,
smaller banks, mortgage originators and credit unions.
Asset manager, leverage funds and other reportable are considered to be buy-side participants as they
are clients of the sell-side participants. They use the markets to invest, hedge, manage risk as well as to
speculate.
As only the data of the aggregate value of put/call open interests are available to just only eight major
currencies, which are Australian Dollar (AUD), Canadian Dollar (CAD), Swiss Franc (CHF), Euro (EUR),
British Pound (GBP), Japanese Yen (JPY), New Zealand Dollar (NZD) and Mexican Peso (MXN), this research
requires spot and forward exchange rates are quoted against US dollar at weekly frequency for just these eight
major currencies, which can be sourced from Bloomberg Database. For forward rates, 3-month, 6-month, 12month and 2-year forward rates are required.
5. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS
2.1. Testing for Behavioral Bias
This research focuses on the relationship between forecast errors and forecast revisions on a particular
period, and the forward rate is assumed to be the forecast of future spot rate. The regression analysis uses the
following models:
= + (
BMIC 2015| page250
(1)

This is the test for weak-form market efficiency which assumes the market is efficient and the forecast
of foreign exchange rate is based on the past exchange rate.The dependent variable(
) is regressed on the
independent variable (
). Since the dependent variables are expected to suffer from autocorrelation or
heteroscedasticity due to the overlapping of value, OLS with Newey-West HAC standard errors are regressed
for all time horizons: 6-Month, 12-Month and 2-Year with the appropriate number of lags to control for
autocorrelation.
Measurement of Forecast Errors(
): In order to forecast exchange rates, this research capture
their performance overtime to determine whether the forecasting procedure is satisfying by investigating the
pattern of forecast errors, which is defined as the difference between the forward rate of period
formed at
time and the future spot rate realized value at time
as a percentage of the realized value of future spot
rate:
. The forecast errors for a particular currency depends on the forecast horizons, which are
classified into three horizons: Short-term horizon (

Long-term horizon (
).
), Medium-term horizon (
)and
):This research assumes that markets continuously revise

Measurement of Forecast Revisions(
their expectations with new information. Amir and Ganzach (1998) state that analysts usually base their
forecasts on the previous information set and combined with new information to predict future company
earnings, which consistent to the statement of Kozlova (2013) that economists and market participants revise
their forecasting strategies as the new information becomes available and such revisions may incorporated
changes in a countrys institution, political, policy and economic situations as well as shocks to technology.
Forecastrevisions refer to the revisions after an original forecast for future spot exchange rate, which is defined
as the difference between the forward rate of period
formed at time and the previous forward rate of
period
formed at time
as a percentage of the previous forward rate of period
formed at time
(
. Forecast errors are correspond to the forecast revisions. It is the process reflected in how the
forward exchange rate changes as a forecast of a future spot rate. For example, the different between 3- Month
and 6-Month forward rate as forecast of the same future spot rate.
The intercept () is a measure of traders degree of optimism or pessimism. If it is positive, it means
the forecast future spot exchange rates go above the realized value of future spot exchange rate implying that
traders are over-optimistic. However, if it is negative, it means that traders are pessimistic. The slope () is a
measure of foreign exchange traders propensity to over- or under-reaction. A positive sign of implies
overreaction because traders revise upwards their forecast revisions, while a negative indicates under-reaction
since traders revise downward their forecast revisions. If the coefficients of both and are zero, it means that
analysts forecast of future spot exchange rates are not behavioral bias or forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis
holds.
The result of table III shows that the intercept () of overall tested currencies are statistically negative
in every horizons. The examined horizons are 6-month horizon(Panel A), 12-month horizon (Panel B) and 2year horizon (Panel C). The regression results show that the rationality hypothesis is firmly rejected and
revisions in forward rates as forecasts of future spot rates during the examined period indicates the trend of
pessimist market as expected because it was the period of the subprime mortgage crisis and economic recovery
periods. Investors would withdraw their money from risky assets. Exchange rate is the most liquid asset of all,
so it is normally very sensitive during the crisis.
The estimated coefficient of
or the revisions in the forward rates forecast of the future spot
exchange rate for overall currencies for 12-month (medium-term) and 2- year ( long-term) horizons are
statistically significantly positive. The positive slope coefficients indicates that the changes in forward rates
excessively reflect the expected changed as they overreact to information. For 6-month horizon (short-term), the
statistically significantly negative coefficient for all currency pairs imply that the changes in forward rates does
not reflect the expected changed in the expected changed as they underreact to information.
Moreover, the explanatory power or are generally the highest at 2-year horizons, but they are almost
close to zero at 6- month horizon for every currencies. This evidence clearly shows the long horizon behavioral
bias, and the FRUH almost hold at the short horizon for currency pairs, which is consistent to the fact that at
short horizon the FRUH did hold, and the longer the horizon, the larger forecast errors as it is more difficult to
BMIC 2015| page251

predict because there is more time for economic and political conditions to change which the forecast of future
spot exchange rate to stay farther from the realized value of future spot rate.
Overall, even though high trading volume in currency market, systematic deviation from rationality
also happens in this market. These preliminary results indicate that overall traders in foreign exchange markets
tend to be pessimistic in that period of time. The main conceptual contribution is to show that when there is
overreaction in the long -and medium- horizons, there must eventually be under-reaction in the shorter horizon,
which conform to the evidence for equity market.
2.2. Behavioral Bias and Risk Aversion Factor

Since risk aversion might be the determinant of the failure of FRUH in foreign exchange market, this
research uses Put-Call ratio (PCR) as the proxy for itto capture noise and to measure the sentiment of
investors.Koutsikos (2012) compared the performance between Put-Call ratio (PCR) and Chicago Board
Options Exchange market volatility index (VIX), which is frequently used as a quick proxy for risk aversion.
For the asset class of currencies, he found that Put-Call ratio (PCR) from options is the most suitable as an
explanatory variable. The reason to trade call and put options is to provide risk manager the capacities for
controlling risks in foreign exchange exposure.
PCR is qualify as a market sentiment indicator, which is the total amount of open interest in puts
divided by the amount of open interest in calls. Open interest is the total of all future options contracts entered
into but not yet offset by a transaction, which are traded for all currently listed contracts in a series. It is a
contrarian indicator. The more open interest in puts means the market sentiment is bearish because put options
can be used to protect against the currency declines. Thus, when the ratio exhibits high values, the risk averse is
increasing. On the other hands, if more of open interest in calls means the market sentiment is bullish as buying
call options is a way to protect against increases in currency value. Therefore, when the ratio shows low value,
the risk aversion is decreasing. As the ratio of one indicates normal market condition, the ratio over one
indicates a bearish market and the ratio under one is the indicative of a bullish market. Spot options trades do
not generally authorize the tracking volume of open interest as they are traded in the OTC market, but currency
futures options is trading on the exchange and such open interest volumes of exchange traded derivative is
transparent. With futures, the value of all open interests for both call and put options are on a single futures
contract. Even the underlying of a futures option is the futures contract, not the commodity, the futures price
closely tracks the commodity price.
Risk aversion is controlled for every maturities to explain whether noise plays an important role in
explaining the failure of FRUH. Specifically, this research observes whether the forecast errors and decrease
as expected.If
increases after controlling for risk aversions factor, then it could be implied that risk aversions
factor does not involve to the failure of FRUH. The dependent variable(
) is regressed on the independent
variable (
) with
or risk aversion of market as the control variable. The model is constructed as
following::
= + (
(2)
The result is contradict to the statement of Figlewski (1978a) that the more risk averse the traders are,
the more homogeneous their expectation and information, the more efficient we expect the market would be. As
after controlling for risk aversion factor, the market deviates relatively further from efficiency. The result
supports that market will never be fully efficient due to information cost. This implies that different types of
investors are provided by different level of information. Therefore, the market will have heterogeneous
expectations and information and these lead to the diversification in price expectations among market
participants.
Table IV shows that the intercepts () of tested currencies are still generally statistically significantly
negative, which reflects systematic pessimism of the market trend. The results are not as expected since after
controlling for risk averse factor,
do not decline and
increase more than double, but the explanatory
power of model is still low at shorter horizons.
BMIC 2015| page252

According to the results, rational expectation is still clearly rejected and risk aversion factor does not
play a role to the failure of FRUH. The longer the maturities, the more behavioral bias occurs. The estimated
coefficients of
are still overreact in the 12-month (medium-tern) and 2-year (long-term) horizons and
underreact in the 3-month horizon (short-term) as the previous results. Generally, there is overreaction in the
long -and medium- horizons and gradually be under-reaction in the shorter horizon. The results are identical for
all currency pairs, except for Japanese Yen (JPY). JPY also overreacts in the short-maturity due to risk averse
culture as most people have no tolerance for risk. Japanese people tend to focus more on potential problems
rather than opportunity. Brinton, co-author of A Japan that Turns Its Back on Risk said that the stock market
is not the only place that the Japanese people do not like to take chances. Therefore, during financial crisis and
pessimist market, when Japanese people receive any information, they tend to be risk averse and overestimate
future spot prices.
The market risk aversion factor is universally positive at all maturities for each currency pairs, except
for Mexican Peso (MXN). The positive relationship between forecast errors and markets PCR means that when
risk aversion rises, the market will constantly overestimate future spot prices; in other words, market sentiment
during the observing periods is bearish and risk averse. In contrast, MXN has negative relationship between
forecast errors and the risk aversion factor for all maturities, which imply that when risk aversion rises, the
market will underestimate future spot prices; in other words, sentiment of the market for this currency is bullish
and not risk averse. The reasons are that MXN is the representative currency for emerging market currencies
and one of the most liquid of emerging market currencies during the financial crisis .It is one of the most traded
of emerging market currencies during the financial crisis since investors use MXN as a general proxy for risk
and they will place a hedge for their portfolio via the peso. As shown, each currency stylized facts causes some
currencies results to be different.
2.3. The Measurement of Investors Behavioral Bias
This research also aims to capture the reaction of four largest types of traders in the market, which are
dealer intermediary, asset manager, leverage fund and others reportable.
The dependent variable(
) is regressed on the independent variable (
) with
of each types of
traders as the controlled variables for every maturities to better understand their behavior. The model is built as
following:
(
)
(
)
)
=+
(
(
)
)
(3)
Overall, the evidence from Table V confirms with the results of Table IV because the estimated
coefficients are generally statistically positive and significant in medium-term and long-term, and statistically
significantly negative in the short-term for whole currencies, again except for Japanese Yen (JPY) whose
currency overreacts to all maturities. Also,
are higher in the longer horizons. The only difference is the
intercept of overall tested currencies switches from statistically negative to statistically positive for every
horizons, again except for JPY. The overall market mood changes since these traders play a significant role in
the market.Their behaviors reflects the mood of the market.
The negative relationship of forecast errors and PCR of leverage funds indicates that hedge funds and
money managers, who trade on behalf individual investors are not risk averse. Individual investors are
considered to have behavioral-based trading or contrarian investing style, which is based on common sense and
value investing principles. Their investment style goes against the trend of the market by buying and selling in
contrast to the trend at that time. This type of investors is looking for the undervalued but healthy assets that
everyone else does not want and hope them to turn around. Contrarian investors help to minimize the downside
risk of price and reduce the effect of large institutional investors as well as small institutional investors. This
result is consistent to many other papers observed in various equity market which agree that individual investors
tend to be contrarian in their investment decisions.
There are the positive relationship of forecast errors and PCR of asset managers and other reportable,
which means they are generally risk averse. These two types of traders are institutional investors, who tend to
have more information as they are provided with professional analysis, recommendations and exposed to variety
BMIC 2015| page253

of financial instruments that are not possible for individual investors. They tend to perform more rational
decision making than individual investors since they are financially sophisticated and are much larger than
individual investors. Asset managers and other reportable are considered to be information based trading. For
example, mutual fund managers are belonged to asset manager type of traders. Their duties are to offer investors
the advantages of portfolio diversification and professional management at low cost to maximize returns on their
financial resources, which are typically their saving, so mutual funds managers must provide their clients as
ideal way to profit from investment and avoid the risk to loss.
Dealer intermediary represents the sell-side participants, who accommodate buy-side participants. The
positive relationship between forecast errors and PCR of dealer intermediary implies that the general investors
are risk averse during the examined period, except for British Pound (GBP) due to their risk seeking in nature of
British people. As shown, each type of traders has its own trading strategies depending on information they have
received and their rational decision making levels. These findings provide evidence that individual investors are
more overconfident than institutional investors during market losses.
Overall, to measure investors behavioral biases, this study focuses on two common tendencies of
human behavior, which are the representative and anchoring heuristic to explain the patterns, which is sensible
in the term of time series. The over-reaction from price swing generally occurs in the medium and long horizons
and it is not long lasting. Investors react unreasonably to new information, which is the simple nature of
arbitrage strategies, this causes the assets price to change dramatically, so the price will not fully reflect the true
value of assets. Traders do not know whether or not the price have reached the equilibrium price; therefore, they
continue to trade even after the equilibrium has been reached as they only trade on the recent price changes.
This result is consistent to the results of many empirical researchers who found that forecasts by individuals
systematically bias toward arbitrary reference points or anchoring heuristic which serves as based for the
prediction. As for forecasting future spot exchange rates, forecasters use historical exchange rate to predict
future values. The result supports the weak- form tests of technical analysis model. Even though forecast errors
are biased in a predictable way, forecast errors are large because traders generally wait for the release of news to
enter into trading positions and takes benefit from the momentum to be generated when the news release.
However, somehow the expectations of news have already been priced in and the market will only support the
expectations of news with the actual data after the release of the news, and this caused overreaction in prices.
Also, rising in price after the release of positive news are just temporary and in some cases the price reverses
within minutes. News traders are usually affected by this type of behavioral bias. To overcome this type of bias,
investors should have a long term view of the market by conducting an analysis of the market and consider the
possible effects of the upcoming events with valuating the priced events.
Overtime, there must eventually be under-reaction in the shorter horizon because people bias toward
the belief that this asset prices are still over-value, so they let the price to adjust to its true value in order to buy
optimal price of asset. Therefore, as it is usually hard for people to shake off their pervasive biases when face
with new information and new information diffuses slowly across the people, this causes under-reaction in the
short horizon. The under-reaction means that momentum traders will be profit from chasing trade. Bias toward
anchoring leads to underweight new information as they might be too slow in cooperating new information and
bias their forecasts toward different period of the arbitrary point of departure that depend on which information
periods that investors treat as starting points for the prediction and base their judgment to. Anchoring refers to
the misuse of information by traders. Traders attach their thoughts and decision making criteria toward a
particular reference point even though it may or may not have logical relevance to the decision at hand. In
foreign exchange trading, traders often based their trading decision on historical data which may or may not be
irrelevant statistics, charts or figures. For example, a traders may buy a currency after it has dropped in a very
short period of time. Traders are anchoring on the recent high and believe that the decline in price is temporary
and this is an opportunity to buy. This term of sell-high and buy-low are generally used by traders who anchor
toward previous high or low prices. This may be true if the decline in price was caused by market volatility;
however, in the case of the fundamentals of the currency pair have changed then this may result in further losses
for the trader. Therefore, the trader should think critically in making investment decisions by incorporating both
fundamental and technical analysis.
BMIC 2015| page254

2.4. Testing for Anchoring Bias
This paper tests for a specific behavioral bias- the anchoring bias on whether unbiasedness occur from
anchoring or toward the average prior series of realized spot rate over the previous months. Since many
empirical researchers found that anchoring and adjustment serves as the prediction based. Czachzkes and
Ganzach (1996) found that previous prices serves as based for the predicted share price. This research adapts the
methodology from Campbell and Sharpe (2007) who construct the model that can measure whether the forecast
of the market price are based more toward which components between the current forecast and the average
release value over the previous months. Frankel and Froot (1987) found evidence that professional exchange
rate forecasts are anchoring toward the current level of exchange rates and are possibly anchoring the forecast of
future spot exchange rates toward a long-run average value of the releases. Therefore, to formally form the
model according to the idea of Frankel and Froot.
[
( )
]is the expected future spot exchange

Where
is the forecast of future spot exchange rate, [
rate and isaverage prior series of realized spot rate over the previous months. This research focus on the
anchoring periods of the long run average daily realized spot rates over the prior twelve months(
). Then,
[
] into equation (4) and rearranging the model,
substituting the model of forecast error:
which is shown in Appendix A.
This research tests for anchoring bias in the forecast of future spot rate by running regressions with
Forecast error (
) as the dependent variable, which is regressed with OLS Newey West HAC standard
errors on the difference between the current forecast or the forward rate (
)and the anchor (
) as the
independent variables with the appropriate number of lags to control for autocorrelation. The regression
equation is as following:
|
Where
|=
|
(
|
;
]|
|+
(5)
).
This research firstly assumes that the forecaster weights equally between the current forecast
]) and the average prior series of realized spot rate over the
of future spot exchange rate( [
previous months( ); therefore, is equal to . Here, the research hypothesis is that
implies that
] and components are not equally
two components are equally weighted, while
means that [
weighted. A zero value of would constitute evidence that the forecast errors are biased toward the anchoring
100 percent and would be infinity. In contrast, if equals to one, it constitutes the evidence that the forecast
] at 100 percent
errors are biased in a predictable way toward the expected future spot exchange rateor [
and would be zero.
The empirical results of this model rejects the hypothesis that the forecast and the anchoring are
equally weighted. The estimates of are all statistically significantly positive and less than one, which means
that the errors in the forecast of future spot rate are biased toward the current expected spot rate and that form of
bias is consistent with anchoring. What is more between the expected value and the anchor? In terms of the
)
structure in the Equation (4),
can be transform into and (
) by (
.For example, if the
estimated coefficient ( ) of 0.38 for a particular currency pair implies forecasters place approximately 27.5
percent of The empirical results show that market participants do not take the current forecast of future spot
exchange rate at face value since they also take the anchoring into account. Even though the anchoring has little
effect when compared to the current expected future spot rate, it can also explain some errors in the forecast.
According to the empirical results, the longer horizons, the greater the coefficients indicates that the larger the
forecast errors. The greater estimated coefficients also mean that the more anchoring approaches the future spot
BMIC 2015| page255

exchange rate. Therefore, it implies that consensus forecasts are systematically partly biased toward the value of
previous months realized spot rates, and the more sticking to the past, the greater the forecast errors since
anchoring refers to the misuse of information. Consensus forecasts bias toward a particular reference point even
though it may or may not have logical relevance to the current time. The evidence in favor of anchoring is
consistent across each of the currency pairs that this research examines. To conclude, unbiasedness in the
forecast of future spot exchange rate does not occurs from the anchoring.
6. CONCLUSION
This research investigates how behavioral finance can explain the failure of forward rate unbiasedness
hypothesis (FRUH) by using the combined influence of two main psychological factors as the explanations:
representativeness (over-reaction) and anchoring heuristic (under-reaction) to explain bias in the trading activity
observing on eight major currencies: Australian Dollar (AUD), Canadian Dollar (CAD), Swiss Franc (CHF),
Also, this research examines whether risk aversion factor is the determinant of the failure of FRUH and
investigates behavior of investors in the trading of foreign exchange rates at how they behave when the risk
level of the market changes by using risk aversions factor as the measurement variable. Apart from this, this
research studies the unbiasedness that may occur from anchoring. The result shows that the over-reaction and
under-reaction can explain some errors in the forecast as investors are systematic under-reaction at short-horizon
and over-reaction at medium- and long- horizons for every currency pairs. For a specific anchoring bias testing,
this research finds that anchoring can also explain some errors in the forecast since the more of anchoring
components when compared to the current forecast of future spot rate, the greater the forecast errors. Therefore,
unbiasedness in the forecast of future spot exchange rate does not occurs from the anchoring. Moreover, the
result indicates that general investors tend to be risk averse during the examined period. Specifically, individual
investors are risk seeking, while institutional investors tend to be risk averse.
This research focuses on examining for a specific behavioral bias- the anchoring, so in reality, market
may not consider only these two components in the forecast of future spot exchange rate, this research suggests
that there may be other complex factors to the micro level that can affect the forecast of future spot exchange
[
]
(
)
rate i.e.
Acknowledgements
This research would not be finished without the help of my kind advisor and classmates. I am heartily
thankful them, especially my thesis advisor, whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to
final level that enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. Furthermore, I also thank all my thesis
committees for giving valuable comments and suggestions.
Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to my family and special thanks to my MSF friends for their
assistant, cheerfulness and friendship.
References
Aggarwal, R., Lucey, B., and Fergal, A. (2014). Rationality in Precious Metals Forward Markets: Evidence of
Behavioral Deviations in the Gold Market. Journal Multinational Financial Management.
Aggarwal, R. and Zong, S. (2008). Behavioral Biases in Forward Rates as Forecasts of Future Exchange Rates:
Evidence of Systematic Pessimism and Under-Reaction. Journal of Multinational Finance. 12 (3),
241277.
Amir, E. and Ganzach,Y.(1998). Overreaction and Underreaction in Analysts Forecasts. Journal of Economic
Behavior& Organization, Vol.37, 333-347.
Baillie, R., Bollerslev,T.,2000.The Forward Premium Anomaly is not as Bad as You Think. Journal of
International Money and Finance 19,471-488.
BMIC 2015| page256

Baker, H. K. and Nofsinger, J. R. (2010). Behavioral Finance: Investors, Corporations, and Markets, John
Wiley and Sons Inc.
Barnhart, S. and Szakmary, A. (1991). Testing the unbiased forward rate hypothesis: evidence on unit roots,
co-integration and stochastic coefficients. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 26 (2), 245
267.
Bernoth, Kerstin, Von Hagen, Jurgen, De Vries, Casper,G.,2005. The Futures Premium Puzzle. A
Reconsideration.
Breuer, Janice B., Wohar, Mark, E.(1996). The Road Less Travelled: Institutional Aspects of Data and the
Influence on Empirical Estimates with an Application to Tests of Forward Rate Unbiasedness. The
Economic Journal 106, 26-38.
Burnside, C., Eichenbaum, M., Kleshchelski, I., and Rebelo, S. (2010). Do Peso Problems Explain the Returns
to the Carry Trade? NBER Working Paper No. 14054.
Campbell,S. and Sharpe,S. (2009). Anchoring Bias in Consensus Forecasts and its Effect on Market Prices.
Finance and Economics Discussion Series, Divisions of Research& Statistics and Monetary Affairs,
Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C.
Clarida, Richard,H., Sarno, Lucio, Taylor, Mark,P., Giorgio, Valente, 2001.The Out-of-Sample Success of
Term Structure Models as Exchange Rate Predictors: A Step Beyond. NBER Working Paper Series,
8601.
Cochrane, J. (2001) Asset pricing, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Czaczkes, B., Ganzach, Y., 1996. The natural selection of prediction heuristics: Anchoring and adjustment
versus representativeness. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 9, 125-140
DeBondt, W.F.M. and Thaler, R.H.(1990). Do Security Analysts Overreact?. American Economic Review 80,
52-57.
DeGrauwe, P., Dieci, R. and Grimaldi, M. (2005). Fundamental and non-fundamental equilibiria in the foreign
exchange market: A behavioral finance framework. CESifo Working Paper No. 1431.
Donoho,D. and Elad,M. (2003). Optimally Sparse Representation in General (Nonorthogonal) Dictionaries via
Minimization. Departments of Statistics and Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
94305.
Engel, C. (1996). The Forward Discount Anomaly and the Risk Premium: A Survey of Recent Evidence.
Journal of Empirical Finance 3, 123-192.
Fama, E. F. (1970) Efficient capital markets: A review of theory and empirical work., Journal of Finance, vol.
25, no. 2, pp. 383417.
Fama, Eugene, 1984. Forward and Spot Exchange Rate. Journal of Monetary Economics 14, 319-338.
Figlewski, Stephen. "Mariner Efficiency" in a Market with Heterogeneous Information."
Journal of Political Economy 86, no.4 (August 1978a): 581-97.
Frankel J. and K. Froot, 1987, Using Survey Data to Test Standard Propositions Regarding
Exchange Rate Expectations, American Economic Review, 77, 1, 133-153.
Frankel, J. and Poonawala, J. (2010). The Forward Market in Emerging Currencies: Less Biased than in Major
Currencies. Journal of International Money and Finance 29 (3), 585598.
Frankel,J. and Rose, A. (1994). A Survey of Empirical Research on Nominal Exchange Rates., National
Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 4865.
Froot, K. and Thaler, R. (1990). Anomalies: Foreign Exchange. Journal of Economic Perspect. 4 (3), 179
192.
BMIC 2015| page257

Gospodinov, N. (2009). A New Look at the Forward Premium Puzzle. Journal of Financial Econometrics
7(3): 312-338.
Grossman, Sanford and Stiglitz, Joseph E. "Information and Competitive Price Systems."
American Economic Review 66, no. 2 (May 1976): 246-53.
Isard, Peter, 2006. Uncovered Interest Parity. IMF Working Paper 06(96).
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Science, New
Series, Vol. 185, No. 4157. (Sep. 27, 1974), pp. 1124-1131.
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decisions under Risk, Econometrica,
vol.47, no. 2,760-779.
Koutsikos, K. (2012). Gauging Investor Sentiment: What Works and What Does Not,. Eramus University
Rotterdam, Erasmus School of Economics.
Lothian,James R.,Wu, Liuren., 2003. Uncovered Interest Rate Parity over the Past Two Centuries.
Marsden, A. ,Veeraraghavan, M., and Ye, M.(2007). Heuristics of Representativeness, Anchoring
andAdjustment, and Leniency: Impact on Earnings' Forecasts By Australian Analysts.
Maynard, Alex, 2003. Testing for Forward Rate Unbiasedness: On Regression in Levels and in Returns. The
Review of Economics and Statistics 85(2), 313-327.
McBrady, Matthew R., 2005. Carry Traders, Dealers, and the Forward Discount Anomaly.
Mohanram, P., Gode, D. (2013). Removing Predictable Analyst Forecast Errors to Improve Implied Cost of
Equity Estimates. Rev. Account. Stud., 136.
Montier,J. (2002). Behavioural Finance: Insights into Irrational Minds and Markets. Wiley Finance
Pippenger, John, 2011. A Complete Solution to the Forward-Bias Puzzle.
Rieger, M., Wang, M. and Hens, T.(2011). Prospect Theory Around the World. Norwegian School of
Economics.
Shefrin,H.and Statman,M.(2000). Behavioral Portfolio Theory. Journal of Financial and Quantitative
Analysis, Vol.35, No.2, 127-151.
Shiller,R. (2000). Irrational Exuberance. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Slovic,P. and Lichtenstein,S. (1971). Reversals of Preference between Bids and Choices in Gambling
Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol.89, No.1, 46-55
Spronk,R.,Versschoor,W.,Zwinkels,R.,2013. Carry Trade and Foreign Exchange Rate Puzzles. European
Economic Review 60, 17-31.
Staw,B.M. (1981). The Escalation of Commitment to a Course of Action. Academy of Management Review
6,577-587.
Anderson, T. (1993). Currency and Interest Rate Hedging. New York Institute of Finance.
Verschoor,Zwinkels.,2013. Carry Trade and Foreign Exchange Rate Puzzles. European Economic Review 60,
17-31.
BMIC 2015| page258

Tourist Motivation Visiting Bangnamphueng Floating Market And Their

Satisfaction Based On The Destinations Cultural And Heritage-Based Attributes
Naphinya Rassamitat
Abstract
This research diagnosed the demographic characteristics of tourists and motivations and studied the
satisfaction of tourists who traveled to cultural destinations. The hypotheses evaluated the overall satisfaction of
tourist attractions also this is one of the functions that affects tourists motivation. Bangnamphueng Floating
Market is part of the cultural and heritage destinations. Also, it used this area for this research, meaning the data
was collected from tourists who visited the Bangnamphueng Floating Market during January-April 2015.
Therefore, theBangnamphuengFloating Market area is one of the best urban areas that have good ozone.
According to Time magazine one of the best and famous weekly news and magazine in America named that this
area is the "Best Urban Oasis of Asia" in 2006 and also is the Green Space area of Thailand. Hence, the research
was an analysis by using instrument analysis of Pearsons correlation coefficients and independent-samples Ttests according to the sequence of the objectives in this study. Although the results came up with the expose of
the demographic characteristics, tourists motivation and cultural/heritage attributes hence related with the
tourists overall satisfaction. At last, the key for indicators is the touristssatisfaction, which comes from the
individual satisfaction of tourists in tourists motivation and cultural heritage attributes.
Keywords: Customer satisfaction; Service quality; Community Based Tourism (CBT); Tourist Satisfaction;
Travel motivation; Cultural heritage; Cultural tourism; Heritage Tourism; Bangnamphueng Floating Market
1. Introduction
Tourist satisfaction is the main capability to support sustainable tourism development (Duad and
Rahman, 2011; Seyanont, 2009; Rasovic, 2013). For economic perspectives, the satisfaction can be decided by
the success and existence of the tourism business (Rasovic, 2013; Gursoy, McCleary, and Lepsito, 2007). The
long-term ability to sustain a high level of tourist satisfaction can indicate the sustainability of tourism in a place.
Tourist satisfaction is a significant component to measure sustainable tourism development. The tourist
satisfaction indicates the capability of tourism management in terms of services and motivation for visiting. The
level of tourist satisfaction is the main element of sustainable development, which indicates the increase
investment in the competitive tourist market. As a result, this study aimed at the capacity of tourist satisfaction
on sustainable tourism development situations in the study site, which is the floating market tourism and we will
study about the tourist satisfaction of community-based tourism (Rasovic, 2013).
From providing research that shows that the communities will have the internal complicated problems
and jealousy in the community development processes as a result of the scholars having suspected the CBT
(Simpson, 2008). In addition, the local society of communities will have a double standard so it can affect the
decision-making system. For example, in the standard of wealthy and local elite residents will have a bias
towards wealthy residents (Blackstock, 2005). Moreover, there is no assurance about the tourism development
impartiality and benefits of local people in the community (Ayres, 2002). Although, the local communities or
politicians are worried about losing control of people in the community so it will affect their making decision.
The important problems of developing countries are government corruption as a result it is impossible for local
participation (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
Backgroundof Bangnamphueng Floating Market location Bang Kachao Island in Thailand. Bang
Kachao is an island although an artificial one.The Bang Kachao areas having 11,819-rai jungle lands and the
BMIC 2015| page259

aerial photograph of that area is like a "Lung" so it is named The Lung Of Bangkok since 1977, the Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment of Thailand have authority of its supervision. Bang Kachao island has
six communities and one of them is Bangnamphung community. Bangnamphueng community was managed
by the Bangnamphueng Sub-district Administrative Organization (SAO).Bangnamphuengcommunity has11
villages, which the study revealed in BangnamphuengFloating Market.So, Mr. Samnao is the Chief Executive of
Bangnamphueng SAO who established the floating market in 2004. He encouraged people in the village to help
themselves by following a Sufficiency Economy. The Sufficiency Economy is a philosophy by His Majesty
King BhumibolAdulyadej of Thailand.
1.1 Purposes of Study

Satisfaction is considered important to competitive business in the tourism industry. Measuring tourist
Fig. 1. (a) Location Bang Kachao Island in Thailand by

Landsat Image Gallery.
(b) BangnamphuengFloating Market by Asia web

direct.
satisfaction is significant to successful in destination marketing because it is directly linked to consumption of

products and services, destination choices, and repeats business. The satisfaction is essential for marketing the
products so the marketers can improve the quality of products and easily answer the questions of customers by
using the benefit of visitor satisfaction. Also, we can apply this to be used with the tourists that came to travel
in CBT (Kozak and Rimmington, 2000; Wong and Law, 2003). As an awareness of public participation, the
highlights of the communitys awareness to encouragement and change the learning processes in understanding
their situations is displayed (Reid, 2003). The objectives of this study are:
- To identify and study the tourists overall satisfaction that comes to Bangnamphueng Floating
Market and to increase the attractiveness of the tourists who travel to the floating market,
-
To identify the tourist satisfaction towards the Bangnamphueng Floating Market, and
- To study the overall satisfaction of tourists who visited Bangnamphueng Floating Market and
moreover to examine the relationship between tourists motivation, the heritage attributes and the destinations
culture.
2.1 Tourists Demographic Characteristics
The characteristics of the demographics of tourists are the main factors to analyze the overall tourists
satisfaction and tourists motivation with their heritage and cultural destinations. The cultural and heritage
tourism mentions on developing and managing the cultural and heritage tourism and also identifying the
characteristics of tourists who are attracted to cultural and heritage destinations. For instance, from the provided
research there is the common method of cultural and heritage tourists. The analyzing has shown a lot of factors
such as income, age, gender, and education level (Silberberg, 1995).
BMIC 2015| page260

2.2Tourists Satisfaction
Kozak and Rimmingt on have informed the destination attributes are based on the impact of overall
satisfaction levels. His theory was supported and also stated that it is a main point of tourists satisfaction so
they will see that the tourists travel experiences have the effect on the attribute of the destination as the end will
come up with satisfaction or dissatisfaction of each trait (Pizam, Neumann, and Reichel, 1978).
2.3Culture and Heritage Attributes

The importance issues of the cultural and heritage destination attributes that base on the analyses of
importance-performance define tourists satisfaction. Also, study the destinations attractiveness attributes of
tourism industry level that attributes for example infrastructure and human resources that also encourage, to the
tourists overall satisfaction of a destination (Crouch and Ritchie, 1999).
2.4 Tourists Motivation
The tourist motivation is the effect of internal driving that needs to escape from the common
environment. Therefore, to find the good decision it should show the opportunities for a vernation. Hence, the
push-pull travel motivation theory also developed the formulas to study about the form to check the tourists
motivations and influence travel destination choices (Dann, 1997).
3. Conceptual Framework
From the previous studies the attributes of importance-performance (IPA) such as in expectationdisconfirmation theory (customer satisfaction) and push-pull travel motivation theory were key in order to
analyze these theories. Hence, the independent variables are tourists motivation and cultural and heritage
attributes then the dependent variable, which is Tourists satisfaction Kanoknon, (2009). Therefore, the name of
the research is Tourist Motivation To Use Homestays In Thailand And Their Satisfaction Based On The
Destinations Cultural And Heritage-Based Attributes was adapted to be used withBangnamphuengFloating
Market and also look at the difference between the gender and satisfaction. In conclusion, the independent
variables are Tourists motivation and cultural and heritage attributes then the dependent variable is tourists
satisfaction.
BMIC 2015| page261

Fig. 2. Model of study on Tourist Motivation Visiting Bangnamphueng Floating Market And Their
Satisfaction Based On The Destinations Cultural And Heritage-Based Attributes. Adapted From: (Kanoknon,
2009).
Moreover, due to the fact that this research investigated the Tourist Motivation Visiting
BangnamphuengFloating Market And Their Satisfaction Based On The Destinations Cultural And HeritageBased Attributes, consequently the researcher hypothesized that:
H1: There will be a relationship between the Cultural and heritage attributes of Bangnamphueng
Floating Market and the motivation of tourists who visited floating market.
H2: There will be a relationship between the Cultural and heritage attributes of Bangnamphueng
Floating Market and the overall satisfactions of tourists who visited floating market.
H3: There will be a relationship between the tourists motivation and overall satisfaction of tourists
who visitedBangnamphuengFloating Market.
H4: There will be a difference between the gender in overall satisfaction, motivation and Cultural and
heritage attributes of the tourist who travel to Bangnamphuengfloating market.
4. Research Methodology
This chapter was declarative to present about the researchs methodology, which was from 240 sample
correspondents. As well, the researcher divided this study into 3 sections. In the first section independent
variables are Tourists motivation and cultural and heritage attributes, then studied the dependent variable which
is Tourists satisfaction by analyzing and using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Unimportant) to
5 (Strongly Important). Internal and external factors questions were adopted from (Kanoknon, 2009).
Also, it will present about the difference between the gender in overall satisfaction, motivation and
Cultural and heritage attributes of the tourist who travel to floating market. This study can apply the relational
research design and predicting effects have cultural and heritage attributes and tourists motivation on tourists
satisfaction. Also including, to study the relationship between cultural and heritage attributes, tourists
motivation and tourists overall satisfaction.
4.1 Reliability Test

Cronbachs alpha is a reliability instrument to specify as establish the reliability to this research and if
the survey reliability coefficient was verified. The technique to do a quantitative analysis on reliability of
internal consistency is Cronbachs alpha (Peter, 1979). After all variables have gone through Cronbachs Alpha,
an acceptable or recommended value is 0.6. Although this research represents an overall measure of the
independent variables and dependent variables, which are Tourists motivation, Cultural and Heritage Attributes
then the dependent variable is Tourists satisfaction. Also, Kanoknon (2009) used Cronbach alpha to test the
technique also.
Table 1. Results from reliability pilot test by 30 correspondents

Scale
No. Of Items
Cronbach's Alpha
Tourists motivation
0.741
Cultural and Heritage Attributes in Tourists motivation
0.699
Tourists satisfaction
0.843
Cultural and Heritage Attributes in Tourists satisfaction
0.748
BMIC 2015| page262

5. Research Findings
5.1 Demographic Analysis

The data from 240 correspondents showed the level of Tourist Motivation Visiting Bangnamphueng
Floating Market And Their Satisfaction Based On The Destinations Cultural And Heritage-Based Attributes as
shown in the following:
Table 2. Levels of Demographic of respondents
Item
Frequency
Valid Percentage
Male
120
50
Female
120
50
Total
240
100.00
Under 25 -25
97
40.4
26 40
106
44.2
41 55
28
11.7
56 Older
3.8
Total
240
100.00
Junior High School
10
4.2
Senior High School/Vocational

Certification
22
9.2
Associates Degree/High Vocational

Certification
15
6.3
Bachelors degree
149
62.1
Masters degree
42
17.5
Others
0.8
Total
240
100.00
Below 15,000 Baht
65
27.1
15,000 30,000 Baht
104
43.3
30,001 50,000 Baht
35
14.6
Over 50,000 Baht
36
15.0
Total
240
100.0
Gender
Age
Education level
Income level
5.2 Hypothesis testing and analysis
BMIC 2015| page263

The main objective of this research is to examine and find the difference between the gender in overall
satisfaction, motivation and cultural and heritage attributes of the tourists who travel to the floating market by
using Sample T-Test to get the evaluation.
Also, the Hypothesis 2, Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4 will use the Pearsons correlation coefficient to
find the relationship and effect between the independent variables and the dependent variable.
Table 2. Pearsons correlation: Cultural and heritage attributes Overall satisfaction and motivation (H1)
Correlations
Overall_M
Pearson
Correlation
Overall_M
Overall_CH
M
Overall_
S
Overall_CHS
.590**
.567**
.530**
.000
.000
.000
240
240
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Overall_CHM
Overall_S
Overall_CHS
240
Pearson
Correlation
.590
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
240
Pearson
Correlation
.567
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
240
**
.550
240
**
.550
**
240
**
.637**
.000
.000
240
240
.795**
.000
.000
240
**
.637
240
**
Pearson
Correlation
.530
.795
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
240
240
240
240
**
240
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 3. Pearsons correlation: Correlations between cultural and heritage attributes overall satisfactions (H2)
Correlations
Overall_CHM
Pearson Correlation
Overall_CHM
Overall_CHS
Overall_S
.637**
.550**
.000
.000
Sig. (2-tailed)
Overall_CHS
Overall_S
240
240
240
Pearson Correlation
.637**
.795**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
240
240
240
Pearson Correlation
.550**
.795**
BMIC 2015| page264
.000

Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
240
240
240
Group Statistics
Overall_S
Overall_M
Overall_CHM
Overall_CHS
Sex
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
120
120
120
120
120
120
4.1323
4.1885
4.0389
4.0074
4.1850
4.2433
.53435
.46630
.50161
.47266
.53525
.47822
.04878
.04257
.04579
.04315
.04886
.04366
Male
120
4.1463
.49690
.04536
Female
120
4.1796
.42369
.03868
Table 4. Pearsons correlation: Correlations between Tourists motivation Tourists satisfactions (H3)
Correlations
Overall_M
Pearson Correlation
Overall_M
Overall_S
.567**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
Overall_S
240
Pearson Correlation
.567
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
240
240
**
240
Table 5. Independent-Samples T-test: Results on t-test between Gender and overall satisfaction, motivation and
Cultural and heritage attribute (H4)
BMIC 2015| page265

To compare the independent t-test analysis was used to know the difference between groups to look at
the difference to see if it is statistically significant. So, we will used T-test to resolve the difference between
tourists gender (male and female) and overall satisfaction, motivation and cultural and heritage attributes of the
tourists who travel to the floating market to address hypothesis H4. Thus, hypothesis H4 was addressed the
summarized T-test results is revealed that there was no significant difference between males (M = 4.03, S =
4.13, CHM = 4.14, CHS = 4.14) and females (M = 4.00, S = 4.18, CHM = 4.24, CHS = 4.17); t (.500) = 238, p
= .67.
6. Discussions and Conclusion
H1: There is a relationship between the Cultural and heritage attributes of Bangnamphueng Floating
Market and the motivation of tourists who visited floating market.
Independent Sample Test
Overall_S
Overall_M
Overall_CH
M
Overall_CH
S
Equal variances assumed

Equal variances not assumed
238
233.716
238
237.164
238
235.041
238
Sig
(2 tailed)
.386
.386
.617
.617
.374
.374
.577
Mean
Difference
-.05625
-.05625
.03148
.03148
-.05833
-.05833
-.03333
232.200
.577
-.03333
Sig.
df
1.792
.182
.406
.524
2.252
.135
2.508
.115
-.869
-.869
.500
.500
.890
.890
.559
.559
H2: There is a relationship between the Cultural and heritage attributes of Bangnamphueng Floating
Market and the overall satisfactions of tourists who visited floating market.
H3: There is a relationship between the tourists motivation and overall satisfaction of tourists who
visited Bangnamphueng Floating Market.
H4: There is no difference between the gender in overall satisfaction, motivation and Cultural and
heritage attributes of the tourist who travel toBangnamphueng floating market.
Consequently, after testing the hypotheses it was also found that there is a relationship between
tourists motivation, cultural and heritage attributes and tourists satisfaction. So, thehypothesesH2, H3 and H4
have a correlation between each factor. Hence, the main key for increased tourist satisfaction needs to know
their motivation that what is of interest to and attract the tourists. Also, the tourists motivation and
cultural/heritage attributes can predict the overall satisfaction of tourists who visited Bangnamphueng Floating
Marke
7. Recommendations
The research will show that the impacts tourists motivation and cultural heritage attributes at
Bangnamphueng Floating Market on the tourists overall satisfaction. We can diagnose tourists level of
satisfaction by their demographics. If we can develop a plan to attract the tourists we can increase the
percentages of travelers. So, if tourists revisit that destination a lot it means that the organization has good plans
in their CBT management. Therefore, the community needs to know the tourism marketers to attract the visitors.
Also, in terms of tourists overall satisfaction it can increase when tourists have more intentions to revisit a
destination. Tourists overall satisfaction depends on individual perceptions so the tourism industry needs to
solve many types of competitive issues in order to analyze different destinations. At last, if the organization uses
the benefit from the main key of satisfaction and motivation they can have the strategy to make the CBT in
community stable.
BMIC 2015| page266

References
Bang Nam Pheung Floating Market - Bangkok Magazine. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2015, from
http://www.bangkok.com/magazine/bang-nam-pheung.htm
Blackstock, K. (2005). A critical look at community based tourism. Community Development Journal, 40(1),
39-49.
Crouch, G.I. & Ritchie, J.R.B. (1999).Tourism, Competitiveness and Social Prosperity.Journal of Business
Research, 44, 137-152.
Dann, G. (1997). Anomie, Ego-enhancement and Tourism.Annals of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184-194.
DuadNormala and Rahman Abdul Sofiah, Tourist Attitudes towards Sustainable Tourism: Empirical Evidence
From Malaysia National Park, Taman Negara, Management and Economics IPEDR vol.3, 2011.
Gursoy, D, McCleary, K.W, and Lepsito,L.R, Propensity to complain: effects of persenaltiy and behavioral
factors, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, vol.31(3). 2007, pp.358- 386.
Kontogeorgopoulos, N. (2005). Community-based ecotourism in Phuket and AoPhangnga, Thailand: Partial
victories and bittersweet remedies.Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 13(1), 4-23.
Kozak, M. and Rimmington, M. (2000) Tourist Satisfaction with Mallorca, Spain, as an Off-Season Holiday
Destination, Jour- nal of Travel Research 38(3): 260-9.
Landsat Image Gallery - Bang Kachao: Bangkoks Green Lung. (2014, February 2). Retrieved from
http://landsat.visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=85382
Morrison, A.M., Pearce, P.L., Moscardo, G. Nadkarni, N. & OLeary, J.T. (1996). Specialist Accommodation:
Definition, Markets Served, and Roles in Tourism Development. Journal of Travel Research, 35(1), 1826.
Peterson, K. (1994). The heritage resource as seen by the tourist: The heritage connection. In (ed.) van Harssel,
J. Tourism: an Exploration, Third Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Pizam, A., Neumann,
Y., &Reichel, A. (1979). Tourist satisfaction: Uses and misuses. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(2),
195-197.
RasovicMili, Sustainable development and level of satisfaction of tourists with elements of tourist offer of
destination, Tourism in Southern and Eastern Europe, 2013, pp.371- 385.
Reid, D. G., Mair, H., & George, W. (2004). Community tourism planning: A self-assessment instrument.
Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 623-639.
Seubsamarn, K. (2009). Tourist Motivation To Use Homestays In Thailand. And Their Satisfaction Based.
Retrieved from https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/5351/research.pdf
Seyanont, A, The prevention of Deterioration and Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation of
Amphawa Floating Market, The Academic, Journal of Thai Chamber of Commerce University, 4th
ed., vol. 29, 2009, pp.63-172.
Silberberg, T. (1995). Cultural tourism and business opportunities for museums and heritage sites.Tourism
Management, 16(5), 361-365.
Wong, J. and Law, R. (2003) Differences in Shopping Satisfaction Levels: A Study of Tourists in Hong Kong,
Tourism Management 24(4): 401 10.
BMIC 2015| page267

Appendix A. Scale items for each factor
No.
Variables
Items
Tourists Motivations
Cultural and Heritage

Attributes in
Tourists Motivations
Tourists Satisfaction
I prefer various activities.

I want to have fun and enjoyment.
I would rather have a careful and complete
planned trip.
I want to have a restful and relaxing trip.
I want my private time.
I want to visit familiar places.
I want to visit friends and relatives.
I want to visit new places.
I want to buy cheap stuff and good quality.
I want to know different cultures/ways of life.

I want to attend cultural events.
I want to seek the beauty of nature.
I want to seek variety of foods.
I expect good service-minded people.
Personal safety and security

Climate conditions
Possibility for shopping
Opportunity for rest
Political and economic status
Cleanliness
Positive feelings regarding Bangnamphung
Floating Market
Information from friends and family relative to
the travel
Cultural and Heritage

Attributes in
Tourists Satisfaction
The destination can be easily reached

Diversity of cultural/historical attractions
(Architecture, Tradition and Customs...)
The hospitality of local people and good service.
The offer of local cuisine
Entertainment activities
Offer of cultural and other events
Beauty of the scenery
Distance from home
Advertising
BMIC 2015| page268
Cronbach's
Alpha
Number of
items
0.741
0.699
0.843
0.748

Relationship between strategic sourcing techniques and profitability for

competitiveness a proposed model
Pisoot Thankdenchai
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to propose a comprehensive strategic model to evaluateprofitability.

Strategic supply chain management in sourcing concepts and tools are adopted to explore and managethe main
profitability drivers (cost, revenue, and margin).A deductive approach is used to identify the variables of
theprofitability model. Phase one of this study rely on reviewing prior literature in the field (profitability,
strategic purchasing and sourcing, how to develop scale and measuring, addressed with competitiveness) in
order to identifythe key profitability drivers that uses in managing profitability (costs, revenue and
margin).Phase two ofthe research focuses on testing the developing scales,two instances were illustrated, one
was secondary data from UNCTAD, 2011 (Port performance), another one was from twenty quotations by liners
and the managers asLogisticians in International transport service provider in service sector.
Findingsresulted that for logistics performance not been investigated in previousstudies in International
transport service field for logisticians profitabilities, especially in Thailand.The comprehensive profitability
model with variables as cost, revenue andmargin was a better predictor of profitability, togain competitive
ability thanother alternative models.Revenue resulted high impacts to margin of freight service to Singapore as
illustrated in this study. The choices in using sourcing technique influenced to relationship between
profitabilities and competitive level through cost, revenue and margin.As the first study of its kind, this model
contributes to the theoretical literature in thefield. It is also a practical contribution in scale developing and
evaluation for profitability of the Logistics firms competitiveness steps forwardto sustainabilityin International
transport service sector.
Keywords: Competitiveness analysis; Profitability;Strategic assessment; Supply chain sourcing;Sustainability.
1.
Introduction
This research focuses on strategicsourcing techniques (SST) in supply chain management (SCM) at a
strategic level and their utilization to maximize profitability and competitiveness in logistics and transport
servicingsector. Profitability assessment is important, several studies to achieve the organization development to
achieve its competitiveness by approaching the different managements and performed approaches. However,
overall studies were rare to apply the sourcing decisions with measurable profitabilities policies in transport
management related to managementsstrategic measuring tools. The maximization of profitability would be
required as a strategic plan. SCM sourcing techniques has changed the way of shifting from purchase, to
global sourcing this to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of profitability as well as the model that can
improve competitiveness. The main purpose of this study is to develop a strategic comprehensive profitability
measuring model for competitiveness assessment. Approaches for competitiveness and effects influencing by
selected sources would be explored.
SCM with Strategic Sourcing Techniques were then identified as SST that effected to profit for each
profit margin driver to establish a proposed comprehensive model of strategic sourcing to maximize
profitability for competitiveness. The model takes into account key strategic dimensions that affect profitability
and uses the most appropriate strategic sourcing techniques to manage profitability.The findings offer both
theoretical and practical contributions from a theoretical model development forstrategic sourcing with
BMIC 2015| page269

profitability measurement in logistics and transport service fields. Primary data was collected frommanagers in
Thailand international freight forwarders association (TIFFA), international transport sector for proposed model
testing.
The model principles provide a basis for further research in strategic profitability measurement and
further testing of the proposed profitability model in different industry situations, both industry and service
sectors and different countries. Hence, this paper creates a new knowledge related to strategic profitability
evaluation which can be further developed both from a conceptual and practical implementation perspective.
2.1. Research context

Traditional management focus is often on a single dimension, such as costs or cost reduction.Many
papers discussed about profitability or competitiveness, most of them focus on cost and cost reduction. This is
insufficiency to build up firms effectiveness than efficiency-only focus. (Mohamed andJones,2014; Sigalas,
Economou and Georgopoulos, 2013; the World Bank, 2012).
In Thailand, supply chain and logistics performances are all about only cost reduction, performed lead
time as main key drivers whichcould not meet competitiveness among the service providers, especially in
forwarding business. All freight consolidators were using same sailing schedule from same liner. Hence, lead
time performancecaused no any effects as their main key.Such anindicator could be found in several measuring
indexes whichare often offeringto the public.Many types of indexes, either key performance index (KPI) or any
other performance index. Tools were for activitiesassessmentand mainly focusedonly on few perceives. First,
the most popular three main key variables were engaged,among in between either cost reductions, annual
revenue with or without deliveryperformance records. Second, the utilizations supportonly amongthe industrial
firms, not available for logisticians asa practitioner in service sector. Thirds, tools were usedon narrow
perceived purposes.Adopted with difficulties and constrains in assessment,samegiven commentfrom the World
Banksauthors group: Arvis, Mustra, Ojala, Shepherd, Saslavsky, 2012in material for LPI measurement and its
indicators, page 51 addressed one of difficulties to assessed critical elements of good logistics; cannot be
assessed using only time and cost information (the World Bank, 2012).
Along the chain, SC members from upstream to downstream consist of many tiers asstakeholders in the
chain. Each participant implements logistics performance to yield only for own logistics department. This
empirical study empathized for logisticians as a service provider in order to break out all of these constrains,
enrich their performed service, profitabilities of logistics performance as a financial term, well scoped for
logisticians studies,and genuine enough ingeneralities forall services sector.Service performances in a way of
profitability, competitiveness, and benefit from strategicsourcing were explored. The holistic model illustrated
measuring instrument for logisticians competitivenessin service sector, to balance the lack of literature in
sourcing techniques were includ ed.This concernedto comprehensive strategic views in measuring the
profitability of a Logisticians context, including the three key profitability drivers (cost, revenue and margin)
and managing those using strategic sourcing techniques supports the need for thisindustry.
2.2. Research reviews

A) Roles of logistics providers
An intermediary broker in delivery, shipments dispatch is well defined as a freight handler.A worldwide shipment could be booked for space from carriers, documents issued, shipment handle along the routes
with many activities such as: freight offers, customs clearance, inland transport, etc. connected by multimodal
channel of transports, warehouse or cross docking service management, to reach consignees destinations.
Freight Forwarderreferred to an international specialist, offering delivery service for international
shipment (Murphy and Daley, 2000).A full complement of international logistics servicesto provide air, sea,
land transportation and plan to solve model which could not meet time-critical deadlines (R+L Global, 2015).
A freight forwarders basic functions are in role as suppliers arrangement for cargo shipment and
shipping documentations from country of original to international destinations. For a small quantity cargo,
forwarders manageto provide partial shipment volumeby less than container loaded (LCL) consolidation.Among
BMIC 2015| page270

them, one is called as a master consolidator (freight supplier) and customers as coloader (freight buyer).
Hence, the freight buyer is alsoa second tier freight supplier for their coloaders (exporters/importers) in the
transport market. They are in form of freight broker, 3PL, logistics provider, etc. who has to handle LCL
shipmentfrom their customers. A highlight in thisactivity is when a master consolidator unable to perform a
service because insufficiency in volume quantities, or having no service to some certain area,they have to coload
out.There are always happened in everywhere and everyday, of which players strategies are swerved from own
insourcing to be outsourcing.Such a bet is challenging in between gain or loss from cargo volume and freight
cost impact.Therefore, the consideration in matrix of price, operation and all relevant factors have to considered
carefully recommended by Bailey, Farmer, Jessop and Jones, 2005.
B) Strategic purchasing and competitiveness
Baily et al., 2005, p.57suggested the competitive advantages available from purchasing strategies was
buyer focus onmix of resources; emphasize creative management in use of resources vis--vis competition.
Lysons and Farrington, 2006, p.14 stated that competitive advantage may be sought via lower cost or
inventories.Lysons and Farrington, 2006, p.62 recommended one of the most popular portfolio approaches was
the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix.The strategies to adopt at all three strategic organizational levels:
corporate, business and functional/operational.
Handfield, Monczka, Giunipero and Patterson, 2009 reviewed the communicationlinkage of many
firms are now through co-locating supply management personal directly at operating locations throughout
purchasing, so supply management can respond quickly to operations need.
C) Sourcing Techniques and Total Cost of Ownership

Ellram, 1994stated that Total Cost of Ownership(TCO) concept may include element as order
placement, research and qualification of suppliers, transportation, receiving, inspection, rejection, replacement,
downtime caused by failure, disposal costs and so on, While TCO analysis can be applied to the make-or-buy
decision, it should also be applied after an organization has determined that it will use a third-party (buy) rather
than an internal source (make). Transaction costs can vary among suppliers and can be an important decision
factor.Canez, Platts and Probert, 2000claimed that transaction cost economics leads to Make or Buy framework.
Their work is a first step towards providing performance measures for the assessment of business benefit
delivered by individual make-or-buy decisions.
Ramsay and Wilson, 2007 concluded the choiceof sourcing strategyinto the matrixshows buyers may
choose to purchase:(1) from one source only (single source). (2) from more than one source (multi-sources).
(3)Thesource of supply itself (backwardverticalintegration), and once implemented, this strategy becomes the
decision to supply the material or service yourself (make in).
Baily et al., 2005 said that many implications of source decision-making may vary by the type of
purchase being made. Handfield et al., 2009 recommended the supply management and operations must be
aware of the components and services needed by operations to fulfillcustomers requirements for products or
services. This may include outsourced materials, services, travel, hotel, information technology, and labour.
Handfield et al., 2009 shared that in developing sourcing strategy; in final combination often found is
for bottleneck items, which have specific requirements with less number of suppliers. Limitation in number of
suppliers in the market can control over the price. A detailed negotiation should take place that establishes high
levels of service as critical to the business.With specific service level agreements, ensure capable of handling
orders from multiple locations. There were many reasons for firms to do overseas outsourcing, which are: cost
benefit, low labour cost, productivity levels, low production cost and material cost by capacity, different in
exchange rate, subsidize by government, product process technology, and quality, lead local supplier to
international competition. However, Bailey et al., 2005, p.192 proposed the trend of using single source
approach is becoming increasingly popular but its not a good idea to apply in all situations. In some case,
multiple sources with plenty of suppliers will be much better than a single source and many factors have to be
taken into account. Valid arguments can be found on both sides, whether single sourcing has paid off
handsomely as well as advantages have been gained by dividing the business. They suggested consider
analyzing each situation, which were Effect on price,on security of supply, on supplier motivation willingness to
BMIC 2015| page271

oblige, design innovation and so on. Finally, Effect on market structure: if single sourcing lead to a
monopoly,there will be no alternative supplier in the market.Thus, international purchase is more difficult than a
local purchase which requires more procedures and documents. In the international trading, Incoterms allow the
international buyer to choice for the paying term such as C&F (Cost and Freight); FOB (Free onboard) as
buyers choices for whether the transport cost will be paid at origin by shipper or collected from consignee.
Lysons and Farrington, 2006, p.16proposed future purchasing will increase in the strategic important of
supplier selection, evaluation and management. Increasing in speed of ordering and automated system, low
value purchase, non-critical; standardize and more in outsourcing. Leading organizations will establish the
strategic purchasing competency centre or cross-functional personnel responsible for achieving competitive
advantage via partners in the chain, sourcing performance is mainly measured by purchased price, and this will
be as part of the overall contribution of purchasing supplier management to profit.
Valsamakis and Grove, 1996explained that the supplier sourcing is important in today industry to
practice. Suppliers in the chain are a factor influence the company performance.
Choyet al., 2003emphasized sourcing selection is important in the supplier management. Appropriate
suppliers who produce the good price and good quality will lead competitiveness to the company. Lysons and
Farrington, 2006, p.17 indicated that suppliers with competitive price, quality and lead times are simply found in
world class supplier attributes, world classstrategic purchasing.Suppliers are regarded as a competitive edge that
responsible for a major share of product cost. Hence, in this study, strategic sourcing concreted on decisions
making uses, techniques from strategies related to insourcing (make); outsourcing (buy); multi methods (make
and buy); (multiple sources more different sources or countries), and tco: total cost of ownership. This
framework had provided a set of dummy data as local chargesbe illustrated for TCO costing.
D)Profit abilities, Competitiveness, Competitive advantage

Sigalaset al., 2013mentioned competitive advantages as focus on economic value to be measured as
economic performance. Competitive advantages in several papers were defined as the degree to which a firm
has exploited opportunities, neutralized threats and reduced costs but rather the degree of firm competitiveness.
In addition, they agreed with several scholarswho have argued that competitive advantage must be defined its
expression or dimensions be compared with firms competitors.
Furthermore, Aksoy, 2013suggested firms could benefit from the use of more sophisticated and
advanced modelling approaches which have the potential to uncover patterns in business results.,this congruent
to the work ofMohamedet al., 2014. Finally,their model employedone more dimension as assets loaded into
the frame.Attributes were declared as resources to value more constructive variables:cost, assets and
revenues.Their findings suggested inputting added value variable awareness, not onlytwo variablesliked all
previous studies.The most appropriate strategies must be used to reduce costs and increase revenues together.
Limited studies have extended use of the profitability concept by focusing on the key profitability elements that
are determined by analyzing the components of key profitability measures(Mohamed et al., 2014).
All Key elements of this study: sourcing; profitability; competitive advantagewere concluded as below:
Strategic Sourcing Techniques: Make (insourcing),Buy (outsourcing), Multi-methods (make or
buy) Single source (one supplier); Multiple-sources (more than one supplier whether make or buy), TCO.
Profitabilities: cost, revenue and margin abilities.
Competitive: competitiveness, competitive advantages, sustainability.
The profitability model hypotheses were pilot-tested through evaluates the quotations fromtwenty
managers (fifteen from carriers, another five from forwarders)simulated the impact of such a model on
profitability.
Thus, hypotheses for the profitability model can be formulated as follows:
H1. Cost and margin techniques are related to profitability.
H2. Cost and revenue techniques are related to profitability.
H3. Revenue and margin techniques are related to profitability.
BMIC 2015| page272

H4. Cost, revenue andmargintechniquesare more related to profitability than any of therelationships
identified above.
Cost
Competitive
Advantages
Revenue
Sustainability
Profitability
Competitiveness
Sustainable
Margi
Fig. 1.Conceptual framework
2.3. Research methodology and method

A deductive approach was used to investigateelementswhich being included in a profitability
measuring model. Phase 1 reviewedprevious studies in the field and from this the key drivers in managing
profitability from theliterature were established as costs, revenue and profit margin. 42 articles has been
investigated, reviewed and selective pickedto develop such a model, focus on strategic purchasing, sourcing
techniques; profitabilities, benefits on competitiveness and competitive advantages. Secondary research was
undertaken to determinewhich strategic elements are most important at theoretical and freight industry and
whichstrategic sourcing techniques are most appropriate to manage eachtechnical in sourcing elements and each
identified driver. Focus is on the strategic and holistic view of the drivers combined, add-in model testing, the
most appropriate weighing were reviewed, alternativesof assessment techniques to the areas of profitabilities
assessment, and developing scales for profit/margin from sourcing elements (insourcing, outsourcing, multimethod, tco) are considered. This led to techniques being identified for appropriate inclusion in the model
interpretation (see Appendix 1).Phase 2 of the research, pilot-tested was done into 2 parts: first, secondary data
employedfrom UNCTAD, 2011 (p. 172) to simulate the calculations, second part, thesamples were applied into
pilot-test. Illustration explained the interpretation of cost;revenuesand EBITDA asobjectivityaffects profitability,
to determine figures and provided the best explanation of profitability weighed resultsas competitiveness.
(Interpretation: quantitative value to qualitative explanation, seeAppendix 2)
Table 1.Competitiveness dimensions and objectives
Authors
advantages
variables
objectives
Handfield et al.,
2009
communication
linkage
direct
contact
operations contact
Lysons et al., 2006
competitive
advantage
lower cost
lower inventories
Baily et al., 2005
competitive
advantage
resource
mix
utilization
Leenders
2002
competitive
conditions
product
price
price information; product availability,

lead-time
et
al.,
Due to time and resource restrictions, the current study focuses only on the members of the Thai
International Freight Forwarder Association (TIFFA).The determination of such a sample is justified as follows:
firstly, in cost preparation, to purify the standard market rates, researcher asked fifteen shipping lines to submit
their sea freight quotations for 20 containersrates, export service from Thailand to specific threemainports
which are:Singapore, Hamburg and Los Angeles as in table 2.
BMIC 2015| page273

Table 2. Export ocean freight costs for 20FCL (full container loaded)from Liner.
Destination / Liners1
Liner A
Liner B
Liner C
Liner D
Liner E
Singapore (SIN) - Asia
375
425
450
380
395
Hamburg (HAM) - Europe
700
750
775
800
850
Los Angeles (LAX) - USA
1060
1100
1144
1170
1248
The name of the Company is anonymous
These three main ports were selected purposively in order to illustrate costs of short and long routes
represented for Asia, Europe and USA. After all quotations as an instrument in this surveywere received from
all respondents, the best five offers were selected from total fifteen. (Interpreted done by if-then conditions in
electric mean, same to work of Pisoot, 2009b) The selections were done three times in order to input rates ofall
ports completely.The names of the companies are anonymous, then liners were called as Liner A, B, C, D, and
E.
Second, five leading freight forwarders who mainly offer LCL sea freight services in the market
werepurposively selected, asked their quotations to fill up these three main areas. Any incomplete quotation
which did not provide to complete allthese three ports, researcher reminded them againby called for resubmit the
complete one. Then, the results were shown in table 3.
Table 3. LCL ocean freight selling rates to allcoloaders fromrespondents
Destination / Forwarders2
3PLA
3PLB
3PLC
3PLD
3PLE
12
30
28
25
15
25
Los Angeles
USA
45
40
55
48
45
(LAX)
The name of the Company is anonymous
The respondents quoted their selling cost per unit (cbm). Calculationthe full container (20)
costconvertto LCL cost was illustrated in the next section. (Table 5)
2.4. Approach to testing the model

Preparation for testing based on robust conceptual stipulate variables, (see table 4)sourcing related to
practices alikeIncoterms.
In marine service, shipping lines are not accepting LCL shipment, since they concentrates to sell freight
only for full container loaded (FCL).Hence, forwarders make their own consolidated service by purchase a FCL
container to break for LCL service. Such an own make freight supplier (regarded as master consolidator) who
applied insourcing technique will control and facilitate all the activities; e.g. LCL freight and local charges,
cargo loading, as well as network agent at destination are under own control.This own source similar to C&F
(Cost and freight) of Incoterms.On the other hand, a forwarder purchases LCL service is a coloader who is
making outsourcing, then such freight buyer lefts all these activities in shipment handling to the freight supplier.
And if under a freight collect,as FOB (free onboard)basis, the freight supplier will ask his destination agent to
collectfor the importer payment, this couldbe regarded asapart outsourcing.
BMIC 2015| page274

Table 4. Sourcing mixes in freight suppliers
Strategies
Make
Buy
items
Freight
Local charge
Network
Insourcing
insource
insource
insource
Outsourcing
Freight
Local charge
Network
outsource
outsource
outsource
Multi methods
(insource)
insource
(outsource)
outsource
outsource
TCO
insource
insource
outsource
outsource
outsource
Hybrid Sourcing*
insource
insource
outsource
outsource
outsource
insource
( ) choose only one choice, * alternative proposal
This empirical research needs to purify the standard of measurement, thus the study tested on a trial
simulated calculation as result in Appendix 2, by first, employed secondary datafrom UNCTAD, 2011,p.162;
the figures of Dubai port worlds performance. Second, applied the simple standard statistical technique as
World Bank (2012, p. 53) indicated for evaluation the Logistics Performance Index. UNCTAD, 2011, p.162
showed consolidated TEU is a performance indicator for port performance as well as the revenue and
throughput percentage. EBITDA means earning before income tax and depreciation and amortization. The
figures were given only revenue and EBITDA without cost of expenses.To find it out, this study used EBITDA
subtracted from annual revenue amount.A brief example using 2010 compared with 2007as the base year
calculation. The costs of Year 2007 and 2010 were $1550millions and $1838 millions respectively (see
Appendix 2). The differenceof $288 millions represented an increasing cost (18.58% could beassumedto beextra
expensescompared with the base year 2007). Secondary data as aninstance,the performance analysis can be
measured by revenue. Calculated using the same conceptual comparison tothepairwise, andconsidered into two
means, first is within groups (by same variables) and second is between groups (by different groups of
samples).Illustrated results were in Appendix-2.
2.5. Formatting the scale

Thestudy aims to build a scale ratiofor weighingdifferentiates between those who gain competitiveness,
and those who merely meet his break-even point. The summarized objectives interpreted intoexplanations
subjectively.Alike convertinga value resulted from Linkert scales revert back to its items (Pisoot & Heesawat,
2015).Enlisteda panel were made with four consultants for a validation.The alternatives of choices for
developing scales and scoring methods had been discussed.A pilot-tested was done and potency in defining the
methods.
Refer to alternatives of weighing techniques,Yount (2006) stated for 12 developing scales in his
research design and simple statistical analysis. Usually, the mainly used were: The Likert Scale, The Thurstone
Scale, The Q-Sort Scale, and The Semantic Differential, all these were for scoring recommendation to suit for
different purposes. With four consultants, as commentators and advisors for this study, (two academics familiar
with the international forwarding industry and lecturers in logistics and supply chain management, one academic
statistician specializing in education quality assurance and assessment research and one practitioner.)Such a
small focus groupwere questioned to comment for which type of scales, they want to apply and suit to the
choices ofusing.Finally, all given comments were concludedthat developing method must be scales equivalently
for more than ten levels in order to divide the capabilities into at least 3-4 categories.Hence, only the Thurstone
scalecould meet suchrequirement.Developing tools forscores ratingfollowedthe Linkert scale which consists of
statements that are all of equal weigh (Yount, 2006). However, The Thurstone attitude scales have a range of
weighs from high (usually 11) to low (usually 1). Thescores result from computing the average of the weighs of
items selected. Thus this study adopted the Thurstone 11 scales to weigh for scoring.Therefore, aforementioned
calculation as pilot-tested was done; results were showed in appendix 1, and2.
The scores of each scale transformative value to each stage meaning.Such a value interpretedfrom
quantitative input data as a measurable objective into a qualitative explanation subjectively.The moderate level
BMIC 2015| page275

represented a setting break-even point (x-bar) by mean of the group studied. When ones revenue is lower than
the break-even, means that the company is challenged into facing loss stage (Pisoot, 2014, pp.223-226).It does
not an essential to think further for its competitiveness than how to secure back the businesss income.Recovery
from loss to profitable level might be considered. Alternatives to gain back the equivalent cost for break
even,higher incomewould be further related to many other activities besides its sales, marketing and
promotions,or the recapitalization, re-injection from their stakeholders, these are not included in this study.
2. Data Analysis
The data was analyzed with standard statistical method, followed the performance measurement of the
World Bank (2012) using a standard statistical methodology for the LPI, showed in page 53-54 of their material,
3rd edition of Connecting to Compete 2012:Trade Logistics in the Global Economy (the World Bank,
2012).First, an illustrationas a pilot-tested was in Appendix 2,and section 1.5 for developing scales. Second, the
calculation from FCL cost into LCL cost per CBM (25 cbm per TEU: twenty equivalent unit)-recommended
further reading to Kollerath, 2015for how to calculate CBM in LCL export shipments.
2.1. Profit, margin, abilitiescalculation
Table 2 showed dry container 20 freight costs from liners. These rates were not included other local
charges (such as port handling and document fee). Ginifab.com (2005) mentioned in calculator webpageas
loading ability of a 20 container is around 26-28 cubic meters (CBM) approximately. Terry cited in Maxim,
2015, p.20 mentioned 20 container contained 22 metric ton loaded gross weight. However, in practice, liners
will accept standardize for 20 not exceeding 18-21 m/tondue to ports and vessels crane lifting capacity on
safety issues. To avoid any confusion, this study set a standard volume for a 20 FCL equal to LCL 25 cbm in
calculations. Hence, table 5 showed LCL net cost per unit from FCL cost in table 2 divided by 25, and rounded
up for zero decimal places. Normally, a ready-selling priceis without any decimal places.
Table 5. LCL Freightcost per unit (CBM) from FCL 20
Destination / Forwarders
3PLA
3PLB
3PLC
3PLD
3PLE
15
17
18
15*
16*
28
30
31
32
34
Los Angeles
USA
42*
44
46*
47*
50*
(LAX)
*numbers rounded up aszero decimal places
2.2. Relationship between the proposed cost, revenue, margin and profitability
All predictors for four sourcing techniques (insource, outsource, multi, tco) are significant in predicting
profitability.Illustration from now on all referred in Appendix 3, first, liners costs as in table a,then table b
calculated into cbm adjusted to round up.A focal firms in-house cost by consolidation for own marketing and
sales as insourcing. Table d,selling prices quoted to other forwarding companies. Market pricesare outsourcing
for selling to all co-loaders. Table e showed some forwarders insourcing cost compared to market offers should
better do outsource, since they insource more, will loss more. The multi-method wouldbe taken intoa decision in
selectingown make consolidation, andwhere should be better coload out.
For a completed presentation, this study employed a dummy set of data by putting more $17 to each in
the matrix. Table f, additional $17 added to all samples, this purposed to eliminate the maximum loss to
simulate for additional local charges, as well as a good instance for a sample for break-even cost.After adding,
table g. showedall total costs regarded as TCO. Look alike some customer purchased a lump sum rates which
including all the local charges of loading and destination countries. Table h. achieved calculation for profit
amounts which ready for profitability performance evaluation.
BMIC 2015| page276

2.3. Profitability performance and scoring technique
Profitabilities in this study showedin two methods, first profit amount compared to its cost (returns on
cost: ROC), this is profit performance (Appendix 3, table I). Second, profit amount compared to revenue
(returns on revenue: ROR), this is margin profitability (table II). The study selected only port Singapore for an
example, due to limitation of pages for this article.
Purifying this research,totally three alternatives represented for profitabilities assessments
methodology:
1) The Thurstone scale, difference between highest and lowest percentages as 60% were equally
divided into 10remainder scales equally. The maximum level rank is for the best practice.
2) The Min/Max method, using a simple standard statistical technique,all results averagedfor a mean.
63.33 set atthe middle level of scales (level 6th). Remainder ranksby equally 12.67 points (starting from zero
point). Thismethod is useful if someone hit over the best practice to another higher level.
3) The X-bar method (within group), this is similar to Min/Max method, but focus only the mean (
of all samples within group, which not from the highest and lowest score.
This study concreted focus on profitability of margin performance, then analyzed as table II in
appendix 3.
3. Findings
Data was analyzedfor profitabilities from margin performance, resulted asfindings: Method 1) the Thurstone, the third party logistics Company A got 31.82% was in rank 4, where is
near to the low performed part. (Rank 3); Company B, 32.00% had no significantly difference from company A.
At moderate level, members were challengedto low performance area. Company C earned the lowest margin,
although 25% is quite a fruitful but criticalto quit from this traffic.Since the firm is at the lowest rank, lower
than means of all methods. Company D, the highest 48.28% represented for the best practice. Company E got
33.33% similar level in rank 4th to company A and B, but firm is easily to shift up level 5th which need more
only 0.98% to reach 34.31% as its benchmark.
Method 2) Min/Max method, company A, B, and E were in between rank 5 th-6th, challenged their
break-even.Company C was in lower level (between 4th and 5th).Company D in rank 7-8 is at competitive level
for firm but only in short-term.
Method 3) Mean X-bar method, company A, B, C, and E were out from mean of the group, since
is 0.3409 equal to 34.09% all of them were very far from company D, who jump across in between level 7 and 8
to level 9th, which is a longer term and fruitful in this traffic for service to Singapore port.
Finally, the findings achieved the setting hypotheses:

The cost effects margin, considerationin cost reduction focus base on FCL cost to Singaporewould no
any impact effects significantly, since every one got quite no difference in cost from the liner.
Agreed that revenue should be in mainly focus but this was only an example for service to
Singapore.The other arrears should be in forward analysis for somewhere when costs from liners are
significantly different.
The most impact was revenue created good margin, selling price in this test is the main key driver for
profitability from service to Singapore port.
Cost, revenue and margin techniques are having a strong relationship more related to profitability than
any identified above.Not for all areas require to focus only cost or revenue and margin.Types of sourcing
techniques applied will cause more important relationships impact to all cases. When a freight cost is increased
BMIC 2015| page277

by liners at higher level.The differences among competitors cost must be investigated.Simulation for other
trades, such as Europe andUSA might resultprofitabilities performance differently from Singapore.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this model is to manage overall profitability from a strategic perspective. This requires
performance with profitability results from sourcing by interpreting how each driver affects profitability and
how these drivers are scaled by weighs for appropriate strategic sourcing techniques to manage overall
profitability.Only one instance in this study could not be concluded no any significant cost effects for other
cases. In contrast, these variables have a statistically significant effect on profitability in the overall model
thought different sourcing decisions. In addition, all service providers may be faced somenegative value,
whichmeans cost per a unitfrom insourcing is over than the market prices. (Pisoot, 2014, p.220, 224) The
challenges of make or buy, as well as multi methods should be selected, techniques applied to increase firms
competitiveness through sourcing decisions and policy. A major finding of this study reveals that all the
proposed strategic sourcing techniques used in managing costs, revenue affected to competitiveness in term of
buying selling price, significant in predicting overall profitability in the comprehensive model. This emphasizes
that there is a significant relationship between cost and profitability, revenue and profitability, and margin and
profitability.
A significant result of this study suggests that there is a positive relationship between thecombinations
of cost and revenue, cost and margin and revenue and margin andprofitability.This study gives a robust
constructive model in weighing structure literature supported from work of Mohamed and Jones, 2014
concluded three drivers of cost, revenue and asset with more requires focusing on customers to achieve
competitive advantage.The most important affectsprofitability could be customer value creation,thissupported
attribute as value for money freight rate of Matear and Gears work since 1993.
5. Conclusion
This paper explores the development of such a strategic sourcing model to assess profitability. No
previous research in this subject area has combined same three key drivers in such a way. In addition, no
previous research in this subject area either profit capabilities; competitiveness measurement has been
conducted in Logistics.Hence, this exploratory research adds new knowledge in the field, both through the
theoretical development and industry for further testing of the model.
This comprehensive model createsa new strategic in measuring profitability, margin calculation to
competitiveness assessment form a strategicperspective. Using other strategic management techniques in
managingeach driver such as process-based ortimely-based management techniques onperformance (Pisoot &
Pochaman, 2015) is another interesting area for future research. Additional effort is needed todevelop other nonfinancial indicators for managing intellectual resources utilization, service performance and supplier relationship
to explore their relationship with profitability and benefits.
Further work is also needed to examine the strength of interrelationships and overlapamong the
sourcing.The framework will be developing as a recommendation proposed by Mohamed and Jones, 2014 to
study further more for non-financial term measurement, thisencourages firm as a first step leads to sustainability
pathway.
In order to stipulate a holistic design managed together with SST in coherent non-financial model,
further hypotheses can be formulated as below:Ha) Insourcing positively influences profitabilities.
Hb) Outsourcing positively influences profitabilities.
Hc) Multi sources positively influence profitabilities.
Hd) TCO method positively influences profitabilities.
BMIC 2015| page278

Insourcing
Competitiveness
Competitive
Advantages
Outsource
Profitabilities
Competitive
Ability
Multi
Sourc
Sustainability
Sustainable
TCO
Fig. 2.Developed by Author for future study
From the literature review, key success factors to be considered in strategic sourcing techniques (e.g.
make-or-buy decisions, multi sources, and total cost of ownership). Perceives would be identified and grouped
into categories, from interviews with academics and service industrialists recommendation for relationship
studies onnon-financial items(such as: service dimensions) in Service Performance Unit: SPU (Pisoot, 2013a;
2014) for future work in sustainabilitydevelopment.
References
Aksoy, L., 2013. How Do You Measure What Youcan't Define? The Current State of LoyaltyMeasurement and
Management,Journal of Service Management 24(4), pp. 356-381.
Arvis, J. F., Mustra, M. A., Ojala, L., Shepherd, B., Saslavsky, D., 2012. The Logistics Performance Index and
Its Indicators, Connecting to Compete 2012, Trade Logistics in the Global Economy, The International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank (2012), 1818 H Street NW, Washington,
DC 20433, pp. 1-56.
Baily, P., Farmer, D., Jessop, D., Jones, D., 2005.Purchasing Principles and Management, 9th ed. The Chartered
Institute of Purchasing & Supply, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Canez, L. E., Platts, K. W., Probert, D. R., 2000. Developing AFramework for Make-or-Buy
Decision,International Journal of Operations & Production Management 20(11), pp. 1313-1330.
Choy, K. L., Fan, K. K. H., Lo, V., 2003. Development of an IntelligentCustomer-Supplier Relationship
Management System: The Application of Case-based Reasoning, Industrial Management & Data
System 103(4), 263
Ellram, L. M., 1994. Total Cost of Ownership An Analysis Approach for Purchasing, International Journal of
Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 25 No. 8, 1995, pp. 4-23.
Ginifab.com, 2005, http://www.ginifab.com/feeds/cbm/
Handfield, R. B., Monczka, R. M., Giunipero, L. C., Patterson, J. L., 2009. Sourcing and supply chain
management.Boston, MA: South-westernCollege.
Kollerath, S., 2015. How to Calculate CBM in LCL Export Shipments:Category: beginners
http://howtoexportimport.com/How-to-calculate-CBM-in-LCL-export-shipments--195.aspx
Leenders, M. R., Fearon, H. E., Flynn, A., Johnson, P. F., 2002. Purchasing & supply chain management,
12th edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Lysons, K., Farrington, B., 2006. Purchasing & supply chain management, 7th edition,Pearson, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Maxim, V., 2015. Less than a Container Load Booking Process, International Business and Logistics Thesis, p.
33.
BMIC 2015| page279

MBA Thesis: Business Administration, HelsinkiMetropoliaUniversity of Applied Sciences, April, 20th 2015.
https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/89415/Victoria%20Maxim_LCL%20booking%20process.pdf?se
quence=1
Matear, S.,Gray, R., 1993.Factors Influencing Freight Service Choice for Shippers and Freight Suppliers.
International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 23(2), pp. 25-35.
Mohamed, A. A., Jones, T., 2014.Relationship between Strategic Management Accounting Techniquesand
Profitability AProposed Model, Measuring Business Excellence 18(3), pp. 1-22.
Murphy, P. R., Daley, J. M., 2000. Profiling International Freight Forwarders: An Update,International Journal
of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 31(3), pp. 153-168.
Pisoot, T., 2013a. Service performance unit (SPU) for logistics benefit measurement: A conceptual framework of
5R model, Research and Innovations for Sustainable Development: Proceedings of Sripatum University
Conference2013 (pp. 1358-1367). Bangkok: SripatumUniversity. (December 24, 2013).
Pisoot, T., 2013b.Decoding E-Questionnaire response on XLS Platform, Research and Innovations for
Sustainable Development: Proceedings of Sripatum University Conference2013 (pp. 1399 1413).Bangkok: SripatumUniversity. (December 24, 2013). (in Thai).
Pisoot, T., 2014.Measuring Profit Performance Unit and Forecasting by Candle Stick Analysis.In U. Lapta ned,
& L. Manikas (Eds.), Innovating in Global Markets Challenges for Sustainable Growth: Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Business and Economics 2014 (pp. 207-226).San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Pisoot, T., & Heesawat, C., 2015.Factors influencing the job seeker preferences in logistics industry, The 5th
STOU Graduate Research Conference.Organized by the Department of Education standards, Office of
Graduate Studies, Nonburi: SukhothaiThammathiratOpen University.November 27, 2015, (In press).
Available at: http://grad-research.stou.ac.th/page/Showdata.aspx?idindex=10000
Pisoot T., & Pochaman, P., 2015. Nestl Thailand's Best Practice, A Support Idea on Support Best Practice VMI:
An Enabler of Conceptual Collaboration, AU GSB e-Journal, 8,(1). Bangkok: AssumptionUniversity.
Available at: http://www.graduate.au.edu/gsbejournal/e-Journal/Previous%20Issues.html
R+L Global, inc., 2015.International Logistics.
http://www.rlglobal.com/about/case-studies/international-logistics
Ramsay, J., Wilson, I., 2007. Sourcing/Contracting Strategy Selection, Staffordshire Polytechnic, UK,
International Journal of Purchasing Management 10(8), pp. 19-28.
Sigalas, C., Economou, V. P., Georgopoulos, N. B., 2013. Developing AMeasure of Competitive Advantage,
Journal of Strategy and Management 6(4), pp. 320-342.
Terry, L., 2012. Thinking Small: The Business Case for LCL, Inbound Logistics, July 2012, pp.154-162.
http://s3.amazonaws.com/tpco-inbound-logistics-www/digital/issues/ il_digital_july2012.pdf
Valsamakis, V.,Groves, G., 1996. Supplier-Customer Relationships:Do Partnerships Perform Better?, Journal of
Fashion Marketing and Management 1(1), pp. 9-25.
Yount, R., 2006. 12developing scales, Research Design and Statistical Analysis in ChristianMinistry, 4th ed.,
Chapter 12, part II: Research Methods, pp. 12-1 to 12-12.
http://www.napce.org/documents/research-design-yount/12_scales_4th.pdf
About the author
Pisoot Thankdenchai has been working in Logistics for more than 25 years, starting fr om the
operational level. Currently he is the Director of Dragon Star Maritime Co. Ltd., responsible for performing
logistical functions for major corporations in Thailand. He also performs Guest Lecturing roles in various
universities, and counselling roles in various companies in Thailand. Simultaneously, he is a Doctoral
Candidate in the Faculty of Logistics and Supply Chain Management, doing a thesis on the Impacts of Service
Quality of Logistics Service Providers in Thailand towards the Sustainable Competitiveness of the Enterprises.
BMIC 2015| page280

His areas of specialty: Partial shipments and critical consolidation service management for logisticians. Pisoots
main research interests are in the field of physical distribution and logisticstransport; include Make -or-Buy
Decisions, the Reductions of Total Costs of Ownership, Service Quality, Efficiency of various Logistical
Activities towards Profitability, etc. Pisoot is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]
APPENDIX 1
Theoretical bases interpretation: Sourcing to strategic approaches

Relationship sources
Resources management (5M)
Systems approach
price
money
input
personal/people
man
process
practice
management
output
(machine)
throughput
(material)
Cost + Q'lty + Design
Related effects
Performance
profit
price
efficiency
lifetime
personal
effectiveness
lifetime + design
practice + personal
effectiveness + effectiveness
cost + lifetime
price + practice
efficiency + effectiveness
cost + lifetime + design
price + practice + personal
efficiency + effectiveness + effectiveness
Sourcing Techniques
Profitabilities
Valuation
insource
competitiveness
value of money
outsource
competitive advantage
value added
multiple strategies
sustainability
value of quality + value added
TCO
sustainable competitiveness
value of money + value of quality
(Hybrid sourcing)*
sustainable competitive advantage
value of money + value of quality + value added
Sourcing Techniques
Logistics provider's in purchasing
insource
make own consolidated service for direct cost
outsource
co-load to other for direct cost
multiple strategies
choices between MoB
TCO
focus in total cost (freight + local charge + agent's charges)
(Hybrid sourcing)*
focus all total cost with mixed method of MoB
Source:Author
BMIC 2015| page281

Scale Ranking: The Thurstone scale construction

A range of weighs from high (usually 11) to low (usually 1).
Subjects select the attitudinal statements they agree with most.
Then, scores result from computing the average of the weighs of the items selected.
Indicators
11 scales
Cumu.
Mean/Cum
Meaning
Bad
Bankrupt
1.5
Worst
2.5
Crisis & Heavy loss
3.5
Continued loss
4.5
Loss & B/E Challenge
11
5.5
Equally B/E & Loss Challenge
13
6.5
Profit - Competitive (today)
15
7.5
Profitability - Competitiveness (these days)
17
8.5
Profitability Advantage - Competitive Advantage (by week)
(Excellent)
10
19
9.5
Profitability enable longer Compet - Being Sustainable (by month)
Best Practice
11
21
10.5
Wealth Stage -long-term Compet = Sustainable Competitive Advantage (by year)
(Moderate)*
(Good)
Source:
Authors
BMIC 2015| page282
analysis

APPENDIX 2
REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT (2011)
UNCTAD (2011)
Performance figures of Dubai Ports World

Performance Indicators :
Author's calculation
P.162
Dubai Ports World
Years
2007
2008
2009
2010
revenue ($mill)
2613
3283
2821
3078
cost ($mill)
1550
1943
1749
1838
profit ($mill)
1063
1340
1072
1240
A) Portion Calculation - by Revenue base

within group
2007
2007
2008
2008
2009
2009
2010
2010
Total
Mean
x-bar
revenue
2613
100.0%
3283
100.0%
2821
100.0%
3078
100.0%
11795
2948.75
100.0%
cost
1550
59.3%
1943
59.2%
1749
62.0%
1838
59.7%
7080
1770
60.0%
EBITDA
1063
40.7%
1340
40.8%
1072
38.0%
1240
40.3%
4715
1178.75
40.0%
between groups
2007
2008
YoY
2009
YoY
2010
YoY
Total
Mean
revenue ($mill)
2613
3283
670
2821
-462
3078
257
11795
2948.75
revenue (%)
100%
126%
25.6%
86%
-39.7%
109%
23.2%
100%
100%
cost ($mill)
1550
1943
393
1749
-194
1838
89
7080
1770
cost (%)
59%
211%
152.0%
67%
-144.4%
70%
3.4%
60%
60%
profit ($mill)
1063
1340
277
1072
-268
1240
168
4715
1178.75
profit (%)
41%
51%
10.6%
33%
-18.6%
44%
11.3%
40%
40%
Result:
(1) Revenue base 100 / Cost 60 / Profit 40 equal to ratio 10:6:4
Under these scores the fair value (no gain/no loss) to meet break-even that is 60% from revenue had to cover the cost.
BMIC 2015| page283
(Margin)

In this model, lower than 60% will be critical, the company (DBX port) will faces the loss. Hence the scale point to control weighing scale
from total marks 100 can be drawn as: Revenue as: 10 = excellent / 6 = Moderate / 4 = Weak
Thus, above than 6 points = is competitive Revenue which also a competitive margin
B) Portion Calculation - by Cost base

Construct the same meaning but switching a full mark 100% on cost
within group
2007
2007
2008
2008
2009
2009
2010
2010
Total
Mean
x-bar
revenue
2613
168.6%
3283
169.0%
2821
161.3%
3078
167.5%
11795
2948.75
166.6%
cost
1550
100.0%
1943
100.0%
1749
100.0%
1838
100.0%
7080
1770
100.0%
EBITDA
1063
68.6%
1340
69.0%
1072
61.3%
1240
67.5%
4715
1178.75
66.6%
Result:
(2) Cost base 100 / Revenue 166.60 / Profit 66.6% equal to ratio 100/66.6
Source: Authors analysis from secondary data of UNCTAD (2011, p.162)
BMIC 2015| page284
(Profit)

APPENDIX 3
a) FCL freight cost (20' container from liners)
Destination / Liners
Liner A
375
700
1060
Liner B
425
750
1100
Liner C
450
775
1144
Liner D
380
800
1170
c) LCL unit cost rounded up (25 cbm in 20' FCL container)

Liner A
Liner B
Liner C
Liner D
15
17
18
15
28
30
31
32
42
44
46
47
Strength & Weak of costing - reflects Profitability and Relationship consideration
Liner E
395
850
1248
Insource
Liner E
16
34
50
e) Profit from selling (type: coloader)

3PL-A
3PL-B
3PL-C
3PL-D
-10
-9
-11
-3
2
-2
-6
-17
3
-4
9
1
* the worst case for maximum loss in group = minus 17 to create dummy values.
Multi
3PL-E
-9
-9
-5
g) Selling Rate to Customers

TCO
3PL-E
24
42
62
3PL-A
22
47
62
I) PERFORMANCE - Profit
Performance - based on COST: Profit
Differences of FREIGHT rates (insource)
3PL-A
46.67%
67.86%
47.62%
Total 3 areas: @average
54.05%
e.g. Port: SINGAPORE
Scales construction / group
min (within group)
max (within group)
mean (diff: mm: x-bar)
by simple statistics
Thurstone scale (10:11:11)
Profit Performance(Profit)
(Moderate)
Destination:
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
3PL-B
25
45
57
3PL-C
24
42
72
3PL-D
29
32
65
ROC :
405
775
1,144
16
31
46
-8
-6
1
25
42
64
Profit
3PL-B
47.06%
50.00%
29.55%
42.20%
3PL-C
33.33%
35.48%
56.52%
41.78%
3PL-D
93.33%
0.00%
38.30%
43.88%
3PL-E
50.00%
23.53%
24.00%
32.51%
Thurstone
method
Singapore
33.33
93.33
60.00
x-bar
method
Singapore
33.33
93.33
54.078
10.816
9.832
Range
method
Singapore
0
126.660
54.078
11.515
6.00
Average
method
Singapore
33.33
93.33
63.33
12.67
11.51
B/practice
33.33
39.33
45.33
51.33
57.33
63.33
average
1.00
12.67
25.33
38.00
50.66
63.33
by means
0.00
10.816
21.631
32.447
43.263
54.078
Range
0.000
11.515
23.029
34.544
46.058
57.573
0.541
0.354
0.392
0.429
b) LCL freight cost (by 25 cbm/20' FCL)

Liner A
15.00
28.00
42.4*
* number round up resulted without decimal
Liner B
17.00
30.00
44.00
d) Market Selling rate to Co-loaders (picked from samples' quotations)

3PL-A
3PL-B
5
8
30
28
45
40
Liner C
18.00
31.00
45.76*
Liner D
15.2*
32.00
46.8*
Liner E
15.8*
34.00
49.92*
10
31
9
3PL-C
7
25
55
3PL-D
12
15
48
Outsource
3PL-E
7
25
45
8
25
47
3PL-D
17
17
17
(variable)
3PL-E
17
17
17
3PL-D
14
0
18
32
Profit
3PL-E
8
8
12
28
f) Simulation for Local charges at both ends (Dummy value*)

3PL-A
3PL-B
3PL-C
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
* Dummy value = 17 maximum value adjusted in order to kill maximum loss in group.
h) Profit from Selling (type: customers)

Total 3 areas
3PL-A
7
19
20
46
II) PERFORMANCE - Margin

Performance - based on REVENUE: Margin
Differences of FREIGHT rates (insource)
3PL-A
31.82%
40.43%
32.26%
Total 3 areas: @average
34.83%
e.g. Port: SINGAPORE
Scales construction / group
min (within group)
max (within group)
mean (diff: mm: x-bar)
by simple statistics
Thurstone scale (10:11:11)
Profitability (Margin)
(Moderate) / Break-even
BMIC 2015| page285
Destination:
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
3PL-B
8
15
13
36
3PL-C
6
11
26
43
ROR :
9
11
18
Margin
3PL-B
32.00%
33.33%
22.81%
29.38%
3PL-C
25.00%
26.19%
36.11%
29.10%
3PL-D
48.28%
0.00%
27.69%
25.32%
3PL-E
33.33%
19.05%
19.35%
23.91%
Thurstone
method
Singapore
25.00
48.28
23.28
x-bar
method
Singapore
25.00
48.28
34.085
6.817
6.197
Range
method
Singapore
0
73.280
34.085
6.662
2.33
Average
method
Singapore
25.00
48.28
36.64
7.33
6.66
B/practice
25.00
27.33
29.66
31.98
34.31
36.64
average
1.00
7.33
14.66
21.98
29.31
36.64
by means
0.00
6.817
13.634
20.451
27.268
34.085
Range
0.000
6.662
13.324
19.985
26.647
33.309
0.3409
0.2380
0.2764
0.2851

Competitive zone
(Good)
(Well)
(Excellent)
Best Practice
7
8
9
10
11
69.33
75.33
81.33
87.33
93.33
76.00
88.66
101.33
113.99
126.66
64.894
75.710
86.525
97.341
108.157
69.087
80.602
92.116
103.631
115.145
Competitive Margin (today)

Competitiveness (these days)
Com. Adv. profitability (by week)
Sustainable profitability (by month)
Sustainable Compet-Adv. (by year)
Source: Authors analysis
BMIC 2015| page286
7
8
9
10
11
38.97
41.30
43.62
45.95
48.28
43.97
51.30
58.62
65.95
73.28
40.903
47.720
54.537
61.354
68.171
39.971
46.633
53.295
59.956
66.618

Lecturerssatisfaction towards hard skills and soft skills of Indonesian Students

at Burapha University
Agus Riyadi and Regina Maria Prista
Abstract
This study focused on the level of hard skills and soft skills Indonesian Student. Getting higher Grade
Point Average (GPA) does not mean that students can survive in this globalization challenges. Hard Skills are a
learning process and also well known by technical skills and Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Hard skills are all about
knowledge and technical to develop their mind in reality, such as things in their field (Cientist, 2013). In
university, hard skills can be seen by GPA. If students get higher GPA or above the universitys standard, we
could say that they can follow and understand the instructure from lecturers, then their hard skills are good. But,
if students get lower GPA, we could conclude that students do not understand what the lecturer said or they can
not absorb the material well. According to Bahrumsyah (2009), soft skills are skills for communicating with
other people (Interpersonal Skills) and manage themselves (Intrapersonal Skills) to develop the work optimally.
Therefore, university built student club for student to socialize with other student, learn how to discuss and solve
the problem, learn another personality, learn how to be confident in a public and others. Nowadays, student who
gets higher GPA is not a guarantee that he or she has good soft skills.
The objectives of this research are to found the statisfaction level of lecturer who has taught Indonesian
Student in Burapha University, Thailand and to investigate the influence between Indonesian Student hard skill
and soft skills toward satisfaction level of Lecturer in BUU. The research method used is descriptive
correlational study, researcher used survey questionnaire to collect the data. The questionnaire is distributed to
24 lecturers in BUU. The questionnaire consists of 3 demographic questions, 9 questions of Hard Skills, 15
questions for Soft skills and 8 questions for satisfaction level.
The results that had been collected and analyzed shows there is a positive relationship (hard skills, r =
.610; soft skills, r = .720) between both variables. This research also shows that soft skills and hard skills have
influence (Rsquared = .538) on satisfaction level. Moreover, the result of F-test also shows that there is a
significant influence of hard skills and soft skills toward satisfaction level.
Keywords: Hard Skills, Soft Skills, Satisfaction Level
1. Introduction
In Indonesia, Government makes a student exchange as a way of learning and one of preparation for
the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) 2015. AEC 2015 is a program for the ASEAN countries in order to
improve the quality of the economy, especially the trading is being an easier access such as the abolition of
customs duties apply (Free Trade Area) to create a single market. Under an agreement on the hospitality
industry signed by ASEAN tourism ministers in 2009, tourism laborers can work in any ASEAN countries from
2015. According to this agreement, citizens holding certificates issued by any tourism certification boards in
ASEAN nations are recognized by regional countries and can travel freely among these nations for guest work.
Hospitality schools such as tourism Trisakti Institute of Tourism is expected to play an active role as a
school-based tourism superior competence to make the graduates will be easier in regional or abroad.Student
exchange becomes one of the prestigious educational quality improvement programs in this current era of
globalization, where students in high school or college who is pursuing a college degree are given the
opportunity to add some experiences and knowledges in a new environment, both nationally and internationally.
This program is created in order to prepare Indonesia young generation faces globalization challenge with
BMIC 2015| page287

International quality. Student Exchange is expected that the student will be able to broaden the international
world. With an interesting project, students can develop soft skills to be ready to jump in the community. In
addition, students exchange are also required to be able to improve their knowledge or hard skills and soft skills,
where they are judged on their skills when dealing with others. Increasing hard skills are the important answer in
a success to get the job. However, it is not enough just hard skills capabilities, but must be balanced with the
ability of soft skills in the face of various challenges when performing such work. Superior human resources are
those that not only have the hard skills, but an expert in aspects of soft skills as well (Cientist, 2013).
One of the educational institutions in Jakarta, which has been cooperating and has a student student
exchange for undergraduate students is Trisakti Institute of Tourism. Trisakti Institute of Tourism is already
implementing a joint Bachelor degree program since 2010, among other neighboring countries, such as
Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Until now, they send students to Burapha University (BUU), Thailand
routinely performed each year. The table below is showed about the total of Trisakti Institute of Tourism
students who has been sent to Burapha University, Thailand from 2012 2014.
Table 1.1 Total Sending Indonesian Student from Trisakti Institute of Tourism to BUU, Thailand
Year
The Total of students to BUU
2012
5 students
2013
15 students
2014
9 students
Source: Trisakti Institute of Tourism, 2015

Based on the above table, this study identified about the BUU lecturers perception about hard skills
and soft skills Indonesian Students. For this purpose following questions are developed to find solutions to
know the level of Indonesian Students hard skills and soft skills toward lecturers satisfaction as follows:
To determine the level of Indonesian Students hard skill and soft skills based on Lecturer in BUU
To determine out the satisfaction level of Lecturer at BUU towards hard skills and soft skills
Indonesian Student
To explain the correlation between Indonesian Student hard skill and soft skills toward satisfaction
level of Lecturer in BUU
To investigate the influence between Indonesian Student hard skill and soft skills toward
satisfaction level of Lecturer in BUU
2.1 Hard Skills, Soft Skills and Lecturer satisfaction
Another opinion of hard skill comes from Islami (2012) that is stressed that hard skill as a mastery of
science, technology, skills and technical skills appropriate to the field of science. In the world of work, hard
skills are technical or administrative procedures related to an organizations core business. Example include
machine operation, computer protocols, safety standards, financial procedures and sales administration. These
skills are typically easy to observe, quantify and measure. Here are kind of hard skills that are needed as a
student, such as how is the ability of Indoenesian student to absorb the material in class, how is the proficiency
of Indonesian student in foreign language, especially English and how is the knowledge of Indonesian student
about online etiquette skill. Hard skills are the technical skills including programming language, operating
system skills, networks and communications, foreign language skills, procedure skills, etc (Snyder, Rupp &
Thornton, 2006). Some sources mention that people knows technical skills more than hard skills. Another study
comes from Ruetzler et al., (2014), they identified seven keys of technical skills, such as Grade Point Average,
social networking, time management skills, strategic planning skills, spreadsheet skills and communication
(oral and written).
BMIC 2015| page288

Another study indicated that hard skills contribute only 15% to ones success, whereas 85% of
success is due to soft skills (Watts & Watts, 2008, as cited in John, 2009). Soft skills fulfil an important role in
shaping an individuals personality by completing his or her hard skills. In bringing along additional knowledge
and skills, added up by convincing personal traits and habits are their competitive advantage. Therefore, soft
skills are one in importance on the job and they need soft skills to complement technical skills. These seven
components of soft skills that are to be embedded in the syllabus taught at Institute of Higher Learning, such as,
Communication Skills, Critical thinking and problem solving skills, Team work, Lifelong Learning and
Information management skills, Entrepreneurship skill, Ethic and professional moral and Leadership skill.
Robles ( 2012) stated that there are ten soft skills attributes such as, communication, courtesy, flexibility,
integrity, interpersonal skills, positive attitude, professionalism, responsibility, teamwork and work ethic.
Educators have a special responsibility regarding soft skills, because during students School and
University time they have major impact on the development of their students soft skills. Besides raising
awareness regarding the importance of soft skills and encouraging students to improve their skills, lecturers
should actively practice soft skills with their students (Schulz, 2008) . A very effective and efcient way of
doing this is to include soft skills training into the teaching of hard skills. As a positive side effect the lessons
will become more attractive, which in turn will increase the success rate of learners.
Zhang (2012) stated that IT education must prepare future IT professionals with hard and soft skills to
communicate with end users, to resolve conflicts, and to bring different functions together toward a common
goal. This study should prove valuable for educators to promote soft-skill training in an active learning
environment and to use peer evaluations to achieve success in IT education. Many authors have measured the
satisfaction level based on theory of Judge and Ryan Klinger (2008) on the previous research, three items of
satisfaction scale are all about, as follows: Feeling enjoy, Feeling enthusiastic, Feeling satisfied with directly
reported satisfaction measurements. At this time, hard skills and soft skills become the factor behind lecturers
satisfaction.
Hard Skills (X1) :

-
Technical Skills
Language Skills
Time Management Skills
Source: Snyder, Rupp and Thornton

(2006) and Reutzler (2014)
SoftSkills(X2):
-
Communication
InterpersonalSkills
PossitiveAttitude
Responsibility
Satisfaction(Y):
- FeelingEnjoy
- FeelingEnthusiastic
- Feelingsatisfied
Figure. 1 Research Framework
Work
BMIC 2015| page289

3. Methodology
While research methodology is a study in learning the rules contained research. In this study, the
population of lecturers in Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand which is total 47 lectures teach in Hotel and
Tourism Management Division. In the process, researcher only get 34 lecturers while 13 lecturers were
unreachable and did not reply the questionnaire. Kerlinger and Lee (2000) suggested that rule of thumb is no
less than 50 participants for a correlation or regression. Other researcher suggest minimum 50 respondents but
we use only 34 samples because. 34 samples as baseline a framework for developing students for the future and
strengthen cooperation with BUU. Data was collected through 34 respondents in 01- 30 July 2015. Every
single survey is done by online questionnair, using google sheet and send through e-mail.
The Hard skills questionnaire adopted from Snyder, Rupp and Thornton (2006) and Reutzler et.,al
(2014). It consist of 9 questions across the three sub variables of hard skills (technical skills, language skills,
time management skills). The questionnaire were adopted from Robles (2012) consist of 16 questions across the
8 sub variables of soft skills (Communication, Courtesy, Flexibility, Interpersonal Skills, Positive Attitude,
Responsibility, Teamwork, Work Ethic) and the scale of Satisfactionquestionnaire developed by Judge &
Klinger (2008), three sub variables (feeling enjoy, feeling enthusiastic, feeling satisfied) in 8 questionnaire has
been utilized. A four point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree was used in the collection
of data. The tools which deployed in this paper were descriptive statistic (i.e. frequencies, percentages,
means) and inferential statistics (i.e. correlations and multiple regression analysis). These statistical analysis are
carried out with the standard SPSS software program version 20.
For the independent variable, especially Hard Skills (HS), it has 9- items on the questionnaire.
However, after the data is collected and the validity analysis for this variable is conducted, researcher found that
there is 1-items are not valid, since the corrected item-total correlation computed is below the minimum value.
According to Guilfords measurement (1946), that one items correlation coefficient is categorized as low
validity, that is not acceptable for further analysis. Furthermore, the validity analysis is conducted again for the
rest 8-items and the result shows that all the 8-items of Hard Skills are valid with value more than 0.3. For Soft
Skills items (SS), there are no deleted items since all sub-variable, 15-items are valid or having value more
than 0.3 as well. Satisfaction Level (SA) of Lecturer at Burapha University (BUU) as dependent variable has 8items and the validity analysis shows that all items are valid with value more than 0.3. Besides determining the
validity from corrected item-total correlation,researcher also observes the significant score for each item to
ensure the validity of each item. All Results are showing that all items has significant below than 0.05, hence it
means that all items are significant and valid.
According to Sekaran (2003), Cronbachs Alpha more than 0.8 is good reliability. All instrumens in
this research are 0,883good reliability. This good result of reliability test shows that this measurement has an
internal consistency and these variables have an acceptable value for reliability, hence it could be assumed
that the data collected is reliable and can be used for further analysis. The descriptive statistic looking at the
mean score was used to examine the overall hard skill and soft skills toward lecturers satisfaction. The reported
respondents scores are presented in Table 1.2
BMIC 2015| page290

Table 1.2HardSkillsof IndonesianStudent(X1)
SubVariables
N
34
IndonesianStudentcan absorbthematerialinthe class
Minimum
3,00
Maximum
4,00
Mean
3,7083
34
2,00
4,00
3,6667
34
1,00
4,00
3,5000
IndonesianStudentcould speakEnglishas
InternationalLanguagewell
34
3,00
4,00
3,8750
IndonesianStudentisa fast learnertolearnThai

Languageas newlanguage
34
2,00
4,00
3,2917
34
2,00
4,00
3,5000
34
3,00
4,00
3,5417
34
3,00
4,00
3,6667
34
27,00
36,00
28,7500
IndonesianStudenthas no difficultiestodo
homework oranyproject
IndonesianStudent understandsthematerialin
classthroughgoodgradeor GPA
IndonesianStudentknows thepriorityasa studentby

collectingtheassignmenton time
IndonesianStudentalways asksomethinghe/she
doesntunderstandbefore datelineoftheassignment
IndonesianStudenthasa goodpreparationfor
presentingassignment(Do somePresentation)
TTL_X(MeanOverall) ValidN(listwise)
Source: Result of Primary Data, July 2015
From the output above, researcher got total mean from 8-item of Hard Skills is 3.59, which this score
means that the level of hard skills of Indonesian student is very good. From 8-items above, the highest sub
variable from hard skills is Indonesian Student could speak English as International Language well with score
3.88 and the lowest point from hard skills is Indonesian Student is a fast learner to learn new language with
3.29 point, and it is still good. From this observation, language is the most power of Indonesian Students hard
skill because Indonesian student more active in the class because they understand english well. Overall, in this
case, according to Islami (2012) as previous study that one of the strongest hard skills aspect is profiency of
Indonesian student in foreign language. While from this observation, language skills is the highest point of hard
skills Indonesian Students is good and very good based on lecturer at BUU side.
BMIC 2015| page291

Table 1.3SoftSkillsof IndonesianStudent (X2)
SubVariables
Indonesian Student has no difficulties to

communicate with other people in using English
Indonesian Student is polite to lecturer, staff
and friends in college through saying "Please"
and "Thank you"
Indonesian Student always respect everyone
and never do something bad, such as
harassment, say bad words, etc
Indonesian Student is open minded to accept
new things, such as new culture during staying
in Thailand
Indonesian Student has good self-control
Indonesian Student seems like happy
everyday
Indonesian Student has good confidence when
talking, presenting and discussing
Indonesian Student has good leadership
Indonesian Student always gets job done, such
as assignment and project
Indonesian Student always give the best when
doing assignment and project
Indonesian Student very helpful in the class
Indonesian Student gets along with other
student
Indonesian Student always comes on time to
the class
Indonesian Student always attend the class
Indonesian Student has good initiative in the
class through discussing with lecturer and
another student
TOTAL X2
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
34
3,00
4,00
3,8750
34
3,00
4,00
3,9167
34
3,00
4,00
3,6667
34
3,00
4,00
3,7500
34
3,00
4,00
3,5417
34
3,00
4,00
3,5833
34
3,00
4,00
3,7083
34
3,00
4,00
3,4583
34
3,00
4,00
3,7917
34
3,00
4,00
3,7083
34
3,00
4,00
3,5417
34
3,00
4,00
3,4583
34
3,00
4,0
3,2917
34
3,00
4,00
3,7917
34
3,00
4,0
3,666
34
45,00
60,00
54,7500
Valid N (listwise)
From the output above, researcher got total mean from 15-item of Soft Skills is 3.65 or very good.
From 15-item above, the highest sub variable from soft skills is Indonesian Student is polite to lecturer, staff
and friends in college through saying please and thank you with score 3.92 and the lowest point from soft
skills is Indonesian Student has good leadership with 3.46 point. Even that point is the lowest, but 3.46 is very
good. Indonesian student is very communicative to everyone, lecturers, staff and friends. Besides that, while
working in a group, most of them lead the group to do the best for the project. Moreover, this explanation is
supported by previous study, according to Sherlita et al., (2011), soft skills are focused in problem solving and
communication ability.
BMIC 2015| page292

Table 1.4 Satisfaction level of lecturer at BUU (Y)
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
I findrealenjoymentin
teachingIndonesianStudent
34
3,00
4,00
3,8750
TheIndonesianStudentsare
verycourteous
34
3,00
4,00
3,7500
34
3,00
4,00
3,7083
34
3,00
4,00
3,6667
I hopethatI have
IndonesianStudentinevery myclass
34
2,00
4,00
3,6667
Ingenerally,I satisfywith
HardSkillsofIndonesian Student
34
3,00
4,00
3,6667
34
1,00
4,00
3,4583
34
3,00
4,00
3,6667
34
24,00
32,00
29,4583
MostdaysI amenthusiastic
aboutIndonesianStudent
I alwayswait forthe next
batchofIndonesianStudent to studyin
myclassor BUU
Ingenerally,I satisfywith
SoftSkillsofIndonesian Student
Overall,I satisfywith IndonesianStudent
TTL_Y
ValidN(listwise)
34
Source:ResultofPrimaryData,July2015
Pearson Product Moment Correlation aims to know the relationship between one variable with
another. Table 1.5 shows the correlation between hard skills and soft skills with satisfaction level. there is a
possitive relationship between these variables. Correlation coefficient, r = .610, high relationship, with
significant value is .002 that is less than 0.05, which shows that there is significant relationship between hard
skills and satisfaction level. Another variables, soft skills and satisfaction level also show high relationship
with correlation coefficient, r = .720 and significant value is .000. With possitive relationship, it could be
assumed that when student performance is high, then satisfaction level will be high also and vice versa.
According to Khameneh (2014), that were found there is a relationship between communication skill for
manager and employees satisfaction. At this time, since students and lecturers also similar with employee and
manager. In this reseach found that skills are related to satisfaction level, through this observation skills of
Indonesian Student are related to lecturer satisfaction.
BMIC 2015| page293

Table 1.5 Correlation Anaylysis between Hard Skills, Soft Skills and Satisfaction Level
TTL_X
TTL_X2
PearsonCorrelation
TTL_X
Sig.(2-tailed)
N
PearsonCorrelation
TTL_X2 Sig.(2-tailed)
,720**
,610**
34
34
,000
34
,002
34
,720**
,000
,754**
34
34
,000
,610**
,754**
34
,002
,000
34
34
34
N
PearsonCorrelation
TTL_Y
TTL_Y
Sig.(2-tailed)
N
**. Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level(2-tailed)
Source:ResultofPrimaryData,July2015.
Other side based on Coefficient of Determination (R-squared) is aiming to know the influence
percentation between independent variable towards dependent variable. The result of R-squared can be seen at
table below.
Table 1.6 Coefficient of Determination Model Summary

Model
R Square
Adjusted R
Std. Error of the
,760a
,578
Square
,538
Estimate
2,04383
a. Predictors: (Constant), TTL_X2, TTL_X

Source:ResultofPrimaryData,July2015
Table above shows that the model of this analysis has achieved the adjusted R-Squared of .538. This
means 53.8% of variance in satisfaction level is explained by hard skills and soft skills while the other 46.2% is
influenced by other factors that is not included in this research. Those factors could be the demographic factor,
personal factor, pull factor or even the variables of push factor itself such as organizational factors
(organizational justice, benefits, etc.), attitude factors (job satisfaction and job stress), organizational
commitment (Shah et al., 2010:169) and level of life satisfaction like overtime, marriage, etc (Lucas &
Dyrenforth, 2005).
To test the hypothesis, researcher used F-test by comparing the F- value. The F-value for this study
is also attained from the multiple regression analysis and conducted through computer program SPSS
Statistic version 20. Below table will shows F-value calculated for this relationship. Fvalueforthisstudyis14.392with2and31degreeoffreedom, thentheF-criticalvalueattained fromtheF-tableis2.9113.
Thecomparison
resultsthatF-statistic
isgreaterthanF-criticalvalue,14.392>2.9113.This
resultsmeanthatnullhypothesisisrejectedandthealternativehypothesisis accepted.
BMIC 2015| page294

Table 1.7 F Test
ANOVAa
Model
SumofSquares
df
MeanSquare
Sig.
Regression
120,236
60,118
14,392
,000b
31
4,177
Residual
87,722
Total
207,958 33
a. DependentVariable:TTL_Y
b. Predictors:(Constant),TTL_X2,TTL_X
5. Conclusion and Recommendation

Thisresearchstudiesaboutthesatisfaction
leveloflecturerat
BuraphaUniversitytowardshardskillsandsoftskills
Indonesian
studentfromTrisaktiInstituteofTourism,whichhassentmore
thanthreegroupsinthreeyears.Totallecturers
whoisrequestedtosupport
thisobservation
are34peoplefrom47lecturersatBuraphaUniversity.RespondentsarelecturerswhohastaughtIndonesian
Studentat
leastonesemester.
The
result
of
this
observation
have
achieved
the
objectives
developedinthisresearchandresearchercanbeconcluded,asfollows:
1 TheLevelofIndonesianStudentsHardSkillsbasedonLecturerin BUU
Theresultshowsthatoverall,meanof
hardskills3.59point
whichismeanvery
good.Thehighestpointforhardskillsaspectwith score3.88isIndonesianStudentcouldspeakEnglishasInternational
Languagewellandthelowestaspectwithscore3.29isIndonesian Studentis afastlearnertolearnnewlanguage.
2. TheLevelofIndonesianStudentsSoftSkillsbasedonLecturerin BUU
FromtheresultthelevelofsoftskillsIndonesian
Studentisalsovery
goodwithmean3.65.Thehighestpointforsoftskillsaspectwithscore
3.92isIndonesian
Studentispolitetolecturer,staffandfriendsin
collegethroughsayingpleaseandthankyouandthelowestaspect
isIndonesianStudenthasgoodleadershipwithscore3.46.
3.
TheLevelofSatisfactionleveloflectureratBUUtowardshardskills
andsoftskillsIndonesianStudent.
Overall,lecturersatBUUareverysatisfiedwithIndonesian
student
withscore3.68.Themostaspectthatisshowed
intheresultisLecturer atBUUisfeelingenjoyinteachingIndonesian Studentandthey becomeoneof lovelystudent.
4. CorrelationbetweenHardSkillsandSoftSkillstowardSatisfaction Level
Theresultshowsthatthereispossitive
relationship
betweenhardskills,
softskillsandsatisfaction
level.Thispossitiverelationship
canbe
assumedthatwhensatisfaction
levelisimproved,thenhardskillsand
softskillswillalsoimprovedorhighandviceversa.
5. TheInfluencebetweenHardSkillsandSoftSkillstowardSatisfaction Level
Furthermore,
besideshavingpossitiverelationship,
hardskillsandsoft
skillsisalsofoundtohavepositiveinfluenceon satisfaction level.It mean that by increasing the hard skills and soft
skills
Indonesian
student,
lecturerwillbemorefeelingsatisfied
towardtheirIndonesian
BMIC 2015| page295

Students.Thisfindingcouldbeusefulforbothuniversity
tokeepthe
agreement
insendingeitherstudentexchangeordoubledegreestudent.
Eventhoughtherelationship
andtheinfluencearebothsignificant,
adjustedR-squaredshowedthattheinfluence
given
byhardskillsand
softskillstoward
satisfactionlevelcounted53.8%.
Thisnumberisquite
bigasoneof
satisfactionlevelforlecturertowardtheirstudent.
Regarding above conclusion from calculation by SPSS of observation andquestionnaire
survey,studentperformanceisoneofaspect to measuresatisfactionlevel of lecturer, even though the result of Rsquaredorthepercentageofinfluenceforbothvariablesstatedthatthereis 46.2% for another
aspects.
Moreover,based on mean analysis of satisfactionleveloflecturertowardhardskillsandsoftskillsarevery satisfy
andverygood.ResearchercanconcludethatLecturersatBurapha
UniversityarefeelingsatisfiedtoteachIndonesian
StudentandhardskillsandsoftskillsofIndonesianstudentarebecoming oneof theiraspecttofeelsatisfied.
Researcherhassomerecommendations
forbothIndonesianStudent
andTrisaktiInstituteofTourism.
BeforesendingIndonesianstudentto Burapha University, Trisakti
Institute of Toursim should
consideratethestudentshardskillsand
softskills,suchas
students
abilitythroughGPAandsomeachievementduringstudyinginJakarta,
goodpersonality
andbehaviorandgoodknowlegdetopromoteIndonesia
throughperformance.
IndonesianStudentshouldkeepimpressingLecturer with many ways, like respecting Thais cultures, adapting
with
Thais
cultures,showingIndonesianstudents
spiritandpassionduringlearning
process,moreactiveandcreative,alsobringimpressive
Indonesian
culture
tothem.Fornextresearch,
researchercouldbroadentheunitofanalysisby including lecturer at Burapha University since Master Degree
student
studiedthere.Besidesthat,bynextresearchcouldalsoincludeotheraspects
ofsatisfactionlevel,notonlyhardskillsandsoftskillsfromthestudent,but
alsoforexampleorganizational
factor,organizational commitmentandlife satisfactionasadditionalsatisfactionlevelsaspect.
References
Cientist,
Dhawy.,
2013 . D h a w y S t e e l . R e t r i e v e d J u n e 1 5 , 2 0 1 5 , f r o m
https://dhawyscientist.wordpress.com/2013/06/13/hubungan-antara-softskill-dan-hardskill/
Guilford, J. P., 1946. New standards for test evaluation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6, 427
439.
Islami, Faizal A., 2012. Analisis Pengaruh Hard Skill, Soft Skill dan Motivasi terhadap Kinerja Tenaga
Penjualan: Studi Pada Tenaga Kerja Penjualan PT Bumiputera Wilayah Semarang. Universitas
Diponegoro, Semarang.
John, J. 2009. Study on the nature of impact of soft skills training programme on the soft skills development of
management students. Pacific Business Review, October/December, 19-27
Judge, Timothy A., and Ryan Klinger. (2008). Job Satisfaction: Subjective Well-Being at Work:393-407.
Kerlinger, F. & Lee, H. (2000). Foundations of behavioralresearch. New York: International Thomson Publ
ishing.
Khameneh, K., 2014. Relationship between Effective Communication Skills on the Job Satisfaction of.
MAGNT Research Report , Vol.2 (5): PP.50-60.
Lucas, R. E., & Clark, A. E., 2005. HAL Archives Ouvertes. Retrieved July 15, 2015, from
https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00590574/document
Robles, Marcel M.,2012. Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Todays Workplace.
Business Communication Quartely. 75(4): 453-465. doi:10.1177/1080569912460400
BMIC 2015| page296

Ruetzler, T., Baker, W., Reynolds, D., Taylor, j., & Allen, B.,2014. Perceptions
of
Technical
Skills
Required
for Successful Management in the Hospitality Industry An Exploratory Study Using Conjoint Analysis. International Journal of Hospitality Management ,
157-164
Schulz, Bernd. (2008). The Importance of Soft Skills: Education beyond academic knowledge. Journal of
Language and Communication, June 2008 pg. 147-154
Sekaran, U. 2003. Research Methods for Business : A Skill Building Approach 2 nd Edition, John Wiley and
Son. New York
Shah, et al.. 2010. Measuring Push, Pull and Personal Factors Affecting Turnover Intention: A Case of
University Teachers in Pakistan. Review of Economic & Business Studies. 3(1) : 167-192.
Snyder, L. A., Rupp, D. E. & Thornton, G. C., 2006. Personnel Selection Of Information Technology Workers:
The People, The Jobs, and Issues for Human Resource Management. In J. J. Martocchio (Ed.),
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, (Volume 25). Oxford: Elsevier.
Trisakti Institute of Tourism., 2015. International Program. Jakarta.
Zhang Aimao., 2012. Peer Assessment of Soft Skills and Hard Skills. Journal of Information Technology
Education: Research. Volume 11. Pg. 155-168
BMIC 2015| page297

Aggregate Liquidity for the Malaysian Stock Market: New Measure and TimeSeries Behaviour
Ping-Xin Liew, Kian-Ping Lim and Kim-Leng Goh
Abstract
This study computes the level of liquidity, using a recently proposed order-based low frequency proxy,
for all publicly listed firms on Bursa Malaysia over the sample period from 2000 to 2014. The firm-level
monthly liquidity values are then aggregated using equal- and value-weighted schemes to track the level of
market liquidity for the whole Malaysian stock exchange over time. The time-series behaviour of this newly
constructed aggregate market liquidity measure is further tested, along with trading activity, for the existence of
trend and seasonality. Our empirical results show that turnover ratio and Closing Percent Quoted Spread
decline over time albeit at a marginal pace, largely driven by large-capitalization stocks. In terms of seasonality,
trading activity is generally less active in the second half of the year with July the exception month. Liquidity is
found to be lower, on average, among large-capitalization stocks in December. The findings from correlation
analysis provide evidence in the Malaysian context that the turnover ratio, which is widely used by local
policymakers, is a poor indicator of liquidity.
Keywords: Market Liquidity; Aggregate Liquidity; Trend; Seasonality; Stock Market; Malaysia.
1. Introduction
The term liquidity has attracted growing attention from policymakers and investors due to its
importance in ensuring the functioning of the economy as well as financial markets. Given that it is a
multifaceted concept that carries several different meanings, this paper specifies at the outset that its key
objective is to explore the liquidity of the Malaysian stock market which embodies the aspects of immediacy,
breadth, depth and resiliency in the market. Until today, scholars have yet to come to any consensus on the best
liquidity measure due to its multifaceted nature. Liquidity measures can be broadly categorized into trade-based
and order-based measures. While trade-based liquidity measures such as trading volume and share turnover are
popular indicators of liquidity due to their ease of computation, they fail to account for trading costs or the price
impact of transactions (Aitken and Comerton-Forde, 2003; Lesmond, 2005; Barinov, 2014). This weakness is
addressed by the order-based liquidity proxies which can be further divided into two groups. The first group is
the percent-cost liquidity proxies which captures the transaction cost required to execute a small trade and the
second set, the cost-per-volume liquidity proxies, aims to measure marginal transaction costs per currency unit
of volume.
Malaysia is an emerging economy characterized by lower level of liquidity in the financial market and
this poses a major risk to investment return and a barrier to further growth in foreign portfolio investment
(Lesmond, 2005). In view of this, policymakers in Malaysia have been putting in place various initiatives to
enhance trading environment in the local bourse (Securities Commission, 2011) yet very few studies have been
conducted on the liquidity of Malaysian stocks. Studies on the liquidity of Malaysian stock market conducted by
Hameed and Ting (2000), Rahim and Nor (2006), Foo and Mat Zain (2010), Ramlee and Ali (2012), Sapian,
Rahim and Yong (2013) and Azevedo, Karim, Gregorious and Rhodes (2014) are among the limited published
studies available. It is worth highlighting that only three studies utilize the order-based liquidity proxies while
the remaining three are merely measuring trading activity. The limited empirical studies on the liquidity of
BMIC 2015| page298

Malaysian stock market deprive policymakers of useful policy input, since little is known about how, when and
why Malaysian stocks become more liquid.
The wide usage of trade-based liquidity indicators is not only seen in the literature but also in the
Malaysian policy circles. The Malaysian authorities generally define liquidity in terms of trading activity such as
trading volume and turnover which suggest a narrow interpretation of liquidity that is not reflective of the
transaction costs and price impact facing investors. Without an accurate measure of liquidity, there is a
possibility of ineffective policy prescription due to incorrect diagnosis of the state of liquidity for Malaysian
stocks or the aggregate stock market. To provide useful input to policymakers, corporations and investors, the
main objective of this study is to address the fundamental question of how liquidity is measured by constructing
liquidity indicator that reflect transaction costs and the price impact facing investors.
The standard approach in assessing the efficacy of a daily or monthly (low frequency) liquidity proxy is
to examine its correlation with the intraday (high-frequency) bid-ask spread benchmark. In the context of
Malaysia, the extensive analyses from Fong et al. (2014) lay the foundation for future liquidity work on the local
stock market. The horserace by Fong et al. (2014) shows that, in the category of percent-cost, the best
performing monthly liquidity proxy for Malaysian stocks is the Closing Percent Quoted Spread from Chung
and Zhang (2014), outperforming its closest competitor by a large margin in the dimensions of average crosssectional correlation and portfolio time-series correlation. For cost-per-volume proxies, the price impact version
of monthly Closing Percent Quoted Spread again emerges as the best performer. The Closing Percent Quoted
Spread maintains its strong performance in both categories at the daily frequency. Despite being a new proxy,
the excellent performance of Closing Percent Quoted Spread warrants its application on stock liquidity, which
has hitherto not been done for most stock markets around the world, Malaysia included.
Motivated by the lack of Malaysian liquidity studies and the recent discovery of a best-performing
liquidity proxy, the first objective of this study is to construct the Closing Percent Quoted Spread. In this
exercise, the Closing Percent Quoted Spread is constructed for all publicly listed companies on Bursa
Malaysia for the sample period from 2000 to 2014. Given the growing empirical evidence that market-wide
liquidity movements are better predictor of stock market returns (Amihud, 2002; Jones, 2002) and the real
economy (Ns et al., 2011), the liquidity for individual stocks are then aggregated using equal- and valueweighted schemes so as to provide monthly liquidity indicator for the whole Malaysian stock market. Despite its
predictive power, the time series properties of stock liquidity have received relatively less attention and are
largely confined to the U.S. market. In contrast, there is a huge literature exploring the time trends of aggregate
idiosyncratic volatility (see Xu and Malkiel, 2003; Cao, Simin and Zhao, 2008; Brandt et al., 2009; Bekaert et
al., 2012). Therefore, this study further explores the time series behavior of the newly constructed aggregate
liquidity indicator specifically in terms of the presence of trend and seasonality.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section two provides extensive review of the liquidity
literature so as to identify the research gaps in previous studies. Data and research methodology used in this
study are explained in Section three. The empirical results are presented and discussed in Section four while
Section five concludes the study and recommends potential future research work.
The standard asset pricing theories such as Arrow and Debreus complete-markets model and the
Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) which was first introduced by Harry Markowitz and further developed by
Jack Treynor, William Sharpe, John Lintner and Jan Mossin are based on the assumption of perfectly liquid
markets where agents are able to trade security at all times with no cost and take prices as given (Amihud et al.,
2006). However, these assumptions generally do not hold in reality due to the presence of market imperfections
such as exogenous transaction cost (Demsetz, 1968; Constantinides, 1986; Amihud and Mendelson, 1986;
Huang, 2003; Acharya and Pedersen, 2005), inventory risk facing market makers (Amihud and Mendelson,
1980; Ho and Stoll, 1981; Brunnermeier and Pedersen, 2005), information asymmetry (Copeland and Galai,
1983; Glosten and Milgrom, 1985; Kyle, 1985; Treynor, 1995) and search friction (Amihud et al., 2006; Duffie
et al., 2005; Vayanos and Wang, 2007; Weill, 2008).
BMIC 2015| page299

Browsing through the stock liquidity literature, there are overwhelming number of studies examining
factors that contribute to higher liquidity and those exploring the capital market effects of stock liquidity. As an
independent variable, stock market liquidity affects stock returns (Amihud, 2002; Pastor and Stambaugh, 2003;
Baker and Stein, 2004; Acharya and Pederson, 2005; Bekaert et al., 2007; Salehi et al., 2011), managerial payout
decisions (Brockman et al., 2008), firm value (Amihud and Mendelson, 2008; Fang et al., 2009), dividend
payout policy (Banerjee et al., 2007) and corporate governance (Maug, 1998; Back et al., 2013; Roosenboom et
al., 2013).
It is well established that liquidity in the emerging markets is relatively lower than that in the developed
markets but empirical evidences suggest that trading costs in the emerging markets have decreased at least since
the early 1990s (Jun et al., 2003; Lesmond, 2005; Bekaert et al., 2007). In Malaysia, only a handful of literatures
were found to study liquidity exclusively in Malaysia. Hameed and Ting (2000) use a sample of 663 security
traded on Bursa over the period 1977 to 1996 to investigate the short-term predictability of returns by trading
volume using a contrarian investment portfolio methodology. They find that the strategy yields significant
trading profit and conclude that contrarian profits are positively associated with level of trading activity. Rahim
and Nor (2006) compare the performances of the conventional Fama-French three-factor model and their
augmented liquidity-based three-factor models using 230 480 stocks listed on Bursa with the period 1987
2000 as the initiation set and 2001 2004 as the test set. The authors replace Fama-Frenchs value component
with liquidity component measured mainly by turnover ratio and observe that predictability of returns on stocks
traded on the local bourse can be marginally improved by accounting for illiquidity risk in the three-factor
model.
Foo and Mat Zain (2010) explore the relationship between corporate governance and liquidity in
Malaysia using order-based low-frequency liquidity proxies. Using 481 stocks listed on Bursa Malaysia, the
authors conclude that companies that are characterized by higher board independence and diligence tend to have
higher level of liquidity. Meanwhile, Ramlee and Ali (2012) examine whether liquidity explains long-term
return of IPO and the role of government shareholdings on the relationship between the two variables. Their
sample includes 283 IPO stocks listed on Main Board and Second Board of Bursa spanning the period from
1998 to 2008. They conclude that only the average monthly turnover ratio explains long-term IPO returns while
the involvement of government in the IPO positively moderates the interaction between the two variables.
Sapian et al. (2013) perform another IPO-related liquidity study in Malaysia, exploring the impact of
underpricing of 191 IPOs on their aftermarket liquidity for the period from June 2003 to December 2008. The
authors discover that issuers decision to underprice their IPOs is effective in boosting their liquidity in the
secondary market. They also highlight that stock market liquidity is relative less liquid in 2004, 2005 and 2008
compared to 2003 with the latter being the outcome of the sub-prime crisis in the US.
Lastly, Azevedo et al. (2014) explore the effects of index revision of the KLCI on stock price and
volume over the time period of 2005 to 2012. The authors controlled for changes in trading volume due to
changes in liquidity proxied by quoted spread, effective spread and depth of the Malaysian Ringgit (MYR). They
show that liquidity changes significantly following the announcement of stock addition as market makers
increase the bid-ask spreads as a result of the news, causing trading volume and stock prices to revert to their
original level prior to the index composition due to higher trading costs. On the other hand, deletion of a stock
from the index has insignificant effect on liquidity for trades occurring within the bid-ask quote hence stock
price and trading volume return to their levels before the index revision occurs.
3. Data and Research Methodology

3.1 Sample selection
The sample for this study covers all publicly listed firms in Malaysia over the period from January 2000
to December 2014. The proposed liquidity indicator is first constructed on a daily basis based on data sourced
solely from Thomson Reuters Datastream before it is aggregated and consolidated into monthly market index for
the purpose of examining the time series properties of liquidity of Malaysian stocks. Besides Closing Percent
Quoted Spread, the turnover ratio defined as the fraction of total value of shares traded to total value of shares
outstanding is also included in this section. This is because the popularity of turnover ratio among researchers
and regulatory authorities in Malaysia as a liquidity proxy warrants examination on its efficacy in capturing the
cost and immediacy of equity trading. Data required for the computation of the proposed liquidity proxy and the
BMIC 2015| page300

turnover ratio include closing bid price, closing ask price, trading volume, number of share outstanding and
market capitalization.
Two filters are introduced to ensure the reliability and consistency of liquidity proxy constructed in this
study. First, in order to address the concerns of data entry errors in Datastream and the presence of outliers, the
estimated daily liquidity proxy and the turnover ratio are winsorized at the 1 and 99 percentile levels where
values above the 99th percentile are replaced with the 99th percentile value and values below the 1st percentile are
replaced with the 1st percentile value. Second, a stock is required to have at least 11 non-zero daily liquidity
estimates in a month to produce a monthly liquidity estimate which is obtained by taking the simple average of
all daily observations in the month. If a stock does not have sufficient daily observations in a month, reading for
the particular month will be treated as missing value. These two filters are imposed in line with the work of Fong
et al. (2014).
3.2 Measurements for stock liquidity

The Closing Percent Quoted Spread is developed by Chung and Zhang (2014). The liquidity
horserace by Fong et al. (2014) is the only survey that assesses the performance of the Closing Percent Quoted
Spread for a simple reason that the indicator was not available prior to 2014. In the context of Malaysia, the
Closing Percent Quoted Spread is found to be the best performing monthly liquidity proxy for the Malaysian
stock market which outperforms other percent-cost proxies in the dimensions of average cross-sectional
correlation and portfolio time-series correlation. Table 1 illustrates the performance of monthly Closing
Percent Quoted Spread, High-Low and FHT, the top three percent-cost proxies identified by Fong et al.
(2014) in the Malaysian stock market.
Table 1. Performance of selected monthly percent-cost proxies in Malaysia
Performance Measures
CPQS
High-Low
FHT
Average Cross-Sectional Correlation
0.8580
0.5110
0.5450
Portfolio Time-Series Correlation
0.9700
0.7840
0.8380
Average Root Mean Squared Error
0.0133
0.0127
0.0160
Note: CPQS denotes Closing Percent Quoted Spread. FHT is a new percent-cost liquidity
measure introduced in Fong et al. (2014). For average cross-sectional correlation and portfolio timeseries correlation, higher readings denote better performance while for average root mean squared
error, lower reading is preferred.
The Closing Percent Quoted Spread is also appealing due to its ease of computation using only
closing bid and ask prices. The Closing Percent Quoted Spread is computed as the daily ratio of the difference
of ask and bid prices to the mid-point of these price. The liquidity for stock on day can be written as:
(1)
where
and
are the closing ask and bid price of stock on day
respectively. A higher Closing Percent Quoted Spread reading is associated with greater illiquidity as a wider
spread means that investors have to incur higher trading costs.
BMIC 2015| page301

3.3 Aggregate market liquidity indicator
The common practice in aggregating firm-level data involves assigning weights to individual
observations. Two frequently used weighting methods in the finance literature include equal-weighting which
assigns the same weight to each stock in a portfolio or index and market value-weighting where individual stock
is weighted according to its market capitalization, defined as the total market value of its outstanding shares.
The use of equal-weighting method is popular in the liquidity literature as evidenced by the work of Lesmond et
al. (1999), Chordia et al. (2001), Jones (2002), Lesmond (2005), Goyenko et al. (2009), Holden (2009), Hameed
et al. (2010) and Fong et al. (2014) while scholars in the idiosyncratic volatility area favor the use of market
value-weighting method (Angelidis, 2010; Brandt et al., 2009; Bekaert et al., 2012; Kang et al., 2014). A
number of studies on idiosyncratic volatility of stocks reviewed such as the works of Brockman and Yan (2006),
Guo and Savickas (2008), Eiling and Gerard (2014), and Tan and Galagedera (2015) use both methods in
assessing firm-specific volatility at the market level.
It is worth noting that equally-weighted aggregate daily liquidity measure tends to be influenced by
potentially higher spreads and illiquidity associated with stocks that are not traded frequently whilst for valueweighted aggregate daily liquidity measure, stocks that have higher trading frequency (usually stocks with large
market capitalization) will be given more emphasis than stocks that are infrequently traded. This study will
employ both weighting methods in computing the market liquidity indicator.
3.4 Trend and seasonality analyses

Previous studies that examine the existence of trend in stock liquidity generally employ the use of
graphs (Chordia et al., 2001) or computations of averages over the sample period to discern an increase or a
drop in the cost of trading over time (Jones, 2002). Apart from these primary examinations which are mainly
observation-based, this study will employ linear regression modelling to statistically test for the presence of time
trend and seasonality in trading activity, proxied by the turnover ratio and liquidity in Malaysian stocks.
The linear regression model can be expressed as
(2)
where
denotes liquidity proxy for month ,
denotes time dummy beginning with 1 (January
2000) and ending with 180 (December 2014),
,
to
are the dummy variables for February, March to
December. The OLS regression above will be estimated using heteroskedasticity- and autocorrelation-consistent
(HAC) options proposed by Newey and West (1987) and Andrews (1991) to obtain standard errors that are
robust to serial correlation and heteroskedasticity problems present in the residuals. The presence of trend can be
identified by checking the significance of
while month-of-the-year effect can be examined by checking the
significance of
up to . Note that dummy for the month of January is excluded to avoid the dummy variable
trap and hence coefficients for the month of February to December are benchmarked against the month of
January.
4. Empirical Analysis and Results
4.1 Descriptive statistics
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for the proposed liquidity indicator in this study as well as the
turnover ratio. The table is divided into two panels with the top panel displaying statistics for equally-weighted
Closing Percent Quoted Spread and turnover ratio while the bottom panel showing statistics for market valueweighted aggregate Closing Percent Quoted Spread and turnover ratio. Going by indicator, it is observed that
the equally-weighted turnover ratio (hereafter referred to as
) has a higher mean of 0.2934
compared to the market value-weighted turnover ratio (hereafter referred to as
) which recorded a
mean of 0.2053. With a wider range of 1.2037,
is also more volatile with a standard deviation of
0.1720 compared to a reading of 0.1194 registered by
which has a narrower range of 0.7663.
BMIC 2015| page302

Higher readings of turnover ratio indicate that shares are traded more frequently. In this case, higher mean
readings of
can be interpreted as small-cap stocks, on average, change hands more frequently
relative to large-cap stocks.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for market liquidity
Min
Median
Max
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Skewness
Kurtosis
Turnover
0.0659
0.2524
1.2696
0.2934
0.1720
1.7667
8.4697
CPQS
0.0160
0.0433
0.1665
0.0499
0.0282
2.1052
8.1419
Turnover
0.0870
0.1670
0.8534
0.2053
0.1194
2.2572
9.8669
CPQS
0.0055
0.0104
0.0245
0.0106
0.0038
0.7834
3.3706
Indicators
Equal-Weighted
(EW)
Value-Weighted
(VW)
While this discovery contradicts with the well-established finding of a positive relationship between
firm size and trading volume (Roll, 1981; James and Edmister, 1983), several works that are published more
recently are able to lend support to our results. Rouwenhorst (1999) who studies the drivers of stock returns and
turnover in the emerging markets finds that stocks with high beta, small market capitalization, and high
historical medium-term return have higher average turnover than their counterparts characterized by low beta,
high market value and low historical medium-term return. However, the author also warns that his finding of
negative relationship between firm size and turnover might be the outcome of sampling bias as a small stock
needs to have higher turnover than a large stock to be included in the sample. On the other hand, Chordia et al.
(2011) who study trends in trading activity and market quality in the US over the sample period 1993 to 2008
show no evidence that firm size plays a role in the turnover ratio of a stock.
The phenomenon observed in our study can also be explained by the general purpose of investing in
small-cap stocks for their higher growth potential compared to stocks with larger market capitalization. It is
widely acknowledged that large firms do not expand as fast as small firms and investors generally invest in
large-cap stocks for their steady dividend payout. Therefore, the potential for capital gain in large-cap stocks is
somewhat limited and hence investors commonly adopt a buy-and-hold strategy when it comes to large stocks,
resulting in lower trading activity. On the contrary, small-cap stocks which have relatively higher growth
potential tend to offer investors with capital gains (Fama and French, 2001) and therefore are likely to see
investors cashing out their paper profits, leading to higher trading activities compared to large-cap stocks.
Moving to the liquidity indicator, it is observed that the statistics of the equally-weighted Closing
Percent Quoted Spread (hereafter referred to as
) has higher values relative to the market valueweighted Closing Percent Quoted Spread (hereafter referred to as
). Over the period from January
2000 to December 2014,
averaged 0.0499 with a maximum value of 0.1665 while
registered
lower mean and maximum readings of 0.0106 and 0.0245 respectively. In terms of dispersion,
has a
higher standard deviation of 0.0282 compared to just 0.0038 seen for
. Interpreting observations from
the percent-cost category is straightforward as it is well documented that small-cap stocks have higher trading
costs and illiquidity risk (Amihud, 2002; Pastor and Stambaugh, 2003), mainly due to a higher degree of
information asymmetry (Glosten and Milgrom, 1985) compared to large-cap stocks whose information are more
widely available to the public and are usually covered by financial analysts which help increases dissemination
of information (Chung et al., 1995; Roulstone, 2003).
BMIC 2015| page303

4.2 Correlation analysis
A standard way of assessing whether a liquidity proxy constructed from daily data is able to accurately
represent liquidity of a stock is through examination of its correlation with a liquidity benchmark, usually
computed based on high-frequency intraday data (Goyenko et al., 2009; Fong et al., 2014). Due to limitation of
computing power and availability of data, this study will perform correlation analysis on the proposed lowfrequency liquidity measure and the turnover ratio. Figure 1 exhibits two scatter plots of the Closing Percent
Quoted Spread and turnover ratio. The left graph plots
and
while the right graph plots
market value-weighted
and
.
The relationship between turnover and liquidity proxy proposed in this study is hypothesized to be
negative as higher reading of liquidity proxies which signal greater degree of illiquidity should discourage
trading activity, leading to lower turnover. Figure 1 (a) shows that the turnover ratio is negative correlated to
Closing Percent Quoted Spread which is consistent with the hypothesis. However, an inspection of Figure 1
(b) indicates otherwise as it suggests a weak positive relationship between the liquidity measure and turnover.
Our finding in the market value-weighted segment concurred with that of Lesmonds (2005) who find a lack of
correlation between turnover and the bid-ask spread as the correlation coefficient between
and
is only 8.32%. This inconsistent relationships between turnover ratio and Closing Percent Quoted
Spread highlights that the turnover ratio is a poor measure of liquidity as stressed by scholars such as Aitken
and Comerton-Forde (2003) and highlighted the need for the policy makers in Malaysia to adopt a proper
liquidity measure.
4.3 Trend and seasonality analyses

At the market level, it is observed from Table 3 that the time dummies for turnover ratio and the
proposed liquidity proxy aggregated using the equal-weighting method are not significant. Meanwhile, time
dummies for market value-weighted turnover ratio and Closing Percent Quoted Spread show evidence of a
decreasing trend in trading activity and an increasing trend in liquidity (lower liquidity proxy reading signifies
lower trading costs and hence higher liquidity) over the sample period. Note that the coefficients for time
dummies are small, -0.00005 for
and -0.0009 for
. Modest time trend coefficients,
particularly seen in
, are primarily due to the nature of the proxy where readings are generally small
with tight range of 0.019.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. Scatter Plot of Closing Percent Quoted Spread and turnover ratio. (a) Equal-weighted; (b)
Market value-weighted.
BMIC 2015| page304

The differences in significance of time trend in the equal- and market value-weighting classes lead to
an inference that trend in trading activity and liquidity in the Malaysian stock market is mainly driven by large
stocks which has higher weightings in the market value-aggregated liquidity proxies. The trend in trading
activity observed in this section concur with finding presented in Section 4.1 where mean of the market valueweighted turnover ratio of which large-cap stocks are emphasized is lower than mean of the equally-weighted
turnover ratio of which small-cap stocks are emphasized.
In terms of seasonality in trading activity, the month-of-the-year dummies for June, August,
September, October and December are significantly negative in the regression using
whereas for
regression using
, an additional month-of-the-year dummy, November is significant with a
negative reading. This implies that trading activities are lower in most of the months in the second half of the
year, with the exception of July, compared to the benchmark month January which is also of statistical
significance. The decline in trading activity during the months of June, September, November and December
can be explained by the Malaysia school holiday effect where most traders are away from their desks during the
breaks and hence result in fewer trades being placed and executed.
Moving on to seasonality in liquidity, regression using
as the dependent variable suggests the
presence of only the January effect whereas when
is the dependent variable, the benchmark month and
December dummy are statistically significant at the 1% and 5% levels respectively. Higher reading for the
December dummy compared to the intercept indicates that the market is less liquid at the end of the year as
compared to the beginning of the year, probably attributable to greater search friction in the trading of securities
given that most market players are away for the year-end holiday. As the December effect is significant only in
the market value-weighted regime, it is therefore reckoned that lower liquidity in the month is mainly sourced
from stocks with larger market capitalization.
5. Conclusion
As exchange regulators in Malaysia strive to enhance trading environment in the local bourse and
improve liquidity condition, an accurate liquidity measure is imperative to successful implementation and
evaluation of various liquidity-enhancing initiatives. Unfortunately, trading volume and turnover ratio which are
often used as proxies for liquidity in the Malaysian policy circles have been criticized as inappropriate measures
for liquidity. This motivates the construction of the Closing Percent Quoted Spread which is found to have
remarkable correlation with the intraday bid-ask spread benchmark by Fong et al. (2014) in the context of the
Malaysian stock market. To further shed light on the time-series behavior of liquidity in the local stock
exchange, trend and seasonality analyses are performed on the aggregate monthly liquidity indicators.
It is found that small-cap stocks have a higher turnover ratio than large-cap stocks in the period from
2000 to 2014. However, in terms of liquidity, stocks with larger market capitalization still outperform small-cap
stocks as their information are more easily accessible by the general public via analyst coverage and publication
of annual reports. This study also shows that the turnover ratio is a poor liquidity measure given the inconsistent
correlation of trading activity and liquidity under different weighting regimes. The presence of trend and
seasonality is mainly observed in the market-value weighted trading activity and liquidity proxies, suggesting
that these time-series behaviors are driven by large-cap stocks rather than their small-cap counterparts.
Downward trends, albeit mild, are observed in the market value-weighted turnover ratio and Closing Percent
Quoted Spread, indicating that liquidity has improved over the period from 2000 to 2014 but trading activity
has declined.
The contribution of the constructed aggregate order-based liquidity proxy is not limited to just the
examination of time-series behavior but can be further extended to amplify its usage in future research. The
suitability of the aggregate monthly liquidity proxy as a predictor of business cycle can be tested given that Ns
et al. (2011) find empirical evidence that stock market liquidity is a better predictor of the real economy than
stock prices as it generally worsens ahead of the onset of recessions. Apart from that, the liquidity impact of the
recent withdrawal of foreign investors from the local stock market, which send the FTSE Kuala Lumpur
Composite Index nose-diving, can also be studied using the market liquidity indicator. This recommendation is
motivated by the findings of Vagias and Van Dijk (2012) where international capital flows to Asia/Pacific are
BMIC 2015| page305

positively associated with liquidity of the local stock markets. Lastly, the work of Nyborg and stberg (2014)
suggests that the aggregate liquidity measure can be used to study the connection between liquidity in the stock
market and interbank markets.
BMIC 2015| page306

Table 3. Trend and seasonality regressions of market liquidity and turnover
Indicators
Time
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
0.3794***
-0.0004
0.0473
-0.0268
-0.0144
-0.0569
-0.0935***
-0.0428
-0.0695**
-0.0952***
-0.0787**
-0.0507
-0.0987***
(0.0830)
(0.0007)
(0.0509)
(0.0255)
(0.0356)
(0.0337)
(0.0332)
(0.0469)
(0.0341)
(0.0321)
(0.0305)
(0.0272)
(0.0190)
0.0374**
0.0001
-0.0004
0.0007
-0.0035
-0.0029
-0.0015
-0.0030
-0.0028
0.0007
-0.0007
-0.0020
0.0022
(0.0152)
(0.0003)
(0.0020)
(0.0027)
(0.0063)
(0.0114)
(0.0106)
(0.0079)
(0.0093)
(0.0074)
(0.0069)
(0.0056)
(0.0043)
0.3189***
-0.0009***
0.0378
-0.0005
-0.0193
-0.0227
-0.0632***
-0.0452
-0.0560**
-0.0590***
-0.0507**
-0.0533***
-0.0782***
(0.0406)
(0.0003)
(0.0276)
(0.0162)
(0.0177)
(0.0212)
(0.0213)
(0.0236)
(0.0244)
(0.0225)
(0.0244)
(0.0174)
(0.0127)
0.0151***
-0.00005***
-0.0002
-0.0001
-0.0005
-0.0003
0.0000
-0.0003
-0.0005
0.0003
0.0002
0.0003
0.0010**
(0.0014)
(0.00001)
(0.0004)
(0.0004)
(0.0006)
(0.0008)
(0.0008)
(0.0006)
(0.0007)
(0.0006)
(0.0005)
(0.0004)
(0.0005)
Equal-Weighted
Turnover
CPQS
Value Weighted
Turnover
CPQS
Notes: Figures in parentheses denote the robust standard error for the coefficient computed using HAC specification mentioned in Section 3.4. *** and ** denote significance at the 1%
and 5% level respectively.
BMIC 2015| page307

Acknowledgements
The second author acknowledges financial funding from the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(Grant No: FP020-2014B) provided by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education.
References
Acharya, V. V., & Pedersen, L. H. (2005). Asset pricing with liquidity risk.Journal of Financial
Economics, 77(2), 375-410.
Aitken, M., & Comerton-Forde, C. (2003). How should liquidity be measured?.Pacific-Basin Finance
Journal, 11(1), 45-59.
Amihud, Y. (2002). Illiquidity and stock returns: cross-section and time-series effects. Journal of financial
markets, 5(1), 31-56.
Amihud, Y., & Mendelson, H. (1980). Dealership market: Market-making with inventory. Journal of Financial
Economics, 8(1), 31-53.
Amihud, Y., & Mendelson, H. (1986). Liquidity and stock returns. Financial Analysts Journal, 42(3), 43-48.
Amihud, Y., & Mendelson, H. (2008). Liquidity, the value of the firm, and corporate finance. Journal of
Applied Corporate Finance, 20(2), 32-45.
Amihud, Y., Mendelson, H., & Pedersen, L. H. (2006). Liquidity and asset prices. Now Publishers Inc.
Andrews, D. W. (1991). Heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation consistent
estimation. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 817-858.
covariance
matrix
Angelidis, T. (2010). Idiosyncratic risk in emerging markets. Financial Review,45(4), 1053-1078.

Azevedo, A., Karim, M., Gregoriou, A., & Rhodes, M. (2014). Stock price and volume effects associated with
changes in the composition of the FTSE Bursa Malaysian KLCI. Journal of International Financial
Markets, Institutions and Money, 28, 20-35.
Back, K., Li, T., & Ljungqvist, A. (2013). Liquidity and governance (No. w19669). National Bureau of
Economic Research.
Baker, M., & Stein, J. C. (2004). Market liquidity as a sentiment indicator.Journal of Financial Markets, 7(3),
271-299.
Banerjee, S., Gatchev, V. A., & Spindt, P. A. (2007). Stock market liquidity and firm dividend policy. Journal
of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 42(02), 369-397.
Barinov, A. (2014). Turnover: Liquidity or Uncertainty?. Management Science,60(10), 2478-2495.
Bekaert, G., Harvey, C. R., & Lundblad, C. (2007). Liquidity and expected returns: Lessons from emerging
markets. Review of Financial Studies, 20(6), 1783-1831.
Bekaert, G., Hodrick, R. J., & Zhang, X. (2012). Aggregate idiosyncratic volatility. Journal of Financial and
Quantitative Analysis, 47(06), 1155-1185.
Brandt, M. W., Brav, A., Graham, J. R., & Kumar, A. (2009). The idiosyncratic volatility puzzle: Time trend or
speculative episodes?. Review of Financial Studies, hhp087.
Brockman, P., Howe, J. S., & Mortal, S. (2008). Stock market liquidity and the decision to repurchase. Journal
of Corporate Finance, 14(4), 446-459.
Brockman, P., & Yan, X. S. (2008). The time-series behavior and pricing of idiosyncratic volatility: Evidence
from 1926 to 1962. Available at SSRN 1117284.
Brunnermeier, M. K., & Pedersen, L. H. (2005). Predatory trading. The Journal of Finance, 60(4), 1825-1863.
Cao, C., Simin, T., & Zhao, J. (2008). Can growth options explain the trend in idiosyncratic risk?. Review of
financial studies, 21(6), 2599-2633.
BMIC 2015| page308

Chordia, T., Roll, R., & Subrahmanyam, A. (2001). Market liquidity and trading activity. Journal of finance,
501-530.
Chung, K. H., McInish, T. H., Wood, R. A., & Wyhowski, D. J. (1995). Production of information, information
asymmetry, and the bid-ask spread: Empirical evidence from analysts' forecasts. Journal of Banking &
Finance,19(6), 1025-1046.
Chung, K. H., & Zhang, H. (2014). A simple approximation of intraday spreads using daily data. Journal of
Financial Markets, 17, 94-120.
Constantinides, G. M. (1986). Capital market equilibrium with transaction costs. The Journal of Political
Economy, 94(4), 842.
Copeland, T. E., & Galai, D. (1983). Information effects on the bidask spread.the Journal of Finance, 38(5),
1457-1469.
Demsetz, H. (1968). The cost of transacting. The quarterly journal of economics, 33-53.
Duffie, D., Grleanu, N., & Pedersen, L. H. (2005). OvertheCounter Markets. Econometrica, 73(6), 18151847.
Eiling, E., & Gerard, B. (2014). Emerging Equity Market Comovements: Trends and Macroeconomic
Fundamentals. Review of Finance, rfu036.
Fama, E. F., & French, K. R. (2001). Disappearing dividends: changing firm characteristics or lower propensity
to pay?. Journal of Financial economics,60(1), 3-43.
Fang, V. W., Noe, T. H., & Tice, S. (2009). Stock market liquidity and firm value. Journal of financial
Economics, 94(1), 150-169.
Fong, K. Y., Holden, C. W., & Trzcinka, C. (2014). What are the best liquidity proxies for global
research?. Available at SSRN 1558447.
Foo, Y. B., & Mat Zain, M. (2010). Board independence, board diligence and liquidity in Malaysia: A research
note. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics, 6(2), 92-100.
Glosten, L. R., & Milgrom, P. R. (1985). Bid, ask and transaction prices in a specialist market with
heterogeneously informed traders. Journal of financial economics, 14(1), 71-100.
Goyenko, R. Y., Holden, C. W., & Trzcinka, C. A. (2009). Do liquidity measures measure liquidity?. Journal of
financial Economics, 92(2), 153-181.
Guo, H., & Savickas, R. (2008). Average idiosyncratic volatility in G7 countries. Review of Financial
Studies, 21(3), 1259-1296.
Hameed, A., Kang, W., & Viswanathan, S. (2010). Stock market declines and liquidity. The Journal of
Finance, 65(1), 257-293.
Hameed, A., & Ting, S. (2000). Trading volume and short-horizon contrarian profits: Evidence from the
Malaysian market. Pacific-basin finance Journal,8(1), 67-84.
Ho, T., & Stoll, H. R. (1981). Optimal dealer pricing under transactions and return uncertainty. Journal of
Financial economics, 9(1), 47-73.
Holden, C. (2009). New low-frequency liquidity measures. Journal of Financial Markets, 12(4), 778-813.
Huang, M. (2003). Liquidity shocks and equilibrium liquidity premia. Journal of Economic Theory, 109(1),
104-129.
James, C., & Edmister, R. O. (1983). The relation between common stock returns trading activity and market
value. The Journal of Finance, 38(4), 1075-1086.
Jones, C. M. (2002). A century of stock market liquidity and trading costs. Available at SSRN 313681.
Jun, S. G., Marathe, A., & Shawky, H. A. (2003). Liquidity and stock returns in emerging equity
markets. Emerging Markets Review, 4(1), 1-24.
BMIC 2015| page309

Kang, N., Kondor, P., & Sadka, R. (2014). Do hedge funds reduce idiosyncratic risk?. Journal of Financial and
Quantitative Analysis, 49(04), 843-877.
Kyle, A. S. (1985). Continuous auctions and insider trading. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society,
1315-1335.
Lesmond, D. A. (2005). Liquidity of emerging markets. Journal of Financial Economics, 77(2), 411-452.
Lesmond, D. A., Ogden, J. P., & Trzcinka, C. A. (1999). A new estimate of transaction costs. Review of
Financial Studies, 12(5), 1113-1141.
Maug, E. (1998). Large shareholders as monitors: is there a tradeoff between liquidity and control?. The
Journal of Finance, 53(1), 65-98.
Ns, R., Skjeltorp, J. A., & degaard, B. A. (2011). Stock market liquidity and the business cycle. The Journal
of Finance, 66(1), 139-176.
Newey, W. K., & West, K. D. (1987). A simple, positive semi-definite, heteroskedasticity and
autocorrelationconsistent covariance matrix. Econometrica, 55, 703 708.
Nyborg, K. G., & stberg, P. (2014). Money and liquidity in financial markets.Journal of Financial
Economics, 112(1), 30-52.
Pstor, L., & Stambaugh, R. F. (2003). Liquidity Risk and Expected Stock Retums. The Journal of Political
Economy, 111, 642-685.
Rahim, R. A., & Nor, A. H. S. M. (2006). A comparison between fama and french model and Liquidity-Based
Three-Factor models in predicting the portfolio returns. Asian Academy of Management Journal of
Accounting and Finance, 2(2), 43-60.
Ramlee, R., & Ali, R. (2012). Liquidity, Initial Public Offering (IPO) Long-Term Return and Government
Ownership: Evidence from Bursa Malaysia IPO Stocks. Asian Academy of Management Journal of
Accounting and Finance,8(Supp. 1), 39-66.
Roll, R. (1981). A possible explanation of the small firm effect. The Journal of Finance, 36(4), 879-888.
Roosenboom, P., Schlingemann, F. P., & Vasconcelos, M. (2013). Does stock liquidity affect incentives to
monitor? Evidence from corporate takeovers.Review of Financial Studies, hht076.
Roulstone, D. T. (2003). Analyst following and market liquidity*. Contemporary Accounting Research, 20(3),
551.
Rouwenhorst, K. G. (1999). Local return factors and turnover in emerging stock markets. The Journal of
Finance, 54(4), 1439-1464.
Salehi, M., Talebnia, G., & Ghorbani, B. (2011). A study of the relationship between liquidity and stock returns
of companies listed in Tehran Stock Exchange. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(9), 1403-1408.
Sapian, R. Z. Z., Rahim, R. A., & Yong, O. (2013). IPO Underpricing And Aftermarket Liquidity: evidence
From Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Society, 14(2), 299-318.
Securities Commission. (2011). Capital market masterplan 2. Securities Commission: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tan, P. P., & Galagedera, D. U. (2015). Dynamics of Idiosyncratic Volatility and Market Volatility: An
Emerging Market Perspective. Global Economic Review, 44(1), 74-100.
Treynor, J. (1995). The only game in town. Financial Analysts Journal, 51(1), 81-83.
Xu, Y., & Malkiel, B. G. (2003). Investigating the behavior of idiosyncratic volatility. The Journal of
Business, 76(4), 613-645.
Vagias, D., & Van Dijk, M. A. (2012). International capital flows and liquidity. Available at SSRN 1744161.
Vayanos, D., & Wang, T. (2007). Search and endogenous concentration of liquidity in asset markets. Journal of
Economic Theory, 136(1), 66-104.
BMIC 2015| page310

Weill, P. O. (2008). Liquidity premia in dynamic bargaining markets. Journal of Economic Theory, 140(1), 6696.
BMIC 2015| page311

Examination of Tourism-led Growth Hypothesis in Thailand

Karoon Suksonghong
Abstract
This study investigates the causal relationship between tourism expansion and economic growth in
Thailand. The vector autoregressive (VAR)-based cointegration approach developed by Johansen (1991) is
employed to examine the long-run equilibrium relationship between these two variables. Further, the Granger
causality between tourism expansion and economic growth is tested by adopting the augmented VAR technique
developed by Toda and Yamamoto (1996). It is found that there is no long-run equilibrium relationship between
two series. Additionally, the results from the Toda-Yamamoto Granger causality test verify that the tourism-led
growth is not valid in Thailand.
Keywords: Economic growth; Tourism; Cointegration; Granger causality; Thailand.
1. Introduction
Over the past decades, tourism industry became an importance sector in promoting economic growth
for many developing countries. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) demonstrated that
there are over 180 supply-side activities connected to tourism sector, including transportation, communication,
accommodation, banking and finance, cultural, and promotion services. As a result, tourism industry not only
generates income to the country but also provokes economic growth by creating employment opportunity,
investment in the new infrastructure, as well as, earing from foreign exchange (Archer, 1995; Durbarry, 2002;
West, 1993). For Thai economy, the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) reported that the number of
international tourist arrival increases from 10,799,067 to 26,735,583 during the period of 2002 to 2013. This
substantial increase in the number of visitors stimulates many tourism-related activities that directly generate
revenue for the country. In 2013, however, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that the
direct contribution of travel and tourism to Thailands gross domestic product (GDP) was 1,074 million Baht
which accounts for only 9 percent of GDP.
Given the aforementioned fact, tourism development is a crucial tool for boosting up economy if it can
be proven that tourism expansion significantly induces economic growth. In the literature, the examination of a
causal impact of tourism on economic growth is known as tourism-led growth (TLG) hypothesis. Although
TLG hypothesis is widely debated and tested in the literature, the direction of its causality remains unsolved.
According to the recent comprehensive survey (Romero & Molina, 2013), the result of testing TLG hypothesis
vary among different countries. A collection of studies verified the existence of tourism induces economic
growth phenomenon (Adnan Hye & Ali Khan, 2012; Amaghionyeodiwe, 2012; Eeckels, Filis, & Leon, 2012; C.
F. Tang & Abosedra, 2012). Some studies, on the other hand, argued against the supportive of TLG hypothesis
by showing that, in fact, economic expansion help promoting tourism development (Corts-Jimnez, Nowak, &
Sahli, 2011; Lean & Tang, 2010; Oh, 2005; Payne & Mervar, 2010; C. F. Tang, 2011). These authors explained
in the favor of their result that the development in economy creates employment, business, and investment
opportunities that attract business-trip visitors. This group of visitors usually spends their money for other nonbusiness activities which eventually promotes tourism growth. In addition, the empirical result of some studies
revealed that a bi-directional causal relationship between tourism and economic growth were observed
(Dritsakis, 2004; Katircioglu, 2009b; S. S. Kim & Wong, 2006; Kreishan, 2010; Lee & Chang, 2008).
Due to the contradict results observed from different countries, recognition of the direction of causal
relationship between tourism and economic growth is vital to a policy-maker in making decision on the
implementation of tourism promotion and economic growth policy (Oh, 2005). Nevertheless, the TLG
hypothesis is rarely investigated for the case of Thai economy. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to
investigate the direction of causality relationship between tourism and economic growth in the context of Thai
BMIC 2015| page312

economy. In addition, based upon time-series analysis, a long-run equilibrium relationship between tourism and
economic growth in Thailand is examined by employing the Johansens cointegration test (Johansen, 1991).
Then, an investigation of causality is performed by conducting the Granger causality test which based upon the
augmented vector autoregressive (VAR) system developed by Toda and Yamamoto (1995) and Dolado and
Ltkepohl (1996) (hereafter TYDL). The TYDL approach allows the test result remains valid without the prior
knowledge of the order of integration and cointegration properties. Another advantage of TYDL approach is that
it allows the Wald test statistics to be asymptotically chi-square distributed under the null which is not the case
for the conventional Granger causality test.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The literature review is explained in Section 2. Section 3
discusses the data and the methodology used in this study. The empirical results are reported in the Section 4.
Finally, the conclusion and the implication of the results are discussed in Section 5.
According to the neoclassic growth theory, progress of exports leads to output expansion through spillover effects, such as economics of scale, incentive for technological improvement, and efficient skill of
management, resulting from the pressure of foreign competition (Feder, 1983). In the literature, a collection of
empirical studies consistently supported that there exist a causal relationship between export and economic
growth (eg. Bahmani-Oskooee & Alse, 1993; Dash, 2009). These authors demonstrated that the expansion of
exports drives economic growth.
Based upon the growth model, tourist spending is considered as another form of export earnings since
international visitors consume goods and services within the host country (Archer, 1995; Durbarry, 2002; West,
1993). This earning not only generates income to the government and household of the host country, but also
makes a contribution to foreign exchange earnings that will be used to pay for imports and to maintain the
national reserve. Besides, tourism industry plays an important role in creating employment opportunities,
stimulating investments in new infrastructure and help improving the attraction of new technology (Oh, 2005;
Tang, 2011). As a result, it can be said that the tourism-led growth (TLG) hypothesis is rationally derived from
the export-led growth (ELG) hypothesis.
Motivated by the theoretical framework adopted in ELG hypothesis, a number of researchers attempted
to examine the casual relationship between tourism and economic growth. In the other words, they aimed to test
the validity of TLG hypothesis. The main objective of these studies is test whether tourism development induces
economic growth or economic expansion lead to tourism activities or it is a bi-direction between two variables.
In addition, those causal relationships can be tested whether they are appeared in the long-run or only in the
short-run period. Interestingly, the results are inconsistent throughout the investigated countries. A number of
researchers demonstrated that there is a long-run dynamic relationship between tourism and economic growth in
Greece (Dritsakis, 2004), Pakistan (Khalil, Kakar, Waliullah, & Malik, 2007), Taiwan (Lee & Chang, 2008),
and Singapore (Katircioglu, 2010, 2011). These authors also argued that the bi-direction relationship tourism
and economic growth was observed within these countries.
In some economies, it is found that tourism causes economic growth but it is not the other way around,
for instance, Greece (Eeckels et al., 2012), Jamaica (Amaghionyeodiwe, 2012), Lebanon (Tang & Abosedra,
2012), Turkey (Gunduz & Hatemi-J, 2005; Kaplan & Celik, 2008), and Pakistan (Adnan Hye & Ali Khan,
2012). The interpretation of their results is that policy maker should adequately and efficiently promote tourism
industry in order to boost up economy and eventually stimulate the economic growth. Meanwhile, the opposite
direction of causal relationship was observed in other countries including the U.S. (Tang & Jang, 2009), China
(Wang, 2010), Tunisia (Corts-Jimnez et al., 2011), South Korea (Oh, 2005), Croatia (Payne & Mervar, 2010),
and Malaysia (Tang, 2011). For these countries, allocation of government budget for the development in tourism
industry may not be an efficient policy for expanding their economic growth. In contrast, encouraging economic
activities helps developing tourism sector.
In addition, some authors demonstrated that, in some countries such as India, Brazil, Turkey, Spain,
and Hong Kong, tourism and economics growth do not move together in both short-run and long-run dynamics
(Brida, Punzo, & Risso, 2011; Katircioglu, 2009a; Mishra, Rout, & Mohapatra, 2010; Othman, Salleh,
BMIC 2015| page313

&Sarmidi, 2012). In the other words, promoting economic activities has no impact on tourism development and
vice-versa. These authors argued that the government budget must be allocated to the economy-related activities
itself in order to stimulate economic growth of the country. Recognition of the direction of the relationship is
remarkably important for a policy-maker of each country. Therefore, the TLG hypothesis for each country must
be verified. Nevertheless, the causal relationship between tourism and economic growth in Thailand was rarely
examined.
3. Data and methodology

In this study, a bivariate model was used to preserve parsimonious of the model as suggested by
previous studies (e.g. Eeckels et al., 2012; Kim, Chen, & Jang, 2006; Tang & Abosedra, 2012).The quarterly
data of the number of international tourist arrivals (TA) to Thailand and the real GDP of Thailand (Year 2000 =
100) were utilized as the proxy of tourism expansion and economic growth, respectively. The sample period
covers the period from 1997:Q1 to 2014:Q4. These data were quoted from the Bank of Thailand and the
National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand. The variables were transformed using natural
logarithm to encourage the stationary in the variance-covariance matrix structure. Therefore, the following
models were specified.
(
[ TA ]
1)
(
[ Y]
TA
2)
where
is natural logarithm. Y represents real GDP as a proxy of economic growth and TA is the
number of international tourist arrivals to Thailand as a measure of tourism expansion. Then, to test stationary of
time series of the variables, the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test and the Kwiatkowski-Phillips-SchmidtShin (KPSS) test were adopted before examining the cointegration of the series. Suppose that time series of the
variables are integrated at the same order, i.e. I(0) or I(1), and are possibly cointegrated, the long-run
relationship between tourism expansion and economic growth can be examined by a conventional cointegration
test such as the Engle-Granger two-stage method (Engle & Granger, 1987), Johansen (1991) approach, and
Johansen and Juselius (1990) methodology.
To investigate the causal relationship between tourism expansion and economic growth, the bivariate
(
) lag length as suggested by TYDL was formulated. It can be
augmented VAR model with
expressed as follows:
][
][
]
(
][
][
3)
where is the optimal lag length for the VAR system as suggested by Akaike Information Criteria
(AIC), Schwarz information criterion (SC), and Hannan-Quinn information criterion (HQ). However, to ensure
that the VAR system is free from the serial correlation in the residuals, the LM test was employed and the
additional lag may be added to the system if it is required.
is the highest order of integration found from the
series of interest. According to TYDL approach, m lag(s) of each of the variables will be added to the VAR
system to ensure the asymptotic chi-square distribution assumption. The Wald test statistics is calculated to
verify the causal relationship between variables. Firstly, tourism expansion does not Granger-cause economic
growth if the null hypothesis (
) is significantly rejected. Secondly, economic growth does not
Granger-cause tourism expansion if the null hypothesis (
) is significantly rejected. In the case that
and
, it can be said that there is no causal relationship between tourism expansion and
economic growth.
BMIC 2015| page314

4. Empirical results
4.1 Unit root and cointegration tests
The ADF and KPSS test were employed to identify the order of integration of the two series. The result
in Table 1 reveals that
and
are I(1) cointegrated. For ADF test, the null hypothesis of one unit root
against the alternative of stationarity cannot be rejected in levels of variables, but is rejected in their first
differences. Consistently, the null hypothesis of stationary against the alternative of non-stationary cannot be
rejected in their first differences for the case of KPSS test. Since all variables are I(1), a long-run equilibrium
analysis using a standard cointegration technique was then conducted.
The VAR-based cointegration test proposed by Johansen (1991) was utilized in this study. According
to the Johansen procedure, two likelihood ratio tests, a trace test and a maximum-eigenvalue test, are adopted to
identify the number of cointegrating relationships among the series. Table 2 indicates that TA and GDP are not
cointegrated in the long-run since the null hypothesis of no cointegration cannot be rejected based upon both the
trace statistic and maximum-eigenvalue statistic. The trace statistic and maximum-eigenvalue statistic are
reported at 4.1070 and 3.8320, respectively, which are below the critical value of 15.4947 and 14.2646,
respectively.
Table 1 Results of unit root test for stationary of the number of tourist arrivals and GDP at level and first
difference
Method
(Null hypothesis)
ADF test
(Null of non-stationary)
KPSS test
(Null of stationary)
Variable
Y
TA
Y
TA
Level I(0)
Intercept
- 0.23 (0)
- 0.18 (3)
1.12* (6)
1.08* (6)
Intercept & trend

- 2.54 (0)
- 2.66 (4)
0.13*** (6)
0.18** (3)
First Difference I(1)

Intercept
Intercept & trend
- 9.17* (0)
- 9.11* (0)
-11.77* (2)
- 11.68* (2)
0.11 (3)
0.11 (3)
0.21 (14)
0.10 (14)
Note: Both tests is estimated with intercept and intercept and trend. *, **, and *** represent 1%, 5%,
and 10% level of significant, respectively. For the ADF test, the number in parentheses is the number of lag
lengths determined based on Schwarz information criteria and used the test. For the KPSS test, the number in
parentheses is the number of bandwidth used the test.
Table 2 Results of the Johansen cointegration test
Null hypothesis
(No. of cointegration equation)
Trace
Statistic
Critical Value
(at 5% level)
Maximum
Eigenvalue
Statistic
Critical Value
(at 5% level)
None
At most one
0.056407
0.004158
4.107025
0.275012
0.056407
0.004158
3.832013
0.275012
4.2 TYDL Granger causality test

According to Table 3, the optimal lag structure of five is suggested by AIC, while lag length of one is
suggested by SC and HQ. Therefore, lag structure of one was firstly selected and incorporated into VAR system.
The LM test for residual serial correlation was conducted to ensure that the VAR system is free from the
autocorrelation problem. The LM test statistic suggested the suitable lag structure of five. From the result
BMIC 2015| page315

presented earlier, both series of TA and GDP are I(1), resulting m = 1 is used in the TYDL Granger causality
test. Table 4 reports the TYDL granger causality results. The results reveal that the null hypothesis of
does not Granger-cause
and the null of
does not Granger-cause
cannot be rejected. Thus, it can
be concluded that the TLG hypothesis is empirically invalid for the case of Thailand. This finding is consistent
with the previous study that employed the annual data from the period of 1970 to 2010 to investigate the TLG
hypothesis for Thailand (Othman et al., 2012). Differently, the ARDL and VECM-based Granger causality tests
were adopted in their study. They also found that the TLG hypothesis is invalid for several countries such as,
Greece, Hong Kong, Mexico, Portugal, the U.S., and Spain.
Table 3 VAR lag structure selection base upon selected information criteria
Lag
AIC
SC
HQ
-0.228070
-0.158259
-0.200763
-5.274096
-5.064662*
-5.192175*
-5.198831
-4.849774
-5.062296
-5.232759
-4.744079
-5.041609
-5.427768
-4.799465
-5.182004
-5.450025*
-4.682099
-5.149647
-5.358206
-4.450656
-5.003213
-5.265079
-4.217907
-4.855472
-5.179710
-3.992914
-4.715489
-5.150076
-3.823657
-4.631241
10
-5.103476
-3.637435
-4.530027
11
-5.138584
-3.532920
-4.510520
12
-5.111361
-3.366074
-4.428683
Note: * indicates lag order selected by the criterion. AIC: Akaike information criterion, SC: Schwarz
information criterion, and HQ:
Hannan-Quinn information criterion
Table 4 Causality tests for tourism expansion and economic growth

Null hypothesis
Wald statistic
d.f.
Prob.
2.7102
0.7445
4.7011
0.4534
Note:
demnotes that tourism expansion does not Granger-cause economic growth.
implies that economic growth does not Granger-cause tourism expansion.
BMIC 2015| page316

5. Conclusions
Theoretically, tourism expansion could have a direct impact on economic growth of the country.
However, a number of studies demonstrated that the development of tourism industry does not stimulate
economic growth of some countries. Thus, the result of the study has an important implication for the
development in tourism and economic growth policy. The main contribution of this study is to give the guidance
to a policy-maker in Thailand in determining whether government budget should be allocated to expand and
modernize the tourism industry in order to enhance economic growth.
The Johansen VAR-based cointegration and the TYDL Granger causality tests were employed to
investigate the TLG hypothesis in the case of Thailand. It is found that, however, tourism expansion as
measured by the number of international tourist arrivals and economic growth as represented by the GDP do not
move together in the long-run. In the other words, there is no long-run relationship between these two variables.
In addition, the results from the TYDL Granger causality test reveal that tourism expansion does not Grangercause economic growth and the development of the economy also does not Granger-cause tourism growth for
the case of Thailand.
The plausible explanation of the invalidity of TLG hypothesis in Thailand is that the contribution of
tourism income to the aggregated economy is considered low which was accounted for only nine percent of the
total GDP in 2013. In the past decade, several external factors had a direct impact on the inbound tourism of
Thailand such as bird flu disease in Asia, global financial crisis as well as 911-terrorist attacks in the United
State. In addition, the political instability leading to long-period protests and violent demonstrations, the natural
disaster, such as tsunami and flooding, and the bomb attacks at the southern part of Thailand are the main
concern of international visitors to postpone and cancel their trips. Kim and Wong (2006) argued that tourism
demand is directly affected by issues pertaining to security and health.
Thus, the implication of the results is that government budget allocated to expand and modernize the
tourism industry in order to enhance economic growth may not be fully effective. Instead, the Tourism
Authority of Thailand may have to reconsider and redirect their tourism promotion campaign to meet and attract
the international tourists demand. This manner could increase the number of international visitors and
eventually generate revenue for tourism-related industries that directly stimulate economic growth.
References
Adnan Hye, Qazi Muhammad, & Ali Khan, Rana Ejaz. (2012). Tourism-Led Growth Hypothesis: A Case Study
of Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 18(4), 303-313.
Amaghionyeodiwe, Lloyd Ahamefule. (2012). A causality analysis of tourism as a long-run economic growth
factor in Jamaica. Tourism Economics, 18(5), 1125-1133.
Archer, Brian. (1995). Importance of tourism for the economy of Bermuda. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(4),
918-930.
Bahmani-Oskooee, Mohsen, & Alse, Janardhanan. (1993). Export Growth and Economic Growth: An
Application of Cointegration and Error-Correction Modeling. The Journal of Developing Areas, 27(4),
535-542.
Brida, Juan Gabriel, Punzo, Lionello F., & Risso, Wiston Adrin. (2011). Tourism as a factor of growth; the
case of Brazil. Tourism Economics, 17(6), 1375-1386.
Corts-Jimnez, Isabel, Nowak, Jean-Jacques, & Sahli, Mondher. (2011). Mass beach tourism and economic
growth: lessons from Tunisia. Tourism Economics, 17(3), 531-547.
Dash, Ranjan Kumar. (2009). Revisited Export-Led Growth Hypothesis: An Empirical Study on India. South
Asia Economic Journal, 10(2), 305-324.
Dolado, Juan J., & Ltkepohl, Helmut. (1996). Making wald tests work for cointegrated VAR systems.
Econometric Reviews, 15(4), 369-386.
BMIC 2015| page317

Dritsakis, Nikolaos. (2004). Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: an empirical investigation for
Greece using causality analysis. Tourism Economics, 10(3), 305-316.
Durbarry, Ramesh. (2002). The Economic Contribution of Tourism in Mauritius. Annals of Tourism Research,
29(3), 862-865.
Eeckels, Bruno, Filis, George, & Leon, Costas. (2012). Tourism income and economic growth in Greece:
empirical evidence from their cyclical components. Tourism Economics, 18(4), 817-834.
Engle, Robert F., & Granger, C. W. J. (1987). Co-Integration and Error Correction: Representation, Estimation,
and Testing. Econometrica, 55(2), 251-276.
Feder, Gershon. (1983). On exports and economic growth. Journal of Development Economics, 12(12), 59-73.
Gunduz, Lokman, & Hatemi-J, Abdulnasser. (2005). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid for Turkey?
Applied Economics Letters, 12(8), 499-504.
Johansen, Sren. (1991). Estimation and Hypothesis Testing of Cointegration Vectors in Gaussian Vector
Autoregressive Models. Econometrica, 59(6), 1551-1580.
Johansen, Sren, & Juselius, K. (1990). Maximum likelihood estimation and inference on cointegration with
application to the demand for money. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 52, 169-209.
Kaplan, M., & Celik, T. (2008). The impact of tourism on economic performance: The case of Turkey. The
International Journal of Applied Economics and Finance, 2(1), 13-18.
Katircioglu, Salih. (2009a). Revisiting the tourism-led-growth hypothesis for Turkey using the bounds test and
Johansen approach for cointegration. Tourism Management, 30(1), 17-20.
Katircioglu, Salih. (2009b). Testing the Tourism-Led Growth hypothesis: The case of Malta. Acta Oeconomica,
59(3), 331-343. doi: 10.1556/AOecon.59.2009.3.4
Katircioglu, Salih. (2010). Testing the tourism-led growth hypothesis for Singapore; an empirical investigation
from bounds test to cointegration and Granger causality tests. Tourism Economics, 16(4), 1095-1101.
Katircioglu, Salih. (2011). Tourism and growth in singapore: New extension from bounds test to level
relationships and conditional granger causality tests. The Singapore Economic Review, 56(03), 441453.
Khalil, Samina, Kakar, Mehmood Khan, Waliullah, & Malik, Afia. (2007). Role of Tourism in Economic
Growth: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan Economy [with Comments]. The Pakistan Development
Review, 46(4), 985-995.
Kim, Hyun Jeong, Chen, Ming-Hsiang, & Jang, SooCheong Shawn. (2006). Tourism expansion and economic
development: The case of Taiwan. Tourism Management, 27(5), 925-933.
Kim, S. S., & Wong, Kevin K. F. (2006). Effects of News Shock on Inbound Tourist Demand Volatility in
Korea. Journal of Travel Research, 44(4), 457-466.
Kreishan, F. M. (2010). Tourism and economic growth: The case of Jordan. European Journal of Social
Sciences, 15(2), 63-68.
Lean, Hooi Hooi, & Tang, Chor Foon. (2010). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis stable for Malaysia? A note.
International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 375-378.
Lee, Chien-Chiang, & Chang, Chun-Ping. (2008). Tourism development and economic growth: A closer look at
panels. Tourism Management, 29(1), 180-192.
Mishra, P. K., Rout, H. B., & Mohapatra, S. S. (2010). Causality between tourism and economic growth:
Empirical evidence from India. European Journal of Social Sciences, 18(4), 518-527.
Oh, Chi-Ok. (2005). The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in the Korean economy.
Tourism Management, 26(1), 39-44.
BMIC 2015| page318

Othman, R., Salleh, N.H.M., & Sarmidi, T. (2012). Analysis of Causal Relationship Between Tourism
Development, Economic Growth and Foreign Direct Investment: an ARDL Approach. Journal of
Applied Sciences, 12(12), 1245-1254.
Payne, James E., & Mervar, Andrea. (2010). The tourism-growth nexus in Croatia. Tourism Economics, 16(4),
1089-1094.
Romero, Mara del P., & Molina, Jos A. (2013). Tourism and economic growth: A review of empirical
literature. Tourism Management Perspectives, 8, 28-41.
Tang, Chor Foon. (2011). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid for malaysia? a view from disaggregated
tourism markets. International Journal of Tourism Research, 13(1), 97-101.
Tang, Chor Foon, & Abosedra, Salah. (2012). Small sample evidence on the tourism-led growth hypothesis in
Lebanon. Current Issues in Tourism, 17(3), 234-246.
Tang, Chun-Hung, & Jang, SooCheong. (2009). The tourismeconomy causality in the United States: A subindustry level examination. Tourism Management, 30(4), 553-558.
Toda, Hiro Y., & Yamamoto, Taku. (1995). Statistical inference in vector autoregressions with possibly
integrated processes. Journal of Econometrics, 66(12), 225-250.
Wang, Zhong. (2010). Factors that Influence the Growth of Chinese Domestic Tourism Arrivals (19852007)
An Empirical Research Based on the VAR Model. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 15(4),
449-459.
West, Guy R. (1993). Economic significance of tourism in Queensland. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(3),
490-504.
BMIC 2015| page319

Conference Proceeding BMIC-2015 - All

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conference Proceeding BMIC-2015 - All

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conference Proceeding BMIC-2015 - All

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Message from Dean of Faculy of Management and Tourism

Dear Conference participants

Asst. Prof. Patchanee Nontasak

New spaces and localities of tourism.

Implications of networked tourism

The new landscape of creative tourism

Creative tourism in a Thai context

Paschinger, E. (2015) The Creative Travellers Handbook. Full Flight Press.

2. The antecedents of virtual team creativity

5. Urbanization and Its Impact on Environmental Sustainability in the City Of Bangalore:

7. Impact of Time to Adjust Capacity on the Performance of a Manufacturing System:

9. Fund Flows and Asset Allocation Behavior of Mutual Fund Investors

13. A study of customer loyalty towards Caltex gas station in Thailand

15. An Antecedence of Repurchase Intention towards TARAD.COM Online Shopping

22. Smart Money Effect of RMF and LTF Flows

30. Examination of Tourism-led Growth Hypothesis in Thailand

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

The Islamic Business Ethics Practices AmongHousing Developers

Keywords: concept of Islamic business ethics, Housing Project.

Failure to pay the compound

Homebuyer claims tribunal cases

Involved installed projects

Found without license

Total case unethical:

BMIC 2015| page1

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

BMIC 2015| page2

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

BMIC 2015| page3

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

BMIC 2015| page4

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

3. Conclusion, Future Studies and Research Implications

BMIC 2015| page5

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

BMIC 2015| page6

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

The antecedents of virtual team creativity

Keywords: Creativity, Virtual team, Transactive memory systems, Knowledge sharing

BMIC 2015| page7

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

2.1. Virtual Team Creativity

BMIC 2015| page8

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

2.2. Transactive Memory System

3.1 Transactive Memory Systems on VTC

BMIC 2015| page9

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

BMIC 2015| page10

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

H5: Knowledge coordination will positively influence virtual team creativity.

3.2 Knowledge Sharing

BMIC 2015| page11

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

3.3 Team Goal Learning Orientation

3.4 Task Interdependence

BMIC 2015| page12

Proceedings of the Business Management International Conference 2015,

Figure 1. Research Model

BMIC 2015| page13