Milosz Escuela Polaca PDF

Index of Content .
Czesaw Miosz and Polish School of Poetry
Zdzisaw apiski
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clare Cavanagh
The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory and Postwar Polish Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Arent van Nieukerken
Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European Romanticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Jan Boski
Stubborn Persistence of Baroque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Ryszard Nycz
Four Poetics: Miosz and Literary Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Marek Zaleski
Instead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Jacek ukasiewicz
Poet on Poets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bogdana Carpenter
Ethical and Metaphysical Testimony in the Poetry of Zbigniew Herbert .
and Czesaw Miosz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Anna Nasiowska
Female Identity in the 20th Century Polish Poetry: Between Androgyny .
and Essentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Marek Zaleski
Biaoszewski: Idyllic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Cezary Zalewski
The One Moment. Photographing in Polish Poetry of the Twentieth Century. . . . . 138
Tomasz ysak
Miron Biaoszewski as Interpreted by Czesaw Miosz Four Translations. . . . . . . . 149
Janusz Sawiski
Unassigned (XV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Jerzy Kandziora
That which is slipping away On Exposing the Idiom in Stanisaw Baraczaks .
Surgical Precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Magorzata Czermiska
Ekphrases in the Poetry of Wisawa Szymborska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Hanna Marciniak
Our monuments are ambiguous. On Rewiczs Epitaphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Authors Biographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Introduction
That Czesaw Miosz was apoet is awell known fact. But throughout his whole life
he also remained aman of letters who practiced multiple forms of writing: novels, essays,
reviews, press articles, amongst others. Already in the early thirties, his first steps in poetry
were accompanied by editorial activities performed as aco-founder of the agary literary group and contributor to its periodicals. Kultura was the most prominent magazine
Miosz wrote for beginning in 1951. It was aPolish monthly published abroad, acentre of
independent thought, and astrong influence on the intellectuals of Poland and several states
of the Soviet camp before the system change in Central Europe. Until the very end, Miosz
continued torespond toevents through his writing. He published much, in literary journals
and daily papers.
In his literary journalism, he aimed to set a new direction for the poetry of his day.
Naturally, the tone and content of his utterance could not have remained unaltered over
eight decades of his attempts: from youthful appeals toagitational poems and brutal stylistics
of the manifestos in the 30s, through the mild reproof directed in the 80s at the young poets
who, in their struggle against the falling Communist regime, forgot about the independent
rules of art, todidactic examples of haiku and other forms of objectivist poetry offered
tothe succeeding generations of writers (and their readers) in the 90s. As it is often the case
of poets writing prose about poetry, Mioszs assessments and directions for his fellows derived
from the dilemmas, explorations and decisions that paved the way for the developments in
his own writing.
While his journalistic activities directed at the Polish audiences were meant toinfluence
the course of Polish literature, Miosz had adifferent goal when he addressed the English
reader, whom he wanted topresent with what he believed tobe most valuable in the work
of contemporary Polish poets and most distinctively Polish. On afew occasions he spoke of
Polish school of poetry, by which he meant amodel of poetics as well as acertain type of
sensitivity and attitude tothe world expressed through it the reference field of Mioszs
term is most clearly delineated in his Harvard lectures (Czesaw Miosz, The Witness of
Poetry, Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press, 1983). He believed that
the importance of Polish poetry laid in the fact that our writers drew conclusions from the
experience of WWII and the post-war years: In it [Polish poetry] apeculiar fusion of the
individual and historical took place, which means that events burdening awhole community
are perceived by apoet as touching him in amost personal manner. Then poetry is no longer
alienated (94-95). He concludes: The poetic act changes with the amount of background
reality embraced by the poets consciousness. In our century that background is, in my opinion,
related tothe fragility of those things we call civilization or culture. What surrounds us, here
and now, is not guaranteed. It could just as well not exist and so man constructs poetry out
of the remnants found in ruins (97).
Miosz himself is amajor figure among the poets of the Polish school and afew years
ago, beginning with the poets scattered remarks on the subject, Dutch Slavicist, Arent van
Nieukerken, put forth aremarkably astute outline of ahistorical literary synthesis of this
particular development in the Polish poetry (Ironiczny konceptyzm. Nowoczesna polska
poezja metafizyczna wkontekcie anglosaskiego modernizmu, Krakw: "Universitas",
1998). Van Nieukerken presents the history of the movement on the example of its several
prominent representatives, from the 19th century precursor of the school, Cyprian Norwid
(1821 1983) toStanisaw Baraczak (b. 1946). Van Nieukerken calls them ironic moralizers, aterm borrowed from Baraczak, and believes the Polish school tobe adistinctive
modification of modernism, parallel toits Western counterpart.
The present volume offers aselection of articles published in Teksty Drugie and concerning Miosz, as well as those 20th century Polish poets that he focused on in his commentaries
and translations. One should bear in mind that although presented texts were published
between 2001-2007, they describe much older literary phenomena. Today, the Polish school
of poetry, as Miosz saw it, is ahistorical term and the authors that he translated and commented on, such as Stanisaw Baraczak, Miron Biaoszewski, Zbigniew Herbert, Wisawa
Szymborska, Anna wirszczyska (Anna Swir), Tadeusz Rewicz or Aleksander Wat are
part of the Polish canon.
The 20th century was one of the darker periods in the history of Europe, especially in
those of its parts that Timothy D. Snyder referred toas the bloodlands. At the same time,
it was, in its own way, agood period for those poets who managed tofulfill their public mission without sacrificing the requirements formulated for art by the European modernism.
The thematic range and the wealth of expression encountered by Miosz scholars in his
work is intimidating, and perhaps this is why the title of Jan Boskis book Miosz jak wiat
[Miosz as the World] (Krakw: Znak, 1998) often resurfaces in their analyses. At the same
Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry
time, despite its extravagant richness, Mioszs oeuvre is very distinctive. Ryszard Nycz,
editor in chief of Teksty Drugie and one of the leading Polish literary theorists, believes that
acontinuous quest beyond the [available] word determines the general direction and the
dominant idea of Mioszs work. In his essay, however, Nycz focuses on something else on
the transformations of Mioszs poetry. He distinguishes four phases of its development: poetic
of visionary commonality (an attempt atrevealing the muted or marginalised aspects
of everyday life and existential experience); poetic of public discourse (which crosses the
boundaries of the traditional lyrical language, opening its domain toall types and genres
of modern writingand tothe entire cultural universe of discourse); poetic of parabolic
autobiography (that Miosz discovered in his private experience of the past, open tothe
future by its very (human) nature, areality whose permanence, order and meaning lie in
aconstant process or representing, telling and interpreting.); and finally, poetic of inhuman
indication. Mioszs last poetic is aradical departure in his work, undermining the very
foundations of the Polish school. Because, as Nycz believes, toindicate the existence of
the inhuman is toindicate aworld which cannot be framed by human categories, aworld
that is without apast and future and can do without the human experience of time which
cannot be represented, told or interpreted.
Arent van Nieukerken does not attempt tocapture the full range of Mioszs poetry but
discusses one of its major motifs: the striving toovercome empirical time and topresent in
asingle synthetic attempt several different chronological moments, believed togive asense of
the divine perspective on human reality, as at the end of the road that has been designated by
Mioszs poetics of epiphany stands atheological postulate. Nieukerken traces the evolution
of Mioszs existential autobiography (that he defines differently than Nycz) and places
it against the comparative background of the work by, among others, William Wordsworth,
a representative of the Romantic movement who proposed an integral interpretation of
mans being-in-the-world by creating an existential autobiography that went far beyond the
somnambulist, lunar aspects of existence.
The Romantic tradition has remained the tradition of Polish poetry from the early decades
of the 19th century tothe present day and the reason for it is simple: it was also the period
when our most prominent literary masterpieces were composed. One can reject Romantic
ideology, as several generations of thinkers, politicians, and men of letters did and continue
todo, but todismiss the work of Malczewski, Mickiewicz, Sowacki, and Norwid amounts
toas much as dismissing the role of Shakespeare, Milton, and Wordsworth in English literature would. This, however, is not the case of the Baroque, an epoch shaping the material
culture and the mentality of Poles before Romanticism. Jan Boski (1931-2009), one of
the most renowned participants of Polish intellectual life and an astute commentator of 20th
century literature, believes that the presence of the Baroque in Poland is so obviousthat
it is almost invisible. In The Stubborn Persistence of the Baroque, Boski sketches this
presence with afew light strokes and concludes:
The baroque in Poland was strongly influenced by the Counter-Reformation (or Catholic
Reformation, especially in its Jesuit form). It retained, especially at the very beginning, close
connections toRome: the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Cracow was built only afew
years after the Church of the Ges in Rome. It was this cultural proximity that sensitized
apiski Introduction
it tothe growing complication of forms inherited from the Renaissance and embedded in
the memory and imagination of artists and poets. But Polish baroque also relied on the not
so distant medieval tradition, as well as the local ones, especially in eastern Poland where
it slowly acquired its increasingly Sarmatian features.
The concept of aPolish school of poetry was embraced by American Slavicist, Clare Cavanagh,
the author of Lyric Poetry and Modern Politics: Russia, Poland, and the West (New
Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2009), inspired by Mioszs ideas. In The Limits
of Lyric: Western Theory and Postwar Polish Practice Cavanagh returns tothe kernel of
his thought: the complex relation of poetry and history. With the example of several poets
(Milosz, Herbert, Szymborska, and Zagajewski) she reveals how those authors, heavily
influenced by ahistory of oppression and the experience of mega-history promoted by the
power apparatus, managed nonetheless todevelop adisillusioned but non-nihilistic attitude
toart as ahistorical phenomenon. The heaviness of reality is always present in their poems
but at the same time there is also awill toovercome it: All efforts tostep outside time, the
lyric reminds us, are doomed tofail in advance, which is why the lyric poet must struggle time
and again toachieve the revenge of amortal hand [Szymborska], the temporary reprieve
from mortality that is all we can hope for at best.
Among the most important characteristics of the Polish school is the imperative togive
testimony which refers primarily tothe communal fate and express the sense of being rooted
in history. Miosz believed Zbigniew Herbert togive the fullest expression tothis postulate.
Contrasting both poets, Bogdana Carpenter points tothe creative differences in their work,
both in their understanding of the idea of testimony and its poetic incarnations (Ethical
and metaphysical testimony in the poetry of Zbigniew Herbert and Czesaw Miosz.) Most
importantly, she emphasises, Herbert never moves away from his postulates while Miosz
breaks the paradigm that he co-created in the 40s, demarcating, not for the first time, new
tracks and grounds for the Polish poetry. The interest in metaphysical poetry noticeable in the
last few years among young poets and critics is aproof that the author of Theological Treatise
remains afaithful and an unmatched witness not only tohis own time.
Among the eminent poets of the second half of the 20th century there were several who
rivalled Miosz, each of them adopting adifferent attitude tothe world and formulating
aseparate poetic. Some of them followed the example Miosz set through his own work (for instance, Zbigniew Herbert), others consciously reached for different means (Tadeusz Rewicz).
There were also those who wrote as if the Miosz phenomenon was non-existent, even
though both their readers and authors themselves could not have possibly ignore the shadow
cast by Miosz on the entirety of Polish poetry (such as in the case of Miosz Biaoszewski).
Biaoszewski deserves closer attention as he inhabits very distant peripheries of the Polish
school. He differed from Miosz in all aspects, from the choice themes tothe formal side of his
work. They had adifferent attitude tolanguage as well. Miosz attempted totouch directly
Those three characteristics of the baroque in Poland continue toreturn today, subversively
echoed and in a distorted manner: Gombrowicz winks at the reader, pretending to be
aSarmatian, Mioszs work reaches back toits religious heritage, while other writers and
poets reestablish their connection tothe baroque through affinity for conceit and linguistic
sophistication.
10

major issues of his era and final, metaphysical matters, all while trying toprotect the Polish language from the mundane. Although he did use lower registers and rarely abandoned
irony, one of his main goals was toresurrect the high style. Biaoszewski, on the contrary,
avoided exalted notions at all cost, and his linguistic material of choice was the ordinary
and the colloquial. He also freely transformed morphological structures. And yet, major issues (historical and trans-historical) continue toresurface in his work, obeying his own rules
derived from the low speech. The manner in which these two poets are written about is
symptomatic of the readers attitudes: Miosz is referred toas the Nobel Prize winner and
Biaoszewski as Miron (no other Polish poet canonized by the audiences has so far been
referred towith this degree of familiarity.)
It is one of Mioszs great merits that he saw the value of, and attempted totranslate
toEnglish, the work of apoet so radically different from his own poetic. The linguistic specificity of Biaoszewski heavily limits the potential for asuccessful translation the degree of
Mioszs achievement in this regard, as well as his strategies, are discussed by Tomasz ysak
in Miron Biaoszewski as interpreted by Czesaw Miosz.
Biaoszewskis work is also the focus of Marek Zaleskis Biaoszewski: Idyllic. Zaleski
connects the striking affirmation of the world in Biaoszewskis debut-making 1956 collection,
The Revolution of Things tothe Orphic tradition of faith in the creative power of poetry
found in modernist art. Zaleski analyses the Orphic element within the framework of the
"idyll-of-self and its particular subgenre, idyll of ones own room (both terms introduced
by Renato Poggioli).
He discovers adifferent incarnation of the Orphic tradition of postmodern rather than
modern character in Orpheus and Eurydice (2002), one of Mioszs later (and most important) long poems. As he did in his essay on Biaoszewski, in Instead Zaleski traces the
connections between the antique tradition and the 20th century transformations of the myth
that has become aphilosophical parable [while] Orpheus himself the eponym of the poet
and the epitome of the adventure of poetry. The message of the parable is sinister, however,
and Miosz, contrary tohis previous work that affirmed existence in the spirit of Christian
theology, appears toagree with his intellectual antagonists such as Nietzsche and Blanchot,
insists Zaleski. He believes Orpheus and Eurydice toput an end tothe hope pervading
Mioszs work, the hope of resurrection of what was in the word.
In his attempts to encourage the interest of the English audiences in the poets of the
Polish school, Miosz made efforts tomaintain objectivity and suppress his own preferences
and dislikes. These were poets that he knew personally, several were his friends, others he
debated against. Most of them make an appearance in Mioszs own poetry as well, and it
is in his poetry that Miosz reveals his deeply emotional and diversified attitude towards
other authors, discussed by poet and critic Jacek ukasiewicz in his essay (Poet on poets).
ukasiewicz reveals how the demands of literary conventions shaped the character and
poetic definitions of their work. He very aptly comments on one of the more intriguing
definitions, the metaphor referring toTadeusz Rewicz: he digs in black soil/ is both the
spade and the mole cut in two by the spade.
Women have always played an important role in Mioszs work, and an even more
important one his private life. Popularizing the work of Anna wirszczyska (Anna Swir),
apiski Introduction
both in Poland and abroad, is one of his great achievements. wirszczyska strongly emphasised her womanhood (or, perhaps, even her baba-hood). In one of her essays, Anna
Nasiowska offered atypology of women appearing in Mioszs work. The present volume
includes another essay by Nasiowska, one devoted tothe worldview and poetic of selected
20th century female poets. Nasikowska places them between two poles: that of androgyny
seen as an idea of identity in which the speaker of the poem neutralizes the compulsion
todefine themselves in each situation with regards togender that is present in normal social
life. The other pole posits womanhood as astrong, basic and irreducible part of identity.
Nasiowska concludes:
Those two patterns of identity do not exhaust the issue of poetic creations concerning
womanhood, they only outline one of the tension lines. The difficulty in capturing phenomena has several causes. The feminist revolution took place in the Polish poetry without
the feminist debate; todays categories do not fully correspond tothe historical situation.
Sometimes one cannot even describe the internal convictions contained in the text with the
categories proposed by the Western feminism which continues toemphasize the constraint
(and oppressiveness) of heterosexuality whereas Polish poets willingly mythologize the
heterosexual act of sex seeing in the process the value of rebellion, of crossing the cultural
norm that in fact imposes silence.
Her last sentence refers tothe state of Polish poetry in the 1960s. Androgyny was at an earlier
stage of its development but its elements survived, and sometimes finds an original expression,
for instance, in the poetry of Wisawa Szymborska, Nasikowska notes.
Szymborskas poetry is discussed in Magorzata Czermiskas Ekphrases in the poetry
of Wisawa Szymborska. Czermiska is the author of amonumental work on the literary
motif of the cathedral (Gotyk ipisarze. Topika opisu katedry, Gdask : Sowo/obraz
terytoria, 2005). Her essay presented in this volume focuses on ekphrasis in Szymborskas
work and concludes:
Photography, or rather the process of taking photographs as arecurrent theme in poetry,

is discussed by Cezary Zalewski in The one moment. Photographing in Polish poetry of
the twentieth century. with the example of three poems (by Tytus Czyewski, Stanisaw
Baraczak and Janusz Szuber.) Czyewski is included in the Polish poetic canon as the author
of Pastoraki, abrilliant folk-dadaist conglomerate (which is also how he is remembered by
Miosz in Treatise on Poetry, however, his Mediumiczno-magnetyczna fotografia poety
Brunona Jasiskiego [AMediumistic-magnetic Photograph of Poet Brunon Jasiski] derives
from adifferent area of interest spiritualist practices that the poets and writers of the beginning of the 20th century were involved in. Over half acentury later, Baraczaks Zdjcie
11
The descriptive element in ekphrases is always dependent on the interpretative idea which
allows us tosay something interesting about the problems which interest the poet also in
her other works, thematically unrelated tothe aesthetic qualities of any painting. These
problems are mainly time, the creative power of an artist, human cruelty throughout history and different ways of understanding femininity. Ultimately, these ekphrases say more
about the imagination of the poet than about the works of art they depict. However, they
say it differently than in poems where the space between the poet and her readers is not
occupied by any painting, sculpture of photograph serving as an intermediary.
12

[APhotograph] offers aconcise image of the American mentality as seen by the author, having
newly immigrated tothe US from Eastern Europe, not differing in his diagnosis from the
one presented by another observer of American custom, Jean Baudrillard. Finally, the most
recent among the three poems, Szubers Eliasz Puretz photographing schoolgirls from the
Higher Institute of Educational Science in S. during the picnic in May 1902 evokes ascene
from the life of Polish countryside. Despite thematic differences and the broad time span that
they encompass, all the poems offer acommon thanatological conclusion, as photographing
(and photography) can now be used topenetrate different discourses, uncovering in them
amore or less hidden fascination with death.
Miosz believed, as his great predecessor Cyprian Norwid did, that one of his major
literary obligations is saying farewell todeparting friends and respected representatives of
public life. Polish history has offered numerous occasions for poems on the subject. Asimilar
attempt tocommemorate can be found in the poetry of Tadeusz Rewicz but, as Wordsworth
observes, without the belief in immortality, wherein these several desires originate, neither
monuments nor epitaphs, in affectionate or laudatory commemoration of the deceased, could
have existed in the world. Norwid and Miosz followed from the same assumption. So did
Rewicz but he no longer believed in immortality, nor did see the faith in it in contemporary
culture. Hence his dilemmas, analysed in detail by Hanna Marciniak who begins her discussion with the above quoted passage from Wordsworth. (Our monuments are ambiguous:
On Rewiczs Epitaphs.)
The presence of Stanisaw Baraczak poet, translator, literary critic and Harvard
professor, and previously ademocratic activist in Communist Poland has been distinctly
visible on our intellectual scene. One of his most important collections, Surgical Precision
(1998), is discussed by Jerzy Kandziora in That which is slipping away: On Exposing
the Idiom in Stanisaw Baraczaks Surgical Precision. In his essay Kandziora, who
published athorough study of the poet (Ocalony wgmachu wiersza: opoezji Stanisawa
Baraczaka, 2007) offers an analysis of the linguistic features of Baraczaks poetry in
selected, particularly distinctive poems. Kandziora begins with observations on the stylistic
choices of the title poem of Surgical Precision and moves tomore general remarks, concluding: Ithink that this autothematic frame, bearing the message: My poems are just
uncertain indications of something that we should not throw away as we may need it
soon helps tounderstand why Surgical Precision gave its title tothe entire collection
and in some sense supports all of Stanisaw Baraczaks work, so much inclined towards
the Unknowable.
The volume closes with Janusz Sawiski, one of the most prominent figures in our literary
studies of the last five decades (Unassigned (XV)). His collection of private notes, consisting of impeccably composed self-contained units typical of the author, discusses the poems
written after the imposition of martial law by the decrepit Communist regime on 13 January
1981. Work of that period did not prove tohave had alasting impact, nor did it result in
outstanding texts or innovative poetics, but it very well exemplifies the dilemmas faced by
every poet required totake astand against political violence that changes the very basis of
social life. Sawiski analyses anonymous, popular and quasi-folk writing (extremely popular
at that time) as well as the work of recognised authors. The former revealed and integrated
apiski Introduction
previously dispersed sense of alienation from the political system imposed after WWII, the
latter either reaches for the historico-philosophical stereotypes of the Polish Romanticism,
or in form of commemorative poetry documents events from the perspective of democratic
activists, usually interned at that time. Sawiskis concise remarks provide abackground
for abetter understanding of the fragile balance achieved by the prominent poets discussed
earlier in the volume, balance between social activism and the innate rules of art. They may
also serve as an epitaph for the Polish school of poetry.
Zdzisaw apiski
13
Translation: Anna Warso
14
Clare CAVANAGH
The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory .
and Postwar Polish Practice
Ihave felt that the problem of my time
should be defined as Poetry and History.
Czeslaw Milosz,
APoet Between East and West (1977)
1. The Lyric Under Seige
Frank Lentricchia, Criticism and Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1983), 94-95. Susan Wolfson, Romantic Ideology and the Values of Aesthetic
Form, in Aesthetics and Ideology, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick: Rutgers
University Press, 1994), 191-192. Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction
(Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 21.
15
Poetry and history, poetry and society, poetry and politics: according tomany
recent Anglo-American critics, these phrases pair virtual antonyms. In the ideological criticism that has dominated the American academy in recent years, the lyric
has come toserve as aconvenient stand-in for aesthetic isolationism generally,
that is, for arts apparent refusal of life actually conducted in actual society, which
in fact amounts toacomplicity with class-interested strategies of smoothing over
historical conflict and contradictions with claims of natural and innate organization
(Lentricchia 94-5; Wolfson 191-2). With the advent of Romanticism, Terry Eagleton
explains, all art was ostensibly rescued from the material practices, social relations
and ideological meanings in which it is always caught up, and raised tothe status
of asolitary fetish (21). And Romanticisms favored form, the lyric, is invariably
the worst offender in such asocially irresponsible sleight-of-hand.1

The sins for which the lyric has been taken totask are many. Tocritics reared on
post-structuralist theory, lyric poetry manifests asuspicious commitment toaslew
of discredited values. It stubbornly buttresses the bourgeois myth of individual
autonomy, or so the argument runs. It privileges personal voice over postmodern
textuality; it seeks tocircumvent history through attention toaesthetic form; it turns
its back on the public realm in its quest for private truths; and it places transcendental timelessness over active engagement in the here-and-now. The Romantic
clichs from which these charges stem have been challenged by disgruntled New
Historicists and die-hard formalists alike. Still they persist: they have become staples
of recent criticism.2
The ideological critics have taken their lead in large part from Mikhail Bakhtin
in creating a lyric antipode to the particular vision of art and society that they
themselves wish toadvance. The lyric, as Bakhtin sees it, is adeplorably anti-social
genre. The poets utopian goal is tospeak timelessly from an Edenic world
far removed from the petty rounds of everyday life. Authoritarian, dogmatic,
and conservative, Bakhtins poet struggles toassume acomplete single-personed
hegemony over his own language, destroying in the process all traces of other
people, of social heteroglossia and diversity of language (Morson and Emerson
322-3; Bakhtin 287, 296-298).3
It is not surprising that this reactionary foe of otherness and diversity should
find itself under fire in the American academy. Not surprisingly, recent critics also
overlook the distinctive role that poetry has played in modern Eastern European
history. And this is unfortunate, since that role runs directly counter to the assumptions informing current discussions of the lyric. Plato famously expelled all
trouble-making poets from his ideal kingdom of the mind: Platos poet, anatural
democrat, was of no use to heads of state, as Mark Edmundson remarks. The
Polish poet Aleksander Wat was quick tosee the analogy between Platos republic
and the repressive regimes of post-war Eastern Europe. Plato ordered us cast out/
of the City where Wisdom reigns./ In anew Ivory Tower made of (human) bones,

16
For recent accounts of the lyric under siege, see inter alia: Paul Breslin, Shabine
among the Fishmongers: Derek Walcott and the Suspicion of Essences (unpublished
essay); Mark Edmundson, Literature against Philosophy, Plato toDerrida: ADefense of
Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Eileen Gregory,
H. D. and Hellenism: Classical Lines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997),
esp. 129-139; Mark Jeffreys, Ideologies of Lyric: AProblem of Genre
in Contemporary Anglophone Poetics, PMLA, vol. 110, no. 2 (March, 1995),
196-205; Susan J. Wolfson, Romantic Ideology and the Values of Aesthetic Form,
in Aesthetics and Ideology, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press, 1994), 188-218; Sarah Zimmerman, Romanticism, Lyricism and History (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1999).
Gary Saul Morson and Caryl Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of aProsaics
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 322-323. Mikhail Bakhtin, Discourse
in the Novel, in Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, ed. Michael Holquist, tr. Caryl
Emerson and Mikhail Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 287,
296-298.
Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory
Edmundson, Literature against Philosophy, 6. Aleksander Wat, Ciemne swiecidlo

(Paris: Libella, 1968), 11.
Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind, tr. Jane Zielonko (New York: Vintage Books, 1981),
175.
17
he writes in his poem Dark Light (11).4 But why should the lyric poets who, according tocurrent doctrine, complacently uphold the bourgeois status quo prove
tobe so troublesome toleft-wing dictators? How do the self-absorbed reactionaries
of recent theory become Eastern Europes subversives?
In Central and Eastern Europe, Czeslaw Miosz observes, the word poet
has asomewhat different meaning from what it has in the West. There apoet does
not merely arrange words in beautiful order. Tradition demands that he be abard,
that his songs linger on many lips, that he speak in his poems of subjects of interest
toall the citizens (175).5 In Poland and Russia alike, poets have been called upon
for nearly two centuries toserve as their nations second government, in Solzhenitsyns phrase. The heavy load of social and civic responsibility that Polands writers
were expected toshoulder was, if anything, still greater than that of their Russian
counterparts. The partitions that erased their nation from the map of Europe in the
late eighteenth century meant that Polands great Romantics Mickiewicz, Norwid,
Slowacki and their literary offspring felt compelled toreplace their vanished state
itself through their own poetry and prose. And, as Miloszs remarks suggest, both
the poets and their oppressed compatriots took such obligations very seriously.
The political aspirations of Englands and Americas romantics remained unrealized: hence Shelleys famous unacknowledged legislators, who stand unfailingly
on the side of great and free developments of the national will, but are spurned
by the very nations whose interests they seek toserve. Perhaps for this reason the
Anglo-American critical tradition has tended tohighlight lyric poetrys impracticable utopianism over its complex engagement with human history and society. It
is not just the ideological critics who see the lyric chiefly as the creation of literary
isolationists in search of an aesthetic Shangri-La that lies beyond the reach of human
history. This tradition has afar deeper pedigree. The Anglo-American New Critics
famously placed aframe around the lyrics iconic text with their well-wrought urns
and verbal icons, as they sought tomove it beyond the reach of erring adherents
to various biographical heresies and intentional fallacies. And indeed each lyric
poem appears tocome complete with its own built-in margin of safety in the shape
of the white page that seemingly serves topreserve it against unwanted incursions
from the outside world. Of all literary genres, the lyric poem would seem tocome
closest tothe ideally self-enclosed objets dart, be they Grecian urns or calligrammes,
that modern poets from Keats toYeats, from Baudelaire toApollinaire, have been
celebrated in their verse.
This is precisely the vision of lyric poetry espoused in Sharon Camerons influential Lyric Time (1979), togive just one example. In lyric poetry, Cameron explains, experience is arrested, framed, and taken out of the flux of history: [Lyric
poems] insist that meaning depends upon the severing of incident from context,

as if only isolation could guarantee coherence. The lyrics own presence on apage,
surrounded as it is by nothing, is agraphic representation of that belief. (71).6 According tofriends and foes alike, then, the lyric strives tobe atext without context;
it aspires toabsolute freedom from contingency, tounconditional deliverance from
the vicissitudes and ambiguities of time-bound human being.
The way we perceive individual literary works is conditioned by our cultural
and personal horizon of expectations, Hans Robert Jauss cautions (44).7 The same
holds true for genres. Polish history has placed very different demands on the lyric
than the Anglo-American tradition, and has activated different possibilities in the
process. Since the early 19th century, Polands acknowledged legislators have met
with areception that Shelley and his contemporaries could scarcely imagine.8 Togive
one particularly vivid example the Warsaw student riots of 1968 were sparked by
the closing of aproduction of Mickiewiczs romantic verse drama Forefathers Eve,
Part II, which contained, so the authorities feared, inflammatory anti-Russian sentiments. Shelley could only dream of such areaction tohis Prometheus Unbound
or Cenci. And as my example suggests, modern history only widened the rift that
divided East from West for much of the century just past: perhaps it takes the fate
of the lyric and its makers in an explicitly utopian state tounderscore the powerful
antiutopian strains at work in modern poetry.
In any case, the Anglo-American critic requires aradically shifted angle of vision in order todo justice tothe place of poetry in modern Polish history. The lyric
might just as easily be conceived or so the poets of modern Poland implynot as
autopian genre, but as agenre based on arecognition of boundaries and limits, the
limits that its own form so graphically displays. It is arguably the genre best equipped
toexplore the parameters that both define and restrict human existence. The lyric
may give voice todreams of another, better world. But it must also address, not least
through its very form, the realities that resist such flights of fancy: the lyric traveler
todistant lands must keep checking, in Adam Zagajewskis phrase, tomake sure
he still [has] his return ticket/tothe ordinary places where we live (38). The lyric,
by its nature, is forced totake up the question of what it means tohave aindividual
point of view, tobe rooted in aparticular time and place, even aparticular species:
Why after all this one and not the rest?/ Why this specific self, not in anest,/ but
ahouse? Why on earth now, on Tuesday of all days,/ and why on earth? Wislawa

18
Sharon Cameron, Lyric Time: Dickinson and the Limits of Genre (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1979), 71.
Hans Robert Jauss, Literary History as aChallenge toLiterary Theory, in Jauss,
Toward an Aesthetic of Reception, tr.Timothy Bahti (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1982), 44.
Idontwish toidealize the lot of acknowledged legislators. Szymborska, Herbert,
Zagajewski, Baranczak: all have followed Miloszs lead in their attempts torevise or
even reject outright the politically engaged stance that the Polish tradition demands
from its national bards, astance that often operates at cross-purposes, so these poets
have argued, with the very lyricism that animates their verse.

Szymborska asks in her lyric Astonishment (128).9 Viewed from this perspective,
the lyric is aself-consciously historical and social genre toits core.
2. Reframing the Verbal Icon
10
11
Adam Zagajewski, Mysticism for Beginners, tr. Clare Cavanagh (New York: Farrar
Straus Giroux, 1997), 38. Wislawa Szymborska, Poems New and Collected 1957-1997,
tr. Stanislaw Baranczak and Clare Cavanagh (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 128.
Mikhail Bakhtin, 320.
Emily Dickinson, Final Harvest, ed. Thomas Johnson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961),
55, 103. Stanislaw Baranczak, Wybor wierszy iprzekladow (Warsaw: Panstwowy Instytut
Wydawniczy, 1997), 69. Mill is quoted in Christopher Benfey, Emily Dickinson and
the Problem of Others (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1984), 53. Mandelstam,
Sobranie sochinenii, v. 1, 196-197. T. S. Eliot, The Three Voices of Poetry, On Poetry
and Poets (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1961), 96. Szymborska, Poems New and
Collected, 205.
19
The Soul selects her own Society-/ Then shuts the Door: in their study of
Mikhail Bakhtin, Gary Saul Morson and Caryl Emerson take Dickinsons defense
of lyric privacy tospeak for the innately solipsistic nature of the genre generally.
But the picture looks rather different in Eastern Europe. The subversive potentials
of lyric poetry are perhaps clearest in asociety committed tothe eradication of the
individual both in theory and, not infrequently, in practice. What Mandelstam calls
the accidental, personal voice of lyric poetry acquires asingular power under such
circumstances (Bakhtin 320).10
Indeed, one of Dickinsons greatest Polish admirers, Stanislaw Baranczak, hints
at the threat that the lyric poses in atotalitarian state in his poem Fill Out Legibly,
which suggests how Eastern Europes purveyors of Orwellian Newspeak might have
perceived Dickinsons letter tothe World/That never wrote toMe. Does he write
letters tohimself? (yes, no), the unnamed framers of an ominous questionnaire
demand and its all too clear what the right answer should be (Baranczak 69).
Poetry is not heard, but overheard, John Stuart Mill remarks in one well-known
definition of the lyrics audience (qtd. in Benfey 53). But lyric eavesdropping takes
on new meaning in cultures where the walls have not just ears, but microphones:
in Moscows evil living space, the walls are damn thin, Mandelstam complains,
just in case state-monitored poets should take anotion todeviate from their assigned
task of teaching the hangmen towarble (196-7). In the lyric, T. S. Eliot insists, the
poet speaks tohimself or tonobody (96). But just such soliloquys come under
scrutiny in Wislawa Szymborskas Writing aResume: Write as if youd never
talked toyourself/and always kept yourself at arms length, the solicitous speaker
advises (205).11
Even the seemingly harmless confession that William Carlos Williams tapes
tohis refrigerator in This is Just toSay Ihave eaten/ the plums/ that were in
the icebox// and which / you were probably saving for breakfast could be given

asinister spin by asuspicious state, or so Baranczaks 2/8/80: And Nobody Warned
Me suggests:
And no one warned me that liberty
might also lie in this: Im
sitting in the station house with drafts of my own poems
hidden (how ingenious!) in my long johns,
while five detectives with higher educations
and even higher salaries waste time
analyzing trash theyve taken from my pockets:
tram tickets, adry cleaning receipt, adirty
handkerchief and abaffling (Ill die laughing) list:

celery carrots

can of peas

tom. paste

potatoes;

and no one warned me thatcaptivity
might also lie in this: Im
sitting in the station house with drafts of my own poems
hidden (how grotesque!) in my long johns,
while five detectives with higher educations
and even lower foreheads have the right
togrope the entrails wrested from my life:
tram tickets, adry cleaning receipt, adirty
handkerchief and most of all that (Icantbear it) list:

celery carrots

can of peas

tom. paste

potatoes;
and no one warned me that my entire globe
lies in the gap that parts opposing poles
which cantbe kept apart. (212-3)12
20
The accidental and personal take on unexpected weight in astate designed toeliminate any accident or personality that might impede historys unencumbered progress
towards aradiant collective future. It is not surprising that Mandelstam should add
afinal, foreboding adjective tohis thumbnail definition of the lyric. Poetry in the
modern age is not just accidental and personal, he warns; it is also catastrophic.
Certainly Polish poets have met with more than their share of catastrophes in the
century just past. War, invasion, disease, privation, censorship, persecution, Nazi
atrocities, totalitarian terror: this litany of horrors took its toll upon writer after
writer (tosay nothing of the legions of more prosaic victims for whom these poets
struggled tospeak). Notions of the poem as awell-wrought urn, as an impermeable
verbal icon, could hardly withstand the battering towhich modern history submitted

12
William Carlos Williams, Selected Poems (New York: New Directions, 1968), 55.
Baranczak, Wybor wierszy, 212-213.

art and artists in this part of the world. Not surprisingly, then, the poets of postwar Poland, writing from adecimated nation caught at the crossroads between two
brutal regimes, focus in their own poems not only on the lyrics potential power
todefy time, but just as importantly, on the vulnerability it manifests in the face of
what Wat calls Enormous History avulnerability it shares, incidentally, with
historys more corporeal victims.
In Anecdote of aJar, Wallace Stevens conquers nature by way of ajar strategically placed upon ahillin Tennessee:
The wilderness rose up toit,
And sprawled around, no longer wild.
The jar was round upon the ground
And tall and of aport in air. (76)
The jar, an emblem of artistic form, [takes] dominion everywhere, Stevens writes.
But similar objects suffer avery different fate in Miloszs exquisite Song on Porcelain (1947), as translated by the author and Robert Pinsky:
Rose-colored cup and saucer,
Flowery demitasses:
You lie beside the river
Where an armored column passes.
Winds from across the meadow
Sprinkle the banks with down;
Atorn apple trees show
Falls on the muddy path;
The ground everywhere is strewn
With bits of brittle froth
Of all things broken and lost
Porcelain troubles me most.
The blackened plain spreads out

Towhere the horizon blurs
In alitter of handle and spout,
Alively pulp that stires
And crunches under my feet.
21
Before the first red tones

Begin towarm the sky
The earth wakes up, and moans.
It is the small sad cry
Of cups and saucers cracking,
The masters precious dream
Of roses, of mowers raking,
And shepherds on the lawn.
The black underground stream
Swallows the frozen swan.
This morning, as Iwalked past,
The porcelain troubled me most.

Pretty, useless foam:
Your stained colors are sweet
Spattered in dirty waves
Flecking the fresh black loam
In the mounds of these new graves.
In sorrow and pain and cost,
Sir, porcelain troubles me most. (100-3)
Stevens jar subdues the surrounding wilderness only after it is exempted from more
mundane, utilitarian purposes. By setting the jar on his mythical Tennessee hilltop,
Stevens strategically removes it from the less exotic contexts in which we typically
encounter such objects, on kitchen counters or grocery store shelves. But Miloszs
shattered crockery operates differently. It is moving precisely because it mediates
between daily existence and the realm of art, as it demonstrates how easily both
worlds fall prey tothe forces of history: You lie beside the river/ Where an armored
column passes. The broken cups exemplify both the fragile forms of avanished
quotidian and the no less fragile human beings that once inhabited it: Spattered
in dirty waves/ Flecking the fresh black loam/ In the mounds of these new graves.
But they also embody the precious dreams of master craftsmen (sny majstrow
drogocenne), as the frozen swan from Mallarmes famous sonnet Le vierge, le
vivace et le bel aujourdhui abandons the realm of pure art in order toadorn the
rims of now-shattered saucers. (In the Polish text, the craftsmens dreams take the
shape of the feathers of frozen swans (pira zamarych abdzi) that presumably
adorn the porcelain). The English translation makes the originals hints of avanished pastoral more explicit by adding rosesmowers raking,/ And shepherds on
the lawn tothe poems litany of lost objects. It might almost be arebuke toKeats
unravished bride of quietness, whose pastoral scenes are preserved in perpetuity
from the ravages of mere mortality.13
Like Rembrandt, martyr of chiaroscuro,/ Ive entered into numbing time
(Mandelstam 249). So runs the opening of one of Mandelstams cryptic late lyrics,
which date from his years in internal exile in Voronezh, not long before his final arrest
and death in aStalinist camp. In Mandelstams elliptical apostrophe tothe Dutch
painter, is noble brother and master, father of the black-green dark becomes an
unexpected fellow sufferer, subject, like the Russian poet himself, tothe onslaughts
of numbing history. Mandelstam anticipates ways in which the poets of post-war
Poland conceive of visual artworks and by extension, the verbal icons of their
own verses in their writing. Neither paintings nor poems, they imply, are immune
tothe forces of history. Far from seeking solace in some airtight aesthetic refuge
from reality, the poet looks rather tonegotiate the shifting, permeable boundaries
that divide the work of art from the larger world that both informs and, all too of
22
13
Wallace Stevens, Collected Poems (New York: Vintage, 1982), 76. Piosenka
oporcelanie, in Milosz, Poezje wybrane: Selected Poems (Krakow: Wydawnictwo
literackie, 1996), 100-103. Stephane Mallarme, Collected Poems, tr. Henry Weinfeld
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

ten, imperils it: Not many works escape the sands and fires of history, Zbigniew
Herbert reminds us (101).14
The Polish poets, in other words, invariably call attention tothe world that lies
outside the pictures frame. Thus, Adam Zagajewski concludes his tribute toDutch
Painters by imagining the kind of society that fosters the untroubled domesticity
their paintings celebrate.
They [the Dutch] liked dwelling. They dwelt everywhere,
in awooden chair back,
in amilky streamlet narrow as the Bering Straits.
Doors were wide open, the wind was friendly.
Brooms rested after work well done.
Homes bared all. The painting of aland
without secret police
Only atraveler from Eastern, so-called Central Europe, where concealment was
until recently an unavoidable way of life, would be so quick toregister the implications of this wide-open Dutch domestic space, where in art, as in reality, apartments
are put on display, illuminated in such away that every passerby can check whats
going on inside. And perhaps only such an observer, privy tothe darkest spots in
Europes recent past, would be so attentive toall that this luminous art omits. Tell
us, Dutch painters, Zagajewski asks
what will happen
when the apple is peeled, when the silk dims,
when all the colors grow cold.
Tell us what darkness is. (133)15
14
15
16
Kak svetoteni muchenik Rembrandt, Sobranie sochinenii, 1: 249. Herbert, Barbarian

in the Garden, tr. Michael March and Jaroslaw Anders (New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1985), 101.
Mysticism for Beginners, 12, 7. Adam Zagajewski, Another Beauty, tr. Clare Cavanagh
(New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000), 133.
Theses on the Philosophy of History, in Benjamin, Illuminations, ed. Hannah
Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 256.
23
This speaker knows the powers that oppose the ordering of art and life too well
to exempt even the seemingly imperturbable Dutch tableaux he loves from the
onslaughts of history.
There is no document of civilization which is not at the same time adocument of
barbarism, Walter Benjamin remarks (256).16 The poets of post-war Poland did not
have togo far afield totest the truth of his observation. They were eyewitness tothe
devastation wrought on European civilization by cultured Germany and progressive
Russia alike; and they saw in both the invaders and their fellow countrymen how
easily the trappings of cultivation fall away from even the most seemingly civilized
members of our species. Their recent past has taught them tosuspect any worldview
that rests upon unflagging faith in progress and acommitment tothe final perfect-

ibility of human nature. Progress in our civilization, Herbert comments, consists
mainly in the fact that simple tools for splitting heads are replaced by equally
deadly hatchet-words, such as mind-debaucher, witch and heretic (141). In
her poem Tortures Szymborska casts doubt upon even this dubious achievement.
Nothing has changed, she insists.
The body still trembles as it trembled
before Rome was founded and after,
in the twentieth century before and after Christ.
Tortures are just what they were, only the earth has shrunk
and whatever goes on sounds as if its just aroom away. (202)
The Polish artist is the barbarian in the garden of European civilization, in

Herberts phrase and not just because of his or her backward Eastern origins.
A historical steam-roller has gone several times through [this] country whose
geographical location, between Germany and Russia, is not particularly enviable,
Milosz observes in the introduction tohis anthology of Postwar Polish Poetry (xi-xii).17
The poets of such acountry are by necessity acutely aware both of acultures costs
and of its terrible fragility.
This is the consciousness Wislawa Szymborska brings tobear on her imaginative
recreation of early French art in AMedieval Miniature. She begins by inventing
hyperbolic verbal equivalents for the extravagant elegance of paintings like those
found in the Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.
Up the verdantest of hills,
in this most equestrian of pageants,
wearing the silkiest of cloaks.
Towards acastle with seven towers,
each of them by far the tallest.
In the foreground, aduke
most flatteringly unrotund;
by his side, his duchess
young and fair beyond compare
Superlatives abound in the poems first six stanzas, which recreate the unnamed
medieval miniature of the title. But amore sinister reality emerges in the poems
final stanzas, as Szymborska turns her attention towhat has been omitted from the
aristocratic paradise evoked by this feudalest of realisms.
Whereas whosoever is downcast and weary,
cross-eyed and out at elbows,
is most manifestly left out of the scene.
24
17
Barbarian in the Garden, 141. Szymborska, Poems New and Collected, 202. Postwar Polish
Poetry, selected and edited by Czeslaw Milosz (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1983), xi-xii.

Even the least pressing of questions,
burgherish or peasantish,
cannot survive beneath this most azure of skies.
And not even the eaglest of eyes
could spy even the tiniest of gallows
nothing casts the slightest shadow of adoubt. (156-7)18
18
Poems New and Collected, 156-157.
25
As in Zagajewskis Dutch Painters, Szymborska begins by sympathetically recreating life as seen from within agiven worldview and aesthetic only toundermine its
claims tocomprehensiveness by stepping outside its seemingly sacrosanct borders.
Szymborska lost her faith in the class-free utopia promised by Polish Communism
early on. But in Medieval Miniature she apparently finds apartial truth in the
Marxist vision of ahistory shaped by governing classes whose task is tosuppress all
traces of the labor that makes their dominion possible. For Szymborska, the pleasures
of medieval art cannot be divorced from the price they exact. It is not only the least
pressing of burgherish or peasantish questions that may not survive beneath
this most azure of skies. The burgherish or peasantish types who persist in
asking such questions may find themselves dangling from the little gallows that the
picture keeps carefully out of sight or so the poem implies.
For Szymborska, though, Marxist ideology is hardly the universal master key
that its twentieth-century adherents have claimed it tobe. It can no more explain
the miracles achieved by medieval art than the feudalist of realisms can do justice
tothe peasants and burghers who violate its aristocratic code. Feudal realism may
be aproduct of agiven historical moment, with all its limitations but then of course
so is its latter-day Soviet variant, socialist realism, or so Szymborskas poem hints.
(And of course the Soviet state was at least as assiduous in purging class enemies as
any feudal prince might be.) But the heights scaled by medieval realismeach
[tower] by far the tallesttacitly underscore the aesthetic poverty and formulaic
monotony of its distant, less imaginative, descendant. Not all realisms are created
equal, the poem implies.
For Szymborska and Zagajewski, the truths of art are partial in adouble sense:
they are both incomplete and partisan. And this is precisely what makes art human partial truths are the only kind towhich we humans are privy, these poets
suggestand what engages it in history. For only those who claim to have access
tothe full picture, the final point of view, can imagine themselves tobe free of any
merely human limits, and thus exempt themselves from history. But the lyric poet,
first-person singular by definition, cannot pretend to comprehensiveness in the
way that anovelist, philosopher or epic poet might. Through its commitment tothe
individual vision in all its particularity and partiality the lyric works toundermine
precisely those versions of human history that negate the weight of individual experience by subordinating it toone Hegelian grand scheme or another. This is what
Itake Zagajewski tomean when he remarks that once one divides the world into

history and poetry, then one obliterates the difference between ahistorywhich is
habitable and human, and the kind which produces concentration camps (260).19
What earthly use is any icon, be it verbal or visual, that has been arrested,
framed, and taken out of the flux of history, in Camerons phrase (101)? This is
the question that activates Zbigniew Herberts poem Mona Lisa. Inquisitors and
troubadors are equally at home in Herberts essays on Western culture, in which
art, society, ethics and politics form an entangled knot of many threads: it could
hardly be otherwise, it would seem, for aveteran of modern history in its unusually
brutal Polish incarnation (79). But Mona Lisa tells adifferent story. The speaker
is also asurvivor of Polands devastation in the war and its aftermath, as the grim
landscape of the poems opening lines reveals.
Through seven mountain frontiers
barbed wire of rivers
and executed forests
and hanged bridges
Ikept comingthrough waterfalls of stairways
whirlings of sea wings
and baroque heaven
all bubbly with angels
toyou
Jerusalem in aframe (85-7)20
This pilgrim makes his way through this Eastern European waste land tothe sanctus
sanctorum of Western culture, tothe Louvre and Leonardos famous painting. And,
as the last line suggests, the speakers attitude towards the painting he approaches
is radically different from what we find in Dutch Painters or AMedieval Miniature. He does not strive toenter into an artwork of another era on its own terms;
nor does he wish toengage it from his distinctive, present point of view. Instead he
looks for Jerusalem in aframe, for spiritual redemption through apure art set
apart from arecent past too terrible tocontemplate. He seeks, in other works, precisely that kind of transcendent release from history that so many critics have seen
as the final aim of lyric poems generally. But the painting he views from the dense
nettlepatch/ of acooks tour/ on ashore of crimson rope/ and eyes fails tomeet his
expectations. The lady he finds is not enigmatic, but mechanical, even monstrous.
The landscape he passes through, with its barbed-wire rivers and executed trees,
has been dehumanized through an excess of history. But Mona Lisa, the goal of his
quest, is finally no less inhuman though she has fallen prey not tohistory, but
towhat appears tobe an excess of artifice:

19
26
20
Zagajewski, Two Cities: On Exile, History and the Imagination, tr. Lillian Vallee
(New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1995), 260.
Herbert, Barbarian in the Garden, 101; Herbert, Still Life with aBridle, tr. John and
Bogdana Carpenter (New York: Ecco, 1991), 79. Selected Poems, tr. Czeslaw Milosz,
Peter Dale Scott (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1968), 85-87.

laboriously smiling on
resin-colored mute convex
as if constructed out of lenses
concave landscape for abackground . . .
only her regulated smile
her head apendulum at rest
her eyes dream into infinity
but in her glances snails are asleep
History and art as worlds kept apart are equally uninhabitable and inhuman, the
poem suggests. History as brute machine is countered here by what looks tobe an
equally mechanical artistry, and the speaker cannot bridge the gap that divides his
living heels from the empty volumes of the Mona Lisas flesh, that separates his
specific historical experience from the static artifact before him:
between the blackness of her back
and the first tree of my life
lies asword
amelted precipice
These are the poems closing lines. But are the speakers final thoughts also the
poets? The pilgrims description of his unsatisfactory icon suggests otherwise. Mona
Lisa, he complains earlier,
has been hewed off from the meat of life
abducted from home and history
Hewed off, abducted, horrifying, smothered: the language evokes not so

much an ahistorical vacuum as the brutalized post-war Poland of the poems opening lines. Indeed, the phrases the speaker uses todescribe the painting could just
as easily be applied both tothe wars individual victims and tothe fate of entire
peoples and nations.
It is not just the museum setting, with its frothy angels, Cooks tours, and crimson
ropes that divides the speaker from Leonardos portrait. Nor is it chiefly the image
itself that offends him, for all his complaints. His own desire toescape ahistory
too harsh tobe borne leads him toseek out not simply apainting, but salvation
itself: Jerusalem in aframe. What he finds in its place looks suspiciously like the
unbearable past he struggles tooutrun. And one suspects finally that this horrific
past, more than the paintings purported flaws, now fills the black void that blocks
him from the vanished world he mourns: how does one recover the first tree of my
life from awilderness of executed forests?
27
with horrifying ears of wax

smothered with ascarf of glaze
28
Donteven think about it, the speaker warns. But Herberts poem reveals that
there can be no thinking, no seeing, outside of history. Mona Lisas haunted speaker
finds the past he flees everywhere. It haunts the tainted landscape of the opening
lines, as human villains and victims are displaced onto bridges and trees; and it infects the failed sanctuary of Leonardos portrait, with its fat signora brutally hewed
from the meat of life. What is poetry which does not save/ Nations or peoples?
Milosz asks in his famous poem Dedication (96-7).21 For Herbert, Szymborska,
and Zagajewski poetry is not subservient tohistory, as it was for their more orthodox
colleagues. But neither does it exist in isolation. In Dutch Painters, Mona Lisa,
and Medieval Miniatures, we find not celebrations of arts iconic autonomy from
time, but stories of the complex interaction between art and human time, art and
human history as embodied in an individual perceiver who stands before awork
from adistant era. And these stories, in turn, speak toeach poets conception of the
lyric, as in each case, aspeaker rooted in aspecific time and place supplements and
complicates the story told by the images he or she works torecreate.
The speakers in Zagajewskis and Szymborskas lyrics do this consciously. They
seek first toenter the artwork and the world it represents, and then toaddress it
from what is recognizably amodern Eastern European perspective. Zagajewski and
Szymborska thus offer us amodel for approaching individual lyrics, amodel in which
we both seek toenter the poems world and bring our own individual context, our
own rootedness in history tobear upon the work before us. Poetry that seeks tokeep
itself at arms length from merely human time is doomed tofailure or so the fate
of Mallarmes frozen swan in the Song on Porcelain suggests. But the viewer or
reader who looks toremove himself and art from history, however understandably, impoverishes both himself and art in the process; he refuses even the partial
knowledge, the imperfect redemption that is all art can offer at best. One might
at any rate read Herberts Mona Lisa this way; it is acautionary tale against the
mistaking of icons, be they visual or verbal, as asafe haven from history.
Historicize, historicize, the cultural critics cry. Yet they themselves overlook
large chunks of culture and history that might complicate or challenge the limits
of their own brand of historicism. Both their neglect of Eastern Europe whose
troublesome history of Marxism in practice might undermine the Marxist theory
that underpins so much recent scholarship and their distortion of lyric poetry are
telling in this respect. The call tohistoricize carries with it an implicit condemnation
of some earlier, spurious form of pseudohistoricism or ahistoricism, the crime
with which the lyric in particular has been charged. But if the lyric struggles tobe
context-free, as such critics argue, it is because human beings likewise try, time and
again, torise above the contexts that confine them: Keats Grecian urn yields its
secrets, if indeed it does, only in response tothe insistent questioning of the poems
mortal speaker towhom its glimpses of transcendence remain forever out of reach.
All efforts tostep outside time, the lyric reminds us, are doomed tofail in advance,
which is why the lyric poet must struggle time and again toachieve the revenge of

21
Przedmowa, Poezje wybrane: Selected Poems, 96-97.
22
Szymborska, Poems New and Collected, 68.
29
amortal hand, the temporary reprieve from mortality that is all we can hope for
at best (Szymborska 68).22
Herberts speaker in Mona Lisa goes in quest of atimeless icon that will release
him, if only temporarily, from historys shackles; what he finds is inevitably distorted
by the history he tries toleave behind. Attempts toread the lyric as the antithesis
tolegitimate, historically engaged writing whatever that might be likewise tell
us at least as much about the genres interrogators as they do about the mode of
writing such critics claim toilluminate. The lyric is, as Ive been arguing, agenre
of limits but as its Polish practitioners reveal, its limitations are self-conscious
and self-critical. This heightened self-consciousness, moreover, is itself aresponse
toaspecific historical situation, in which Polands foreign-backed rulers claimed
tohave uncovered ahistorical master key, aMetahistory or Megahistory that rendered all earlier versions obsolete. The new in New Historicism inevitably calls
tomind the language of advertising, where the adjective new is invariably paired
with its Madison Avenue twin, improved. The very idea of aNew Historicism
rests on the notions of intellectual progress and superior vision, if not outright
omniscience, that its adherents claim toreject. They would do well tolearn from
the spurned lyric, which, particularly in its postwar Polish incarnation, teaches us
totest the limits not just of the thing perceived, but of its all-too-human perceiver.
Arent van Nieukerken

Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition .
of European Romanticism
30
1.
The starting point of Czesaw Mioszs poetical development shows him as
the heir of one of the main lines of Romantic poetry. When embarking on his
literary career as a member of the poetical group agary (the so-called Wilno
catastrophists), he owed much to two literary currents rooted in Romanticism
that together with the modernized classicism of the Cracow Avant-garde and the
hybrid poetics of Skamander shaped the poetical scenery of the interwar period.
Iam, of course, thinking of Surrealism and also of Symbolism that, in the person
of Paul Valry, remained in the thirties an important point of reference. Both these
currents derive more or less immediately from the hermetic, somnambulist line
of Romantic poetry that is usually associated with names like Novalis, Grard de
Nerval, Lautramont etc..
The atmosphere of this literary model also pervades Miosz collection of poems
Three Winters (Trzy zimy), particularly with respect tothe status of the poetical subject
that appears toact under the pressure of demonic forces. However, the influence of
this brand of Romanticism on Miosz turned out tobe short-lived. During the last
years of the Second World War, and in the first post-war years, he revised his poetics completely, taking advantage of Anglo-Saxon modernism with its concept of an
impersonal authorial instance as the basis of apolyphony of voices. Simultaneously,
Miosz revived certain eighteenth-century (Enlightenment) genres. For that reason
it could be maintained that his post-war poems testify toagenuine anti-Romantic
turn. In the period initiated by his Treatise on Poetry (Traktat poetycki), Mioszs
poetics underwent afurther transformation that consisted of the rediscovery of the
Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European
This is not tosay that hermetic or theosophical concepts do not occur in oeuvre
of these poets, but their presence is always subjected tothe larger structure of the
existential autobiography.
31
authorial instance as adistinct self without, however, giving up the polyphony (or
multi-voicedness (Bakhtin)) that marked his previous period of development (an
exemplary embodiment of this poetical strategy were The Songs of Poor People (Gosy
biednych ludzi)). The first fully realized specimens of this new period are the long
poems AChronicle of the Town Pornic (Kroniki miasteczka Pornic) and Throughout Our
Lands (Po ziemi naszej).
At this point, Iwould like toput forward the following thesis: the difference
between the catastrophist poetry of the young Miosz and his poetical oeuvre
starting from the sixties was not merely due tothe discovery of T.S. Eliot and other
Anglo-Saxon modernists. It was not less indebted (perhaps not in the sense of an
overt poetical model, but rather as apoint of reference) toan alternative romantic
current, opposed tothe hermetic line of Novalis and Nerval that was later adopted
by the Symbolists. This alternative brand of Romanticism attempted to create
apoetics that (as previously with Classicism) mirrored the metaphysical order of
being. In other words: it proposed an integral interpretation of mans being-in-theworld by creating an existential autobiography that went far beyond the somnambulist, lunar aspects of existence. The founding fathers of this Romantic line
were by definition major poets. Toour mind come immediately two names:
Goethe (after overcoming his period of Sturm und Drang) and William Wordsworth. It is important, at this point, tostress that what Ipropose is an intertextual
investigation from the point of view of ageneral typology of Romanticism, and not
an attempt tounearth direct influences of the abovementioned poets on Miosz.
Iuse their poetics rather as aheuristic category, in order tospecify the existential
structure by which the later poetry of Polands greatest twentieth century poet has
been shaped. From the point of view of intertextuality, in anarrower sense, this
structure is mainly (but not exclusively) dependent on the particular circumstances
of the Polish literary tradition (Adam Mickiewicz, the author of Pan Tadeusz, as
the chief Polish exponent of non-hermetic Romanticism). What I from the point
of view of ageneral typology essentially assert is that the underlying poetical
structure through which these major Romantic poets express aspecific totality
of (self)-experience1 recalls the structure of Mioszs mature poetry, particularly
with regard tothe relationship between the authorial instance (speaker) and the
voices on the level of the represented world. This similarity is toacertain extent
obscured by the fact that Miosz employs poetical devices typical for the modernist
(long) poem, e.g. the technique of collage.
The tension between two types of Romanticism (the autobiographical as opposed tothe lunar one) at various stages of Mioszs poetic development essentially
boils down todifferent models of personality. Let us, in order toclarify this opposition, examine the status of the poetical subject in Mioszs already mentioned book
of poems Three Winters. The major Polish critic Jan Boski has pointed out that in

the poem Slow River (Powolna rzeka) the identity of the speaker is unclear2. An
attentive reading of other poems written during these years shows that it is in fact
the second person singular that makes its presence emphatically felt. Furthermore,
we are faced both with the first person singular (often implicitly marked) and the
first person plural. Amore profound analysis usually shows that the second person
is either an alter ego of the I (as has been pointed out by Micha Gowiski in his
interpretation of the poem Roki3), or the (often rather roughly treated) addressee
of the rhetorical stance adopted by asocially committed poet (c.f. the second part
of the Poem about Frozen Time (Poemat oczasie zastygym)). It is not easy towork out
clear-cut distinctions, but it could be generally maintained that the first person
plural attempts todefine its place towards poques and civilizations. The I, on
the other hand, describes itself by gradually emerging from the multi-voiced pressure of something that does away with ordinary historical time and that, because of
its demonic or atavistic shape, cannot be conceived of as belonging tothe realm of
civilization. Toput it succinctly, the I describes itself by facing an energy. An excellent example of such aform of selfhood is the poetical subject in the poem Hymn:
There is no-one between you and me,/ and tome strength is given ( 13).4 (5).
Mioszs catastrophist poetry appears tobe problematical, because it is impossible toreconcile the public realm (poetry towards history) with the sphere of the
profound self. History cannot become an integral part of its poetical autobiography
determined by demonic somnambulism. The profound self lacks, in its turn, the force
todisentangle itself from demonism and grasp the mechanisms of history, since that
would demand finding an objective correlative (T.S. Eliot) for the somnambulist
attitude towards the world. This could only be achieved by developing astructure
that represents the distance between the somnambulist self (I) and the self (I as
belonging toawe) that takes part in inter-generational communication. However,
in the course of this process the profound self would betray its very nature. Miosz
had already become aware in the late-thirties of this rift between I and we in his
poetry, afew years before he discovered Anglo-Saxon modernism. His Dithyramb,
written in 1937, seems tobe an expression of his wrestling with the inner tension by
which the subject of his catastrophist poetry was almost torn apart. However, the
lyrical subject of the Dithyramb is unlike the I in Three Winters capable of
some self-reflection. It tries todistinguish itself from the I immersed in the multivoicedness of being, and towork out the conditions of aconsciously autobiographical
poetry that would do justice toboth the demonic and historical realm (even though
it speaks out in the first person plural, as the spokesman of ageneration). The new

4

2
3
32
J. Boski, Miosz jak wiat, Krakw 1989, p. 18.

Cz. Miosz, Trzy zimy gosy owierszach, Londyn 1987, p. 132.
Quotations of Mioszs poetry in English come from: Czeslaw Milosz, New and
Collected Poems 1931-2001, New York 2005 (NCP). Unmarked quotations have been
translated by the author of the present essay.
Nikogo nie ma midzy tob Imn,/ amnie jest dana sia (Wt. 1, p. 73). Quotations
of Mioszs poetry in Polish come from: Czesaw Miosz, Wiersze (pi tomw), Znak,
Krakw 2001-2009. (W).
6
7
8
9
poranne koysanie mrz [] pierwszy blask dnia [Wt. 1, p. 121].

otych, co cierpi wwze gordyjski jestemy spleceni/ zkrzywd, azplecw
spywa nam krlewski paszcz,/ podbity krwi zorzecze, skarg ucinionych
[Wt. 1, p. 122].
pikno, co powinna by widzialna/ Iatwa nawet dziecku [Wt. 1, p. 122].
ten nowy ad form odrodzonych, wyraajcych chciwie prawd [Wt. 1, p. 122]
33
generation of (young) poets attempts, on the one hand, toexpress in pure words
what is elemental and unique (unrepeatable): the morning rocking of the sea
the first glimmer of the day.6 On the other hand, it does not omit the suffering
we are woven up/ with their harm, and from our shoulders flows aroyal mantle,/
lined with the blood of curses, the laments of the oppressed7. These contradictory
points of view are reconciled by splendidly roaming (wdrwk wspania), or,
in other words: we must embark upon aQuest. It does not suffice towait passively
for beauty that should be visible/ and easy even toachild8. However, this beauty,
this new order of regenerated forms that eagerly express the truth9, is also agift
that arrives silently (nadchodzi cicho). The relationship between history and the
realm of (not necessarily Christian) grace pertains toaparadox, and this paradox
is formulated in a(quasi) discursive manner.
Thus, the Dithyramb appears to be a first sketch of the poetical project
presented by the mature Miosz in which the author by the very process of creating his autobiography incorporates himself into acontinuously widening world
that is revealed by epiphanies. However, unlike the situation in Mioszs later
oeuvre, the Dithyramb fails to proceed from adequately stating this project
towards its embodiment, or rather it embodies it only partially by focusing on
the epiphany that interrupts and suspends the subjects normal way of temporal
being-in-the-world. After achieving this it becomes, from an ontological point
of view, clear that the realization of this moment has not been accomplished by
the subject that experiences it directly. At best, adifferent, general subject can
assert that what has happened to the original subject is, in fact, an event.
Anecessary (even though not sufficient) condition of recognizing an epiphany as
an event happening tome is that the I creates apoetical space in which it can
simultaneously represent itself as the subject of epiphany and incorporate (which
means toacertain extent objectifying it) this event in the larger context of my
existential autobiography. The visionary is agift. Creating an autobiography: atask
that the subject sets itself. In the case of Miosz, this awareness turns out tobe
amoral imperative. As such it affects all of us: we proceed from the first person
singular tothe first person plural, uniting in acommunity. The Dithyramb fails
toaccomplish this task. The poet stands on the threshold of maturity, but lacks
the ability (or insight) tocross it. Ihave already pointed out that Miosz crossed
this threshold much later, around 1960, in AChronicle of the Town Pornic and the
long poem Throughout Our Lands. However, before analyzing these texts in greater
detail, Iwill start by presenting afamous nineteenth-century example of apoetical
autobiography, and subsequently, attempt toexplain why more than twenty years

passed between Mioszs sketching the project of an existential autobiography and
his first attempts at realizing it.
2.
The archetype of arealized poetical autobiography appears tobe Wordsworths
famous poem about the growth of apoets mind: The Prelude. An essential part of
this long poem are the events from his childhood and youth that, as far as the metaphysical impact of these anecdotes is concerned, recall Mioszs poetry and prose of
remembrance. Agood example of an event with ametaphysical bearing is an episode in which Wordsworth describes how, still achild, he plundered aravens nest:
Nor less when spring had warmed the cultured Vale,
Roved we as plunderers where the mother-bird
Had in high places built her lodge; though mean
Our object and inglorious, yet the end
Was not ignoble
oh, at that time
While on the perilous ridge Ihung alone,
With what strange utterance did the loud dry wind
Blow through my ears! The sky seemed not asky
Of earth and with what motion moved the clouds! (498-9)
Due tothe miraculous power of memory, this event plays an important role in the
autobiography of agrowing mind. It acquires moral significance, being one of the
many stages that prepare the protagonist for experiencing in the final episode of
The Prelude, when he climbs Mount Snowdon, the epiphany of the Spirit of the
Universe. Wordsworth explicitly attributes the educational significance of this
episode tothe immortal spirit that is tobe be equated with Nature as adynamic,
growing organism (instead of aprimordial, given state):
34
Dust as we are, the immortal spirit grows

Like harmony in music; there is adark
Inscrutable workmanship that reconciles
Discordant elements, makes them cling together
In one society
Thanks tothe means which Nature deigned toemploy;
Whether her fearless visitings, or those
That came with soft alarm, like hurtless light
Opening the peaceful clouds; or she may use
Severer interventions, ministry
More palpable, as best might suit her aim. (Wordsworth 499)
Not less important for the autobiography of the protagonist is (afurther parallel
with Miosz) his role as awitness to, and active participant of, history. Wordsworth
stayed during the first years of the Revolution in France, and in The Prelude he attempted torecapture the messianic hopes of this period. However, the memory of

these hopes is counterpoised by the authors later disenchantment that introduces
acertain discontinuity tothe temporal structure of the poem. Without this rupture it
would be impossible torepresent the process of time stratifying itself, due towhich
the poetical subject acquires distance not only toits former self, but also toits present self here and now, during the very moment of writing. This stratification of
the self is aprecondition of epiphany as an experience suspending the temporality
of everyday life.
Similarly stratified i.e. centering around ordinary experiences related in the
form of anecdotes, is the poetical world of Miosz. Jan Boski has pointed out that
the poetry of Miosz is essentially anecdotic and autobiographical, referring continuously topersonal or individual experiences, particularly reading and travelling,
which entails the necessity of comment rather than taking recourse tostylization
and historical costume.10 It would be even more accurate tosay that the poetics
of anecdote and stylization are often juxtaposed, and that the tendency of Mioszs
poetry of making the I dress up in various costumes (from the Renaissance, the
Baroque, the Enlightenment, Romanticism) that demand of him to play some
role, determines the specific brand of his autobiographism. The confessional self
is only one of these roles, apart from anumber of others, such as the ecstatic and
the public self.11
3.
10
11
Boski, Miosz jak wiat, p. 59.

Or, in other words: the speaker of Mioszs confessional poetry is essentially apersona
among other masks, each of which contributes some element tothe sum of
Mioszs experience of life (Boski, Miosz jak wiat, p. 93).
35
Let us now try toanswer the second question. We have already seen that the postulate of an existential autobiography, aproject that, as amatter of fact, seemed tobe
completely in tune with Mioszs essentially Romantic worldview, was already put
forward in the Dithyramb (1937). Keeping this in mind, how can it be explained
that it took twenty years before the poet started torealize this project? Furthermore,
why was the act of stating its necessity almost immediately followed by Mioszs
anti-romantic turn that made him consciously renounce his intention of integrating the profound self with the self as the witness of acertain generation, in favor of
aimpersonality typical for the Eliotic brand of modernism? This development seems
less startling (Iconsciously center on the immanent dynamics of literature, leaving
aside not without acertain moral uneasiness the impact of the horror caused by
the destruction of whole nations and societies), when we compare it with the evolution undergone by another poet who, just like Miosz, attempted to reconcile the
Romantic concept of the poetical subject with the postulate of impersonality, put
forward by the Anglo-Saxon modernists. The self in Yeatss poetry is, as an energy,
infinite. However, its poetic objectivizations cannot be but finite, fragmentary. Becoming aware of this apparently inevitable one-sidedness and attempting toachieve

wholeness, the self reaches out toits opposite (interestingly, the anthropology of the
author of the theosophical treatise A Vision bases on the tension between self and
anti-self). In order tofind acomplement for the emotional impressionism of his early
poetry, the middle Yeats created acold poetical subject, shunning confession, fond
of amentoring attitude (what Ihave in mind are his poetry collections Responsibilities
and The Wild Swans at Coole, and particularly the famous cycle The Tower, that Miosz
himself perhaps not accidently translated into Polish). The poems of this period are
also characterized by objective descriptions of the external world, not unlike some of
Mioszs poems written during the Second World War (e.g. Journey (Podr) and
The River (Rzeka)). This analogy is, of course, incomplete. In fact, the strategy
of reaching out toones opposite seems tobe characteristic of all great poetry. The
very greatness of poets consists in their ability tocope with continuous change, and
these metamorphoses leave an imprint on their poetics. What is decisive in the case
of Miosz and Yeats appears, however, seems tobe something else: the impersonality
of their poetry, and its classicist stance, is not asimple antithesis but must be related
totheir oeuvre as adynamically developing whole. We will shortly see that Mioszs
turning in the sixties towards the existential autobiography has been mediated by his
modernism. Yet, from aslightly different angle it could equally be maintained that
Mioszs modernism had been previously mediated by the Romanticism (in the sense
of ageneral typology opposing romantic toclassicist poetics, and not aspecific
epoch in literary history) that pervaded the sketch of an existential autobiography
presented in the poem Dithyramb.
The modernist mediatization explains why Miosz started to take interest in
larger poetical forms. However, it soon became clear that the Eliotian genres, particularly the type of apolyphonic long poem represented by The Waste Land and the
cyclical set of variations linking metaphysical meditation tomusical structures (Four
Quartets), failed tosatisfy aself that, participating in history, attempted tofind its
unique and unrepeatable destiny by multiplying perspectives in accordance with
the inner metamorphoses it had undergone. In The Waste Land the I (Tiresias)
merely registers events and moods towhich it passively surrenders. The poetical
subject of Four Quartets assesses everything from an ideal point of view, beyond
space and time12. We have already seen that during his catastrophist period Miosz

36
12
C.f. the following passages from Four Quartets: the point of intersection of the
timeless/ With time (T.S. Eliot, Collected Poems 1909-1962, London 1990, p. 212
Dry Salvages) and Only through time time is conquered (ibid., p. 192, Burnt
Norton). Miosz is not preoccupied with overcoming (conquering) time, but with
redeeming it. In his Treatise on Poetry he revises Eliots concept of abolishing time
by somewhat modifying astatement from Little Gidding: Here is the unattainable/
Truth of being, here at the edge of lasting/ and not lasting. Where the parallel lines
intersect,/ Time lifted above time by time ( 143] (Tuniedosigalna/ Prawda istoty,
tutaj na krawdzi/ Trwania, nietrwania. Dwie linie przecite./ Czas wyniesione ponad
czas przez czas [Wt. 2, p. 236-237]). The difference with Eliot seems slight, but it
is essential: Here, the intersection of the timeless moment/ Is England and nowhere.
Never and Always (Eliot, Collected Poems, p. 215, italics A.v.N.)
had not succeeded in connecting the visions of the somnambulist self with asense
of belonging toadistinct generation committed tothe praxis of istory. Eliots discoveries in the field of poetical genres did not do anything toremedy this situation.
Therefore, Miosz was forced tochoose adifferent path, following the example of
poets like W.H. Auden and Carl Shapiro, and create amodern counterpart for the
eighteenth century poetical treatise. This genre always specifies its speaker and
addressee. The rules of communication between them are in principle clearly defined. There is no room for the ambiguity and self-concealment that so often occur
in Mioszs catastrophist poetry. Moreover, the author of atreatise is fully aware of
his role as aspokesman of acertain community (ageneration, class or nation) and
understands the mechanisms by which it is ruled. His very task consists in analyzing
these mechanisms and explaining them tothe group of which he is both spokesman
and teacher. For that reason his way of belonging to(and participating in) the group
presupposes acertain distance, not only toit, but also tohimself as amember of this
community. It seems that the poetics of the treatise allowed Miosz taking agreat
step forward, both with regard tothe model of socially committed poetry (The Poem
about the Frozen River) and the somnambulist phantasmagorias of Three Winters.
Yet, it cannot be overlooked that he had to pay a high price. The self of the
poetical treatise is, in fact, even more one-dimensional than the somnambulist I.
It does not cross lands and continents searching for fresh experiences, nor does
it feel itself knit up in aGordian knot with wrongs (Dythyramb), but limits
itself todescribing, presenting causes and effects, passing assessment etc., in other
words: it engages into something that had been hitherto absent from Mioszs poetry.
However, it fails toaccomplish this in the context of an existential autobiography.
The (Enlightenment) generality of Mioszs treatise project was from the very beginning undermined by irony, which is hardly surprising in the case of apoet who
always tried touphold the existence of the particular and the sensual in face of the
universal and the abstract. Because of this inner tension, the poetry of the treatise
that achieved its zenith in the Treatise on Morals began in the fifties togradually
dissolve. Mioszs major work of this period, the Treatise on Poetry, belongs, in fact,
only partially tothis genre understood in the above-mentioned sense, and refers on
adifferent level tothe dichotomy characteristic for his pre-war poetry.
In the first, historical parts of the Treatise on Poetry dominates the perspective
of generational community. Behind the first person plural appears (unlike the we
of Mioszs catastrophist poetry) the self of ateacher who does not in the first place
express solidarity with his generation nor calls on it toundertake joint action, but
rather attempts totransmit the knowledge necessary do distinguish between what
is valuable or not, authentic or inauthentic, in short: the difference between good
and evil. This mentoring subject shuns all remarks or comments referring toits own
history and, when it cannot avoid tomake its personality felt, accomplishes this
necessity discretely, employing being arepresentative of the younger generation
the third person plural: Thats why it was that the new generation/ Liked these
poets (the Skamandrites) only moderately./ Paid them tribute, but with acertain
37

angerNor did Broniewski win their admiration (120).13 This didactic perspective begins tochange in the third part The Spirit of History that, even though
grammatical indicators of personality rarely occur, appears tobe with regard toexpressions of despondency and anger much more permeated by personality than the
parts about the Belle poque and the two decennia between the two world wars. The
first person plural (we) gradually transforms itself into the third person plural
(they): The survivors ran through fields, escaping/ From themselves (..) Till the
end of their days all of them/ Carried the memory of their cowardice,/ For they
didntwant todie without areason (132).14 The speaker once was one of them, but
at the moment he has acquired acertain distance that is emphatically presented by
the tension between the first and third person plural15.
The real turning-point occurs, however, in the last part of the poem, not accidentally entitled Nature. Temporal motion recedes in view of aspace that widens
ever more. At first, it seems that each creature, facing nature as something alien
and devoid of compassion, remains alone: Impaled on the nail of ablackthorn,
agrasshopper/ Leaks brown fluid from its twitching snout,/ Unaware of torture and
law (140).16 The sole legitimate perspective turns out tobe the first person singular.
The author suddenly speaks from the perspective of his singleness. He moves in
arowing boat through the heart of the American continent (Tokeep the oars from
squeaking in their locks/ He binds them with ahandkerchief. The dark/ has rushed
east from the Rocky Mountains/ And settled in the forests of the continent (141)).
17
For Miosz, America has always been associated with ahistoricity and ecstatically
experiencing the otherness of nature. Such an America is completely alien toEurope,
governed by the spirit of history. Therefore we might get the impression that the
Treatise on Poetry is as arecord of personality equally incoherent (and in asimilar
way) as was Mioszs pre-war poetry. The self of history and the self that experiences nature in its immediateness still remain apart. Nevertheless, from adifferent
point view, it seems that Miosz had made essential progress since the publication
of Three Winters and the Dithyramb. The self in the fourth part of the Treatise,
notwithstanding its immersion in nature, turns out to be much more intimately

13
14
15
16
38
17
Oto dlaczego mode pokolenie/ Tamtych poetw polubio wmiar,/ Hod im

oddajc, ale nie bez gniewu. [] Broniewski te nie znalaz unich aski
[W, t. 2, p. 196].
Polami wtedy ywi uciekali/ Od samych siebie []. Kady znich dwiga do koca
dni swoich tchrzostwa, bo umrze bez celu/ Nie chcia [Wt. 2, p. 219-220].
This tension explains the quotation marks of the prayer toKing of the centuries,
ungraspable movement [NCP< p. 132] (Krlu stuleci, nieobjty Ruchu [Wt. 2,
p. 221]), in which we ask tobe redeemed from ignorance, and that our devotion
may be accepted ( 132] (Zbaw od niewiedzy, uznaj nasz wierno [Wt. 2, p. 221]).
Na gwd tarniny wbity konik polny,/ Ani tortury wiadomy, ni prawa
Wt. 2, p. 232].
Aeby wiosa wdulkach nie skrzypiay,/ Zwijaem chustk. Ciemno podchodzia/
Od gr skalistych, Nebraski, Nevady,/ Zgarniajc wsiebie lasy kontynentu
[Wt. 2, p. 233].

connected with the past as areal presence, remembered and experienced, than the
teacher and spokesman of his generation in the first three parts who seems toderive
in straight line from the speaker in awell-known poem published in Three Winters
(We lived in strange and hostile times),18 and whose stance has only slightly been
modified by the descriptive objectivism of Anglo-Saxon modernism. The I in the
garden of nature recalls everything and succeeds in representing (in the literal
sense of again-making-present) the most tangible details from the past: that
wedding in Basel/ Atouch tothe strings of the viola and fruits/ In silver bowls
(142).19 Nearby he hears the splash of abeaver in the American night but, at the
same moment the memory grows larger than my life (143).20 The protagonist
starts toconsciously write his existential autobiography in which the past becomes
an essential element of the present. This is, in fact, an apocalyptic experience. Due
toit, he has, being conveyed toadimension beyond the limits of the first person
singular, aforetaste of the simultaneousness (in other words: fullness) of time. The
space of epiphany opens up.
4.
18
19
20
21
Wczasach dziwnych iwrogich ylimy [...] [Wt. 1, p. 79].

ten lub wBazylei./ Dotknita struna wioli iowoce/ Wmisach ze srebra
[Wt. 2, p. 235].
Plunicie bobra wnoc amerykask/ Ipami wiksza ni jest moje ycie
[Wt. 2, p. 236].
Th. A. Vogler, Preludes toaVision The Epic Venture in Blake, Wordsworth, Keats and
Hart Crane, Berkeley, 1971.
39
It could be argued that the Treatise on Poetry, notwithstanding its artistic importance, is amasterpiece that does not resolve all inner tensions. Nevertheless, the
poem is an important link in Mioszs project of working out amore comprehensive
form (acircumstance that, from an existential perspective, would appear tojustify
its being flawed). Furthermore, it is obvious that not the poetics of the poetical
treatise shaping the first two parts of the poem, but the shift of perspective toan
existential autobiography in its last (fourth) part were decisive for the evolution
of Mioszs poetry. Its basis is the creative energy of memory, due towhich time
loses its opacity and reveals a specific architecture. Past and present intertwine
through the act of representing the individual and distinct experiences of the self,
often by means of, at first sight trivial, anecdotes. Mioszs adopting of anecdotes as
aconstructive principle in his later poetry recalls asimilar tendency in the type of
Romanticism of which Wordsworth was the acknowledged master, and that derived
from the same concept of time as afunction of the creative power of memory. The
poem on the growth of apoets mind focuses (here Iparaphrase the remarks of
Thomas Vogler in his book Preludes toaVision) not only on the remembered objects
and scenes from nature in itself, but also aims torepresent the way of remembering
and experiencing those objects and scenes as features of certain general, or at least
more comprehensive patterns that connect image with image, scene with scene21.

In both cases poetry aims for aspecific wholeness of experience in which the
perceiver, that which he perceives and the act of perception preserve their distinctness. This unity in difference presupposes the experience of the moment as avessel
of stratified time. The moment passes by but since the subject, whilst experiencing
it, recalls simultaneously with its passing one (or more) moments of the past, this
passing moment present here and now does not fall into oblivion. It has been
preserved and therefore it will be once recalled, and in it shall also be recalled all
other moments that have passed by and that are contained in it (not as apassive
content, but as an energy, in accordance with the mental laws of association). Typical
for Wordsworths poetry is the memory as an immediate communion between an I
(or you) and nature against the background of places in which man is stripped of
his humanity and condemned toloneliness, as in the sordid towns of the Industrial
Revolution. It turns out that the act of remembering aprevious life in the womb of
nature always produces asalutary effect (the healing power of memory is, as amatter
of fact, also the core experience in Mickiewiczs epic Pan Tadeusz, and becomes in
the epilogue tothe poem even the subject of authorial self-reflection).
Yet, it seems that Miosz attributed an even greater power toacts of remembrance
than Wordsworth, as is proved by the long poems A Chronicle of the Town Pornic
and Throughout Our Lands. These texts showed for the first time the full artistic
potential of the existential autobiography. Let us first examine Mioszs Chronicle.
Everything that in Mioszs Treatises had been presented as either general or deriving
from asense of belonging toageneration has now become particular and, as such,
it pivots on historical events or rather anecdotes that the author not merely relates,
but also shows as being in some way or other connected with his autobiography.
The first autobiographical element in this poem is, of course, the presence of the
author in the French coastal town which is expressed by him either directly (Next
tothe port Ipass the narrow street of Galipaud),22 or obliquely with descriptions
that are suffused with subjectivity. Often both perspectives are combined (Under
the drizzle that soaked in the mowed lawns,/ Row after row, either Christian and
family name, regiment,/ Or only succinctly: asoldier, known toGod,/ Iread: 17
September 1940).23 The past of the town of Pornic turns into presence when confronted with the presence here and now of the author. Even the first part of the
poem, The Castle of Bluebeard, devoted tothe notorious Gilles de Laval, Baron
de Retz, that might seem acatalogue of irrelevant entries, turns out tobe permeated by the private particular of the author: The arrow of acrossbow/ Could reach
mast of any ship entering the port at high tide when the flood risesBecause his
cutlass missed the tough heart of the boar (171).24 The feats and crimes of Gilles

22
40
23
24
Koo portu przechodz uliczk Galipaud [Wt. 2, p. 301].

Pod drobnym deszczem, ktry wsika wstrzyone trawniki,/ Rzd za rzdem, czy
imi, nazwisko ipuk,/ Czy tylko krtko: onierz, znany Bogu,/ Czytaem: 17
czerwca 1940 [Wt. 2, p. 306].
Masztw kadej odzi/ Zmierzajcej do portu wczas przypywu/ Dosign mona
strzaem zkuszy, [...]. Bo kordelas nie trafi wmocne serce dzika [Wt. 2, p. 300].
25

28

26
27
Okazuje si tutaj sprzeczno pomidzy poszczeglnym ioglnym,/ Bo kochali go

cinawet, co taczyli karmaniol [Wt. 2, p. 301].
Galipaud umar na wygnaniu, wSan Sebastian, tsknic [Wt. 2, p. 301].
Potem pili, wrzeszczeli, kobiety poczynay [Wt. 2, p. 304].
Kiedy spacerowae tutaj, by wrzos iarnowiec,/ Mae czarne owce pasy si koo
druidycznych gazw,/ Notariusze ikupcy pobudowali wille [Wt. 2, p. 304-305].
41
de Retz do not in any way relate tothe authors autobiography. It is not he who is
speaking. He is merely repeating other peoples (chroniclers) tales. But his inability
tounderstand the supposed cruelty of Joan of Arcs one time companion represents
in alarger sense the individual mans impotence towards history
Things change in the next parts of the Chronicle. The events from history gradually intertwine with the existential autobiography of the author who is arefugee,
an migr from a land devastated by historical disasters, revolutions, incursions
and even civil war. Against this background we understand why he feels obliged
topreserve the memory of the parson Galipaud who failed tobe apatriot, although
even his political opponents considered him agood man: In this reveals itself the
contradiction between the particular and the general/ Because he was even liked
by those who dance the carmagnole.25 Galipaud is particularly close tothe author
since he was forced him toflee because of aideology professing tobe universal, and
his fate could easily have become that of the author (Galipaud died in exile in San
Sebastian, longing).26 The poems Heirs and Vandeans could be interpreted
in the same context. The link between the historical figures from Pornic and the
author is shown from adifferent angle in the poem Our Lady of salvation. Each
of us stands in need of salvation, including ordinary people. How can we explain
that some of us perish and others, although with lesser merit, are saved (this is, in
fact, arecurring theme in Mioszs later poetry)? We must be content with putting
forward the question, after which we simply go on with our life (Later they drank,
grew boisterous, their women conceived (174)).27
In the following parts of the poem the connection between the events that took
place in the town Pornic and the authors existential autobiography becomes even
more intimate. Polish issues make their appearance. It turns out that Sowackis
mystical philosophy of the Genesis of the spirit (the author is appalled by it) has
been conceived on this very spot. Sowacki walked being, just like the author himself,
alonely exile, here where heather and juniper grew,/ And little sheep grazed next
todruidic stones./ Notaries and merchants have built villas28. The contrast between
the metaphysical concepts created by the fertile imagination of the romantic poet
and ordinary life that has been reinstated in its right arouses in the author amood of
reverie, but the very fact of his being conscious of these quasi-religious illusions appears tobe an indirect affirmation of Sowackis presence (the speaker actually quotes
a distich from his mystical drama Samuel Zborowski). The protagonists polemical
intentions do not matter. Sowackis presence remains an inalienable element of the
Polish tradition that he carries with him, due tohis being an exile. Tradition does not
merely establish alink with his countrymen, but shapes his very perception of reality.

The multi-voicedness culminates in the poem British War Cemetery (singled out by Jan Boski in his seminal essay Miosz like the Earth),29 where all
hitherto mentioned themes and motives concur and intertwine. On this cemetery
rest seventeen victims of the passenger ship Lancastria that had been sunk on
the 17th of June as the result of an airstrike by German planes. The author recalls
that day in Vilnius, on the Cathedral Square.30 Among the buried is also Captain
Henryk Makowski from Kruszewica, aparachutist that had been captured during
some secret mission. The speaker learns about this from the local guardian of the
cemetery. He imagines that this Pole, being of one age with him at the moment of
his death (thirty), went toalyceum where he heard without any enthusiasm how
The teacher of Polish/ With decorum declaimed the beginning of (Sowackis) Genesis of the Spirit31. He certainly never expected tobe laid toeternal rest in the very
place where this prose poem about the chain of lives had been composed, becoming
apart of this very scenery. He also did not expect that his girlfriend Muriel Tamar
Byck (Womenss Auxiliary Air Force) would be buried on this same cemetery, she
who, when he, still aschoolboy, heard Sowackis sublime words, frolicked across
London (the author did not learn about their friendship from some anonymous
chronicle as in the case of Gilles de Retz, but owed this information tothe already
mentioned guardian Mr. Richard). Could anyone have expected that Muriel would
become his lifelong and deathlong friend? 32 And why was it Makowski who
perished, and not the author himself (c.f. Our Lady of Salvation)? We can, however, conceive of astill greater miracle, in other words: due tothe creative power
of memory, all these different threads concur in apoem constituting an essential
link in the chain of the authors existential biography. We are, in fact, witnessing
the experience of apokatastasis (that, as aconscious metaphysical concept, makes
its appearance in Mioszs poetical summa From the Rising of the Sun, published
in the seventies). The very circumstance that so many layers of time can co-exist in
the literary representation of one moment justifies the intuition that the authors
existential autobiography participates in amore comprehensive whole. The entire
poem gives, in fact, apersonal account of alife that as Miosz already announced
in the Dithyramb is tied in aGordian knot with the harm of other people,
being in their otherness similar tohim.
5.
The Chronicle of Pornic presents an existential autobiography as asequence of
loosely connected fragments. Mioszs poem has (not unlike Eliots Waste Land)
been put together from chunks of real life that derive from different times. The

31

29
42
30
32
J. Boski, Miosz jak wiat, p. 101.

Pamitam ten dzie wWilnie, na placu Katedralnym [Wt. 2, p. 306].
Inauczyciel polskiego/ Szlachetnie recytowa pocztek Genezis zDucha [Wt. 2,
p. 307].
Dozgonna ipozgonna przyjacika [Wt. 2, p. 307].
33
Miosz refers tothe author of the Song about myself in the first lines of his poem:
When Ipassd through apopulous city, as Walt Whitman says in the Polish
version (182) (Kiedy przechodziem miastem ludnym/ (jak mwi Walt Whitman
wprzekadzie Alfreda Toma) [W. t. 2. p. 316]).
43
authors memory of the past is inextricably bound up with the memory of other
people, each of whom brings his own time with him. These individual times add
up toacomplicated structure that achieves wholeness due tomoments of epiphany.
As far as its form is concerned, the poem adheres toamodernist poetics (c.f. work
in progress or the modern sylva rerum), aspiring at the same time tothe status
of a revelation determined by the timeless superstructure that constitutes the
metaphysical fundament of its possibility. From this point of view the Chronicle is
reminiscent of the Romantic poem of remembrance. However, this superstructure
(time redeemed) is not accessed by alinear and cumulative movement of growth,
as in Wordsworths The Prelude. The events in Mioszs Chronicle that point totranscendence are not connected by acausal chain. Its composition exposes the freak
nature of these sudden insights. Therefore, the interrelatedness of particular moments of individual experience revealed by the epiphanic knots in Mioszs mature
poetry (as Ihave tried toshow in my analysis of British War Cemetery) should
not be understood as fulfilling the unrealized potential of previous episodes. In
fact, each episode constitutes adistinct, existentially independent whole in which
the subject reconsiders its situation here and now by summoning voices both
from the present and the past. In this experience the distance between past and
present is abolished. Past and present are represented as being simultaneously
contemplated by aself that questions its own existential autonomy as the absolute
center of the concept of atime-space (chronotope) imposed by amechanistic
worldview. The moments of epiphany reveal such adensity and overlapping of
real (past and passing) presences that the framework of the present moment
seems tobreak apart, forcing the author toask about the paradoxical nature of
time and toaccount for the fact that one moment contains more reality than he
could hitherto conceive of. As aconsequence, the less complicated episodes of the
poem, corresponding tocommonplace (linear or cyclical) notions of time, acquire
anew sense as being potentially susceptible toasimilar transformation. An even
more original representation of this chronotope in which ordinary time and time
redeemed intertwine can be found in the second long poem Miosz wrote in the
early sixties: Throughout Our Lands.
Even asuperficial reading reveals the fact that the presence of the first person
singular in Throughout Our Lands is much more exposed than in the Chronicle where
the act of representation started from the life of other people that only gradually
intertwines with the intimate autobiography of the author. The I in Mioszs
first American long poem expresses the immediateness of its ecstatic communion
with the world in an almost Whitmanian fashion.33 Asimilar stance was not unfamiliar tothe romantic poetry of memory and is, in an almost exemplary fashion,
represented by Wordsworths Lines composed afew miles above Tintern Abbey, on

revisiting the banks of the Wye during atour, July 13, 1798.34 In this famous poetical meditation the structure of memory as wholeness, being an attempt torecover
the past by revisiting places where the author was once affected by extraordinary
sensations, is expressly stated in the initial lines. In Throughout Our Lands the gap
between the present and the past and apossible perspective allowing toovercome
it, makes its appearance only in the fifth part, the representation of adream vision,
and is presented as atask still tobe executed:
Between the moment and the moment Ilived through much in my sleep,
so distinctly that Ifelt time dissolve,
and knew that what was past still is, not was.
And Ihope that this will be counted somehow in my defense:
my regret and agreat longing once toexpress
one life, not for my glory, for adifferent splendor. (182)35
Here we are not concerned with aconcrete return toplaces of the past, but with the
attempt tocreate through memory acontext that would allow tosave apast towhich
it is impossible toreturn in the ordinary manner (the author is awakened by the
sun shining straight into my eyes/ as it stood above the pass on the Nevada side
(183)).36 This sense of commitment towards others derives from the awareness
that the authors life, after his settling in the United Stated, has somehow worked
out, i.e. achieved fulfillment: Is it ashame or not,/ that this is my portion? (182).37
In other words: he implicitly assumes that his life has apurpose, pointing tothe
redemption of concrete (human) existences in their particularity by means of placing
them in alarger context, towhich he also, with the completed meaning of his life,
will belong (in fact, this sense is identical with the very task of creating acomprehensive existential autobiography; no postulate is less egotistic we remember:
also Wordsworth had, with regard toThe Prelude, torefute accusations of egotism).
It is perhaps impossible tojustify this concept theologically, but it stands beyond
all doubt as amoral postulate. If God proves unable tosave and redeem these individual existences in their particularity, the author will replace him in carrying out
this task: And if they all, kneeling with poised palms (like for instance Pascal, who
might not have been redeemed),/ millions, billions of them, ended together with
their illusion?/ Ishall never agree. Iwill give them the crown (184).38

34
35
36
44
37
38
On the complicated relationship between Wordsworth and Whitman see:

D.J. Moores, Mystical Discourse in Wordsworth and Whitman aTransatlantic Bridge,
Leuven, 2006, p. 9-29.
Midzy chwil Ichwil wiele przeyem we nie,/ tak wyranie, e czuem zanikanie
czasu,/ jeeli toco dawne cigle jest, nie byo./ Imam nadziej, e tobdzie jako
policzone:/ al iwielkie pragnienie, eby raz wyrazi/ jedno ycie na inn, nie na
wasn chwal [W, t. 2, p. 317].
Nastpnie obudzio mnie wiecce woczy soce/ oparte na przeczypo stronie
Nevady [Wt. 2, p. 317].
Wstyd czy nie wstyd,/ e tak mi si dopenio [W, t. 2, p. 317].
Ajeeli oni wszyscy, klkajcy ze zoonymi domi,/ miliony ich, miliardy ich, tam
koczyli si, gdzie ich zudzenie [W, t. 2, p. 318].
39
40
41
Tylko to, Tylko tojest godne opiewania: dzie [Wt. 2, p. 318].

Dziewczyny, niosc wysoko podbrdki, wracaj zkortu./ Py wodny tczuje nad
skonami trawnikw [W. t. 2, p. 318].
Asowo zciemnoci wyjawione byo gruszka, [] Wic jado sapieanki wtedy
zaraz pole/ za tym, nie innym potem, ruczaj, okolica. Wic jado ulgalki, do bery, do
bergamoty./ Na nic. Midzy mn igruszk ekwipae, kraje [W. t. 2, p. 317-318].
45
What sort of crown could this be, since it is only the day that is worthy of
praise. Only this: the day (183),39 when with their chins high, girls come back
from the tennis courts./ The spray rainbows over the sloping lawns ( 184),40 and the
memory of past appears tobe adream between two real moments, in other words:
time dissolving? In order tocope with this existential paradox, one has torepresent
the ceasing of time as something positive. Mioszs crown is neither tobe equated
with the passing moment, nor with astate of stillness. Therefore, it must (linking
metaphysics with ethics) be the simultaneity of passing moments, asomething
in which what was, still is (not freezing into motionlessness, but retaining its fluid
essence). For that reason a simultaneity of times cannot consist of self-enclosed
segments. The objects and situations that it contains must be understood as being
involved in a process of continuous expansion and intertwining. In Throughout
Our Lands Miosz argues with Wallace Stevens who in his famous poem AStudy
of Two Pears tried todefine these fruits by negation. According toMiosz pears
in general do not exist; there are only particular pears. Even these varieties do not
exist in itself, but are mutually dependent on each other, while being recalled by
aconcrete human self within space and time: And the word revealed out of darkness
was: pear/So Itried Comice then right away fields/ beyond this (not another)
palisade, abrook, countryside./ So Itried Jargonelle, Bosc, and Bergamotte./ No
good. Between me and pear, equipages, countries (183).41 Particular objects in their
entanglement with equally particular and unrepeatable landscapes constitute the
elementary content of all human experience (connecting space with the internal
stratification of time), but the self-evident nature of this truth makes us often take
it for granted. Yet, without this human ability tograsp various complex segments
of being in their passing, memory could not represent them simultaneously as the
experience of astable (though at the same time developing) self.
The eleventh part of Throughout Our Lands focuses on asimilar way of experiencing asimultaneity of times that is even more closely linked tothe authors existential
autobiography. The author who has settled in California tries toretrieve the memory
of Pauline, asimple Lithuanian peasant woman, arather distant acquaintance of his
youth. We do not learn what she meant tohim. The poem is rather devoted tothe
miracle that apast presence can be at all (present) here and now. While recalling
her presence the author feels obliged (the creative power of memory is, in fact, an
inner compulsion) tomention all tangible details that they once shared, due totheir
sensual faculties. He reconstructs their common landscape: Pauline, her room behind
the servants quarters, with one window on the orchard/ where Igather the best
apples near the pigsty/ squishing with my big toe the warm muck of the dunghill,/

and the second window on the well (Ilove todrop bucket down in/ and scare its
habitants, the green frogs) (185).42 The sentence is complicated by parenthesis that
expresses on asyntactic level the essential open-endedness of memory. The poet
adds an infinite number of new features.
However, while recalling the past we do never reconstruct its pure shape. The past
is always intertwined with the present, or rather with the particular place where we
are during the act of remembrance. When representing an entangled knot of sensual
impressions we usually unravel it, probably because, quite naturally, we assume
that sensual data referring todifferent objects cannot be perceived and understood
(analyzed) at once. Consequently we do not link them with one moment, but with
asequence of moments. It might be worthwhile tolook naively at the content of
memory toachieve asensual freshness, even though this can only be regained by
aconscious effort. Mioszs poem about Pauline appears tobe an example of such
an effort, the paradoxical attempt of representing reality as an unmediated knot of
diverse visual and auditory stimuli, exposing conventional concepts of time and space:
Above her rough Lithuanian peasant face
hovers aspindle of hummingbirds, and her flat calloused feet
are sprinkled by the sapphire water in which dolphins
with their backs arching frolic. (186)43
This naive way of experiencing reality makes the author draw afar from naive conclusion (interestingly, he starts by formulating the conclusion and only then proceeds
torepresenting the experience by which it is motivated in fact, we are assisting
here at an act of faith): Pauline died long ago, but is,/ and, Iam somehow convinced,
not only in my consciousness (152).44 The possibility of asimultaneity of times
(experiencing at the same time different moments and places) as anaive vision is, in
last resort, upheld by the existence of God. In His consciousness the consciousness
of the simultaneity of the authors time (in which past and present overlap) and the
time past of Pauline (recalled and again made present by the author) participate,
creating an infinitely more complex knot of temporal simultaneity that announces
and adumbrates some (ultimate?) state of Plenitude. At the end of the road that
has been designated by Mioszs poetics of epiphany stands atheological postulate.
Let us now try again toformulate how Miosz modified the romantic poem of
amaturing mind. Above all we are struck by the circumstance that in the case of
Wordsworths poetry (understood as apars pro toto) moments of epiphany usually

42
46
43
44
Paulina, jej stancja za czeladn, zjednym oknem na sad,/ gdzie najlepsze

papierwki zbieram koo chlewu,/ wyciskajc duym palcem nogi ciep ma
gnojowiska,/ zdrugim oknem na studni (lubi zapuszcza wiadro/ Iposzy
mieszkajce tam zielone aby [W. t. 2, p. 320].
Nad jej surow twarz litewskiej chopki/ furczy wrzeciono kolibrw Ipaskie
zdeptane stopy/ spryskuje woda szafirowa, wktrej delfiny, zginaj karki,/ plsaj
[W, t. 2, p. 320].
Paulina umara dawno, ale jest./ Ijestem czemu przekonany, e nie tylko wmojej
wiadomoci [W. t. 2, p. 320].
45
Mj dom sekunda: wniej wiata pocztek [Wt. 2, p. 33].
47
focus on one place, towhich the author returns. Miosz, on the other hand, focuses
rather on one moment, in which two, or even more, places co-exist, overlap, and intertwine. These places are linked with the present and past of the poetical subject.
In the former case the world is diversified (represented in its multi-perspectivity)
by time, or perhaps rather by times passing. In the later poetry of Czesaw Miosz,
on the other hand, the diversifying element is space that consists, hardly surprising
for an exile, always of anumber of centers (Lithuania, America, Paris, Warsaw etc.),
and time the individual time of the subject is the integrating element. In other
words: space expands in so far as time, the time of an individual man, contracts
toone moment that ideally turns out tobe eternal, linking the totality of his experience in atemporal simultaneity. With regard tothese two types of poetry about (of)
memory we face an almost unavoidable conclusion. The concept of time has, since
the decline of Romanticism, essentially changed. What is the nature of this change?
It appears that modern poets do not believe in the possibility of repetition within
time. Would Miosz, while returning toLithuania, be assured that what he sees are
still the same trees, the same fields, the same manors, cots etc., and that they are
perceived by the same self? He would probably say, slightly modifying afragment
from Throughout our Lands: Between me and Lithuania (in the original pear),
equipages, countries (183). Immersing ourselves in the Heraclitean river, in the
waves of time, as commanded by the author of Dithyramb (Let us once again
immerse in times waves), we discover that we cannot repeat our-selves. When,
however, the illusion of linear temporality ceases to protect human identity, the
only remedy consists in juxtaposing the various elements by which it is constituted
(this explains the mature Mioszs preference for the device of collage). Each second
of particular existence (My house asecond: in it the worlds beginning45, On the
Song of aBird on the Banks of the Potomac) contains the whole of our existence,
its past, present and the promise of a future. The ultimate meaning of Mioszs
project of the existential autobiography pertains to a paradox: each individually
experienced moment lies always in the past, and therefore the eternal moment of
temporal simultaneity never passes.
Jan Boski
48
The Stubborn Persistence of the Baroque
And hardly surprising, too. Baroque is omnipresent in our country. So obvious,

in fact, that it is almost invisible. In Greater and Lesser Poland it overshadows other
styles, and not only in churches. Tothe east of the Vistula, the entirety of the perceptible past is baroque: older buildings are rarer and less visible. Though turbulent
and cruel, the 17th century was also aperiod when the eastern provinces reached their
cultural zenith, atime when Hosius efforts begun tobear fruit. Religion indeed commenced toshape the everyday life of local communities. It was around that time that
the gentry of all ranks, not solely the most affluent ones, started sending their boys
off toschools and adopted customs and ceremonies that were soon tobe identified
simply as Polish. The break of the 18th century, despite, or perhaps regardless, of its
political disasters, was also when the Polish language evolved and acquired features
that it still retains. This is how the concept of baroque became associated with the
idea of Polishness, and how ahistorical style became identified with anational
identity. Such identification itself is nothing irregular: the classical was for along
time identified with the French. What is rather more surprising is the fact that
many Poles, even our intellectual elite, remain unaware of this connection, whether
in our Christmas carols, our love of rhetoric, or the affinity for the theatricalization
of interpersonal relations. This is why, in order totruly understand the presence
of the baroque in the 20th century Polish literature (or culture), one must first fully
realize that the baroque is something deeply familiar tous, and something perceived
not in historical but rather in geographical terms.
The baroque is such acommon presence in Poland that it is almost anonymous.
As abare fact it is rarely problematized, neither provoking discussions, nor enforcing ideological choices. The baroque is omnipresent in Poland yet, paradoxi-
Boski The Stubborn Persistence of the Baroque
Based on the translation by Lillian Valee, slightly modified for the purpose of
this essay. Gombrowicz, Witold. Diaries. Volume 1. Northwestern University Press:
Evanston, IL. 92. (AW)
49
cally it rarely gave birth totimeless masterpieces, and when these were born, they
also tended to die swiftly, like Krzytopr, the most magnificent of palaces. The
Renaissance effortlessly produced mighty talents, such as that of Jan Kochanowski,
but the baroque seems tohave oddly lacked apowerhouse capable of phrasing its
problems in universal terms. Therefore, in order tobe understood today, they need
tobe modernized or reinterpreted by our contemporaries. The most spectacular of
such re-interpretations came from Gombrowicz: it identifies the Pole with the
baroque man or with the Sarmatian. Such identification, however, is not instantly
obvious, it has tobe reconstructed, or worked out.
At the end of his life, weary of the Western episteme, of all the Freudianisms,
scientisms, and structuralisms that dissolve the Self in doctrines and systems, Gombrowicz talks of his Diary as an attempt by aPolish bumpkin or perhaps acountry
gent toenter European cultureThis particular gentle manner was bred into me
and is something incredibly resistantso Iwalk around with athoughtful air and
without much interest, exactly as if Iwere anobleman walking in his orchard, there,
in the country side, and every once in awhile, trying this or that product (like apear
or aplum) Isay: Hm, hm, this is good but this one is too hard for meIwould describe myself as aPolish gent who has found his raison d'tre in the distrust of form.1
Gombrowicz searches for amethod that would allow him totransform and restage
himself tohis own liking but also tothe liking of others, preferably neighbors, in
other words, he sees personality as akind of game.
Hence there is the image of landed gentry (neither lesser nobility, nor aristocracy), someone freely ruling over fashions, customs and culture instead of yielding
tothem. An image with numerous literary antecedents as well, immediately bringing
tomind Potocki, who wrote as much for himself as for his neighbors, it brings tomind
Pasek and Rej, incessantly talking (writing) while walking around his lands. Hardly
anything could be more anachronistic than being aSarmatian but being one can
hardly be criticized once you have proven your thorough knowledge of Nietzsche and
Sartre! On the contrary, it helps in gaining aperspective also on the mighty sages.
The point is exactly that Icome from your rubbish heap...Now, when you look
out the window, you can see that atree has sprung up on that trash heap, atree that
is aparody of atree" (36).
Parody of atree is aobviously areference toTrans-Atlantic where Gombrowicz rewrites and distorts the scenes of Pan Tadeusz through abloated, grotesquely
elevated style reminiscent of the Sarmatian 17th and 18th centuries. At the same
time, he draws us into ahighly suspicious scheme that results in the triumph of
the sons-land over fatherland, a direction exactly the opposite to the one
Mickiewicz set out for.
It is not my task today totalk about Trans-Atlantic but Iwill say this: the author
is fully aware of akinship, or even acrossover between the characters. His familiar

nobleman in the orchard is a direct descendant of the Sarmatian gentry. It is
inferable from the style, an amalgam-speech combining the language of Pasek,
Rzewuski as well as Gombrowicz, allowing the writer tobe himself while wearing
acostume. His famous distrust of form is acontemporary version of the interplay
of truth and disguise, illusion and reality that the baroque was truly obsessed with.
Again, the baroque and Polishness prove strangely close toeach other: actually, the
same. If only Poles were not so much ashamed of their Sarmatian baroqueness (or
their baroque Sarmatism)! If only they could refrain from emulating the supposedly more mature ones, from losing themselves in systems and ideologies, and
remained, instead, who they are that is, gave in tothe writers ludic playfulness!
The rhetoric of Trans-Atlantic Not that Iask anyone tohave these old Noodles of mine, this Turnip (haply ever raw) (3)2 is instantly recognizable: it was
born of the panegyrical eloquence of the baroque. Its obvious abuse of hyperbole,
ostentatious exaggeration, is augmented by the brevity and directness of the image. Ajuxtaposition so artificial, and so grotesque, that it cannot be taken literally.
The reader immediately recognizes it as astylistic device, aword-play, and that is
precisely what allows the writer tosmuggle asubversive, even scandalous, message
in his work. The Sarmatian gent bowing emphatically tothe ground before the duke
signaled with the same kind of exaggeration that his discourse of tribute is also
merely aconvention or game, and that highly fluent in rhetoric and despite his
humble bows he sees himself equal tohis superior. And so, the baroque poetics of
illusion or appearance makes acomeback.
In Mioszs work the presence of the baroque heritage is more moderate, or
maybe simply less pronounced. One does hear direct echoes of 17th and 18th century poetry:
Beauty and kisses,
Fame and its prizes,
Who cares?
Doctors and lawyers,
Well-turned-out majors,
Six feet of earth.
Rings, furs, and lashes,
Glances at Masses,
Rest in peace.
Sweet twin breasts, good night.
Sleep through tothe light,
Without spiders. (216)3
50
After: Gombrowicz, Witold.Trans-Atlantyk. transl. Carolyn French and Nina Karsov.

New Haven: Yale University Press. 1994. 3. (A.W)
Unless indicated otherwise, all quotations from Milosz are based on the translations
published in New and Collected Poems: 1931 - 2001 (Ecco, 2003).(A.W.)

Then again, one can find everything, and even more, in Mioszs poems, and so
baroque, too, must be found in his work especially as re-imaging his homeland
he simply had no other way than torevisit baroque: was Vilnius not its capital?
This presence will be easier tounderstand once we think of Mioszs imagination and the potential he ascribes topoetry: especially from 1968 onward he never
ceases toinsist that he believes art, especially poetry, tobe an imitation, amimesis,
and takes it as gospel that the world exists independently fromthe speculation
of the mind and the play of imagination.
Mnemosyne mater musarum he repeats. Indeed, poetry is born of memory, but it
comes tolife through imagination which saturates the remembered details (image)
of reality with meaning. Miosz speaks of an eternal moment and wants imagination tointroduce spatial order tothe visible world. What does it mean, though,
tosaturate with meaning, tosignify? Probably tocategorize details into larger (or
higher) wholes (leading tothe maximum mobilization of contexts), but also toreveal
ahierarchy anchored in nature, revealing itself through symbols and rested upon
at the end of the day the mystery of God. By immobilizing and sanctifying space,
poetry replays and immortalizes being: this seems tobe the metaphysical sense of
salvation, aword that Miosz was so fond of, using it also in the moral, even in
the political sense.
There is nothing, at least at first glance, esoteric in his, if Imay say so, scandalously traditional poetics. It would not have been criticized by Fr. Sarbiewski, one
of the greatest masters of the 17th century lyric. He believes that ens et pulchrum
convertuntur: that beauty and being converge. It is the source of his admiration and
love of everything that has ever existed, even if only for an instant, everything that
he wishes tosave and nourish.
His poetry, however poetry, not poetics! abounds with contradiction and
unrest. Kochanowski saw aworld filled with Gods generous gifts and by worshipping the creation also worshipped the Creator but already ageneration later
this blessed balance was distorted. And our times, Mioszs times? The moments of
completeness or balance seem fleeting, impermanent: things, devoid of presence
or at least reliance on God, appear tobe devoid of being as well, losing corporeality,
materiality that brings such joy tosenses.
Being unravels, just as letters turn silver-pale and fade. All seems reduced
toavolatile particle play and disperses eventually, dissolving in the mathematicians
equation acontemporary equivalent of the ancient memento mori. But the torment
does not end there: contemplation of beauty (in other words, awe over beauty) may
as well be the source of its own damnation. Is loving creation enough toclaim loving
God? or, even worse, perhaps the poet needs God only tojustify or grace his own
aesthetic endeavors? How difficult it is today tonegotiate between the religious and
51
Out of trees, field stones, even lemons on the table,

Materiality escaped and their spectrum
Proved tobe avoid, ahaze on afilm. (328)

the aesthetic! In Mioszs work this difficulty becomes an important artistic theme.
His artistic condition, one he cannot discard, appears tohim increasingly suspicious.
He feels somehow distant, maybe even damned:
52
At acertain distance Ifollowed behind you, ashamed tocome closer (...)

Perhaps it is true that Iloved you secretly
But without strong hope tobe as close toyou as they are. (357)
The origins of the tear that Miosz alludes toare not unknown: it first appeared
in the baroque, spawning further questions and doubts. One could even say that
this tear is inseparable from the baroque. 17th century religious rule would seem
tohave encouraged clear and austere forms but it yielded, also in churches, toforms
incredibly rich and prolific. The baroque teems with ajoy of life, apossessive kind
of energy that was togive birth tomodern Europe Miosz himself admits toan
incredible voracity for things. He wishes for the memory and imagination tosave
and restage everything he has ever tasted and loved, as the writers of the baroque
especially in Poland who wanted tostore everything in their opulent catalogues.
But at the same time he cannot do without areligious sanction, sensing that the
world is full of evil and can be only saved by an Absolute Being. This is hardly
surprising, as the theological educational model implemented in Europe after the
Council of Trent, seems tohave survived the longest in that other Europe that
Miosz so much admires.
It suffices to read a few poems dedicated to Fr. Chomski to understand this
fully. Especially the first lyric, from 1934, reveals abaroque spectacle of salvation
and damnation aspectacle that for along time and through convoluted means
was associated by the critics with catastrophism, surrealism, or even romanticism. The baroques religious background (and baroque religiousness) sometimes
manifests itself directly in Mioszs work. When he speaks of salvation, damnation,
suffering etc. his imagination brings forth scenes, characters and images of the 17th
and 18th century, as in The Master where abaroque composer analyses the relation of music (i.e. art) and evil. Or in From the Rising of the Sun, where the
poet presents himself (or his doppleganger) as aCalvinist preacher. Finally, when
Miosz talks about himself, he talks about someone who has seen three centuries of
human fate: the 18th century, whose living presence he still sensed in Vilnius, had
yet tobecome enlightened.
Both our major writers reveal in their work athinly veiled presence of sensitivity patterns that were shaped by the 17th century and are marked by the baroque.
Importantly, those patterns, models and stereotypes still resurface in contemporary
Polish culture, including literature. Gombrowicz and Miosz interpret them individually, without (or rarely) referring tothe philosophy or literature of the baroque.
The baroque heritage, however, even if by other name, is deeply seated in their work
and they were both well aware of its presence.
It was put touse more openly though perhaps also more superficially by
younger artists, especially poets among whom Tadeusz Gajcy seems tohave been

the first. Gajcy was 20 years old when he was killed in the Warsaw Uprising. In his
writing, the baroque reveals itself mostly as an escape route, akind of disjointedness,
the chaos of aworld lived as adaily apocalypsean escape wonderful and terrifying at the same time. Adecade later Grochowiak became fascinated with baroques
eclecticism, abizarre union of the sublime and the ugly, the latter of which was
marked erotically. Bryll was shocked by the Sarmatian brusqueness, grotesque,
clumsiness, all of which terrified but also clearly tempted him, if only because they
seemed really ours, something really familiar.
This similarity of theme was sometimes also reflected by analogies in the poetics.
The 18th century, in Poland as well, was fully recognized the specific and ornamental character of the poetic language, astance represented also by the constructivist
avant-garde and the postconstructivists (gathered around the Zwrotnica magazine
in the 1920s), and the linguists of the 60s and 70s: already Tadeusz Peiper was
fascinated by Gngora. Perhaps then, one could explain abaroque understanding of poetry as aself-analysis performed by language, as it was seen by Balcerzan,
Karpowicz and young Baraczak.
The case of classicism, as it has been put forth since ca. 1965 by Rymkiewicz
and Ryszard Przybylski, is even more peculiar. Rymkiewicz believes that creative
powers do not rely on originality; on the contrary, they are born of repetition. His
own repeating assumes the possibility of reviving everything that we used toshare
at apoint in time: share as human beings (hence the references toJung and the archetype theory), and shared by heirs toaparticular culture (hence and following
from the Curtius model the emphasis on the persistence of the literary topoi and
after Eliot on the objective character of the poetic utterance). This is apeculiar
literary program indeed, and without adoubt, one very exciting intellectually. At
the same time, tospeak candidly, not really that classical after all, considering
the romantic ancestry of the archetype theory.
Perhaps then, we could speak of alatently-baroque program in his case? After
all, Rymkiewicz favors English metaphysical poets, as well as Polish representatives
of the early baroque, especially Naborowski. All of which leads me to a strange
conclusion, one that is definitely risky. Is it time toadmit, sadly, that we have lost
the ability tofully grasp, sense and identify with the writing of the classical periods? That we can no longer be persuaded by the great commandments of order,
appropriateness, harmony and moderation? And that our connection tothe classical
tradition is sustained if it is sustained at all through the baroque that, for those
who were born too late, opened agate, if not toArcadia itself then at least toaplace
nearby? Even if it is not so, Rymkiewicz and his contemporaries seem tobe saying
this precisely through their poetic work.
The baroque in Poland was strongly influenced by the Counter-Reformation

(orCatholic Reformation, especially in its Jesuit form). It retained, especially at
53

thevery beginning, close connections toRome: the Church of Saints Peter and Paul
in Cracow was built only afew years after the Church of the Ges in Rome. It was
this cultural proximity that sensitized it tothe growing complication of forms inherited from the Renaissance and embedded in the memory and imagination of artists
and poets. But Polish baroque also relied on the not so distant medieval tradition,
as well as the local ones, especially in eastern Poland where it slowly acquired its
increasingly Sarmatian features.
Those three characteristics of the baroque in Poland continue toreturn today,
subversively echoed and in adistorted manner: Gombrowicz winks at the reader,
pretending tobe aSarmatian, Mioszs work reaches back toits religious heritage,
while other writers and poets reestablish their connection tothe baroque through
affinity for conceit and linguistic sophistication.
54
Ryszard Nycz
Four poetics: Miosz and literary movements
Much has been written, and in much detail, on Mioszs attitude tothe literary
and cultural trends of his era, ones that shaped him as apoet and ones he shaped
himself, or brought back, or resurrected through his work. What has been written was by several major critics of his poetry, such as Boski, Fiut, Kwiatkowski,
apiski, Stala, and by Miosz himself. Todo it again seems inevitable, though,
and necessary, especially once we realize that each new work changes our understanding of the place and importance of all previous books, and that each shift in
the current state of knowledge and sensitivity determines the result of our analysis or, in other words, our overall idea of Mioszs published work. At the same
time, it is also an act that betrays and reveals the fragility or perhaps aparticular
character of the basis of the humanities, as we turn out toprophesize from the
outcome, shaping succession into causality, noticing what we had known before
toexist and what we expect tosee. Taking all this into account, also because it is
an important matter for the writer, Iwill restrict myself toasingle problem and
neither as the first nor the last ask about the place of the poet (the position he
takes and speaks from) and the role, or the understanding, of literature that this
position evokes or assumes.
Miosz appears tohave astrong sense of immersion in the world, as well as
astrong sense of the consequences resulting from this predilection which influenced him and the poetics condition, as well as the situation of the human being.
We are all tossed by elements independent of our will in this century, he observes
55
The place of the poet, the task of literature

(1997 35).1 Although Miosz sometimes emphasizes his skepticism toward the
majority of trends in the Western art and literature, and his solidarity with
those reluctant tothe spirit of the century (1990 9-10), admitting also his own
susceptibility toexternal influence (had I, as ayoung boy, been more immersed
in the Greek and Latin worksIwould have been better educated and less tossed
by the so called literary currents (1997 39)), his fundamental conviction one
which is also paradigmatic for contemporary literature is never questioned: The
century, he says, is largely untold. The same applies toour human lives. We are in
the power of forces which escape our words and our records (2006 79 emphasis R.N.).
But Mioszs approach toliterature and the world cannot be reduced toasingle
position uniting several sub-approaches through apersonal perspective. In other
words, Icannot reduce the trajectory of his work tofewer than four points of view
that determine four separate, at least tosome extent, types of poetics and functions
of literature.
Four poetics.
The earliest of these could be referred to, perhaps, as the poetics of visionary commonality. Miosz usually defines it through negation, as one opposed tothat of the
Skamander group on the one hand, and the Cracovian avant-garde on the other;
one that if we were todefine it with positive terms bears similarity the poetics
of Wayk and Czechowicz in Poland and Apollinaire and Eliot in the modern European tradition. It seeks spoken language (conversational and colloquial) instead of
autonomous poetics tradition or hermetic diction; puts metonymy above metaphor,
and vision above construction, asuperhuman metaphysical perspective above the
artists point of view or opinio communis; finally, adomination of dialogue of roles
and masks worn by adepersonalized subject over aunitary confession-monologue
of a(privileged) individual. Teatr pche ((Flea circus), 1932) is agood example of

56
Quotations from Mioszs work are referenced as follows: BL Beinecke Library

no 489, Czesaw Miosz Papers (the number indicates the year); Metafizyczna pauza,
Cracow 1995; Nz Nieobjta ziemia, Paris 1984; Prywatne obowizki, Olsztyn 1990;
Piesek przydrony, Cracow 1997; Wypisy zksig uytecznych, Krakw 1994; R. Berghash
Wywiad zCzesawem Mioszem, Ameryka, Winter 1989, s. 9396; ycie na wyspach,
Cracow 1997. Mioszs poems are quoted from Wiersze, t. 12, Cracow 1984; Kroniki,
Cracow 1988; Dalsze okolice, Cracow 1991; Na brzegu rzeki, Cracow 1994; To, Cracow
2000. (R.N.)
[Wherever possible Irefer tothe following English translations of Mioszs work:
New and Collected Poems: 1931 - 2001 (Ecco, 2003) referenced further as [page
number, CP], An Interview with Czesaw Miosz. Czesaw Miosz: Conversations.
(The University Press of Missisippi, 2006) referenced as [page number, Interview];,
Unattainable Earth (Ecco, 1987); referenced [page number, UE], Road-side Dog (Farrar
Straus and Giroux, 1999) referenced [page number, RD]). Where translations are
unavailable, Iretain original attribution tothe Polish sources and provide aworking
translation of the quoted passage. [(A.W])]
Nycz Four poetics: Miosz and literary movements

those strategies it is Mioszs take on the conversational poem, both colloquial
and visionary. Iwill quote two passages:
And in the evening
We would all look at aphotograph from
Abrother
In America.
He had acar and wore atie every day
How happy he must have been.
And when Itook up work at potassium mine (Mulhouse district) Isent
Home aphotograph of myself smiling next toaCitron
The Citron was in the picture, the Citron was in the picture,
()
People looked up
Their heads brushed suddenly against the convex sky
And saw their elongated shapes, as if in amirror
Alens, glued together from blue-tinted glass
And through it millions of eyes
Observing, admiring, looking at
The flea circus.
Referring tothis period of his writing Miosz says in 1943: Iwas in sway of two
kinds of fear the social fear and the metaphysical fear, expressing one through the
other. Talking about his new cycle, Voices of Poor People, he remarks:
Following my experience as a human being in this volume I turn away from the
metaphysical fear as it only spawns death and silence, and one is not always allowed
toyearn for these. If Isucceed in speaking in the voice of the poor, do not assume that
Iam simply apoor human being and that their voices are my own complaint, one that
Icannot rise above. Having been able toconjure these characters Iam happier than
they are, by enacting their sadness and madness Iprotect myself from both. Even when
Iseem tospeak in my own voice, there is amischievous kind of distance between the
speaking Iand me as ahuman being: Iam simply another voice overseen by the inquisitive mind. (BL, box 1 (1943))
For the generation of Iwaszkiewicz, Tuwim, Pasternak () naming the sensation was in
itself enough but it is not enough for us. If we want tocommunicate, if we want tomove
forward, jointly, combining the sensation and the idea, literary genres need tobe broken
until something liminal appears, in between the poem, the essay and the novel.
(BL, box 4 (l. 60) emphasis R. N.)
57
The second quotation is worth our attention, as it indicates asharp awareness of

new technique (as well as its anticipation in the work written adecade earlier)
and a turn to the core of the collective experience, consequently, to the new
means of poetics expression, characteristic of the second type poetics: that of
public discourse. Elsewhere, Miosz notes: poetry is connected tothe colloquial
language by a thousand of threads but perhaps it is connected even stronger
to the language of public discourse, of speeches, debates and press articles.
(BL, box 8 (1972)). He adds:

Summarizing this period of his writing, he notes elsewhere:
Ibegan tobelieve that ideal poetry allows for an unmitigated demand; Itold myself and
others that there was nothing, beginning with everyday matters and ending with the most
complex philosophical problems, nothing that could not be contained in apoem.
(BL, box 8 (1955))
From this assumption, the idea of poetry as consciousness of an era (BL, ibid.) begins
totake shape; poetry which turns away from its recent attempts at unearthing hidden
senses (historiosophic or metaphysical), and instead claiming the public discourse
as its broad territory toreveal the most important and the most poignant aspects of
the collective experience. It is assumed tobe addressed toawider audience (such
as asociety or nation) that it enters into adialogue with uncovering the actual
face of reality and the truth of the historical experience; it is poetry as atestimony
tomemory, one documenting the Zeitgeist (including ideological disputes, ethical
and philosophical attitudes, and social mentality).
The third type of poetics let us refer toit as the poetics of aparabolic autobiography
was born in the 50s and marks an abrupt turn towards own experience, environment,
tradition, and cultural genealogy. The sudden opening of the previously supressed
personal dimension was possibly aresult of the teachings and persuasion of Jeanne
Hersch that Miosz (which is meaningful in itself) begins totalk about only three
decades later and with such intensity that their importance cannot be doubted. It is
more than adiscovery of aperspective both personal and ethno- and anthropocentric,
in which personal events become aspecimen of universal fate. It is achance for
anew relation to(and asettlement with) ones past, and consequently, with the past
as such arelation that allows the past tobecome an accepted (or even affirmed)
part of ones identity, and at the same time atelling exemplum of human fate.
Im referring here tothree symptomatic remarks made in the 80s and 90s. In
Unattainable Earth:
It is adurable achievement of existential philosophy toremind us that we should not think
of our past as definitely settled, for we are not astone or atree. In other words, my past
changes every minute according tothe meaning given toit now, in this moment.
58
(1987 121)
On the following page Miosz comments on his philosophical remark and points
out its particular value tohis own biography at acertain stage: Jeanne (Hersch),
adisciple of Karl Jaspers, taught me the philosophy of freedom, which consists in
being aware that achoice made now, today, projects itself backward and changes
our past actions. That was the period of my harsh struggle against delectatio morosa
to which I have always been prone (1987 122). In late 1980s autobiographical
elements come tothe foreground while the need todescribe his interlocutor in
concrete terms wanes: There was atime in my life when Iwent through avery
difficult period of constant retrospective thinking about my shortcomings, my
sins and misdeeds in the past. Afriend of mine...said that our past is not static
form is a constant struggle against chaos and nothingness...we enter into a relationship with
the world primarily through language composed of words, or sign, or lines, or colors, or
shapes; we do not enter the world through adirect relationship. Our human nature consists of
everything being mediated; were are part of civilization; we are part of the human world.
59
and that it constantly changes according toour deeds at the present (2006 77).
Finally, in What ILearned from Jeanne Hersch from This, we read: in our lives
we should not succumb todespair because of our errors and our sins for the past
is never closed down and receives the meaning we give it by our subsequent acts (2003
712 emphasis R.N.).
Iperformed this little literary investigation tounderstand the mysterious
circumstances of Mioszs turn toward the third, mature poetics; to outline his
more general attitude tothe past as well as, perhaps more importantly, changes in
the ways of thinking about sense and the truth of the past(including the contemporary argument). The past may seem tous tobe determined in absolute terms,
something already closed and given, finished and unchangeable: we often remark:
Isaid what Isaid, what happened cannot unhappen. From this perspective, the
past is aheavy burden of deeds weighing on the future; aburden that irrevocably
determines or rather takes away the meaning and value from every present act.
Seen traditionally, the future is already contained in the past and consequently our
past sins, mistakes and misdeeds not only remain forever what they are (obviously) but also brand each future good did with their unredeemable mark. The
story of the individuals life (or the life of community) falls apart into aseries of
separate, chaotic, and consequently, cryptic episodes. And when planning for any
kind of future appears senseless, all that is left is delectatio morosa, afruitless
retrospect of the painful past.
Considering the above, to acknowledge (not only in the privately-individual
dimension but also in the universally-human one) that the past is open tothe future
since the sense and value of the past are determined by the present biography as
awhole, or by present history not only helps toovercome the trauma of the past
and toaccept oneself and ones history, but also encourages the planning of ones
actions. This is especially true for action understood as abasis for acontinuous exegesis and condition necessary for the continuous retelling of the tale of life through
which the narrative identity of the writer and the truth of his (and not his only) past
evolves, crystallizes, and transforms. This is at least how Iunderstand the motivation for the third turn in Mioszs life and work perhaps the most important one,
as it was also the most dramatic. This is also how Iexplain the easily recognizable
features of his creative strategy and the poetics of his work from the 1960s, 70s and,
tosome extent, 1980s. Miosz believes that this kind of poetry sides with mythos
(1997 122). It evokes, presents, and preserves in the language the experience of
human reality towhich it assigns form, meaning and place in the universal order
(mythical, religious, or one resulting from the philosophical fate in the essence
of reality). Mioszs general view in this respect does not differ much from the key
assumptions of modern literature.

Writing is a constant struggle, an attempt to translate as many delements of reality as
possible into form.
(2006 79 emphasis R. N.)
Thus, the reasons for the schism formulating among the modernists become even
more intriguing, aschism that Miosz observed with keen interest, and supported.
He usually listed Gombrowicz, and Beckett among his major antagonists but in
order tofully explain the essence of the argument, Iam going refer toawriter
almost completely absent from Mioszs work (perhaps due tothe cool determination of his approach), to J. L. Borges, who concludes his Maker with the
following image:
Aman sets out todraw the world. As the years go he peoples aspace with of provinces,
kingdoms, mountains, bays, ships, islands, fishes, rooms, instruments, starts, horses, and
individual. Ashort time before he dies he discovers that patient labyrinth of line traces
the lineaments of his own face.2
Borgess discovery (present, nota bene, already in Nietzches writing: However

far man may extend himself with knowledge, however objective he may appear
tohimself ultimately he reaps with him nothing but his own biography.)3 is met
with a retort from Miosz (formulated only three years after Borgesstatement):
Who can consent tosee in the mirror the mere face of man? (Rivers Grow Small
from 1963 (2003 198)). Another of his reflections sounds almost as adirect critique
of the declaration made by the Argentinian writer:
as the Self fell apart, the need toturn tothe object grows more understandableThis
intention results, however, in something opposite, as he who speaks, speaks of himself, his
tastes, phobias, books, acertain cultural tradition towhich we belong to, and the object
itself never appears, becoming an excuse for seemingly impersonal literature from which
the (historical) portrait of the author emerges. (1997 114)
60
The main reason for Mioszs critique and for his anti-modernist campaign is the
radical subjectivisation of cognition: contemporary tendency to undermine
reality of the world, the shift of emphasis tosubjective perception (as nothing else
supposedly exists) or totexts, as there is only that which man can spun from himself
this seems tome tobe the disease of the era (1995 246). Among several sources
and symptoms of the disease that Miosz meticulously diagnoses in his work, the
most common ones result from the reduction of reality tothat which remains in
the medium used by the subject toestablish contact with the world be it sensual
perception, laws of reason, or the quasi-ontological power of language.
We learned of the latter from the proclamations of avant-garde writers, sometimes as distinct from one another as Schulz and Przybo (the nameless does not
exist for us says the first, as if that which was not named, did not exist echoes the
other). Miosz appears tohave shared their view, seen as an expression of trust in the

2
3
J. L. Borges. Collected Fictions. Transl. by Andrew Hurley. Penguin Books, 1999. 327.
F. Nietzsche. Human, All-Too-Human. University of Nebrasca Press. 1984. 238.

language for instance, in Reading the Japanese Poet Issa: What is pronounced
strengthens iself./ What is not pronounced tends tononexistence (2003 348). He
would have objected, though, tothe questioning of inhuman reality mainly because of its impact on the esthetic, ethical and metaphysical needs of humankind.
Commenting on Nakowskas observation on the inhuman atrocities committed
by people unto people, he says: Here, in amoral protest against the order of the
world, in our asking ourselves where this scream of horror comes from the defense
of the peculiar place of man begins (1999 103). In Meaning:
if night and day
Make no sense following each other?
And on this earth there is nothing except this earth?
Even if that is so, there will remain
Aword wakened by lips that perish,
Atireless messenger who runs and runs
Through interstellar fields, through the revolving galaxies,
And calls out, protests, screams.
It is perhaps worth noticing that anthropocentrism and anthropomorphism of cognition are not only unquestioned here, but are also ascribed value. Here, the basic
function of literature is primarily anthropological: the task of poetry is toreveal
the truth of human nature and the human place in an inhuman world; a truth
which can be made permanent in the poetics form and which can only be learned
through apoetic language. Iput such heavy emphasis on this rather general aspect
of artistic (and humanist) activity, despite the fact that it seems tohave been something natural and matter-of-fact for the modernist thought, because Mioszs last
poetics doubts and questions precisely the validity of anthropomorphism. The last
direction in Mioszs literary endeavor could perhaps be described as apoetics of
meditation, especially considering the amount of exalted reflection in his later texts
but Iprefer touse different words here, words that will more precisely outline the
new poetics territory of Mioszs work. It is, putting it simply, apoetics of seeing
or rather showing the world, and tobe more precise (even at the risk of sounding
alittle odd), apoetics of inhuman indication.
All of this seems obvious on the one hand, mysterious on the other. Obvious if
we consider the subject matter of Mioszs last books, the epiphanic records and
meditations of the Road-side Dog and both ABCs, his books of revelations such
as Haiku or ABook of Luminous Things or, in particular This, Mioszs last book of
poetry. Mysterious, if we consider the consequence of this new direction. In an
intriguing commentary on the work of one of the most interesting personalities in
contemporary poetry, Miosz declares: Ponges poetry can serve as proof that we
cannot enter arelationship with what surrounds us be it inanimate matter or living creatures unless we submit it toconstant humanization. His expedition into the
inhuman is purely illusory (1997 113 emphasis R.N.).
61
(2003 569)
62

As aresult, not only the vast majority of modern poetry, but also alarge part of
Mioszs work would have tobe classified as illusory expeditions. After all, humanizing the inhuman was one of the key propositions of modernist aesthetics, seen as
an inevitable consequence of the anthropomorphic human methods of establishing
contact with the world. Nietzsche and Brzozowski teach us that man never knows
anything inhuman due tothe Midas touch of his organs of cognition which blur
the distinction between the condition (and the medium) of cognition and its results,
destroying the possibility of achieving knowledge that is certain and objective. The
form of poetic epiphany that Miosz preached and explored was certainly the forefront of such expeditions into the inhuman of artistic cognition. It is here that
the object not only maintains its past existence but often materializes for the first
time, formulating and crystallizing its otherwise inaccessible shape and way of being through the medium of the poem. But even this poetic form had tobe situated
within the boundaries of humanizing the inhuman, borders which the epiphanic art
moves rather than crosses becoming inasmuch aform of defense against the Other
(struggle against chaos and nothingness) as acrucial reply tothe cognitive, ontological, communicative and socio-cultural crisis that befell 20th century literature.
Clearly, in the light of Mioszs last poetics, all modern hopes to speak the
unspeakable and ceaseless attempts tofind new artistic ways tosnatch from things
amoment of seeing (The Separate Notebooks 2003 368 emphasis R.N.) must be
seen as heroic and praiseworthy in their intention but necessarily limited in their
results, perhaps even illusory, as exercises in high style (This 2003 663). This is
because Mioszs poetics rejects the consolation of the epiphanic making sense of
the experienced world and instead demands respect for the actual reality, even at the
cost of accepting its inhuman senselessness, irrepresentability, and its non-linguistic
nature. What is not pronounced tends tononexistence he professed not so long
ago; now he admits that which really exists, refuses tobe named (Drzewo). He
refers tohis own past experiences and mentions those who took it upon themselves
toexplore and determine our place in all that exists, and its sense or lack of it, not
through discourse but through means that are proper topoetry, evading the argument and instead pointing their finger at things: this is it (cf. 1994 8). The task of
poetry is and has been for Miosz from the very beginning toaffirm experienced
reality, in other words, awed admiration. Admiration of the density of things, density
of time, of oneself and others in time (BL, box 2, 19591960 emphasis R. N.);
even if it is increasingly the experience of afleeting world, one not exactly stable
and not exactly realasense that the world is without stable foundation (1995 247).
From this affirmation emerges another experience, one much more striking: that
of the inscrutable otherness of the inhuman world or of the world itself which
Ido not attempt toname (2003 663).
Here, on the other side of the modern thought and art, language renounces
its high function of representation and interpretation (that is, the function of
presenting and making sense) of reality. It becomes an indicator, atrace, an index,
an ostensive function which points not tothe aim (such as symbolic object of refer-

ence), nor tostructure (such as icon), but tobeing itself. Mainstream modernism in
poetry presented the unknown through the categories of the already known, placing
the inexpressible inside the world of socialized saying (touse Brzozowskis turn of
phrase), and thereby broadening its borders. Mioszs poetics of inhuman indication
begins with the recognition of the inability tothink that which is inhuman. This is
probably why its (poetic) language seems torely on demonstration and reflection,
like an index neither resembling its object nor representing it conceptually but,
as Peirces puts it, directing attention toit by blind compulsion.4 By adeliberate
suspension of knowledge, borders of the comprehensible and representable world
are highlighted and the presence of the indexical function becomes apparent. It is
poetry that not only shows the real world in its inhuman dimension (as something
beyond representation, non-interpretable, non-signifying or meaningless), but seems
toretain an actual relationship with this world.
Idontwant togo too far in my divagations. But if Lyotard5 was right, if only
that which is human can attempt tothink that which is inhuman (and see in it its
own beginning and end), in other word, if it is mans peculiar property tobe inhabited by and tolive surrounded by that which is inhuman, then asufficient task
for poetry (and amost difficult one) is not tomake permanent, build, or interpret,
not even topresent (as these are all secondary or illusory tasks), but topoint tothe
inhuman aspects of being on the most primary level of existential testimony.
Consequently, Mioszs expedition into the inhuman is no longer areformulated
passion for tracing unattainable reality with the help of traditional or modern ways
of poetics cognition. It is away of discovering that poetry itself can be the trace,
an ostensive definition of reality.
Be yourselves, things of this earth, be yourselves!
Dontrely on us, on our breath,
On the fancies of our treacherous and avid eye.
We long for you, for your essence,
For you tolast as you are in yourselves:
Pure, not looked at by anybody.
(2003 595)
Ashort conclusion
Ch. S. Peirce. Wybr pims semiotycznych,wybr H. Buczyska-Garewicz, Warszawa

1997. 108
J.-F. Lyotard The Inhuman: Reflections on Time, trans. G. Bennington and R. Bowlby,
Stanford 1991. 24.
63
Describing Mioszs four poetics, Iemphasized mostly those differences which

invalidate all attempts toreduce them toasingle, overarching artistic stance. This
does not mean that Iam blind totheir kinship, common motifs, and techniques,
nor tothe causality in the development, and tothe continuum of Mioszs poetics
endeavor as awhole. Miosz himself often emphasized and continues toempha-

size the wholeness of his work. One particular interpretative trace, though, seems
tosupport the distinction Ipropose. In Chronicles (Kroniki), he confesses that his
whole life seems to have been a quest beyond the word (O bezgraniczny).
And indeed, acontinuous quest beyond the (available) word determines the general
direction and the dominant idea of Mioszs work.
His first poetics that of visionary commonality could be described as an
attempt at finding the word for the previously nameless; at giving names tothe
yet unnamed, revealing the muted or marginalized aspects of everyday life and existential experience. The poetics of public discourse crosses the boundaries of the
traditional lyrical language, opening its domain toall types and genres of modern
writing (including literature poetry, novel, drama but also non-fiction, autobiography, essay), and tothe entire cultural universe of discourse in its all registers,
functionalities, and institutional varieties. In its cognitive attempts, a poetics of
parabolic autobiography moves beyond this wide universe of human speech, viewing
poetry (and literature) as atool of anthropological self-knowledge, aimed at grasping
the reality of the entire human experience Ibelieve that what Miosz discovers in
his private experience of the past can be identified as ashared property of human
reality. It is areality open tothe future by its very (human) nature, areality whose
permanence, order and meaning lie in aconstant process or representing, telling
and interpreting.
Mioszs last poetics that of inhuman indication (expeditions into the inhuman) ventures even further, going beyond the boundaries of human expression
while managing toavoid ascetic silence or wasteful babble. Toindicate the existence
of the inhuman is toindicate aworld which cannot be framed by human categories,
aworld that is without apast and future and can do without the human experience
of time, aworld inside us and around us; it means todiscover areality which we
are and in which we are. There is hardly anobler task for literature. Icannot shake
off the impression that the oldest Polish poet is at the same time the youngest one
in spirit; one that can sense slightest changes in the new spiritual currents, but also
takes upon himself the risk of new endeavor. It would be difficult todeny that he is
perhaps the only contemporary poet toinspire true awe for the artistic level and the
intellectual form of his own work and amuch greater challenge who managed
toinspire such authentic awe for poetry and for reality at the same time.
64
Marek Zaleski
Instead
It would seem that all human beings should fall into
each other's arms, crying out that they cannot live, but
no cry escapes from their throat and the one thing they
are more or less capable of doing is putting words on
paper or paint on canvas, knowing full well that so
called literature and art are instead of.1
Czesaw Miosz. Notatnik 196468.
1
2
Czesaw Miosz. ToBegin Where IAm. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. New York. 440.
Miosz. Orpheus and Eurydice. All further quotations from Orpheus and
Eurydice and Treatise on Theology come from Second Space: New Poems (Ecco,
2005). All other quotations from Mioszs poems come from: Miosz. New and
Collected Poems. (AW)
Ernst Cassirer. Essay on Man: An Introduction toAPhilosophy of Human Culture. Yale
University Press. 1962. 82.
65
1.
In the poem dedicated tothe memory of his dead wife, Orpheus obeys the prohibition of the gods of Hades.2 He does not look back and attempt totalk tohis beloved.
Despite his obedience, he loses Eurydice: the path emerging from the Underworld
is empty. While each departure from the original myth is significant, it does not
change the function of the myth itself. Each version of the myth remains amyth
anthropologists, theologians, philosophers, and historians have written much on its
function and meaning. What seems particularly important in Mioszs rendering of
the story, however, is adeep conviction accompanying the mythical idea of life that
Ernst Cassier describes as that fundamental feeling...of the solidarity of life that
bridges over the multiplicity and variety of its single forms (82).3 Cassirer identifies
it with the feeling of indestructible unity of life, one so strong that it eclipses all

those differences that, from our own point of view, seem tobe unmistakable and
ineffaceable. More so, he adds, it is asense so strong and unshakable as todeny
and defy the fact of death. Mythical thought in its entirety, he concludes, can be
interpreted as an emphatic denial of the very possibility of death (83-4).4
In Mioszs tale, this mythical sense of solidarity of life is not as much questioned
or doubted, as it is brought into view and revealed as a compensational activity
performed through mythical repetition and is eventually futile. The hope of victory
hidden in the layers of the mythical tale is vain. Miosz appears tobe suggesting,
after Nietzsche, that what the tale (that is poetry, philosophy) gives us is an illusion:
man invented art in order tobe able tobear the burden of truth that is unbearable.
What is, thus, the essence of inversion performed by the author of Orpheus
and Eurydice? Mioszs Orpheus resists the temptation tolook at his love-object
and obeys the command of the Underworld deities. What is the meaning of the forbidden gaze and of his obedience? The deeper we reach into the history of poetry,
the more ambiguous the answer becomes: in the 20th century, the myth has become
aphilosophical parable, Orpheus himself the eponym of the poet and the epitome
of the adventure of poetry.5
His disobedience is asign of hubris, in other words, alack of moderation and
respect one owes togods. Orpheus, however, is more than amere mortal, he is afforded the status of ademigod: his incantations have the power of creation, the power
tointervene in the order of nature and things an ability proper tosupernatural
beings. In the Orphic literary tradition, he is an archetypal poet and priest from the
very beginning sacer interpresque deorum, as Horace designated him (Strauss 2).6
Orpheuss speech is endowed with awondrous gift: Nothing can resist its force.
Carmina vel coelo possunt deducere lunam songs even by the moon can be dragged
down from heavens (Cassirer 110).7
His dual, liminal condition of being both human and divine subverts completely
the order that has been set as natural, making him afigure of that which paradoxically situates him beyond good and evil, both elevating him and being the source of
his misfortune. Orpheuss actions are an act of transgression, as Lvinas observes in
his essay on Blanchots Orphic study,8 an attempt toenter the space of Mystery, the

4
5

8

6
66
Cassirer, 83-84.
In Descent and Return. The Orphic Theme in Modern Literature (Harvard University
Press, CambridgeMassachusetss 1971) W.A. Strauss remarks on how in
postmodernity the Orphic myth began tofunction as an interpretative metatext,
amyth analyzing the myth (2). In The Orphic Moment. Shaman toPoet- thinker in Plato,
Nietzsche & Mallarm (State University of New York Press 1994) Robert McGahey
(after Elizabeth Sewell) similarly reflects on contemporary Orphic poetry as poetry
thinking itself. (xvi)
Strauss, Descent. 2.
Cassirer, Essay. 110.
Emanuel Levinas. Spojrzenie poety (Le Regard du Pote) transl. M.P. Markowski,
Literatura na swiecie 1996 no. 10. 71 (All further references toLevinas are based on
the Polish translations of his essay AW)
Zaleski Instead
10
11
12
Paul de Man Blindness and Insight, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1983.
256.
Maurice Blanchot. The Gaze of Orpheus. The Space of Literature. University of
Nebraska Press, 1982.
See also: A. Krokiewicz Studia orfickie. (Orphic Studies) Biblioteka Meandra.
Warsaw, 1947, p. 41 and elsewhere, and R. McGahey The Orphic Momement, xviii and
elsewhere.
McGahey, xvi-xvii and 119-121.
67
matrix of being toquote Paul de Man following Heideggers exegeses of Hlderlin as

Orphic poet aspace where he not only speaks of Being, but says Being itself (256).9
Orpheuss actions seem condemnable: they are atransgression violating the order
of the realm of death, an attempt tobring back tolife that which has already died
and has been irreversibly torn from the order of human temporality. The border
between the world of the dead and the world of the living is also clearly demarcated
in Mioszs poem. Orpheus is not allowed tospeak, nor tolook at Eurydice in the
realm of the dead. Language seems tobelong tothe same order as the forbidden gaze.
It seems tobe an action that has the same purpose. Name giving is an imitation of
divine creation: in another poem Miosz reflects What is pronounced strengthens
itself./ What is not pronounced tends tononexistence (2003 350). Language is thus
something positive, although less powerful, than the gaze in its power toreach the
object of adoration. One must ask: what is meaning of the gaze here and what is the
obedience of the prohibition?
Both questions will be easier toanswer set against the analysis of Orpheuss gesture performed by Maurice Blanchot, Mioszs contemporary and awriter perfectly
opposite toMiosz. In Blanchots analysis of the Orphic myth, literature is viewed
as an enterprise aiming toreclaim that which has been lost.10 Orpheus looks back
and loses Eurydice: his gaze is supposed to confirm the existence of his beloved
but instead, it kills her for a second time. Orpheuss gaze annihilates, destroys,
makes absent. The myth is, thus, an allegory of the failure of poetry in its attempts
to recover that which has been lost. Orpheuss descent underground symbolizes
the attempts of the poet descending into the space that Blanchot calls the Night. In
Orphic mythology, it is the space of death but also of primordial chaos from which
the worlds of gods and humans emerge. It is presided over by Nyx, believed tobe
the mother of gods.11 For the Romantics, for instance for Novalis, night is aspace of
mystery and asource of art accessible through dreams or madness seen as the night
of the mind. In Mallarms Orphic mythology, night is an energy field of language,
amatrix of being (in Heideggers sense) consequently, it is aspace in which being
reveals itself but also akingdom of death and nothingness (that Mallarm adores
and calls his Beatrice12). In Blanchots essay, Eurydice is also referred toas the
Night, personifying the hidden sense and inspiration, the space of mystery that
the artist wishes toaccess. One could thus risk aproposition that for the modernist poets the gaze of Orpheus is ametaphor of alook into the mysterious matrix
of meaning: it is what looking directly into Gods face is for the biblical tradition,
alook into the face of mystery.

In Blanchots essay The Gaze, Eurydice is both alost wife and asymbol of art.
Eurydice is the furthest that art can reach. Under aname that hides her and aveil
that covers her, she is the profoundly obscure point toward which art and desire,
death and night, seem totend. She is the instant when the essence of night approaches
as the other night. (171) Blanchots methaphors are challenging tointerpret. They
are, as Lvinas remarks, an attempt tomove towards expressing the inexpressible,
toaddress the negativity of presentation (74-5).13 The understanding of otherness
as the eternal streaming of the outside, as something free of the mediation of our
cognition, assumes the possibility of presentation free from the trap of objectification.
Stamelman points out that Blanchots reasoning is sustained by a paradox
where separation is aform of bond, where distance is closeness and where absence
is presence.14 But Orpheus himself is aparadox, too, agap, border and bridge says
McGahey in his reconstructions of the Orphic tradition in mythology and poetry. As
an intermediary between gods and people, Orpheus is also an intermediary between
the manic Dionysus and the mantic Apollo, between the free will and the subordination tothe power of daimonion, between the doric and the phrygian order, brought
back by Nietzsche at the end of the 19th century. He unites other contradictions
as well: one between the human and the animalistic, the spiritual and the carnal.
This contradictory condition, notes McGahey, is characteristic of shamans leading
the rites that gave birth tothe Greek tragedy: the shaman's incantation (epoidos)
becomes the tragedian's oima, which teaches the tribe later the polis how tomove
among conflicting demands in an existence that is basically tragic (xv).15 McGahey
believes that the contradictory condition of the shaman reveals itself in Orpheuss
subsequent incarnations: we can find it in the legend of Orpheus on the Argos, in
Empedocles and Heraclitus, in Plato who was aphilosopher and an Orphic poet
despite himself, and in Mallarm, apoetthinker, magician and alchemist, father
of poetic modernity.
Blanchots reasoning goes even further. In order tofully grasp its logic one needs
toreconstruct his views on the essence of the literary presentation, on the possibility
and task of literature. The author of LEspace littraire grounds his view in the belief
that the necessity topresent reality derives from the constant awareness of loss. For
Blanchot, writing itself is kindred tothe ultimate form of loss death. Thus, death,
or nothingness, becomes literatures hermeneutic circle. Writing has its origin in the
sense of loss but also, paradoxically, fulfills itself positively in negativity. Writing
fulfills itself in the conviction of inexpressability, in the constatation of failure that
each attempt at literary representation ends up tobe, mirroring the ultimate failure
of the attempt tocommunicate the reality of death. Blanchots formulation is even
stronger. He assume that death is not something given tous but something assigned
and, as it was toHeidegger, it is the telos of the human being: each Dasain is its own

13
68
14
15
Levinas. 74-5.
Richard Stalmelman, Lost Beyond Telling. Representation of Death and Absence in Modern
French Poetry, Cornell University Press, 1990.
R. McGahey, xv.
Zaleski Instead
tombstone one should live in away that it allows one toengrave aworthy epitaph
on it. Blanchot also believes death tobe the telos of the literary text, or aspace in
which each act of writing inevitably fulfills itself or, more importantly, completes
itself. The writer is nothingness at work, and death and nothingness are the hope of
language, he says in his 1947 essay titled Literature as the Right toDeath (336).16
Writing is an experience of the wondrous power of negativity in his metaphysic, it
is death that is afigure of possibility and of the possible. Writing alas! language
itself appears instead of reality, taking place of that which fundamentally no longer
is: if reality, despite seeming obvious, was not aproblematic presence, language and
literature would be unnecessary. Writing is founded on the sense of lack of access
toreality, it articulates absence the fullest expression of which is death. Writing is
thus an embodiment of nothingness, even if secondary tothe original and constituting its poor imitation an embodiment of nothingness still. And it has, as death
does, the power of negativity, it destroys what it represents.
Language is reassuring and disquieting at the same time...Isay, "This woman," and she is
immediately available tome, Ipush her away, Ibring her close, she is everything Iwant
her tobe, she becomes the place in which the most surprising sort of transformations occur
and actions unfold. We cannot do anything with an object that has no name...Isay This
woman. Hlderlin, Mallarm, and all poets whose theme is the essence of poetry have felt
that the act of naming is disquieting and marvellous. Aword may give me its meaning,
but first it suppresses it. For me tobe able tosay, This woman, Imust somehow take her
fleshandblood reality away from her, cause her tobe absent, annihilate her. The word
gives me the being, but it gives it tome deprived of being. The word is the absence of that
being, its nothingness, what is left of it when it has lost being the very fact that it does
not exist. Considered in this light, speaking is acurious thing. (322)17
Thus, language appears instead of what is. Not only does it deprive things of their
ontological reality, it also cannot retrieve the meaning of that which has been lost
in the well of the past. It has no power torecover what it has made the object of its
presentation by turning into an image or ametaphor. It builds constructions that
supposedly refer toreality, puts itself instead of it and replaces the other presence,
pushing it away into nonexistence. Talking about things and naming things equals
wiping away, destroying the object of the utterance.
16
17
18
Blanchot. "Literature and the Right toDeath." The Work of Fire. Stanford University
Press, 1995. 336
Ibid. 322.
Blanchot. The Infinite Conversation. University of Minnesota Press. 1992.36
69
And, certainly, when Ispeak, Irecognize very well that there is speech only becasue what
"is" has disappeared in what names it, struck with death so as tobecome the reality of the
name...Something was there that there is no longer. How can Ifind it again, how can I, in
my speech, recapture this prior presence that Imust exclude in order tospeak? In order
tospeak it? And here we will evoke the eternal torment of our language when its longing
turns back toward what it always misses, through the necessity under which it labors of
being the lack of what it would say. (36)18

Stamelman says that Blanchot wants tostay true tothis absence. Words denote
not things but absence of things and this is why language assumes loss. This is why,
if it wants toexpress absence that it signifies, it must turn tosilence and lack itself
(39).19 Writing is an act of furnishing the void, an act of disappearing. Aparadoxical
act, as it assumes negative fulfillment as its positive goal: it is meant tosay nothing,
express nothingness, articulate lack or absence, fulfill itself as an act of nonrepresentation, and all that means giving up on its figurativeness.
Language, thus, according toBlanchot, is characterized by atricky ambivalence:
apower toannihilate and an illusion of bringing back. What appears in language,
appears in it instead of reality. The word appears instead of the thing but the property that allows it tofunction instead, tocreate distance between the thing and its
linguistic representation at the same time proves the existence of arelation between
them. By making the thing absent, the word gives it meaning that can only be given
toit by language. Something disappears from reality in order toappear in the text.
Writing brings literature to life but pushes the world into nothingness because:
language can begin only with the void; no fullness, no certainty can ever speak...
Negation is tied tolanguage (324).20
Seen in this light also the speaking subject is subjected tonegative transgression and alienation: it exists in separation from the real self, leading an alternate,
shadow existence in the text. Situating itself in the text, it becomes its own other.
The individual subject entrusts its existence tothe impersonality of the language.
Blanchots ontology of writing and literature found its continuation in the work of
Roland Barthes: toknow that writing compensates for nothing, sublimates nothing,
that it is precisely there where you are not, 21 says Barthes in ALovers Discourse:
Fragments. For Blanchot, language does not articulate feelings, it does not express
the personality of the writer, it does not represent his world: rather, it is an extension of the void into which the speaking I turns itself. It erases the subject from
the text throwing it at the mercy of the linguistic self, of impersonal meanings that
constitute themselves in word play. Elsewhere Barthes speaks of language as aroom
where all doors are locked, one cannot enter the language nor leave it. For Blanchot,
it is an ontological threshold: the doors of language leading toexistence also lead
into the void. Language is thus founded on the sense of loss.
2.
Mioszs thought is diametrically different from Blanchots, even though, as
amodern poet, he shares with the author of LEspace littraire the awareness of the

21

19
70
20
Stamelman, 39.
Blanchot, "Literature and the Right toDeath." 324.
Roland Barthes. ALovers Discourse: Fragments. Hill and Wang, 2010. 100. Earlier
he notes: Someone would have toteach me that one cannot write without burying
sincerity (that is, usurping the hope toaccess reality MZ) and adds: always the
Orpheus myth: not toturn back.
Zaleski Instead
ontological break between language and reality. Miosz, however, draws drastically
different conclusions, and consequently, builds adifferent mythology of literature.
Towrite that Miosz removes himself from the Orphic mysticism that found its home
in the modern poetry would not be enough: the author of City Without aName, is
reluctant, even hostile toit: at the World Poetry Conference (1967) he spoke of poetry
as energy and of the mysterious complicity between energy, movement, mind, life,
and health, insisting that poems whether optimistic or pessimistic are always
written against death (346).22 From Three Winters onward, he always situates his
poetry on the side of life, light, and movement, fervently praising existence. His idea
of literature is thus directly the opposite of Blanchots vision marked by negativity.
If Blanchot sees transgression taking place on paper tobe the goal and nourishment
of literature: from existence to nonexistence, Miosz argues the contrary, as that
which is not pronounced, tends tononexistence.
He declares himself tobe apoet of is in all senses of the word, from the
physical tothe metaphysical one, always siding with what is referred totoday as the
metaphysics of presence. This is what happens also in his Orphic poem. Orpheus
attempts tosway Persephone and the gods of Underworld by singing the beauty of the
world, and perceives his affirmation of being and existence as his poetic achievement.
He sang the brightness of mornings and green rivers,
He sang of smoking water in the rosecolored daybreaks,
Of colors: cinnabar, carmine, burnt sienna, blue,
Of the delight of swimming in the sea under marble cliffs,
Of feasting on aterrace above the tumult of afishing port,
Of tastes of wine, olive oil, almonds, mustard, salt.
Of the flight of the swallow, the falcon,
Of adignified flock of pelicans above the bay,
Of the scent of an armful of lilacs in summer rain,
Of his having composed his words always against death
And of having made no rhyme in praise of nothingness. (2005 100)
22
23
Miosz at Rencontre Mondiale de posie (World Poetry Conference), Montreal,

September 1967. In: Zaczynajc od moich ulic. Paris, 1985. 346.
Krokiewicz, 23 and 35-36.
71
In Mioszs poem, Orpheuss song reverberates against its traditional readings. Beginning with Virgil and Ovid, Orpheuss song is atale of pain after loss, alament
after the dead beloved, alovers complaint against the cruelty of fate and an attempt
toenchant it through amournful incantation. When Orpheus sings one could think
that the world of grief arose, as Rilke tells us. This time, however, Orpheuss song
praises life and its wonders. It remains in discord with the poetic tradition but not
necessarily with Orphic mythology. Yearning after death found in the archaic Orphic literature and echoing the Minoan metaphysics, is adjacent toapraise of life
clearly present in the later Orphic hymns from the 3rd century and in the writing
of Neoplatonists who viewed Orphism as asource of their philosophy.23

Mioszs praise of love is Orphic as well. From the Orphics to Plato and his
doctrine of Eros, love was seen not only as a fulfillment of an erotic desire, and
amanifestation of sexuality, but also as aunity of souls whose emotional wisdom
is more perfect than the purely intellectual and egoistical individual wisdom. It is
love that allows man totransform from acripple, an alienated piece of reality, into
awhole created with another man, more perfect than each of them is separately, it
is love that creates asense of fundamental connection tothe rest of the universe,
asense of entering the path totrue happiness and freedom as man throws away the
yoke of individual poverty and enriches his own self with the other self that is gifted
tohim (59).24 This is the understanding of love in Mioszs Orpheus and Eurydice.
He remembered her words: You are agood man.
He did not quite believe it. Lyric poets
Usually have as he knew cold hearts.
It is like amedical condition. Perfection in art
Is given in exchange for such an affliction.
Only her love warmed him, humanized him.
When he was with her, he thought differently about himself.
He could not fail her now, when she was dead. (2005 99)
The Orphic and Neoplatonic elements of the tradition that Miosz embraced studying
the writings of gnostics, Fathers of the Church, and exegetes of Scripture, resound in
his poem but not only there. And those pointed out so far are by no means acomplete
list. In fact, all of the important Orphic idea echo through Mioszs writing. The idea
of connection between the whole and the multiple is one of the key assumptions of
Orphism: the Orphics believed that multiplicity emerges from the whole but also
returns toit and therefore all things are one. This is symbolized by Zagreus-Dionysus,
torn to pieces by Titans and reborn from the heart, representing a whole forced
against its will toturn into multiplicity and later returning tothe original state.
Zagreus exists doubly after being torn apart and burnt toashes by the Titans, first as one
person, Dionysus, born from his heart, and second, as the multiplicity of all human souls
(symbolized by the innumerable particles of ash) that has tobe purified of the murderous
Titanic impulses and therefore enter various human, animal and plant bodies until they
reach the salvation of apotheosis or are condemned toeterernal punishment in Tartarus:
For before now Ihave been at some time boy and girl, bush, bird, and amute fish in the
sea writes Empedocles. (50, 81)25
72
Vision of the world as agreat cosmic transformation found Mioszs early volume, Three
Winters, is complemented by the concept of apokatasthasis (the idea of reconstitution
or restitution of the lost original condition, and eventually of unity) present in his
writing from the 70s onwards. Correspondingly, the idea of the pilgrimage of souls is
reflected in the imaginary and phantasmagoric stagings of the speaking voices and in

24
25
Ibidem 59.
Krokiewicz, 50 and 81.
Zaleski Instead
the desire for multiple incarnations: Iwould be everything/ Perhaps even abutterfly
of athrush, by magic (2003 164). Iwas wearing plumes, silks, ruffles and armor/
Women's dresses, Iwas licking the rouge./ Iwas hovering at each flower from the day of
creation/ Iknocked on the closed doors of the beaver's halls and the mole's (2003 193).
Similar observations can be made regarding Mioszs concept of life after death
and immortality. Here, however, poetic Orphic mythology seems to function in
avery particular manner: no longer belonging tothe private museum of images it
becomes something more than element of living tradition. It acquires areligious
dimension but importantly in his other poems, not in Orpheus and Eurydice!
In Orpheus and Eurydice it is distorted, negated, and abandoned, which only adds
tothe poems importance and places it among those works that reveal choices and
decisions fundamental toMiosz and his philosophy of literature. Its exceptional
character is thus of fundamental importance also tous. How are we tounderstand
the will tocontinue and the act of rebellion?
In the Orphic belief, those chosen by gods, following the life on earth and the
release from the cycle of eternal lives, will live on the fortunate islands experiencing eternal bliss. For them, life after death will be acontinuation of earthly life but
without its suffering and afflictions. The conviction that the other world is same as
this one (same is tobe understood as an affirmation of lifes beauty and sweetness otherwise one should probably doubt the idea of divine goodness and love of
creation) returns often in Mioszs writing. Ancient Greeks, however, had adifferent
eschatological vision: in Homer, souls of the dead lead an insufferably empty and
artificial existence of quite unnecessary underworld shadows and their immortal
soul is that part of man which is worse and inferior tothe mortal body (78, 56).26
As such, to use Krokiewiczs formulation, hopelessly gray eschatology appears
also in Mioszs poem; earlier, in On Parting with My Wife, Janina and Treatise
on Theology, we will find doubt about the idea of resurrection and immortality of
the soul. One cannot, however, ascribe atheism tothe gray eschatology of Mioszs
poem: despair resulting from the thought that the Orphic-Christian longing may be
nothing more than agreat illusion is anegative proof of the existence of the object
of faith. It is precisely its impossible presence that becomes the only true reality in
Orpheus and Eurydice.
Under his faith adoubt sprang up
And entwined him like cold bindweed.
Unable toweep, he wept at the loss
Of the human hope for the resurrection of the dead,
Because he was, now, like every other mortal.
His lyre was silent, yet he dreamed, defenseless.
He knew he must have faith and he could not have faith. (2005 101)
26
Krokiewicz, 78 and 56.
73
Miosz puts at stake something that lies at the very center of his philosophical anthropology, something that for many years has been the cornerstone of his poetic

construction. For decades it relied on Pascals conviction that faith is mankinds
inherent necessity, anecessity of the source of sense. Pascals metaphysical wager
was an act of mind agreeing toan act of faith: faith that the world, as Descartes
deduced earlier, is constituted in the gaze of God. It is what guarantees its continuation and our sense of reality. Therefore, tolook means togive sense and toconfirm
existence. This very question returns in Mioszs work in several forms. He considers
it in Treatise on Theology:
Why theology? Because the first must be first.
And first is anotion of truth. It is poetry, precisely,
With its behavior of abird thrashing against the transparency
Of awindowpane that testifies tothe fact
That we dontknow how tolive in aphantasmagoria.
Let reality return toour speech.
That is, meaning. Impossible without an absolute point of reference. (2005 47)
74
It is an omnipresent assumption in Mioszs writing. If Blanchot believes literary

work tobe guaranteed by the inexpressible nothing in the streaming of speech
external tothe subject, Miosz sees it as guaranteed by (divine) Presence. His philosophical conservatism does not make him anachronistic. Seemingly oldfashioned in
his attitudes, Miosz nonetheless finds himself at the center of the debate about the
possibilities of language as amedium topresent reality: Taylor, for instance, writes
about religiously motivated gaze (in other words, the instance of mimesis necessary
for the poet and replicating Gods constitutive and confirming gaze) as acondition
for a20th century epiphany.27
Miosz believes that poetic seeing has afounding power: linguistic representations and metaphors have energy that strengthens things in their existence, captures
them and saves that which is. But is language also capable of expressing death and
absence? It is capable of so much after all: in its potentiality, unveiling the chance
todefine its ontological status, it allows us totouch that which our intelligence cannot embrace. In Treatise on Theology we read: There is only our ecstatic dance,
adiminutive part of agreat totality (2005 59).
This vibrating great totality, the potentiality that is the matrix of being, embodied
by the Orphic Nyx/ Night, does not find its apotheosis in Miosz the same way it did
in Mallarm. It is not viewed as seductive nothingness, singing mystery, beckoning
abyss. But both from the perspective outlined in Orpheus and Eurydice, and for
Miosz himself, the words of Treatise about the farewell tothe decadence/ Into
which the language of poetry in my age has fallen reveal themselves not tobe the
lastCan its teaching be that there is nothing else on the other side? The barrier
between here and there is insurmountable. Poetic journeys tohell are futile,
there is no reason tolook into the abyss in the hope of bringing back that which has
been lost. When we find ourselves on the threshold, in the state of loss, when as

27
Charles Taylor. rda podmiotowoci, Warsaw, 2001. 824 and elsewhere.
Zaleski Instead
Mioszs Orpheus we find ourselves Nowhere, the words from this side, words
that ensure the worlds creation and confirm its existence, lose their magical power
and our faith reveals itself as an illusion, aconsolation that may bring relief here
but is powerless there.
Because he was, now, like every other mortal./
His lyre was silent, yet he dreamed, defenseless (2005 101).
On the other hand, mythologies are futile. They all originate Miosz evades the
question about the transcendental source of sense as something incomprehensible
tous from this world (83).28 Miosz never doubts the primacy of what is above
that which is only the object of our longing, even of our religious longing. He has
already denounced Orpheuss gaze before. It was not easy: his fascination with
Robinson Jeffers, a supremely Orphic poet, despite the fact that Miosz did not
focus on the Orphic element in the work of the Californian poet, left permanent
marks on his own poetry. His adventure with Jefferss poems forced him toaddress
his own questions as well.
He was not indifferent tothe Orphic element in Jeffers, especially tothe pursuit
of the pantheistically defined unity, although as Ihave mentioned he spoke about
it without referencing Orphism. In the conclusion of his essay on Jeffers he remarks:
It should be clear at this point that Iam viewing poetry as an appendage of religion (an
exact opposite of poetry seen as religion), religion in the broad sense (regardless whether
it is derived from religare, tobind), but the desired unity can be theistic or atheistic. The
muscles and nerves of the mind shine through the word religion and it is thus better
than Weltanschaung. Poetry that avoids the participation in the basic human unifying
attempt, turns into trifle and dies. However, this is not Jefferss poetry and Iapproach it
with due seriousness. (259)29

30

28
29
Miosz Metafizyczna pauza. (Metaphysical Pause) 83.

Miosz, Ogrd nauk. 259.
E. Sewell, The Orphic Voice, New Haven, Yale University Press 1960. 58. Compare:
W. Shakespeare. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Act III. Scene 2.
75
Speaking of the Orphic elements, one more parallel should not escape our attention as it testifies tothe kinship of the linguistic imagination of the modern poet
and the archaic mythology. Miosz says that poetry is servant toreligion and that
muscles and nerves of the mind shine through the word religion. The frequent presence of carnal tropes in Mioszs thinking is not neutral in the Orphic
context. Orpheus mediates in himself the human and the animalistic but his lyre,
too, unites two opposite orders: that of nature and culture. Producing the song, it
produces metaphors of the primordial next tothe metaphors of harmony and order.
Elizabeth Sewell points toBacons commentary in De Sapientia Veterum on Orpheuss
history as ametaphor of philosophy that he himself personifies, and toasentence
from Shakespeare about the strings of Orpheuss lute strung with poets' sinews
(III.2).30 Orpheuss body is his instrument and he himself (and his history) is the

embodiment (epitome) of philosophy. Miosz never doubted the connection between
poetry and philosophy. He often declared himself tobe, for instance in the poem In
Milan, apoet of the five senses (2003 170). He spoke intriguingly of future poetry
in which the rhythm of the body will be in it, heartbeat, pulse, sweating, menstrual
flow, the gluiness of sperm, the squatting position at urinating, the movements of
the intestines, together with the sublime needs of the spirit, and our duality will
find its form in it, without renouncing one zone or the other (33).31 Elsewhere he
writes about the need tostart with the body as the pantheistic view of God that
he finds himself embracing identifies God with the rhythm of blood, finds him
in the gut, muscle, in tasting oneself that is like acat stretching (84).32
But the desired unity of mind/soul and body is aspace of mystery and paradox,
an aporia, aspace of incongruence and tensions disintegrating it from the inside
as is the space of the mythical tale, coincidentia oppositorum of Nicholas of Cusa,
Hegelian Aufhebung and the space of aMallarman text, an associative volatiliy of
language, vibration of sense, constant oscillation and dissemination of meanings. As
is the Orphic moment, encounter with the Night. This unity is constantly exposed
and vulnerable tothe necessary tearing apart, like Orpheuss body.
The poet cannot feed on this time of the world
Until he has torn it topieces,

and himself also
says Jeffers, whom Miosz translated.33 The mythical tale of the world, told by the
body of the teller, like Orpheuss tale (Orphic legends recount that long after the
poets death his head continued tospeak prophesies) heals in the centuries of poetic
language, in the language of tropes among which metaphor is the most crucial as
afigure of identity and identicalness of different elements.
This longing for unity that Miosz shares with Jeffers did not erase his objections tothe metaphysics of the American poet. Our humanity is like acathedral
suspended in an abyss, filled with the anguish of transient organisms passing
without atrace (87).34 But without our gaze the other, the abyss, though real, does
not exist, devoid of meaning. In APhilosophers Home Miosz declares esse est
percipi tobe means tobe perceived (2003 573). One more factor may come into
play here: an absolutization of the poetic gaze, serving the religion of poetry that
Miosz, as Ihave pointed out earlier, refuses tobe apriest of. There are many writers and poets who worship the Work, the mythical Book, enthusing about the act
creation competing with the created. Miosz was never one of them, always wanting
tobe the poet of that which is.
The gaze of Orpheus, writes Lvinas, goes beyond the metaphysics of esse
percipi: literature opens us tothe unthinkable. In other words, it enters into the

33

34

31
76
32
Miosz, Unattainable Earth. Ecco, 1986. 33.

Miosz, Metafizyczna pauza (Metaphysical Pause). 84.
Robinson Jeffers. Tear Life toPieces.
Miosz, Metafizyczna pauza. (Metaphysical Pause) 87.
Zaleski Instead

37

35
36
Lvinas, 72, 75.

Lvinas, 72-73.
This motivation of Mioszs distrust towards his autobiographical project is discussed
by Krzysztof Kosiski in Wymyka mi si moja ledwo odczuta esencja, Kosiski,
Poezja alu. Katowice, 2001. 118-143.
77
eternal streaming of the outside, into that which is beyond the horizon of our
perception. The gaze of Orpheus is thus something different from the contemplative
gaze, it is its radicalization because it wants toavoid the distance that is proper
tocontemplation, distance which although it allows for the abandonment of the
I and tounite with the perceived is still atrace of presence and supremacy of
I, making the gaze an act of our will, leaving tous the autonomy of the I and
tothe horizon of our world (72, 75).35 Miosz, too, while praising sight above all
other senses, sees the fundamental importance of the gaze as the gaze not only
establishes the relation, but also constitutes it in away more perfect than literary
representation is capable of. The desire tosee, purely and simply, without name/
Without expectations, fears, or hopes / At the edge where there is no Ior not-I
is precisely adesire for the kind of relation in which the mediation of language is
eliminated, along with the deficiencies of verbal and graphic articulation that delay
and blur the essence of contact (2003 460). Seeing is an act of direct communication, realization of the deictic function; it constitutes the presence of the object
as agesture of pointing does, unclouded by the always unreliable and imperfect
mediation of the language.
Can this gaze be free from its objectifying aspect? Never completely! One can
try toavoid the mediation of the subject: depersonalized lyric resulting from the
Mallarman revolution shows that it is possible, at the cost of representational
function of literature, proving thereby that the perspective of the subject is necessary for representation. One cannot, however, avoid the mediation of language. It
cannot be avoided even in the Mallarms and Blanchots approach in which the
being of things is not named in the work but speaks itself in it, despite the fact
that in this perspective the I vanishes and being equals speaking in impersonal
speech, in the Self of the language (72-3).36 No attempt at representation can be
rid of I and tear the veil of language covering the barest reality. But an awareness of this difficulty, and in particular, the knowledge that it is language that
upholds our reality, inspires distrust towards our attempts at representation,
arousing suspicion towards ones own poetic endeavor, towards being a poet
and most of all, towards our own presentations. 37 It reminds that they are usurpations and that as representations of reality they are always already ex post and
incomplete, blurring and distorting the object of presentation. Already Blanchot
spoke of this particular aspect of literary autopresentation: Isay my name, and
it is as though Iwere chanting my own dirge: Iseparate myself from myself, Iam
no longer either presence or my reality, but an objective, impersonal presence,
the presence of my name, which goes beyond me and whose stonelike immobility
performs exactly the same function for me as atombstone weighing on the void

(324).38 In The Gaze of Orpheus, he says of Orpheus, the song immediately
makes him 'infinitely dead' (173).39
Literature, even when it wishes torid itself of the demands of I and represent
the world, always reveals itself as aform of autopresentation and autointerpretation, always unreliable and incomplete. Writing becomes an attempt togive unity
to that which is internally contradictory, an attempt to order that which cannot
be ordered. It is an attempt togive integral character toanon-integral Self that is
non-integral because it is non-transparent toitself and unaware of the entirety of
its psychological processes. Literature of the Orphic tradition, whether by Blanchot
or by Miosz, aware that all unity is transient as it is only afigure of language
in which sense never becomes ultimate sense adds that this autopresentation is
aperpetual process.
All that remains, then, is tobecome ahunter, forever chasing the unrepresentable, the inexpressible, tolove like Robinson Jeffers loved the wild swan of the
world without the promise of ever being able tosee realitys true visage, tomeet it
face toface. This is why we must be distrustful of everything in our representation
that is set in the brocade of style (2003 228).
What is found in poetic representation, is always instead of reality. Orpheus and
Eurydice puts an end tothe hope pervading Mioszs work, the hope of resurrection
of what was in the word. Mioszs word wants tobe hymnal, it wants topraise what
is and it wants aresurrection of that which was.
3.
78
The desire totear through toreality, the hope tocross over the breach, tosolve the
antinomy between language and reality that evades it, is what drives literature today
more than ever, and as aphilosophical question finds itself again at the heart of
writing. The necessity tomake present, especially tomake present that which had
been lost is what sustains and justifies literature. Would literature be necessary if we
were in aperfect unity with that which is, if we had perfect insight into the nature
of things and if things and events did not pass, if memory was aforce at least equal
toour imagination, if our impressions and feelings retained their intensity forever?
Writing literature would be an unnecessary task, otium negotiosum, as it was for our
ancestors, even though it was more than just this for them as well. It has been more
than just this since Orpheus descended into the Underworld and his story became
atopos of elegiac poetry.
But can absence and lack find representation through anything else than an
illusory and incomplete form of figuration? Figuration that always discredits and
falsifies the original because torepresent absence is an impossibility, acontradiction in itself and aperformative paradox? We don'treply for we have no language,
38
39
Blanchot,Literature as the Right toDeath. 324.

Blanchot, The Gaze of Orpheus. 173.
Zaleski Instead
in which totalk with the living. And the flowers wilt, useless, laid when we were
already far, says Miosz in one of his last poems (309).40
Literature is one of those rituals that uphold the world in its existence. But
Mioszs Orpheus knows about the futility of the ritual outside the world of the living. He keeps his promise: he will not look at Eurydice, he will not try toaddress
her. He will not look because he knows that his gaze is adouble gaze: of the man
who loves and suffers and of the man who writes of love and suffering. It is also the
gaze of amagician, atrickster, abrave who wants totear the veil and outsmart fate.
His gaze would place him in the mythical order, but it would kill his beloved for
asecond time. Once so obviously present, she is now beyond language, escaping that
which remains in the presentation. In the presentation she is always ashadow, she
refers tosomething beyond the image, tosomething other than what the image
contains, something that she resembles but is not. She is thus asign of something
that is absent from presentation and this poignant fact makes loss rather than her
the object of presentation. What has been lost is absent and appears as afiguration
of something other, of lack and emptiness. Her face no longer hers, utterly gray.
In his refusal tolook, Mioszs Orpheus betrays the condition of the poet and the
poets calling. Departing from the traditional version of the myth, he manifests his
disagreement: he waits for amiracle, for adifferent, happy ending, atriumph of life
over death, an epiphany of presence. But the miracle does not happen.

Day was breaking. Shapes of rock loomed up
Under the luminous eye of the exit from underground.
It happened as he expected. He turned his head
And behind him on the path was no one.
Sun. And sky. And in the sky white clouds.
Only now everything cried tohim: Eurydice!
How will Ilive without you, my consoling one!
But there was afragrant scent of herbs, the low humming of bees,
And he fell asleep with his cheek on the sunwarmed earth.
40
Miosz, What do I. Selected and Last Poems. 1931-2004. Ecco, 2011. 309.
79
Writing is an act of giving sense, it upholds our world in its existence. But the dream
of poetry as atool of magic, areligious ritual capable of moving the Sun and stars,
of changing the world and resulting in the triumph of life above death Orphic
poetrys dream of a causative language that participates in the presence is only
apoetic mythology. Poetry makes nothing happen remarked W.H. Auden, who
found himself on the antipodes of Orphism and was as important toMiosz at one
point as Jeffers. But an Orphic might say today every poem is performative, since
the state of things that the poem can be referred todoes not exist before it. Poetic
utterance has no other reference than itself, no other reference than the will tosay
of the chanting authorial voice. More so: it is aguarantee of reality, it is in the poetic
text that being reveals itself.

If seeing and cognition writes Lvinas are an act of taking over their object, of mastering it from asafe distance, then the remarkable reversal that occurs in writing allows us
tobe touched by what we see, touched from adistance. Literary work takes over the gaze,
words look at the one who writes (this is how Blanchot defines fascination.) Poetic language
that pushed away the world, allows the incessant murmur of this distance toreemerge
it is anever-ending murmur of being that the literary work allows toreverberate. (73)41
This new mythology, as hermetic as the Orphic teachings were once, equips the writer
with the will of writing, it makes Orpheus look into the well of the abyss, face his
own text and disappear in it. But the poem can never compensate for the loss it
is at most awork of mourning which, as we have learned from Feud, always serves
life. Is it afigure of consolation then? Things are not that simple. For the author
of Orpheus and Eurydice writing includes aconsolatory function but also the lie
of poetry, the immorality of art, the contradiction that removes it from the moral
judgment, beyond the world placed between good and evil. It is arecurrent theme
in Mioszs thought42.
As adaimon mediating between the contradictory orders of being, Orpheus unites
the old and the new. His descent into the realm of death and his return has been
traditionally, since Ovids Metamorphoses, viewed as afigure of transformation and
renewal. This time his katabasis his journey toHell happens in modern scenery,
characteristic of our age that for Miosz is also a continuation Baudelaires cit
infernale, amodern desacralized space devoid of the promise of sense. The image of
Orpheous falling asleep with his cheek on the sun-warmed earth is ametaphor of
consolation: dream can be afigure of live-giving oblivion, of rest and respite, after
which memory returns with new force, recovering through repetition the image
of the beloved. In other words, recovering that which can be recovered. But this
poetic image is also afigure of unity, lost and recovered, of an alliance with being
in its entirety, ametaphor of agreement toexistence.
Is it because such agreement is at the same time an affirmation of the mystery of
being? In his poem, Miosz still equals being with good. He repeats after St Thomas
Aquinas: it is good because it is. But old categories and notions, although important, receive new interpretations. Is, word that Nietzsche believed tobe crucial for
the European metaphysics, is given explication. For Nicholas of Cusa, Neoplatonist,
what is exists as coincidentia oppositorum. Referring toCassirer, Strauss writes that
the dynamic of this dialectic retains constant, polar tensions between explicatio and
complicatio, between alteritas and unitas. The only truth, one beyond comprehension
in its final sense can only be presented and accessed through the mediation of the
other but all that is other tends towards unity and participates in it (16).43 Nicholas
of Cusa believes contradiction tofind its positive resolution in God. This is viewed
differently by the poets of the linguistic turn, such as Mallarm, who identify

41
80
42
43
Lvinas, Spojrzenie poety, s. 73.

See: Niemoralno sztuki. (Immorality of Art.) Ogrd nauk. Paris, 1979. 161and
elsewhere.
Strauss, Descend and Return. 16.
Zaleski Instead
the borders of our world with the borders of our language. In Mallarm, nothingness means universe from which God is absent (89). 44 For Blanchot, negation is the
moving force that holds the reality of things in suspension (253).45 In the writing of
Mallarm, Rilke and Blanchot, coincidentia oppositorum, believed tobe the principle
of being, became a vibrating void, an aporia that is the matrix of sense. And, as
Ihave said in Miosz poeta powtrzenia (Miosz, apoet of repetition) toone who
is lead by invisible hands, is has acompletely new interpretation, one typical of
postHeideggerian philosophy.46 As we have seen, an interpretation not differing
much from the one found in the writing of modern Orphics.

46

44
45
Ibidem. 89.
Blanchot in Strauss, Descend and Return. 253.
Miosz, poeta powtrzenia. Teksty Drugie. 2001. Vol. 4/5.
81
Jacek ukasiewicz
82
Poet on poets
In his creative work Miosz frequently surrenders his role as apoet, or rather, he
incorporates it into it his other roles: that of aliterary historian, lecturer, publicist,
journalist, reviewer. Although he discusses poetry and comments on other poets in
several genres of his discursive prose, my essay will focus only on Mioszs poetic
work and on what he says in it about poets about other Polish poets tobe precise.
And he says alot, in several ways and from several perspectives.
They are addressed directly in dedications and poem titles as recipients of letters,
odes, or witty verses. They are written about in the third person as well: from abrief
mention or ashort commentary toalong ballad or aquasi-essay. Miosz summons
them in their various non-literary roles but sometimes also strictly in their poetic
function, as speakers of their poetic work. Others yet make their appearance through
quotations, allusions, stylistic mimicry and similar techniques that are too plentiful
in Mioszs work tobe thoroughly discussed in this paper. Iwill thus concentrate
only on those instances which mention clearly and beyond the realm of doubt other
poets by their name, surname, pseudonym or periphrasis.
That poetry as aspace strives tobe fully autonomous, isolated from other textual
orders, is something Miosz is well aware of and fears. He uses several methods
tobreak the boundaries of poetry and toopen up poetic diction: assuming the role
of abiographer, chronicler, and literary historian in his poems, he broadens also the
meaning of those roles and enriches with them the space of his own poetry.
Mioszs poetic work evolved with time: in the prewar period (which for convenience Iwill treat here as awhole) one will find recipients of his dedications in the
poems written in the third person. Omodszym bracie (ToaBrother) is dedicated
to Jarosaw Iwaszkiewicz, Koysanka (Lullaby) to Jzef Czechowicz and List
1/1/1935 (Letter from 1/1/1935) not is not as much dedicated toas directed specifi-
ukasiewicz Poet on poets

cally at Jerzy Zagrski, addressed already in the opening apostrophe: Jerzy, Jerzy,
you bad son, you timid poet and afriend wronged.1 Other poets are mentioned by
name, for instance Jesienin (in Na mier modego mczyzny (On the Death
of aYoung Man): With what love for life and condemnation for God/ placed the
muzzle tohis mouth Sergiusz Jesienin, poet.) In Oksice (ToaBook) Miosz
lists several major authors of the past centuries whose work the new catastrophic
visionaries cannot carry on.
No more will from your pages shine onto us foggy
evening over still waters, as in Conrad's prose,
no more will the skies speak in Faustian choir,
no more will Hafez's long forgotten poem
coolly touch our brows, and soothe our heads
Norwid will no more reveal tous the harsh laws
of the century covered with red dust
Restless, blind and true toour time,
we walk somewhere far
Wherever possible Irefer tothe printed translations of Mioszs work published

in New and Collected Poems: 1931 - 2001 (Ecco, 2003)) referenced further as [page
number, CP]. Where translations were unavailable, Iprovide aworking translation of
the quoted passage. [(A.W])
83
The plural form in this poem is not ironic. But this changed dramatically during the war. In Rescue, Conrad, Goethe, Hafiz and Norwid are no longer viewed as
belonging tothe realm of the past somewhere on the other side of the abyss. On the
contrary, Miosz takes aleap in their direction. From there, looking upon what is
now the other side, he sees those who continue foolishly, he believes the poetic
of catastrophic symbolism, the twenty-year old poets of Warsaw.
His writing from the war period does not speak about other poets directly, with
the exception of the (already post-war) Przedmowa (Introduction) from Rescue. In
it, Miosz addresses the poets of the war generation: Baczyski, Gajcy, Trzebiski,
declaring that there is no wizardry of words in him. He lays his prophetic-didactic
volume on their graves, so that the ghost should visit us no more. But pushing
away from the old shore with spells, he knows very that these cannot work. His
post-uprising poems included in Rescue make use of numerous talisman-words, such
as seconds, pearls, or star (in Rozmowa pocha) and of exquisite baroque
stanzas in Los (Fate).
It was after the war that Mioszs poetic space opened up widely and filled with
other writers. His poetic invocations addressed those long gone (he asks Jonathan
Swift for support in writing poetry that is critical, satirical and mocking but at the
same time not devoid of poetic essence) and those still alive. At Tadeusz Rewicz
he directs his emphatic praise for the redemptive element of poetry (And all around
thunders laughter of the poet/ and his life, eternal), contrasting Rewicz with
rhetors who preach official lies.

And where they sat not asingle
blade of grass will grow
In the satirical and didactic AMoral Treatise he lists several patrons: Witkiewicz,
Sartre, Rabelais, and Conrad, the author of Heart of Darkness. But these were not poets.
ATreatise on Poetry (1956) is the main work in which Miosz gathers other poets.
No other poem among his work presents alandscape inhabited by poets as broad, as
rich and as complete as that unveiled in ATreatise whose composite timeless space
gathers together those already dead and those still alive disregarding the boundaries
of history, literary history, and autobiography. All those constituent types of space
coexist in ATreatise but at the same time they do not overlap fully, like slides that
have been moved minimally so that the resulting image is ambiguous.
In ATreatise Miosz formulates poetic and metaphorical, as they are apart of
the poetic image definitions of artistic creation and of the described poets. Behind
the metaphors, behind every image there is alyrical I that produced the defining
metaphor. He has done that before: No more will from your pages he addressed
the book shine onto us foggy/ evening over still waters, as in Conrad's prose
following his comparison-based definition with another, built on anthropomorphizing metaphors: no more will the skies speak in Faustian choir and no more will
Hafez's long forgotten poem/ coolly touch our brows. Finally, he defines by means
of metonymy: Norwid will no more reveal to us the harsh laws/ of the century
covered with red dust. There is strong poetic imagery in the quoted fragment but
it is accompanied by astrong rhetorical and notional element. Immaterial nouns,
such as evening, skies, or poem are anthropomorphized turning into images
but names of the poets, remaining in the shadow of the images, are inscribed in
their structure. At the same time, we know that it is the names that are most crucial:
genetically primal here.
ATreatise on Poetry formulates its definitions using different method. Those
identified by their names are actual subjects of sentences. Descriptions refer tothem
and not toimpressions and moods of the reader, speaking voice of the poem. ATreatise
resembles (or imitates) atextbook by aliterary historian, or apiece of literary criticism, rather than an impressionist lyric: the I or we readers are pushed tothe
background, we are not as much reading subjects as objects shaped by the defined
poets. This is what happens in the passages on Conrad and Wyspiaski. They are
presented as protagonists on the historical (not only literary historical) scene. But
even they are not portrayed directly. Instead of Conrad himself, the decisive passage
of his tale uses ametonym mentioning acharacter in Heart of Darkness: One of the
civilizers, amadman named Kurtz who Scribbled in the margin of his report/ On
the Light of Culture: The horror. And climbed/ Into the twentieth century (114).2
Wyspiaski is spoken of as being defeated by the contradiction between solemnity,

84
After New and Collected Poems. Polish version of Mioszs line about Kurtz, also
quoted in the original version of this essay, reads Na memoriale owiatach kultury/
Pisa ohyda awic ju wstpowa/ Wdwudziesty wiek. Miosz seems tobe referring
toKurtzs report, and the translation toKurtzs last words. (AW)

the desire tobecome part of history and tostruggle against its fatalism on the one
hand, and astyle not mature enough for such solemnity and desire.
Other poets of Young Poland are characterized as participants of the literary
historical process: either failing tounderstand its essence; their own dependence
on the ethnic language and style of the period (e.g., Kasprowicz who roared, tore
at the silken tethers/ Yet could not break them: they were invisible. And not tethers, they were more like bats/ Sucking the blood out of speech on the fly (113)); or
passively surrendering tothem (as Staff or Lemian, even though the latter drew
his own conclusions:/ If its all adream, lets dream it tothe bottom (113)).
In Beautiful Times (part one of ATreatise) those poets name-bearers, appear only
as speaking subjects of their work. Trapped in their poetic worlds and unwilling
torebel they lose their status as persons. This changes in the part devoted tointerwar authors they may be wrong about things (and they often are), but they are
also subjects of life, and not only of literary texts. They are active in both spheres.
One is tempted toposit that this is perhaps partly caused by the fact that Miosz
knew them not only from their books, but also by the fact that they shared historical time. Their work and their biographies explain each other, such as the most
famous, most poignant and most dramatic passages on Julian Tuwim. Tuwim who
shouted Ca ira! in Grodno or Tykocin, (118) and who, after the war, would meet
the participants of his pre-war readings at the ball for the Security Police is not
afunction of style, like Kasprowicz or Staff, but aliterary personage. His failures
were not failures of language he could not overcome, they were caused by his own
conflicts and weaknesses.
Tuwim lived in awe, twisted his fingers,
His face broke out in reddish, hectic spots
One could say that he fooled the officials
Just as he later cheated earnest Communists
It choked him. Inside his scream was another:
That human life was chaos and marvel
That we walk, eat, talk, and at the same time
The light of eternity shines on our souls
This thought needs tobe emphasized, given back its fundamental meaning the
thought precisely, and not an element of poeticity. In the passage above, the eschatological dimension of Tuwims poetry, one he could not express directly, is revealed
as crucial. Eschatological that is transcending the boundaries of the present, portraying it sub speciae aeternitatis, because poetry itself was degraded by Tuwim (or
perhaps by his poetic? or by the poet-subject) toopulent poeticity. Tuwims poetic
85
There are those who see apretty, smiling girl

And imagine askeleton with rings on the bones.
Such was Tuwim. He aspired tolong poems.
But his thought was conventional, used
As easily as he used assonance and rhyme
Tocover his visions of which he grew ashamed (119-120)

portrait in ATreatise seems tobe particularly accurate, as is the diagnosis; at the
same time this short passage is also an epitaph, as Tuwim was already dead when
Miosz worked on ATreatise.
The passage on Przybo is another famous literary portrait and this time its
acomic, not atragic one:
86
In the swarm of the Krakw avant-garde

Only Przybo merits our surprise
Nations and countries crumbled todust
Toashes, and Przybo remained Przybo
No madness ate at his heart, which is human,
And thus intelligible. What was his secret?
In Shakespeares time they called it euphuism.
Astyle composed of metaphor entirely.
Przybo was arationalist deep down.
He felt what areasonable social person
Was supposed tofeel, thought what they thought.
He wanted to put motion into static images. (121) Mioszs satirical picture
portrays Przybo as either ahypocrite or someone lacking in the breadth of view:
ahypocrite who uses metaphors tofeign ambiguity of the poetic world that hides
rationalism and its common-sense discourse; lacking breadth of view as he fails
to see the contradiction between that pliable conformity of rationalism and the
cult of metaphor. Przybos avant-garde poetry is unjustly reduced toatechnical
exercise, performed despite historical cataclysms: He wanted toput motion into
static images.
Just as in the earlier part of A Treatise he oversimplifies the Young Poland,
Miosz simplifies the avant-garde in the following passages. He views its language
as poeticity, different from the one of the Young Poland but stemming from the
same root; as afalse pitching of voice, ayielding tothe ease and emotionality of
the Polish language (except on adifferent, ideological level) tothe infantile idea
of peoples power.
Tuwims portrait suggestively recalls the imagery of his poetry and it is asphere
in which Miosz establishes arelationship with Tuwim. In his portrayal of Przybo
there is not aslightest formal allusion tothe poetry of the latter, it is not brought
into view for even asecond, having been pre-judged and rejected.
Tuwim and Przybos literaty portraits are strongly embedded in the (Polish)
literary consciousness, probably stronger than any other critical treatment they have
been subjected to. Part III of ATreatise, The Spirit of History (with the exception of the
passage on twenty-year old poets of Warsaw) is dominated by quotation. Tradition
is built differently here Miosz does not begin with people but with texts (though
people are present too, as Mickiewicz is inseparable from Mickiewiczs quotations).
The diachrony of literary history mixing with amuch faster pace of literary life (that
the speaker-author of ATreatise is apart of) gives place tothe synchrony of poetic
time of the present perceived in an Eliotic manner as coexistence with the past.

ATreatise received alot of commentary, also in the form of the authors own notes.
Much has been written about it, as the form of atreatise implied the complexity
of the speaking subject performing several roles, all of which are subordinate tothe
basic poetic role: that of alyrical poet. Miosz never reached for this form again
(From the Rising of the Sun is something yet different), he summons and meets with
fellow poets in other poetic genres. They are summoned and met with tenderness
but also patronized this is how Miosz treats those who made the wrong choices:
Gajcy in Ballada (ABallad) (dedicated toJerzy Andrzejewski) or Sowacki in From
the Chronicles of the Town of Poronic.
Gajcy is inscribed in the topos of Piet in which the mothers accentual-syllabic
verse (in Polish AW), echoing a lament, is stylized into a folk ballad. Was the
decision about uprising the right one? Gajcy lies in his grave, never will he learn/
that the Warsaw battle amounted tonothing. Now the city has risen from the ashes,
past the cemetery two youths are chasing astreetcar.
And Idontknow, and may the Lord be judge
If Icannot talk toyou anymore
And your flowers all crumbled turning into dust
Its because of the drought, forgive me beloved
There is never time, and when Icome visit
Ihave tocarry water from so far away

Oh sad one, loved one

Sorely deceived one
It is not the eternal spirit, rebel, Lucifer
That writhes in the eel pierced with atoothed bone
It is not him who is so full of vigor that his head
Against stone needs tobe flung, till he is mum
You were not brother tothe serpent looking at the sun

The consciousness and the unconscious are forever divided.
Why did you talk so much? We all tremble, like you,

Because life is final because death is final.

But here, toyou this cognac tumbler.
87
The poems styling is asign of helplessness, not as much intellectual, as emotional,

regarding the topic, almost as if it was only by paying the price of irony, of balladic
naivety of the narrator, that the poet was the able todiscuss it at all. (The World is
an example of similarly naive stylization, one necessary tobe able tospeak of the
order of existence during the apogee of WWII).
In Sowacki Miosz uses aconjurer rite similar tothe one employed in Dedication from Rescue where he addressed the dead young poets of Warsaw. Sowacki,
too, was deluded in his poetry and about his poetry; he did not accept reality in
its order, nor nature in its cruelty. Metempsychosis was an illusion, it blurred the
boundaries of life and death.

It is the same ambivalence of summoning and rejection. The conjurers ritual gesture,
alluding tothe second part of Dziady, overlaps onto the present situation: consumption of alcohol. One could thus hypothesize (on adifferent level) that Sowacki did
appear because of acognac tumbler (drinking cognac in atumbler is particularly
intense), and that he is at the same time, repelled by the same artefact. The last line,
But here, toyou this cognac tumbler, can describe two gestures: Iam drinking from
the glass, or spilling the offering so that the summoned ghost can leave in peace.
Alternatively, Iam giving it toyou, drink it. You are so frail, your lungs are weak.
One must stress again that the styling of those poems shapes and highlights the
common character of the poetic plane, of the space where meetings of poets take
place. At the same time, which is typical of stylizations, it creates distance: and so
we meet two poets, the summoned one and the one that summons on an unfamiliar ground (unfamiliar tothe one that was called forth but often also unfamiliar
tothe one who issues the call), we both meet in someone elses poetic form. This
unfamiliar ground is the reason why the authenticity of both speakers must be
enclosed in quotation marks.
This evolves in Mioszs later work. Sometimes making present of the summoned is desired, even necessary, but for some reason particularly difficult on
an unfamiliar formal ground. The only solution is togive voice tothe summoned
poet, not in ashort citation, but by quoting an entire poem, as in From the Rising
of the Sun, where Miosz repeats arather long verse by Teodor Bujnicki the last
poor bard of the Grand Duchee. It is in Mioszs view the only surviving work by
Bujnicki that is worth keeping and hence it is placed among several texts about
Lithuania and his place of birth from several historical periods, put together in the
poem toimitate the culture-text of the Grand Duchee. Bujnickis lyrical poem is
introduced with epic tonality.
There Theodore took three bullets in the stomach
At close range, because of which he was spared the need
Tocross so many borders (301)
The quoted poem of the killed poet is apart of the (broadly understood) authentic
linguistic tradition of old Lithuania, integrally tied tothe rhythm, the physiology
of the native land (tothe same extent towhich we tie apoem with the rhythm of
its authors organism Miosz writes about it for instance in Unattainable Earth).
88
Theodore will be remembered because of one poem

Dictated because it is not the skill of the hand
That writes poetry, but water, trees
And the sky which is dear tousus even though it's dark,
And toparens and parents of those parents since time (303)
Mioszs poem is not acollage; its an integral poetic space whose components are
nonetheless heterogeneous: court records and testaments are viewed as equal tolyrical poetry. Even if Bujnicki is somehow present in his own poem, his presence is

fuller and more real in Mioszs text imitating the cultural text of the Grand Duchee
that is, in someone elses secondary poetic space.
Some of the poets are mentioned very briefly and occasionally, like Adam Wayk
in 1944. 3
You! the last Polish Poet! drunk, he embraced me,
My friend from the Avant-Garde, in along military coat,
Who had lived through the war in Russia and, there, understood. (490)
In Provinces, Anna Kamieska is introduced in adifferent manner, although she,

too, is mentioned in amode both memoiristic and necrologic (as Mioszs life goes
by these two modes overlap more and more often). Part 11 of Mioszs long poem
consists of what could be seen as the main text and afootnote, added in parentheses.
The main text is solemn:
11. Iwalk in the disguise of an old, fat woman,
Wrote Anna Kamieska shortly before her death. Yes, Iknow. We are alofty flame.
Not identical with aclay jar. So let us write with her hand:
"Slowly Iam withdrawing from my body." (529-30)
The following footnote (amemory) significantly lowers the tone.

(Two poets appear, girls seventeen years old,
One of them is she They are still in high school.
They came from Lublin tosee amaster. That is, me.
We sit in aWarsaw apartment with aview onto fields.
Janka serves tea. Politely, we crunch cookies.
Idon'ttalk about the graves in an empty lot close by.) (530)
The memory is imprecise. Information about those shot in the empty lot seems
topoint tothe war period but Kamieska, who was born in 1920, was already at
least twenty at that time. The following poem is entitled Reading the Notebook
of Anna Kamieska.
Reading her, Irealized how rich she was and myself, how poor.
Rich in love and suffering, in crying and dream and prayer.
She lived among her own people who were not very happy but supported each other,
And were bound by apact between the dead and the living renewed at the graves.
She was gladdened by herbs, wild roses, pines, potato fields.
And the scents of the soil, familiar since childhood.
She was not an eminent poet. But that was just: Agood person will not learn the
wiles of art.
Discussing characters that continue torevisit his imagination Miosz comments

on his meeting with Wayk: Some of them want tobe recalled, while others dont.
Adam Wayk, avant-garde poet called atheorrist in the Stalinist era, was among
those who wanted tobe recalled. He was the one who approached me, drunk, in 1945:
You! The last Polish Poet! (Wiersze, Krakw 1993 Vol.3 p.272).
89
(531)

The texts are split into two differently valued layers: one of wisdom and one of
poetry. Asapiential text is noble, poetry ought not tobe noble (Miosz repeats
this often and regarding poetry he distinguishes two meanings of noble: 1) that
of apositive social clich irrelevant here; 2) free from the Manichean flaw, devoid
of Melody, daydream).
The portrayal of wirszczyska is a direct opposite of Mioszs portrayal of
Kamieska. Split into the high and the low, the spirit and the body, wirczyska
wants to rise above such contradictions praising being:/ The delight of touch
in lovemaking, the delight of running on a beach,/ of wandering in the mountains, even of raking hay,/You were disappearing, in order tobe, unpersonally.
wirszczyska attempted to solve the riddles that Miosz is was trying to solve
for in his poems.
And the body is most mysterious,
For, so mortal, it wants tobe pure,
Liberated from the soul which screams: "I!"
Ametaphysical poet, Anna wirszczyska
best felt when she was standing on her head
(Translating Anna wirszczyska on an Island of the Carribean, 598-99)
wirszczyska is treated with trust, Kamieska as apoet with distrust but both
found their way into Mioszs poetic space for important reasons.
They are recalled in Mioszs poems by his autobiographical and real I, he
simply reminiscences about them. There are no special rituals used to summon
them, no literary historical categories. The poet does not have toand does not take
on the role of aconjurer or aliterary historian.
In the poem about Czechowicz from The Separate Notebook cycle, the subject
acts in ayet different, more ritual manner. Is there away tocommunicate with
the dead across the boundary of death? There is, but an insufficient one answers
the poem in several verses of different tonality. The colloquialism of some of them
aims toeliminate or reduce the distance between the living and the dead (Yet
Ipresume you have some trace of interest, at least as toyour own continued stay
among the living. (382)). The high tone of others clearly emphasizes the poetic
character of the situation: you appear now on this other continent, in the sudden
lightning of your afterlife). Czechowicz is presented in the uniform of asoldier
from the year 1920.
90
From shit-houses in the yeard, tomatoes on the windowsill, vapor over washtubs, greasy
checkered notebooks How could that modest music for young voices soar, transforming
the dark fields below?Set apart by aflaw in your blood, you knew about Fate; but only
the chant endures, nobody knows about your sorrow (383)
Czechowiczs poetry directs the reader (or the listener) not toits maker but toadifferent reality that he created or revealed. Not abiographical, historical, social, but
ametahistorical, metaphysical one:

Where are you behind your words, and all who are silent, and aState now silent though
it once existed (383).
For avery long time, actually from the very beginning, Miosz paid special attention tofigures of authority and constructed perspectives toproperly receive them.
Depending on the perspective, the same person was admired or criticized, for example Mickiewicz (as discussed thoroughly by Elbieta Kilak in the second part
of Walka Jakuba zanioem (Jacobs Battle with the Angel)) As the perspectives shift,
new approaches are adapted, including the attitude of the worshipper, or more
frequently in Mioszs work the attitude of the student.
The third part of This is devoted topoets and other authors. Poets should not be
singled out, despite the fact that matters of poetry are also discussed here. Miosz
talks about what he owes to others and, once again, recapitulates the points he
disagrees with them about. It is his second most important dialogue with other writers after ATreatise but one very different from the latter. Its basic diction, natural
and practical, is modified here in several ways, from the pathos of an ode tothe
sarcasm of apamphlet.
Mickiewicz is the first tomake appearance. He was the one taught by the fate
that its enough to:
Put two words together, and here they come running,
Grab you totake you tothe tribal rite.
Let us write for ourselves, for ahandful of friends,
Just towhile away aSunday picnic:
This is how it starts. And before you know it there are flags,
Screams, prophesies, defending barricades
How diabolical must be the nature of language

If one can only become its servant!
(Ze szkod (Tothe Detriment))
Ilearned, says Miosz, not only from Mickiewiczs great and right accomplishments
but also from his mistakes. But he always remains my great patron, the first one
tosummon. In him is the lesson and the warning.
Iwaszkiewicz is invoked as the second. Selecting Iwaszkiewicz's Poems for an

Evening of His Poetry at the National Theater in Warsaw (708)) is polemical
about the previous poem (Ze szkod) and opens with a(hidden) allusion tothe
text Iwaszkiewicz published in Twrczo after Karol Wojtya was elected Pope.
Iwaszkiewicz wondered how Mickiewicz and Sowacki would have reacted tothe
news of the election of aPole who knew their work by heart and who once played
Samuel Zborowski on stage. While reparing the evening of Iwaszkiewiczs poetry,
91
I, too, did harm, perhaps less than others.

In disguise, wearing masks, unrecognizable,
Ambiguous. Even this is protection
Against recitation at the yearly fete.

Miosz was aware that Iwaszkiewicz was apoet prone tosuccumb tothe temptation, deeply sweet, of relief through nonexistence. And Miosz says without
irony: Itoo felt the seriousness of my duty. He wants tobring out Iwaszkiewiczs
tone, Despite your doubts, that tone of depths, which as every tone of depth
in poetry is eo ipso an affirmation of existence. He wants toextract from Iwaszkiewiczs work speech of generation, ahome and fortress...the colors and scents
of the steppe in bloom.
Ode for the Eightieth Birthday of John Paul II is introduced by the two previously discussed poems. The recipient of the ode is an embodied holiness. Holiness
has a triple meaning here: denotative (in the title: Holy Father), personal (he is
aholy man) and numinous (through him acts Gods Holy Power). If the tradition
of prophetic Polish Romanticism contributed tothis triple holiness, it fulfilled its
great task. Perhaps, then, the weakness or the strength of our romantic tradition
depend on the qualities of its followers?
You are with us and will be with us henceforth
When the forces of chaos raise their voice
And the owners of truth lock themselves in churches
And only the doubters remain faithful
Your portrait in our homes every day remind us
How much one man can accomplish an how sainthood works (710)
He next summons Jeanne Hersch. Among the twelve rules, or commandments,

of his philosopher friend not asingle one is unimportant. What ILearned from
Jeanne Hersch (711) complements what Miosz said earlier in Conversation
with Jeanne from Provinces. In Conversation he talks about being dazzled by
the emerald essence of the leaves (543) being more important than philosophy,
about the sense of freedom found in the vastness of nature. In What ILearned,
the commandments, extracted from the writings and conversations with Jeanne
Hersch, form amoral code, concluding with the following principle engendering
optimism and courage:
92
12. That in our lives we should not succumb todespair because of our errors and our sins
for the past is never closed down and receives the meaning we give it by our subsequent
acts (712).
Zdziechowski, encrusted with quotations from professor Zdziechowskis

writing, opens in the first person and ends with rhythmical verses in the second,
addressing the eponymous character. Zdziechowskis pessimism led him nonetheless towards the redemptive faith in God, despite the omnipresence of evil and
chaos, and towards seeking refuge in tradition. Athinker and apoet (in his role of
athinker) has toredeem. Zdziechowski is thus apoem that Mioszs philippic
Against the Poetry of Philip Larkin (718). clearly corresponds with: Suddenly
Philip Larkin's there/ Explaining why all life is hateful./ Idon'tsee why Ishould
be grateful.

My dear Larkin, Iunderstand
That death will not miss anyone.
But this is not adecent theme
For either an elegy or an ode.
(718)
The rhymed ending (of the Polish version) introduces irony tothe poem, weakening
the deriding tone, also hinting at auto-irony.
This part of the volume includes other poems, Aleksander Wat's Tie and
ToRobert Lowell, as well as poems about two Polish poets: Zbigniew Herbert and
Tadeusz Rewicz. Iwill briefly refer tothe last two.
On Poetry, Upon the Occasion of Many Telephone Calls after Zbigniew Herbert's
Death returns tothe division that keeps tormenting Miosz, the division between
the carnal and the spiritual, the amoral nature and the moral sphere of God and
humanity. Even though it seems that poetry should not it does, for some reason,
inhabit that which is earthly, dirty and sinful. Individualized in man, after his death
it becomes identical with his individual soul that has left the body.
Liberated from the phantoms of psychosis
from the screams of perishing tissue
from the agony of the impaled one
It wanders through the world
Forever, clear (724)
Poetry is thus important also for the non-earthly future of the poet.
ToRewicz who said that evil comes from man/ always from man/ only from
man (726), Miosz replies with his leitmotif saying that evil is, unfortunately, immanent in nature: good nature and wicked man/ are romantic inventions. He
adds tothis, however, by adding tothe volume the last poem in this part, one that
is aportrait and adefinition, Rewicz.
he does not indulge
in the frivolity of form
in the comic abundance of human beliefs
he wants toknow for sure
The last two lines are amystery and each attempt toshed light onto it must falsify
it. Let us try tointerpret them nonetheless: todig in black soul means tosearch
for something in nature, tofarm the land and at the same time tohurt it. Rewicz
does both, obeying the external force (the force of poetry), being its tool the spade
and at the same time the injured mole. What does one find digging in the ground?
An earthworm or precisely amole. The latter has already made an appearance
93
he digs in black soil

is both the spade and the mole cut in two by the spade (727)

in Mioszs poetry. In APoor Christian Looks at the Ghetto (63), the mole was
aguardian of the dead, ajudge and ametaphysical riddle. In his poetry Rewicz
injures himself the mole with his poetry both in the physical, earthly, and in its
moral and metaphysical dimension. It is an extremely astute reading of the poems
written by the author of Bas-Relief and Always aFragment.
In the linear order of Czesaw Mioszs poetry it is the last of his definitions of
individual poets.
94
*
The material presented here allows one todraw several different conclusions. It
can be interpreted using different keys.
First and foremost, other poets fill the space of poetry seen as atradition that is
history. They appear in adiachrony, living in their allotted time, composing poems
and leaving their texts behind. Among these poets there is also aplace for the I
standing for Czesaw Miosz, poet, born in Sztejnie, given along but also limited
moment in the history of Polish and international poetry. I am looking at myself
from the outside, looking at my place as aplace in the history of literature, at myself
as aone of the poets fulfilling their functions.
Secondly, they fill the space of poetry defined as my personal tradition. Iorganize this space arbitrarily toadegree, highlighting selected works of literature.
Ichoose them and shuffle, or they shuffle themselves inside me, co-creating my
internal landscape, not necessarily in chronological order although the order of
history is present in me tothe extent that other poets cannot abandon it entirely.
Iam the center of the system, not one of them but separate from them. Imeet
them but on my ground, on the ground of my personality and my poetry. My poetry, however, is not asingle space governed by one causal subject. No, my poetry
is divided into circles (let us stick for a while tothis imprecise but convenient
Dantean metaphor).
Those circles are arranged according tothe enumeration included in the Preface to A Treatise on Poetry. In each there is an I and in each others appear.
Mickiewicz, who is especially important for Miosz, continues tore-emerge. The first
circle is acircle of the worlds revelation in an image. It is an epiphanic unveiling
of the mystery, of being. It is experienced by the I directly and in the communion
with other poets capable of experiencing it. With Mickiewicz, one of the greatest,
perhaps the greatest among the Polish poets, who experienced and immortalized
it in the language, or who experienced in through the language. Next, he opens (or
rather closes) the circle of Melody, daydream, equivocal but also necessary, specifically poetic (as the epiphanic circle does not require verse). In the second circle
irrational powers are released as the speaker appears as aconjurer in its dual role.
The third circle is acircle of thoughts: here Mickiewicz appears ambiguously as
awise man who managed tooppose the bourgeois and scientistic Land of Urlo with
agreat force and as ademagogic usurper from The Books and The Pilgrimage of the

Polish Nation and Vision of Priest Peter. Finally, we enter the circle of satire, where
Mickiewicz becomes its unequivocal object. There can be no doubt, however, that
the summoned poet retains his personal identity in all those circles.
These are the circles of poetry as space in which I the poet participates, aspace
that is ametonymy of the cultural space that Iam aparticipant of and the language
Iwrite in. At the same time, introducing other poets into my poetry, Iintroduce them
into my personal individual space, into my idiolect. It is where Imeet them as master
of this space. If history, cultural history and cultural history reflected in the language
and shaping the language were the most immediate context elsewhere, here it is my
life that becomes the context, and my biography. In this particular space it begins
tomatter whether Iknew personally the poets Iam summoning, and whether they
are dead or alive. The ones Iknew cannot be reduced totheir poetry, even if Iwant
to they appear as real people meeting the real me, not just me as role of apoet
or areader. They appear in the present, because this is the time of lyrical poetry.
Whether it is the poetic space Iparticipate in or poetic space that Iown, Iam
never alone. Iam always surrounded by others. And Iknow that it is very important
that those other poets existing in my poetry exist in it differently than outside of it,
differently than in essays, differently than in the history of literature or memories.
It seems that Czesaw Miosz had to, and has to, summon other poets, since
their participation in his poetic world proves that poetry is not a phantom nor
atemptation addressing mans worse side that it can go beyond the accidental,
and that it can last.
Novels and essays serve but will not last
One clear stanza can take more weight
That awhole wagon of elaborate prose. (109)
95
Bogdana Carpenter
Ethical and Metaphysical Testimony in the Poetry .
of Zbigniew Herbert and Czesaw Miosz1
The concept of poetry as witness determines and defines the poetics of Czesaw
Miosz and Zbigniew Herbert, two of the most important contemporary Polish
poets. Both share aconviction that the poets obligation is togive testimony tohistory. Miosz speaks simply of atask, explaining that he can fulfill his life only
by apublic confession / Revealing asham, my own and of my epoch (259).2 He
wonders if this was the reason why he was saved by the Might from bullets ripping
up the sand. (586) Similarly, Zbigniew Herbert pronounces categorically:
you were saved not in order tolive
you have little time you must give testimony3
These seemingly similar statements, however, hide an important difference. It can be

seen clearly in the verb modality: imperative in Herbert, conditional in Miosz. For
the author of The Envoy of Mr. Cogito, bearing witness is an obligation not tobe
doubted or debated. The poem is amessage, its biblical diction and style gives it
the force of acommandment. It also contains an explanation the duty of faithful
96
Presented at La place du tmoignage dans la littrature polonaise du XXe sicle.

Paris, 2 April 2003.
Unless indicated otherwise, all quotations from Milosz are based on the translations
published in New and Collected Poems: 1931 - 2001 (Ecco, 2003), The Witness of Poetry.
(Harvard University Press. 1984). All quotations from Herbert come from The
Collected Poems (HarperCollins, 2008), or The Collected Prose (HarperCollins, 2010)
referenced. (A.W.)
The Envoy of Mr. Cogito trans. by Bogdana and John Carpenter. Selected Poems of
Zbigniew Herbert. Oxford University Press (1977).
Carpenter Ethical and Metaphysical Testimony in the Poetry

ness tothose betrayed at dawn and warns that the only reward tobe expected will
be the whip of laughter and murder on agarbage heap. This, however, is the only
way tobe admitted tothe company of cold skulls: Gilgamesh, Hector, and Roland.
In other words, testimony assumes asacrifice in the name of ideals such as honor
and faithfulness above anything else, and the obligation tobear witness is closely
tied tothe idea of history perceived as suffering. In all his endeavors Herbert is
accompanied by the memory of those toppled in the dust and the sense that he
lives and speaks for them. Looking at Mona Lisa, after several trials, he does not
forget about those who, like him, wanted tosee the famous painting but did not
make it: they were all going tocome / I'm alone (171, ) Standing on the Acropolis
he recalls his deceased friends and imagines himself tobe adelegate or an ambassador of all those who did not make it.(467, R) In The Envoy of Mr. Cogito he
repeats Iwas called werentthere better ones than I. The ethical imperative of
faithfulness tothe victims of history pervades Herberts entire work and his idea
of witness is inseparable from the history of the 20th century and Polands political
situation. For the author of Life,

poetry is the sister of memory
guards bodies in the wilderness
poems murmurs are worth no more
than the breath of others (111)
The idea of poetry as witness can be traced as far back as Chord of Light, Herberts
most elegiac volume, shaped almost entirely by the war experience. It is also where
the juxtaposition of the instinct of life and the moral obligation of fidelity tothose
who passed away appears for the first time.

life purls like blood
Shadows softly melt
lets not let the fallen perish (6)
The lifeline that surges forth overthrowing obstacles is contrasted with the line
of fidelity, helpless like acry in the night ariver in the desert, invisible tothe eye
but parting the tissue of muscles and entering the arteries so that we might meet
at night our dead.(50) The same opposition returns in Prologue where the speaker
buries the dead like the ancient Antigone, refusing tostep into lifes new stream
praised by the choir.
Iswim upstream and they with me ...
Imust bring them toadry place
and pile the sand into aheap (224)44
The political context of the poem and its clear polemic with Miosz were noted by
several critics.
97
From the very beginning the concept of the poet as witness bearer is accompanied
by asense of inadequacy of words and poetry confronted with the task: too few

strings / we need achorus / asea of laments / mountains clamor / arain of stones.
(17) The desire for poetry tobecome an enduring inscription, like Sanskrit or
pyramid, remains unfulfilled:
Your vain words are ashadow's echo
and awind in empty stanzas' rooms
Not for you tohallow fire with song
you wither scattering tono purpose
the languid flowers of pierced hands
(9)
The pronouncements of the duty togive testimony are accompanied by arepeated

reproach of the sin of forgetting:
Icannot find the title
for amemory of you
with ahand torn from the dark
Imove on the remains of faces
...
living despite
living against
Ireproach myself with the sin of forgetting
98
(6)
Surging from all sides, life and material reality of the external world blur the contour
of the past and replace the memories of what used tobe: our hands won'tpass on
the shape of your hands / we let them go towaste touching common things (6).
Instead of portraying real presences, images of the past are without memory, like
amirror that reflects only the immediately given: the city which stands on water /
as smooth as mirror's memory (8). In Warsaw, which after the uprising resembles
agraveyard, the dead ask in vain for aslight sign from above. (27) The living only
care about their own survival, and the names of the dead turn into adried kernel
(29). Our duty is toremember them; it is an obligation that not only the poet (cup
your hands as if tohold amemory) (29), but also things such as apebble or achair,
ceaselessly remind us of.
Duty toremember and togive witness concerns only victims. Herbert does not
attempt torecreate places that were lost: Lvov, vast sky of my neighborhood,
the house that knows all my escapes and my returns, the houses gate latch,
(28), thereby arguing against Mioszs The World. Each attempt torecall old
places is afailure: the ocean of flighty memory/ washes crumbles imagesthe
view suddenly breaks off (105). It is not only the failure of memory but also an
awareness that the reality we talk about is irrevocably lost. If Iwent back there/
Iwould probably not findasingle thing that belonged tous (278). Once again,
alost city turns into agraveyard: all that survived is aflagstone/ with achalk
circle (278).

The formulation of poetry as witness reveals itself with the most clarity in Herberts famous The Envoy of Mr. Cogito, but it is takes its full shape in the Report
from aBesieged City, especially in the title poem of the volume, whose speaker too
old tocarry arms assumes the role of achronicler. In both volumes the experience
of war is intertwined with the experience of communism but, more importantly,
their reference field is much broader than in the Chord of Light, including not only
the Polish experience, but the experience of political terror in general. Herberts
obligation tobear witness tothe victims is indeed rooted in the past 30 years of Polish
history; it is the Polish community that he has in mind describing the opportunism
of Utica citizens who enroll in accelerated courses/ in falling totheir knees (330)
and it is them that he contrasts with the upright attitudes identified as courage,
truth, opposition toviolence, defense of the insulted and beaten and fidelity tothe
moral imponderabilities. But Mr. Cogitos moral imperative is not directed only at
the Polish reader. The need toknow the exact number of those who have fallen does
not only include victims of Polish history, but all victims in the history of mankind.

how many Greeks perished at Troy
- we dontknow
how togive the exact losses
on both sides
in the battle of Guagamela
Agincourt
Leipzig
Kutno
Because of the date (1983) and the circumstances surrounding the publication of
the Report from the Besieged City, and of the title poem in particular, the volume is
frequently interpreted as adescription of the political and social situation in Poland
before and during the period of martial law (1981-1982). However, Poland and martial
law never literally surface in the poems, acharacteristic that distinguishes Herberts
witness from other testimonies and reports published in that period. His ability
toframe current events in abroad historical structure lends his poetry aunique
depth and range: each of the described facts reverberates with history and connects
tothe events of the past. As in ahall of mirrors, the events of 1981-82 reflect the
situation of 1956, 1939, 1863, 1795 and further back in time tothe beginnings of the
Polish state. The task that Herberts chronicler sets for himself grows bigger as he
continues towrite; little by little he becomes achronicler of not only contemporary,
but of the entire Polish history, and the siege that he describes turns out tohave
lasted longer than the martial law introduced by General Jaruzelski.
The image of history as ahall of mirrors functions on more than one level: it
reflects the events along the vertical axis of time but also along the horizontal, geographical one. Even if the chronicler of the Report concentrates first and foremost
on the history of Poland, he swiftly crosses the national boundary, setting parallels
99
(404)

between the Polish history and the history of other nations who were touched by
misfortunedefenders of Dalai Lama the Kurds the Afghans (350). The text can
be read, then, on two different planes, as areport on the current situation in Poland
and/or as areport on the state of siege in general, of any country and in any moment
in history. The range of Herberts historical vision shows already on the linguistic
level, through a language that is intentionally symbolic, precise but at the same
time generalizing. Each sentence, and frequently, entire poems, operates on three
levels: first as areference tothe authors experience and the experience of his time,
secondly as an allusion tosimilar past situations, and thirdly as adeclaration about
an experience that is universal and goes beyond the specifically Polish context:
Monday: stores are empty arat is now the unit of currency
Tuesday: the Mayor has been killed by unknown assassins
Wednesday: cease fire talks the enemy interned our envoys
(416)
The choice of words breaks the narrow actuality of the poem while the language
broadens its referential reality.
Bearing witness is doubly motivated for the author of the Report: it is amoral
obligation tothe victims of history on the one hand, and on the other, an attempt
to write a different history, one that is usually unnoticed, or worse, ignored by
professional historians. Herbert sees two faces of history one that it shows tothe
victims and another, shown tothe rulers and executioners. Tothe latter history
means power, crime and lies; for victims, the essence of history lies in suffering,
humiliation and death. And it is in matters that involve victims that the historians
are shamefully negligent.
aspecter is haunting
the map of history
the specter of indeterminacy
(404)
Faced with history unable tofulfill its task and bear witness, the poet is left with no
other choice than tobear it himself. He accepts his role as achronicler and write(s)
down not knowing for whom asieges history (416).
100
*
The problem of giving testimony is presented differently in Mioszs poetry.
The author of ATask considers it in fear and trembling, aware that he lives in
times when pure and generous words are forbidden (259). Hence the task of bearing witness, at least in Herberts understanding of the word, remains unfulfilled:
Isaid so little/ Days were short he confesses (274). Elsewhere the speaker of the
poem calls himself aschemer, different from those who give testimony remaining
indifferent togunfire, hue and cry in the bushwood, and mockery (345). He sees
the children from our street / met with avery hard death. Three Poems By Heart
(7)
See: Recepcja poezji Czesawa Miosza wAmeryce, Teksty drugie. Vol. 3-4. 2001.
99-114.
Eseje. Warszawa. 2000. 121-126.
101
his task elsewhere: Iprotect my good name, for language is my measure. (273).
Both Mioszs poems appeared in From the Rising of the Sun, published in 1974, as
was Mr. Cogito.
But it was also Miosz who, among the first poets, gave testimony tohis time
in Rescue. In Fever, 1939 mentions the killed children from our street and its
echoes can be heard in Herberts Chord of Light.5 Both Campo di Fiori and APoor
Christian Looks at the Ghetto are Holocaust testimonies, rare in Polish poetry, of
the fate of Jewish victims, abandoned and condemned tooblivion. In On the Death
Of Tadeusz Borowski he talks about smoke over Birkenau; Prologue outlines
atragic fate of an entire generation; The Moral Treaty (1947) remains one of the
most important and one of the earliest testimonies of the impending Stalinist terror. And Captive Mind, The Seizure of Power and ATreaty on Poetry carry on the
analysis of the political mechanisms of our century.
Further, in the academic year 1980/81 Miosz also delivered aseries of lecture at
Harvard University, poignantly titled The Witness of Poetry, admitting that with other
poets from Eastern Europe, he sought tofind in poetry witness and aparticipant
in one of mankinds major transformations (4). Miosz is aware that posterity will
read us in an attempt tocomprehend what the twentieth century was like (11).
He devotes one of the lectures, Ruins and Poetry, topoets who gave testimony
totheir era and the experience of war in particular acollective experience for Polish society as awhole not only sympathizing, but actually identifying with those
poets. Until the mid-80s, English and American criticism tended toread his work
mostly through apolitical and historical lens, reducing it wrongly and unjustly
towitness literature6 and Miosz himself claims testimony tobe aconstitutive part
of aliterary fact, and literature as it transcends the message delivered by the press
and television amore reliable witness than journalism (16).
Why, then, does he use a conditional in A Task? Why does he call himself
aschemer in Not This Way, cutting himself off from those who give testimony?
It is because in the three decades after WWII his stance on the question of witness
evolved. Miosz changed his mind regarding both poetry as witness and the very
concept of witness. In his famous essay Szlachetno, niestety (Nobility, unfortunately) published in Kultura (Paris, 1983) he warns against the kind of poetry
which in an attempt to fulfill the moral obligation of witness situates itself
too close toapolitical document and transforms into propagandistic journalism.7
Mioszs paradigmatic witness-poem, Sarajevo, written in the late 90s importantly
includes aremark that denies it apoetic status: Perhaps this is not apoem but at
least Isay what Ifeel (610). and his work evolves increasingly towards the existential
experience, abandoning not only politics, but history as well.

Wind covered the signs with snow
The earth took in the screams
No one anymore remembers
How and when it occurred
(581)
History fades away, only the sumptuous, golden verse lasts.8

Which is not to say that Miosz rejected the concept of witness. Instead, he
changed its contents, hallowing it out and assigned new meaning toit. Atask,
or witness, no longer aims touncover the lies of ones time and the suffering of its
victims, nor is it tobe understood as amoral duty of revealing the truth of ahistorical and political reality, as the author of the Report from aBesieged City proceeds to;
the task is togive testimony tothe entire unattainable reality, both historical
and existential, collective and individual, past and present, toall that which was
and will be. Rejection present in the act of witness performed by Herbert, and the
majority of contemporary poets, turns into validation, negation into affirmation, and
testimony becomes aconviction. Seen in these terms it is an affirmation of reality
as afact, afait accompli and positive.9
Miosz also proposes adifferent idea of apoet. He is no longer achronicler or historical reality, such as the author of the Report, but asecretary of an unknown power:
Iam no more than asecretary of the invisible thing
That is dictated tome and afew others.
Secretaries, mutually unknown, we walk the earth
Without much comprehension. Beginning aphrase in the middle,
Or ending it with acomma. And how it all looks when completed
Is not up tous toinquire, we won'tread it anyway.
(343)
In contrast toMr. Cogito, who follows the ethical imperative that he is both the
sender and the recipient of, the secretary fulfills the intentions of an external

102
The evolution of the concept of witness in Miosz has several reasons, the most
obvious of which, though not necessarily the most important one, is his emigration,
in other words, aforced removal from ones own community, its historical experience
and along stay in the United States, where until recently the beating pulse of
history was less strongly pronounced. Visions from San Francisco Bay and poems
written during the first decade of his stay in America are an attempt at facing
American ahistorocity. Compared tothe first half of the 20th century, the second one
is undeniably marked by acertain slowing down of history, which lead one of the
American historians toarather haphazard pronouncement of the end of history
(F. Fukuyama, The End of History, National Interest, Summer 1989). What is
crucial, though, is the internal dynamic of this poetry whose existential dimensions
coexists from the very start with an immersion in history and politics. Evolution
should be understood then in terms of ashift, or achange in proportion.
Marian Stala believes the shift from negation toaffirmation tobe one of the most
fundamental structures in Mioszs sense of the world. (Trzy nieskoczonoci. Krakw
2001.126)
10
11
Two decades later his Report opens with an apostrophe toGod: OMost High, you
willed tocreate me apoet and now it is time for me topresent areport (589).
Miosz, Czesaw. Introduction. Haiku. Wydawnictwo M: Krakw. 1992.
103
force: All my life Ihave been in the power of adaimonion, and how the poems
dictated by him came into being Ido not quite understand (3).10 The idea of giving
testimony remains apart of the secretarial duty aiming totranspose what was
felt into amagical register, except for Miosz the sensation implies atotality of
experience as many colors, tastes, sounds and smells (687) and not only what
is believed tobe history.
Cogitare of Mr. Cogito does not attempt to affirm existence; his meditation
does not lead toan affirmation of reality but toan ethical conclusion: the duty
of faithfulness even at the cost of ones own life, Be faithful. Go. Faithful not
toexistence but to non-existence, to ashes and ruins, to the symbolic Troy and
her fallen defenders. Herberts poetic witness stays in the shadow of the dead.
Should we imagine Mr. Cogito as a product of Mioszs creative mind, cogitare
would instead lead to an affirmation of existence, to sum and esse, as one the
title of one of his poems suggests. The act of creation opposes that which is
destructive and is an attempt toovercome death. Tofind my home in one sentence, concise, as if hammered in metal. Not to enchant anybody. Not to earn
a lasting name in posterity. An unnamed need for order, for rhythm, for form,
which three words are opposed to chaos and nothingness (453). Poetry becomes a warrant of survival: I cast a spell on the city, asking it to last(425).
This new concept of witness and poetry seen as apassionate pursuit of the Real
determines the poetic of the author of Unattainable Earth, apoetic in which the
word tries to move as close as it is possible to the described object, replacing
the signifiant with the signifi: When poets discover that their words refer only
towords and not toareality which must be described as faithfully as possible,
they despair but the never-fulfilled desire toachieve amimesis...makes for the
health of poetry (49, 56).
Hence the strong presence of description in Mioszs poetry, his interest with
the poetry of the East and his haiku anthology where, as in his own poems, savoring every detail of the visible matter refers the reader tosomething other than
just words and images (7-9).11 Description is the witness of existence as reality made permanent by the poetic word confirms existence. Seen as arebellion
against non-existence witness acquires anew, metaphysical dimension: Mimesis is
not only amatter of style, but first and foremost aworldview proclaiming the
existence of objective reality that can be seen as it is (73). Thus, each detail,
such as the polka-dot dress or pearls on the belt of Venetian courtesans, acquires
new importance. It is the detail seen, heard, felt and remembered that lends
credence tothe act of witness, becoming irrefutable proof of the truth of relation,
and of truth as such. Also, aproof of existence, as with every word the presence of
entire human lives is felt (73). Naming, the very core of poetic act, re-enacts the
divine act of creation and being its highest praise at the same time. The chance

to confirm existence is a moment of joyous triumph, and poetry as witness of
existence is apoetry of hope.
The metaphysical concept of witness manifests itself also in the resurrection of
that which no longer is but which used to be with the use of poetic word. Resurrection through poetry is yet another form of rebellion and a remedy for the relentless
law of biology that sees man as an integral part of nature and changes [him] into
a statistical cipher. [46, W] Poetry becomes a savior from what is cold as two by
two is four [51, W] and poetic word has magical powers to extend existence beyond
its own limits. Like a crystal, it encapsulates existence, becoming home for those
who died long ago. [738 CP]
The only proof of the existence of Miss X
Is my writing. As long as Iam here
She lives not far from the places she loved
(594)
As Marek Zaleski rightly observes, Mioszs constant revisiting of his homeland and
Vilnius are more than asymptom of nostalgia, they are asymbol of transcendence
and arite of redemption.12 Remembered images express disagreement with the
order of this world, a rebellion against the earthly law that sentences memory
toextinction (588), an attempt topush against the stone wall (644).
The poetry of the conviction of reality is not an attempt toescape history. Historical experience, including the experiences of WWII and communism, crucial
for Herbert and contemporary Polish writers, is not despite the initial impression
absent from the concept of witness suggested by Miosz, fundamentally shaped
by those experiences. No less than the author of ToMarcus Aurelius is Miosz
branded by history and its cruelty: For since Iopened my eyes Ihave seen only
the glow of fires, massacres (59). He, too, gives testimony tothose who have died.
However, siding with life, Miosz defines the role of witness differently than Herbert
who sees evil as embodied evil, always with ahuman face (635 emphasis mine).
The cruelty of war, totalitarian systems, and the deaths of millions, do not conceal the truth about the tragic fate of the individual whose existence always ends
in death. Death caused by political systems remains only apart of evil of human
death as such. This is why the author of ABC is not concerned with the status of
those he resurrects in his poems, be it amaid, Paulina, or two sisters, Anna and Dora
Druyno, old women, defenseless against historical time, and simply time itself
whose names no one but me remembers. Each evoked character is apart of alarger
order: atestimony totheir existence is thus atestimony toexistence as such, pars pro
toto.13 Historicity does not manifest itself only through large events in the form of

12
104
13
M. Zaleski Formy pamici. Warsaw, 1996. 28-31.

Reminding of the existence of the ordinary and the forgotten is also aform of
rebellion against the political totalitarianisms of the 20th century which categorized
human beings into better and worse races, judged them by their social standing, and
equated with flies and cockroaches. (52)

fire falling from the sky, invasions by foreign armies, or ruined cities but also in
adetail of architecture, in the shaping of alandscape (4). In Miosz, the meaning
of testimony takes abroad sense because it encompasses the whole reality, including spiritual reality that exists almost subcutaneously in the tissue of every epoch,
as it stems from the conviction that apurely historical dimension does not exist
because it is at the same time ametaphysical dimensionthere is ametaphysical
warp and woof in the very fabric of history (71).
Tosum up: the concept of testimony as seen by the author of the Report from
aBesieged City corresponds tothe convention of the literature of testimony adapted
and set for the post-war Polish literature. Among Polish writers, as Miosz rightly
observes, Herbert conveys the collective experience of his generation and of Polish
society after 1945 with the most faithfulness.14 He also manages toendow his experience, and consequently his testimony, with universal range and meaning. Miosz
himself breaks the paradigm that he co-created in the 40s, demarcating, not for the
first time, new tracks and grounds for Polish poetry. The interest in metaphysical
poetry noticeable in the last few years among young poets and critics is proof that
the author of Theological Treatise remains afaithful and an unmatched witness
not only tohis own time.
14
In: Polish Postwar Poetry. Berkeley, 1983. 121.
105
Anna Nasiowska
Female Identity in the 20th Century Polish Poetry: .
Between Androgyny and Essentialism.1
Although discussing female identity in poetry necessarily involves theory, the

main aim of this essay is to propose fresh readings and new interpretations of
literary texts. The achievements of 20th century feminism range from new reflections on gender and developments in psychoanalytical theory toadenouncement
of the patriarchal order that results in aphallocentric dominance of one gender in
language. One cannot speak, however, of aunitary approach: the very the notion of
female identity as such is sometimes questioned both by feminist thought and by
postmodern philosophy of the subject which rejects the idea of afixed, essentialist
Self. Distinguishing afemale identity could thus be seen as an element of gender
politics.2 Doubts regarding female identity resurface also in the psychoanalytical
tradition, especially in its Lacanian incarnation that assumes the existence of one
(male) identity in the Symbolic order and perceives womanhood as alack.3 This
approach, re-interpreted and adapted by Julia Kristeva, is not necessarily misogynist.
Iwill treat the existing body of feminist texts as apoint of reference offering
several theories of identities, as to speak of a single identity would be normative and restrictive in itself, possibly also contradictory to the internal logic of
self-definition inscribed in the discussed literary texts. Feminism embraces varied

106
The following essay expands on the presentation given at the 32th TheoreticalLiterary Conference organized by Uniwersytet Jagieloski and Institute of Literary
Research in Janowice, September 2003.
J. Butler Gender trouble. Feminism and Subversion of Identity, London, New York 1990.
P. Dybel Refleksje wok diagramu rnicy seksualnej Jacquesa Lacana. [Reflecting
on Lacans diagram of sexual difference] Krytyka feministyczna. Siostra teorii ihistorii
literatury. G. Borkowska, L. Sikorska (eds.) Warszawa, 2000. 30-42.
Nasiowska Female identity in the 20th century Polish poetry

theoretical concepts of womanhood: from the one that posits it as aheterogeneous
element in constant motion, as a happening identity, not always present and
never finalized that emerges from Kristevas writing4 tothe utopian criture feminine
inspired by Hlne Cixous.5 The latter also posits the need toview the female voice
as revolutionary and transgressive, one that establishes its own order and subverts
heterosexual dominance. Ido not aim topresent the full range of theoretical writing
on female identity in an article as short as this. Instead, Iwould like todesignate
within it apossibly broad field of differences or, perhaps even, contradictions, which
is also what dictated my choice of literary texts that exemplify certain extremes or
verbalize the problem and present its internal tensions.
Iakowiczwna the poet
J. Bator Julia Kristeva kobieta isymboliczna rewolucja. [Julia Kristeva woman

and symbolica revolution] Teksty Drugie. 2000 Vol. 6.
The Laugh of the Medusa. Cixous also believed that breaking the dominance is tied
also tothe avant-garde literary practice and in this spirit interpreted the writing
of Genet and Joyce. See also: H. Cixous Prnoms du personne, Paris 1974; H. Cixous
Entre lEcriture Des Femmes, Paris 1986; T. Moi Hlne Cixous: An Imaginary Utopia, w:
Sexual/Textual Politics, Feminist Literary Theory, London and New York 1987. 102-125.
The vast majority of Polish nouns are gendered: English poet translates thus
toPolish as both poetka (fem. sg. nom.) or poeta (masc. sg. nom.); introducing
Iakiewiczwna in the opening paragraph (she was or is first and foremost apoet)
Nasikowska uses the female form bya poetk. [fem. sg. instrum.] For future
reference it will be important tomention that also the poets surname is gendered
with the fem. ending -wna, apractice common in her day. (AW)
A. Stern Poezja modych. Gd jednoznacznoci iinne szkice, Warszawa 1972.139.
(ZN) Stern uses the female form [poetek pl. genitive ] in the first sentence, and in
the second part he speaks of women-poets [-poetw masc., pl., genitive]. In Polish:
Kraj nasz ma szczcie do poetek. [] Kraj nasz ma szczcie rwnie do kobietpoetw, takich jak Maria Pawlikowska, Kazimiera Iakowiczwna iinne. (AW)
107
Who was Iakowiczwna? In the minds of her readers she was or is first and
foremost apoet. But there were other determinants of her existence and fate, and
her textual auto-creations include areas of non-identity that need tobe talked about.
Even my opening claim that she was apoet [poetka, fem. sg.]6 must be taken
with reservation. Anatol Stern, for instance, referencing Iakowiczwna in one of
his critical essays, referred toher using the male form of poet. Stern says: Our
country has been fortunate with poets [fem. pl.]. This goes as far back as toUrszula
Kochanowska.Our country has also been fortunate with poets [male. pl.] that were
female, such as Maria Pawlikowska, Kazimiera Iakowiczwnam and others7 Stern
proceeds todiscuss avolume of poetry by another author, forgotten today, whom he
believes todeserve aplace in our memory. Many years later Micha Gowiski used
asimilar critical concept referring tothe work of Wisawa Szymborska on the day
she was awarded honorary doctorate by Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna.
Gowiski also felt the need tocomment on his decision touse the masculine:

Iam doing this because our language endowed the male form with the privilege of generality. Using the feminine tosay that she is agreat poet [poetka, fem. sg.] Iwould suggest,
despite my intentions, that she is superior among female poets and such restriction would
be very much out of place here. Poeta [masc. sg.] describes everyone devoted tocreating
poetry, regardless of gender and it is, thus, universal.8
Both Stern and Gowiski use the masculine as acompliment whose wording is one
of the loci communes of literary criticism, apopular device used toshow appreciation..
Reading Iakowiczwnas early writing, one discovers that the hesitation regarding her status as apoetka or poeta was inscribed in her first poetic attempts. Her
fist volume, Ikarowe loty [Icarian Flights] was published in 1912 in Cracow under
the name I.K. Iakowicz [devoid of the fem. ending]. Ayear later she found herself
in aguest house in Zakopane where, as aresult of her recent literary success, she
was seated at the table next toStefan eromski whose work she passionately read.
Noticing ayoung person eromski started asmall talk asking initially about skies
and bobsleighs. As none of the topics worked, the company at the table hinted that
the young lady wrote and even published literature.
So, are you by any chance related to he asked hesitantly.
Yes, yes Iinterrupted knowing what was coming and said Actually, not
related. Iwrote those poems myself.
The face of my great neighbor went dark, slowly turning tostone, his eyes lost
interest
and kindness.
Dear God he said flatly I.K.Iakowicz is awoman!
He turned away and never looked at me again.9
Iakiewiczwna never commented on this anecdote. She referenced it again only

once, in passing and ironically: Since Ihad the same name as the young, incredibly
gifted Iakowicz, Ibecame the center of attention.10
In defense of Stefan eromski, who was unable to cope gracefully with the
social confusion, one should add that indeed from the poems collected in Ikarowe
loty there emerges a male persona of the young, incredibly gifted Iakowicz.
Nine of the poems use past tense verb forms indicating a male speaker, seven
poems use female forms. The remaining ones (constituting a majority) can be
interpreted both ways: some echoing poems by male authors, and others those
traditionally attributed to the female utterance are exemplified by lullaby or
folk-inspired fairy-tale.
The construction of the book seems toimply that the male forms will prevail while
the female remain alyrical role, aseries of poetic incarnations of the unbelievably
sensitive Iakowicz. It opens with aseries of program lyrics, or aWeltanschauung

108
10
In: Rado czytania Szymborskiej. Wybr szkicw krytycznych red. S. Balbus, D.

Wojda (eds.) Krakw 1996. 46.
K. Iakowiczwna Trazymeski zajc, Krakw 1968. 89.
K. Iakowiczwna Omuzyce iSzymanowskim, w: Wspomnienia ireportae. Warszawa
1997. 179.

declaration. Such is the message of the title poem, Ikarowe loty [Icarian Flights]
proclaiming aliberation of the human spirit, awill topower, and acult of heroism.
And so my life is laughing at me today:
Ithought that Iwould fall, broken down by yearning
That Iwill be dragging my shattered wings through dust11
11
K. Iakowiczwna Ikarowe loty. Poezje zebrane. [Icarian Flights. Collected Poems]

J. Biesiada, A. urawska- Woszczyska (eds.), Toru 1999 Vol.1. p. 23. (Here trans.
by AW)
109
Masculine verb forms (bom sdzi ibd wlk) are used for the first time in the
fourth stanza of the five but from the very beginning the poem exhibits features
tied tothe male cultural pattern that could be interpreted as signaling masculinity,
as well as clear literary reminiscences of Leopold Staff s will of power from Sny
opotdze [Dreams of Power] (1901) and Mickiewiczs Ode toYouth. The latter
echoes even more loudly in the second poem of the volume, Bunt modoci [Rebellion of the Youth] and lyrics that follow further add tothe constructed image
of the speaking subject who declares the end of melancholy and praises rebellion,
transforming into Icarus, Pilgrim and Samson, someone feeling astrong bond with
their generation and ready tomeet the demands of heroism, including apossible
participation in the patriotic goals. Such adeclaration on the eve of the Great War
seemed very timely. The sense of community is expressed through the repetitive use
of the plural we and certainly implies acollective willingness tofight: in other
words, military preparedness. At the same time, the speaker is very much aware
of the spiritual dilemmas of the recent past, which in turn are associated with the
female word soul. The lyrical tension is born between the soul whose weakness
needs tobe overcome and the spirit, declarations of power, and the willingness
toact in the real world. Poems such as these foreshadowed, in away, the activism
and vitality of the Skamander group. Tortured wombs, angels, graves, funerals
and souls are all part of the symbolic inheritance, re-evaluated with the thought of
abrighter, heroic future. It is not until the seventh poem in the volume, Tsknota
do ycia [ALonging for Life] that the feminine forms appear, but the verse itself
is stylized into afairy-tale. Its speaker is ashadow of aprincess who, clad in
stolen radiance and suspended between life and illusion, dreams the dream of
asoul. The dream, too, ends with avictory of life.
This is followed by athematically linked series centered around the confession
of a lover. He awaits death in the arms of his belowed (Psen [Half-asleep]),
dreams of the dead (Umara panienka ukazuje si spoczywajcemu [Dead Girl
Appears tothe Dreamer]), yearns, sings toarose, and becomes apoor prince. Here,
however, following afew clearly distinct poems, returns the fairy-tale character: in
the song of the orphan, in the lament of the sick and the cycle in which those poems
are included is titled Shadows, immediately suggesting role-playing which allows
to move freely between masculinity and femininity. Similarly, in the succeeding
three cycles, male and female voices are treated interchangeably.

The femininity of the speaker is clearly marked only as late as in Pie olesie
[Song of the Forest] the last, very extensive poem of the volume, dated 1908, and
which is rich in biographical references. They appear, however, only in the fourth
part of the poem that itself could be seen as speaking in several voices. Earlier
passages speak of sadness, include apoetic description of aforest, and then the so
called aetiological history akind of legendary-mythical genesis of aforest lake
followed by areference toLeon Platers death in the January Uprising. Only in the
last part does the poem mention wild bellflowers, the mothers favorite flowers,
whose language the poor and orphaned (the feminine form of the adjectives clearly
indicates awoman) cannot understand.
While markers of femininity are not given prime importance in the volume,
poems utilizing male subjectivity and referencing traditionally masculine gender
characteristics do not exhibit features found in the poetry of mask or role-playing
they use the confession of strong internal emotionality referring tothe undefined
(as it is internalized) male I translated tous that is not given aclear personal
construction. Reading it as arole-playing would necessitate referencing other than
textual knowledge of the authors gender, which in turn, seems too big of ashortcut.
Iakowicz the feminist
110
Before one begins toattribute masculinity toIakowicz, more needs tobe said
about the poet herself. Already around the time of her literary debut her feminist
consciousness was uniquely developed. She received an education in Cracow, and
earlier, in England. We know little about her studies in Oxford, where her time was
probably largely spent on overcoming the language barrier. Later (in 1908, it is
unclear for how long precisely) she studied at aLondon school for women located
on Church Street and lead by an Irishwoman, Mme DEsterre, called Amica. The
school was actually akind of women phalanstery whose life was organized around
intellectual pursuits; it followed astrictly vegetarian diet and inhabiting students
(foreigners and girls from poorer families) did not pay tuition but had tohelp with
housework. They wore uniforms resembling togas and small round caps that provoked the curiosity of onlookers but solved the problem of buying clothes. Tuition
fees were obligatory only for the non-inhabiting students, among them wives of
Members of Parliament, ministers, and Anglican clergy.
The curriculum of the house of Simple Life included what today would be
called courses in rhetoric and literature (English, French and German). It emphasized the importance of practical skills such as discussion, argumentation, presenting and defending ones opinion, the preparation of speeches, and public speaking.
These were trained during actual discussions and presentations on various abstract
subjects.12 It seems that Iakowiczwna utilized the skills acquired in London in the
1920s and 30s while preparing speeches commissioned by the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs aimed at winning support for the Polish cause abroad and presenting the

12
K. Iakowiczwna Trazymeski zajc, s. 40-44.

moral aspects of the Polands political position. She presented one of the texts for
editing toher already seventy-five year-old teacher, offering remuneration. Amica,
however, was moved by what she read and refused toaccept the money. The speeches
were indeed riveting in their literary character, as evidenced by Jak tosi dzieje,
e nasi nieprzyjaciele naprawd godni s mioci [How It Is Possible That Our Enemies Truly Deserve Love] presented in 1934 in Geneva, Prague, and Copenhagen.
It supported the idea of moral disarmament advocated by the Polish diplomacy
with the hope of avoiding the conflict that later developed into WWII. In her speech,
Iakowiczwna did not reach for political or moral arguments (like those resulting
from the Christian ethic) but presented her own, very individualistic vision relying
on personal and poetic experience.13
During her stay in England at ayoung age she also became familiar with the work
of Pankhurst women, and participated in the distribution of suffragist brochures
and newsletters herself. She sold them in London, which was not safe and could
have resulted in strict police sanctions.14 It also led toaconflict with the independence activist Marian Dbrowski, who Polish literary theory knows as the husband
of Maria Dbrowska (the author of Noce idnie), and who believed feminism tobe
harmful and contrary tothe goals of Polish independence.
The practicing of patriotism was for Iakiewiczwna also an occasion tocross
the boundaries of traditional gender roles. Already as achild, reading Sienkiewiczs
The Trilogy, she identified with the protagonists: Iwas Bohun, Iwas Kmicic.15
In the fervent atmosphere of preparation for military action she wrote a letter
from London toJzef Pisudski, whom she knew personally, offering her services
as aide-de-camp. For this purpose she also enrolled in ashooting course and had
some success until she was asked toshoot live pigeons. Ilakowiczwna refused
dryly, informing her instructor that since the Muscovites did not fly, she saw no
point in killing innocent birds. Raised by the Plater family (after her mothers
death she was under the care of Zofia Plater-Zyberkowa), the poet must have
remembered the history of Emilia Plater. In Liksna upon Dwina she was shown
the place where Emilia, as achild, was believed tohave kept aflower garden. The
family of the heroine, however, was full of reservation regarding her activities
Iakiewiczwna quotes one of the aunts:
13
14
15
16
Text based on the version printed in Polish in the Polish press. In : Wspomnienia
ireportae. 28-54.
K. Iakowiczwna cieka obok drogi, Warszawa 1939. 39-41. Emmeline and her
daughter, Christabel Pankhurst fought for the voting rights of women, attempting
first toput the matter of the vote on the Parliament agenda. Since 1905, they were
deeply conflicted with the police authorities, the fight for the suffragist cause
entailed the loss of life among protesting women.
K. Iakowiczwna Niewczesne wynurzenia. Warszawa 1958. 232.
K. Iakowiczwna Trazymeski zajc. 15.
111
Because she went into the woods with agun and caused alot of trouble tothose gentlemen Imagine how embarrassing it must have been for them! 16

Pisudski rejected the offer but wrote back, explaining that women cannot serve
in the army except for performing auxiliary tasks, he added, however, that there
exist no boundaries that astrong and persevering individual could not overcome.17
Iakowiczwna tore his long letter topieces, taking offense for several years. In January 1915, she began service in aPolish medical unit in the Russian army. Working
as anurse during an epidemic she fell very ill and experienced religious conversion.
Her regained religious faith never changed Iakowiczwnas attitude towards
feminism. In the memoirs of the interwar period she repeatedly returns toher experiences as aprofessionally active, independent woman, afree one as well that is, not
tied toaman. She was one of the very few women given independent positions in
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which often led toproblems that she reminiscences
about in her memoirs. Doubts were expressed, for instance, whether awoman could
serve as adiplomatic courier. Once she won the position, the poet was handed heavy
parcels and offered no help nor protection. After one of the parcels was opened in
the Polish embassy in Berlin, it turned out that it contained asizeable ham sent as
agift tothe ambassador. She remained in touch with European feminist organizations and several of her lectures promoting Poland were organized by local groups
of educated women, which proved particularly fruitful in the Balkans. She always
emphasized the special nature of these contacts and the unbelievable ability of
women toovercome organizational difficulties and prejudice, resulting from their
non-traditional attitudes.18
Her dream of serving Pisudski as an aide was fulfilled, although differently than
expected, after the May Coup d'tat when she accepted, not without hesitation, the
position and title of Secretary of the Minister of Military Affairs. She believed the
role tobe difficult, bureaucratic and burdensome. It involved, she says in cieka
obok drogi, answering letters in Marshalls name so that he would not have todeal
with this particular task personally. Those included pleas for help, complaints about
local authorities, pleas for financial support, and which came in the thousands every
month. She was the only woman in a company of men, military men, who were
often hostile toher, and generally biased against women. Addressing her nieces in
the memoirs she offered advice on overcoming the reluctance of male colleagues.
Ido not know if in the future women are going towork in offices, and if they are, if they
are going tohave tofight against their colleagues instinctive hostility towards their very
presence in their place of work, and on equal footing, as we do today. But should nothing
change in this respect, you must remember that the womans greatest enemy is not her
biased colleague but her own nervousness. If persecution mania is allowed to develop
along with asense of martyrdom, if your good mood is lost, you have just defeated yourself.
Nothing will save you then.19

112
17
18
19
K. Iakowiczwna cieka obok drogi, s. 41, jest toomwienie zapamitanego tekstu,

nie cytat.
See remarks on women in Bulgaria and Romania in: Wspomnienia ireportae.
K. Iakowiczwna cieka obok drogi. 234.

Today, we would say that she was avictim of gender discrimination. By fulfilling
apublic function Iakowiczwna was also very aware of the customary social expectations regarding clothes (day suit, afternoon dress, evening gown), hairstyle
(obligatory permanent weave, regular visits tothe salon), or hats (one does not appear
bareheaded in public). She argued with atailor who suggested adress she deemed
too short, believing that her position required aclassical style rather than aslavish
adherence tocurrent fashion. She always traveled with several suitcases and ahat
box. In other words, she did not shun purely extrinsic forms tied tothe notion of
womanhood, public position, norms of conduct, and the fact of representation. In
the moments when the issue resurfaces one glimpses clear signs of anarcissistic
satisfaction resulting from successfully meeting particularly strict demands, or on
the contrary signs of narcissistic anxiety regarding those demands. During the
making of adocumentary on people surrounding Marshall Pisudski, she was unhappy with her old, patched dress and unfavorable appearance: My chin extended
from shoulders tothe lips and Ilooked like Tsarina Catherine II in the last years of
her rule. 20 Such complaints are typical of awoman anxious about her appearance
and subjecting herself to harsh self-control. As a writer she can compensate the
anxiety with self-irony, but she does not negate the constant care for external form
and asense of dependence on external evaluation.
Androgyne and the child
20
21
Ibidem, 175.
D. Baron Grammar and Gender, New Haven and London 1986.
113
In the tale of Iakowiczwna meanings first seem inclined towards masculinity only toindicate femininity later on. Interpretations alluding togender identity
disorders should be rejected, however, as relying on open and ungrounded psychologism. Iwill add only that in my use of biographical material Irefer exclusively
toIakowiczwnas own written testimony, remaining within the scope of her point
of view.
Her identity seems to present itself as an unsolvable riddle, a paradox, but
nothing justifies apotential claim that we are dealing with something dangerous
or pathological. It is not an act of transgression, nor acase of gender disorder as
it was with Maria Komornicka.
One could definitely say that as much as there are attempts in contemporary
Polish feminism toenforce the policy of using female forms torefer toprofessions
and functions exercised by women, at the beginning of the 20th century feminist
consciousness entailed afight for the right touse the masculine torefer towomen.
Grammatical forms are often ideologized, as evidenced by Dennis Baron in Grammar
and Gender.21 And so, today one will meet women referring tothemselves using the
feminine forms of professions such as literary critic, historian of ideas, anthropologist, or sociologist. Meanwhile, Iakowiczwna used the masculine when she said
was aministers secretary, diplomatic courier, civil servant and she wanted tobe

an aide-de-camp [masc] those are the forms used in her memoirs. It was, in the
majority of cases, her own choice, only the function of Secretary of the Minister
of Military Affairs [masc.] was named so by Pisudski. Such a form was meant
toexpress the independence and the autonomy of her position, putting distance
between Iakowiczwna and the military men surrounding her, immunizing her
from the attempts toform cliques, and isolating her from the potential intrigue. All
of this also required acertain personal predisposition that Pisudski expressed (and
Iakowiczwna repeated not without approval) in following words: In the army
you are not awoman, you are Kazia.22 Iakowiczwna never tied herself toaman
and the issue of romantic relationships with men (or women) never resurfaces in her
memoirs. In other peoples memoirs of her one may find vague allusions toagreat,
never expressed love for amarried aristocrat.
The fact of overlapping of different identities that refer automatically tomutually
exclusive biological definitions of man or woman should be approached as agrammatical inconvenience that enforces an inevitable choice either/or on every
language user. If you are aman you use masculine inflection, if you are awoman
you use the feminine such is the simple (not tosay vulgar) instruction absorbed
unconsciously by the language user that is also one of the elements of the male
domination in the language.23
Iakowiczwnas writing exhibits aclear attempt toconstruct acomplex identification which includes different ranges: the male and the female, as well as the
childish, in the poetic work. The categories of cultural anthropology would describe
it with the term of cultural valence used by Antonina Koskowska todiscuss the
situation of people belonging to, or living on, the ethnic fringes of two (or more)
cultures. Bivalence (or polivalence) is asense of belonging fully totwo or more cultures at the same time, without the need tochoose (ambivalence). One can be thus
both aJew and aPole, or today for instance, aPole and an American. Viewing
Iakowczwnas writing through feminist categories we face awhole range of issues:
a fight against gender patterns enclosing women in the restrictive gender ideal,
aconscious attempt at emancipation, and finally, acts of subversive overstepping of
boundaries and rebellion against the requirements of apatriarchal grammar. Finally,
androgyny as described by Virginia Woolf in ARoom of Ones Own, is understood as
an opportunity tocombine the elements of both genders.
Let us take alook at the following sentence that appears grammatically shocking.
Widely renown ophthalmologist [masc. sg.], Dr Fugulian, is also agreat cook [fem.
sg.] and hostess. It comes from the poetic prose of Zrozbitego fotoplastikonu,24 one of
Iakowiczwnas first attempts at writing awar memoir. Earlier, the character of
Fugulian apppears just once and in the feminine ([she] started fire). The quoted
sentence opens the second paragraph, and it is thus clearly exposed and immediately

22
114
23
24
K. Iakowiczwna cieka obok. 237.

K. Handke Jzyk adeterminanty pci. Jzyk akultura. Vol. 9, Pe wjzyku ikulturze.
J. Anusiewicz, K. Handke (eds.) Wrocaw 1994. 15-30.
K. Iakowiczwna, XX. Zrozbitego fotoplastikonu . Warszawa 1957. 42.
draws attention with its grammatical eccentricity, and with the impossibility of the
proposed construct. It de-constructs every essentialist vision. As adoctor, Fugulian
is arenown ophthalmologist [masc. sg.] while remaining agreat cook [fem. sg.]
and hostess. Femininity and masculinity exist simultaneously, parallel, repealing
the either/or. This is only the beginning of the character presentation, further
on femininity outweighs masculinity. What follows is adescription of extremely
complicated procedures performed in an improvised kitchen and their strangeness,
resulting from cultural difference, turns them into akind of transformative ritual
that involves not only people, but also water and herbs, and the entire surrounding.
That Iakowiczwna supported the ideal of androgyny, typical of liberal feminism
of the first half of the 20th century, is something completely forgotten today. She is
simply believed tohave been aCatholic poet, probably as aresult of her meditative
and prayer poems, the legends of saints that she wrote, and her declarations of faith.
She often used masculine grammatical forms but kept the feminine ending of her
surname, even though she could have easily abandoned it. There were administrative
pressures after the war toabandon traditional endings such as owa and wna (or
ina, -lina) since it was sometimes difficult toreconstruct the basic in other words,
male form of the name that used the ending. Iakowiczwna bore her mothers name:
her biological father died in unknown circumstances and she was born out of wedlock.
The fact that her father was ason of Tomasz Zan, aphilomath and Mickiewiczs friend,
was mythologized only after her death as it had apotential totransform into larger
poetic legend. Iakowiczwna herself built her self-creation around adifferent fact,
namely, that she had two mothers, both very loving. She bore agreat sense of guilt
towards the foster mother, who looked after her after the death of the biological one,
during aturbulent period of adolescence and of gaining independence.
Iakowiczwna never wrote a straightforward memoir but her entire prose,
without exception, relies on memory, uses lived experience, and refers tothe past
and undoubtedly authorial Self. The pre-war cieka obok drogi (1938) [The Path
Next ToThe Road], intended as didactic propaganda, did not foreshadow the emergence of aprosaic talent and for several reasons was not well received. It is an odd
work which fails tosuccessfully combine the educational and patriotic attempt at
presenting aheroic leader with avery individual point of view, resulting in afalse
mannerism and tone. These reservations do not apply tothe post-war books: tothe
already mentioned cycle Zrozbitego fotoplastikonu [From aBroken Kaiser-Panorama]
(1957) which could be classified as poetic prose, toNiewczesne wynurzenia [Untimely
Confessions] (1958), and Trazymeski zajc [Trasimeno Hare] (1968), nor to the
pre-war essays. Niewczesne wynurzenia and Trazymeski zajc refer tochildhood, the
interwar years and the poets travels that revealed toher the relativity of all customs
believed tobe universal and non-debatable, and tothe years 1939-1948, when she
stayed in Transylvania, immersed in the Romanian-Hungarian context and supporting herself by teaching languages.
The poets memoirs are always arranged in very particular constellations of remembered impressions, shards, and fragments. Despite reservations concerning the
115

failings of memory [lit. hare memory], Iakowiczwnas descriptions are precise,
and events, once related, are not retold, except for an occasional reference serving as
areminder tothe reader. Her narrative memoirs are never composed chronologically,
each time forming abundle arranged discontinuously. In my attempt torelate the
attitude tofemininity and masculinity thematized in all of her books, Ihad toperform avery drastic procedure of arranging the elements according toapre-conceived
interpretative key while in fact in her writing the issue is dispersed among several
others. The title of Zrozbitego fotoplastikonu is avery accurate formal description.
Events spin, the meaning is fluid.
The world is aspecial place towhich Icould never quite get used to. From the
earliest days of childhood Ihave always had astrange sense of aconstant provisional,
temporality, of non-finality. Things seemed tome and then completely suddenly
they would stop being what they seemed.25 This declaration opens the lecture
Imentioned earlier, presenting the Polish idea for the reconciliation of nations on
the international forum. Ibelieve non-crystallization tobe the fundament of poetic
personalization the poet continues What Ineed around me is not an emptiness
or rigidity but acertain fluidity, aflexible chaos from which Ican tear away molecules that Ineed toshape my worlds.26 It is aclearly anti-essentialist declaration.
After Ikarowe Loty Iakowiczwna never repeated the early experiment with the
hiding of gender but she never stopped blurring it either. What is important is that
it is akind of identity shaped completely outside the field of romantic relationships
with men, unrelated to it, and including a broad range of varied roles. She very
often draws upon the sphere of the subconscious, tied tochildhood.27Apart from
masculinity and femininity, the poet discovers the stratum of the child and there
are several instances in her work supporting Kristevas claim that the poetic sphere
belongs tothe semiotic range of the relationship with the mother. In echolalia, in
childish imagination, in the mythological imagination, in the music of the word and
the rhythm of the poem, joy (jouissance) expresses itself directed elsewhere than the
masculine symbolic order. It is avery broad sphere in this particular poet, asphere
that is safe and undoubtedly poetic, though at the same time unable togo outside
itself toquestion the hostile order.
Identity of the body

Attempts topresent the biological determination of feminine otherness are the
most pronounced version of female identity expressed in Polish poetry. It is aformulation based on aclearly essentialist premise which, from the very beginning,

25
26
116
27
K. Iakowiczwna, Jak tosi dzieje, e nasi nieprzyjaciele naprawd godni s

mioci. Wspomnienia 28.
Ibidem, 29.
Iemphasize the childhood element in my interpretation of Iakowiczwnas work in
Ciemne wiato dziecistwa. OKazimierze Iakowiczwnie.Tygodnik Powszechny
(1999) No. 37.
28
M. Hillar Dwadziecia lat mino odkd umaram, w: Gotowo do Zmartwychwstania,

Warszawa 1995, s. 9-10.
117
foreshadows difficulties to describe it with the categories of Western feminism.

It is also easily explainable: the most important poetic achievements in this field
happened after 1956, in the 60s in the case of Magorzata Hillar and in the 70s for
Anna wirszczyska, while Western traditions feminism became the subject of academic and artistic debate in Poland as late as 1989. In other words, after the poets
discussed on the following pages already passed away or stopped participating in
the artistic life. New stimuli in the feminist discussion found their expression not in
poetry but in prose, which is tied tothe emergence of the voice of anew generation
among whom aunique polarization of attitudes can be observed: many young male
writers manifest their traditionalism, or even open misogyny ,while several versions
of feminism dominate in the prose written by women (Izabela Filipiak, Manuela
Gretkowska, Olga Tokarczuk)
The feminist revolt in Polish poetry happened much earlier, and Simone de
Beauvoirs famous claim that one is not born awoman does not really correspond
toit. Womanhood given by birth and giving birth, femininity as astate and an absolute way of being in the world, biological and corporeal, became the most frequently
presented dimension of female identity. The very word feminism, used in Poland
on regular basis before WWII (also by Iakowiczwna) vanished from the public
discourse in the decades of the Peoples Republic. The feminist movement was
strictly licensed and controlled ideologically during Communism. But it was also
the time when genuine social change took place, when the revival of aspirations and
equality in access toeducation, as well as the professional activities of women were,
on the one hand, anecessity, and on the other, auniversally accepted social fact.
Magorzata Hillar declared herself afeminist as late as in an ex post confession,
formulated at the end of her life, after several years of silence and absence from
cultural life. In the introduction toher last volume of poetry she reveals the rejection by her mother (that she compensated for with the cult of the Virgin Mary)
tohave been the psychological background of her literary work. She continues: Iam
awoman and afeminist, fully aware of my womanhood and accepting it as my
otherness. Ihave never tried toresemble men toachieve equality, in fact, Icherish
my otherness, remaining acutely aware of the evident discrimination of women. Of
social discrimination, as well as economical, political, religious, and all other kinds
of discrimination. 28 She nonetheless believed her feminist work tobe marginal:
Ithink Ihave written only two feminist poems. She refers totwo texts from Czekanie na Dawida [Waiting for David] (1967), avolume containing a16-poem cycle
devoted tomotherhood. Hillar considers Kropla deszczu [ADrop of Rain] and
ycie jest jedno [There is One Life] tobe her feminist poems and which seems
tofollow from her commentary does not identify writing about womanhood and
expressing the female experience with feminism.
In both poems there reappears asimilar idea: that of male creativity as something
destructive, responsible for starting wars, contrasted with the biological creativity of

women, one that brings life and peace. The male need for dominance is viewed as
ahidden subtext of all invention and social discovery and two extremes: creative
though in fact destructive masculinity and femininity entailing the pain of birth
and sacrifice are divided by an abyss. This abyss could be crossed perhaps at some
point in the future, by amatriarchal society. In Czekanie na Davida (1967) Hillar
considers the possibility of awomen-built civilization. When she/ takes over/ the
world/ peace will follow and as it is the last poem of the volume, the statement
is strongly emphasized. Atoned down version of the poem, from 1995, introduces
aconditional If she/ took over / the world, / peace would follow. 29 The possibility
of amatriarchate is, thus, believed tobe an impossible hypothesis.
It is difficult toconfront those texts with philosophical questions. Hillars poems
are aconfession intertwined with assessment of the present and condemnation of
war. They use stereotypes and today often seem tobe aslightly subdued and femininely transformed variety of the ideological vision back from the day of Peoples
Republic. Womanhood is an impassable condition here and appears tobe marked by
an unsolvable drama: the need for male love and at the same time the impossibility
tobuild an understanding more permanent than the temporary relief found in the
act of love. Also, the child reveals itself as the Other in the poems on motherhood,
desired but objectified and impossible tobe expressed as asubject, apink human
suckling pig from Karmica. [Nursing].
However, the ease with which Hillars vision could be overthrown is deceptive.
The construction of the subject in her poems proves, in fact, the validity of the
feminist critique of patriarchy the mystified, metaphysical construction of the
female subject confronted with the male Self tightens the female space so that it
becomes aprison. She is rejected by the Symbolic order, there is, in fact, no place
for her at all, not even enough for her tospeak. Banished from culture and harmed
by nature all she can do is fall silent.
Through a vision of physical, biological womanhood Anna wirszczyska
successfully presents both the social drama of the woman and her own vision of
liberation through overcoming the dualism of body and soul. She matured long
for this, in 1970, in anote included in Poezje Wybrane [Selected Poems] she still
believed the prose poem tobe her artistic speciality. Referring tothis period of her
work, which began in the 30s, Czesaw Miosz used the notions of intertextuality
and calligraphy. Future feminism is only foreshadowed by the multitude of
female cultural heroes in her work, such as Helen, Madame Bovary or Valkyrie.
30
. The woman is seen as placed inside male culture, her presence is emphasized
but without breaking the dominating code. She does not appear as arecognizable
voice but as acharacter. In one of the poems describing agreat concert at the court
of aruler of the past, next tothe king there squirms his lush favorite, glittering

118
29
30
M. Hillar, Czekanie na Dawida. Warszawa 1967. 67; M. Hillar Gotowo do, p. 83.
Iam indebted for this observation toAgnieszka Nietrestas research published in:
Magorzata Hillar. Ksiniczka wyobrani. Krakw 2003.
Cz. Miosz Jakiego togocia mielimy. OAnnie wirszczyskiej, Krakw 1996.

with the pomp of endearing charm. Her chest heaves rapidly. She smiles awicked
and then apainful smile. His Majesty looks the other way.31 The question of
identity of the speaking subject is not strongly pronounced here, and it would
not require much effort toprove that it could be contained by the formula of
androgyny. For example, in the prose poem Sztuka [Art], referred toby Miosz
as well, there is atalk of the desire tojest, interwoven with the tendency tobe
serious. The speaker describes the latter as adeadly seriousness of the dying
man who refers tocandles as candles and tothe wife as the wife. The equation
of manhood and masculinity is treated as something obvious but there is also
ahidden assumption that I(the speaking poet) is him. But wirszczyska early
work also contains elements of social provocation. In the cycle of portraits, Sze
kobiet, [Six women] Amelia czyli Kobieta zcharakterem [Amelia, or Woman of
Character] makes an appearance:
Amelia likes kissing men she does not love. So she kisses strange men.
She says:
This, precisely, is nice, as it is indecent.
Tobe indecent is toconfirm ones freedom.
In matters of love Amelia is an intellectual.32
31
32
A. wirszczyska Liryki zebrane, Warszawa 1958. 44.

Ibidem, 136.
119
Kissing should probably be read here as asocially acceptable expression for having
sex as in the poetry of Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska or Halina Powiatowska.
The new formula of corporeal identity emerged gradually in wirszczyskas writing, first in Czarne sowa [Black Words], in poems described as African stylizations,
and matured as late as the 70s, when the author herself was about 60. Jestem baba
(1972) [IAm Baba] can be considered abreakthrough, tied toafundamental shift in
style, toarejection of culturalism, tofactography, and laconic expression. The title
of the volume is abold and irreverent assertion of identity. Baba is disrespectful
in Polish; it is afolk expression referring toan old woman. In folk tales baba and
dziad [the male equivalent of baba] are always coupled, and dziad also means
someone poor, sometimes even abeggar (interestingly, the word for the female
beggar is dziadwka. [dziad with afem. dim. ending] The semantic field of baba
is broad and includes the negativity of tybabo [direct address that borders on
name calling]; or, more intensely: babsztylu, babiszonie [more pejorative forms
of baba womanoid]; but also the neutral, even warm, babciu [granny] in the
mouth of achild; tothe approving, self-descriptive hej babki! [hey ladies!] lets get
down towork, well show them!
As she was going through this fundamental change, in 1973, wierszczyska
talked about her poetic work in the introduction to Poezje wybrane: Style is the
poets enemy and it is most advantageous when it is non-existent. Let me explain it
with aparadoxical shortcut: writers have two goals. The first one is tocreate their
own style. The second todestroy their own style. The latter is more difficult and

takes more time.33 Only after she moved beyond the layer of cultural stylization
was wirszczyska able toopenly put the question of womanhood in the center of
attention; earlier it was a presence rather subdued, entangled in aesthetizations.
wirszczyskas new style is not her own invention only, anti-aestheticism manifested in the poetry of Rewicz seems tohave been aconvenient point of departure
here, except in Rewicz the method of constatation, simplicity, and the rejection of
metaphor serve adifferent purpose toformulate an accusation against the Western
civilization after the shock of mass annihilation. In wirszczyska, aconnection
between the war experience and achange in style is also present in the poems
about the Warsaw Uprising from Budowaam barykad [IBuilt aBarricade] (1974).
The shock of war, stylistic change, and the possibility of creating anew subject all
found acommon denominator in the need for destruction tomaintain relevance.
Jestem baba is amanifesto not of female poetry but of baba poetry, with its triumph of womanhood devoid of belying mysticism. wirszczyska positions her own
corporeal sensations in relation tothe experience of women disrespected the most: old
peasant women, city beggars, wives of alcoholics, those giving birth in pain and those
who die forgotten by everyone. The Self must be placed within agaping amplitude
of ones own physical sensations that extends between temporary but boundless happiness and acute pain and utter despair, which in aromantic relationship with aman
can also become the sign of intensity of life. Other women are included in the sense
of empathy, the female Self understands them and describes them without much
difficulty. Female identity is contrasted with the male only on one plane that of
social life, always seen from the outside and viewed as babas sub-condition. Men
and women are equal in the Uprising episodes described in Budowaam barykad, in
the extreme and life-threatening situation. Their reactions are described as acapacity
for sacrifice always contrasted with cowardice, while idealism is paradoxically coupled
with practicality in both sexes. Similar equality appears also in the face of death. The
difference reveals itself in the normal world, exposed by love and all that which is
social; however, this does not directly concern the situation of the female speaker, the
female persona of the poem. What we seem tobe facing here is one of the paradoxes of
the poetical vision of the world, atendency toexclude the speaking Self from gender
obligations and stereotypes. Seeing from the inside always changes the perspective.
The female I is, in away, fuller, truer, closer tothe existential truth because of
the pain and experience of motherhood from which the body cannot be excluded.
This, however, is not contrasted with the male experience of subjectivity. In love,
the female I is so strong that it even views pain as an expression of the heat of
emotion. Alove relationship with aman resembles aduel Our two hatreds / bite
each other / with their beautiful white teeth the poet says in an epigrammatic verse
from Szczcie jak psi ogon [Happy As Dogs Tail]. 34 Only afriendship with the man,

120
33
34
Awirszczyska, Poezje wybrane, Warszawa 1973.15. Quoted in Mioszs book

and by Magorzata Baranowska in Szymborska, wirszczyska dwa bieguny
codziennoci. Sporne postaci polskiej literatury wspczesnej. Warszawa, 1996. 17..
A. wirszczyska Gryz si [Biting] Szczliwa jako psi ogon. Krakw, 1978. 67.

most strongly pronounced in wirszczyskas last, posthumous volume, exhibits
apossibility of acomplete understanding.
The corporeal formula of womanhood in wirszczyska is aradical challenge
tothe centuries of tradition holding everything that is of the flesh as lower, and
as aresult something that must be denied, rejected ,and contrasted with elevating
spirituality. That wirszczyska re-evaluates the body is her great merit. It would be
futile toattempt adeconstructive critique here and claim that the poet relies in fact
on the linguistic construct of the body and not its identity, which the body does not
have outside the cultural matrix; or that she practices akind of nave realism and
utilizes metaphysical calques telling us tobelieve in the essence anchored outside
the text. wirszczyska changes the matrix: she begins tobuild her vision of the
human being beginning with herself as awoman and with her own body in order
tocreate acertain kind of corporeal spirituality, not fully free from the dualism of
body and soul but always assuming an irreducible physicality. In Zostan babk
klozetowa [IWill Be AToilet Cleaning Lady] she talks about the soul as the good
old sister of the bladder and the bowel. The female protagonists of her poems are
familiar and empathic figures: toilet cleaner, beggar, wife of adrunk, peasant, and
an old mother forgotten by her children. There is no sense of strangeness or distance
between their world and the emotions of the speaker that could result, for instance,
from the difference in the educational background or the condition of the artist,
someone socially aware, independent, and in control of her life. On the contrary,
there is apossibility of identification.
Sometimes aplayful fight between body and soul takes place (for instance in
Dusza iciao na play, [Body and Soul On The Beach]), but the body has stronger
arguments at its disposal. Existence itself is corporeal. But here also the drama of
existence opens, resulting from its impermanence. When Irun, / Ilaugh with my
feet // When Irun, / Iswallow the world with my feet // When Irun, / Ihave ten feet
// All my feet / shout. // Iexist only / when Irun.35 IHave Ten Feet resembles, in
away, Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending aStaircase. The poems motivations are
different, though, as it shows the ecstatic sensation of movement from the inside.
Instead of Ithink, therefore Iam, we are told Irun, so Iexist. Almost ascetic,
with their very simple language wirszczyskas poems are entangled in various
polemic references toastagnant tradition. Their heroine develops afemale version
of the will topower, but she never once mentions Nietzsche because intertextuality, or debate, is not her point.
Two patterns, several models
35
A. wirszczyska Mam dziesi ng [IHave Ten Feet] Szczliwa jako psi ogon.
Krakw, 1978. 13.
121
Androgyny is ahighly complex type of identity that does not result in asingle
model, and which contains varied cultural masculine and feminine ranges. Its shape
is always an individually constructed mosaic. Its presence is usually discreet: the
122
speaking subject often simply avoids using grammatical forms that disclose gender,
and the text can be read as both masculine and feminine. This way, the speaker of
the poem neutralizes the compulsion todefine each situation with regards togender
present in normal social life. This is also why androgyny is difficult tospot, as the
appearance of aneutral utterance does not exclude incidental returns tofemininity, or its strong accentuation in selected spheres and weak presence in others.
Iakowiczwnas work is an opportunity to trace the motifs and the methods of
constructing such acomplex identity, quite common at the beginning of the century.
Female androgyny is atypical formula of modernist individualism.36
Ibelieve it tobe something more than just an adventure of gender in the period
of Young Poland which was hostile towards women. It is astarting point for the
development of one of the most common models of the Self, tied tothe aspiration of female emancipation. The androgynous I establishes itself directly in the
world, and does not view the romantic relationship with aman tobe the only, the
most important, and generally privileged model on which ones self-creation is tobe
founded. Naturally, in several instances one could point out the poets dispersion in
the dominant model; however, it needs tobe stressed that androgyny does not entail
alack of female identification, but rather its co-existence with models identified
culturally as more masculine and, at the same time, an awareness of non-finality
of all description and the fluidity lurking beneath it. At the beginning of the century,
such identification was an act of independence and courage, even though today the
clarity of this option is blurred and unintelligible. It has found its continuation,
however, and is the main voice in poetry written by women. Most poetic texts by
Szymborska are undetermined. What draws attention is their rationalism and the
ability totransform situations into intellectual generalizations. Their irony reveals
astrong polemic intention towards the male stereotypes rather than agentle one.
Androgyny and anti-essentialism also characterize the construction of the subject
in the poetry of Julia Hartwig, where the love relationship is amarginal experience
in the process of constructing subjectivity.
Visions of womanhood as astrong, basic and irreducible part of identity (and not
as afeature of inferiority, but on the contrary, an element of positive characterization) require arevolution of values. Tobase the positive vision of womanhood on
the biologically defined sex, wirszczyska had toarrange the relation of nature
and culture differently than it has been done before, assuming the former to be
afundamental dimension towhich absolute truth is related. It was not arevolution
of language in Polish poetry and so there are few instances that could be viewed
as an implementation of the idea of criture feminine. It is also difficult toview the
biologically defined female identity as containable by mainstream feminism which
energetically cuts itself off from the biological definitions as agateway tothe worst
sort of determinism. wirszczyskas poetry is close toRewiczs tradition. Identity

36
Compare: G. Ritz Moda Polska atransgresja pciowa. Ni wlabiryncie podania. Warszawa,

2002. 111-136.

is afactor from the outside of the text and its textual representation does not require
the construction of adifferent, feminine language: it assumes anew order of values.
One could note, however, that what we are given on the level of text is not identity
but aconviction of its existence outside the text, and as aresult, amyth of identity.
This is why wirszczyska wants todestroy style; at some point she gives up calligraphy she was close todebuting. After the female revolution of values she has
tostrengthen the referential dimension of the text so that she can reach through
the word-transmitter towhat really matters.
Those two patterns of identity do not exhaust the issue of poetic creations concerning womanhood; they only point toone of the lines of tension. The difficulty in
capturing phenomena has several causes. The feminist revolution took place in Polish
poetry without the feminist debate, todays categories do not fully correspond tothe
historical situation. Sometimes one cannot even describe the internal convictions
contained in the text with the categories proposed by Western feminism which continues toemphasize the constraint (and oppressiveness) of heterosexuality, whereas
Polish poets willingly mythologize the heterosexual act of sex seeing in the process
the value of rebellion, of crossing the cultural norm that in fact imposes silence.
123
Marek Zaleski
Biaoszewski: Idyllic
It has been half acentury since the publication of Miron Biaoszewskis debut
making collection. Biaoszewski turned out tobe arevelator of poetic language of
the scale that today is still difficult toassess, but the novum of his poems in 1956
relied also on their bringing forth arecord of aperipheral existence, avery particular kind of record although that too was obviously influenced by the venerable
poetic tradition. His poetic work can be placed within the tradition of the idyll of
the Self, especially in one of its models that Renato Poggioli names the the idyll
of ones own room (67).1 Ones own room is tobe understood not as much abastion of privacy (which around that time was completely unprotected), but rather
as ashelter or arecess providing the peace necessary for contemplation and relief.
It is the locus amoenus of the Stalinist age. Rituals and object filling this private
space, such as the stove like atriumphal arch (in Oh! Oh! Should They Take
Away My Stove),2 or the wardrobe (Sztuki pikne mojego pokoju) transform

124
R. Poggioli Wierzbowa fujarka [The Oaten Flute] transl. F. Jarzyna, Zagadnienia

Rodzajw Literackich, Vol. 3.1, p. 67. Biaoszewskis volume is rich in traditional
pastoral imagery, such as the suburban garden of Eden in Ballada zmakaty in all
its seasons; abeer selling booth in Woomin that summons the shepherds like the
manger in Bethlehem (Filozofia Woomina); there are Chekhovian oxen and angels
in Sowa dokadane do winiowych wow and the smell of hallway in aWarsaw
tenement building evokes the image of ahop plantation on the day of brewing.
(Zadumanie osieni kamienicznej)
Quotations from Biaoszewski based on translations by Andrzej Busza and Bogdan
Czaykowski [BCZ]. Where translations were unavailable, Ileave original poem titles
and provide aworking translation of the quoted passage (AW)
Zaleski Biaoszewski: Idyllic
Discussed by Agata Bielik-Robson in Duch powierzchni. Rewizja romantyczna ifilozofia,

Uniwersitas, Krakw (2004) 148 and elsewhere.
Acknowledging the importance of the heroic attitude, one would be more inclined
toacknowledge an even greater importance of adifferent one, one suspicious
towards itself, one that looks for ready-mades among the rubbish and attempts
toinvestigate their usefulness, one that is likely tobe described as scavengery ()
This scavenging attitude is very important in poets. J. ukasiewicz, Szmaciarze
ibohaterowie. [Rag-men and Heroes] Wi, Warszawa (1963) 109.
Sandauer saw in Biaoszewski acombination of an artist and atramp. The critic
relied perhaps too heavily on Sartres reading of Genet in Jean Genet comedien et
martyr, also recalled in his essay (Poezja rupieci [Poetry of oddment] Kultura, 1966
Vol. 29-30). Of course Biaoszewski is not acriminal but he has asimilar attitude.
After: Sandauer, Samobjstwo Mitrydatesa. Czytelnik (Warszawa) 1968. 121 and 127.
125
the hermitage into aprivate Sans souci in which one dances the quadrille and precious time passes, as the ending of the latter poem informs. Solitude is an essential
state tothe contemplating mind, as essential as air and the mythology of apoet
which in this case is nothing other than aprivate idyll of belonging, belonging
toaconfraternity and not just any confraternity: the speaker of Biaoszewskis
poem is aware that he joins along lineage of predecessors: Yet/ my hermitage/
has its temptations:/ solitude / memories of the world / and that Iconsider myself
apoet. (Of My Hermitage With Calling [BCZ]).
Ones own room is also an extension of the Self which for Biaoszewski is the
most basic instance of beingintheworld omnipresent tothe extent characteristic of Romantic poets who perceived the boundaries of the Self tobe the only
boundaries of the world. It is interesting indeed that an archantiRomantic such
as Biaoszewski shares with the Romantics the belief in the supremacy of the Self,
aparadox that could perhaps be explained if one views his poetry as ademonstration of power of the projecting, creative Self of the poet in other words, if one
views Biaoszewski poetic work as arealization of the defensive and aggressive
variety of subjectivity (148).3 Hyperactivity of the lyrical voice is an attempt
toreconcile the contradiction resulting from existence within two separate and
conflicting orders: subjectivity and the world. Biaoszewski achieves this in the
simplest possible way by negation. He strives tobe like achild: unified with
the world. And the worm of consciousness? The poet pretends not tofeel its bite.
Being in all possible forms is good by its very nature and such is our existence in
it as well. Iam happy that Ithink (from AJoyful SelfPortrait [BCZ]) means:
Iam happy, therefore Iam: consciousness is adance of joy the poem continues.
Being is joy, but being no more is joy unspeakable.
Readings of Biaoszewskis early poems offered by prominent critics such as
Jacek ukasiewicz and Artur Sandauer determined important interpretative directions inasmuch as they mystified the body of his work. The poets alienation,
his decision totake the position of an outsider his scavengery, emphasized by
ukasiewicz,4 and the allegedly ostentatious, almost nihilistic strategy of avagrant posited by Sandauer,5 were in fact or so one might infer today strategies

of adandy who turns necessity into virtue, achoice definitely more aesthetic than
political. Sandauers categorization in particular appears tobe amisunderstanding. The nonchalance of the critic paired with his patronal goodwill (the latter
cannot be denied) equipped him with too great an inclination toutter halftruths
about Biaoszewskis poetry.
It was neither poetry of atramp nor apoetry of oddment. Biaoszewski
was a dandy and he longed for things of beauty, even though he had to settle
for oddments, and those who remember him, recall him as someone far from
atramp. The fascination with ugliness and rubbish, attributed (and suggested)
tohim by Sandauer were not his own. Sandauer writes: Biaoszewski is fascinated
with broken and derelict objects, neglected and covered with dust. What seems
yet another apotheosis of commonality, the floor [in his poem] is nothing
else than the the lying side of our daily Lord, our ordinary days. After acloser
look, one discovers that the more disused the object, the more will Biaoszewski
be fascinated with it. Both Biaoszewski and Czachorowski practiced the cult
of beauty:
Mirons poetic youth seems almost compensational with regard tothe severe poverty of
existence rich and baroque, laden with jewels of metaphors, expansive, multiworded.
This is how his friend, SwenCzachorowski, wrote as well; it was apoetic cultivated in the
circles of young poets of Kobyka. He did not immediately obey Ludwiks [Hering] absolute
and adamant postulate: brevity, austerity, not tosay ordinariness. (257)6
But it was also not everyday beauty, which in the work of other poets for
instance, in Leopold Staff s Wiklina invites rather sentimental sacralizations
of the ordinary. The fascination with what is accessible totouch and sight, generally common, everyday, and rudimentary, apparent in The Revolution of Things, is
of arather different origin. It results from the experience of uncanniness of the
ordinary. Such acategory immediately leads us in the direction of the Freudian
Unheimliche, except in this case we seem tobe facing its so tosay positive variety.
Biaoszewski appears tobe aphenomenologist of what Freudian discourse would
refer toas Unheimliche der Gewhnlichkeit, but the convenient Freudian trope is
false in this particular instance. Amore suitable interpretation of Unheimliche as
strangeness is suggested by Stanley Cavell in his investigation of the ordinary;
it is the result of skepticism that has that found its newer incarnation in the
philosophy of language from Wittgensteins writings. Modern skepticism equips
language as a tool of everyday communication with the ability, or even desire,
to undermine and challenge itself and by doing this it raises awareness of the
surreal character of the real, in other words, of nonobviousness of what is real.
From this perspective, the world itself becomes problematic ascandal tophi
126
H. Kirchner Tworzenie Mirona. Nowe rda biograficzne In: Pisanie

Biaoszewskiego. M. Gowiski, Z. apiski (eds) Wydawnictwo IBL PAN (Warszawa)
1993. 257.
10
S. Cavell The Uncannines of the Ordinary in: Cavell, In quest of the Ordinary:
Lines in Scepticism and Romanticism, Chicago University Press, Chicago 1988. 154:
My idea is that what in philosophy is known as skepticism (for example, as in
Descartes, Hume and Kant) is arelation tothe world, and toothers, and tomyself,
and tolanguage, that is known towhat you might call literature, or anyway
responded toin literature, in uncounted other guises in Shakespeare's tragic
heroes, in Emerson's and Thoreau's "silent melancholy" and "quiet desperation," in
Wordsworth's perception of us as without "interest," in Poe's "perverseness." Why
philosophy and literature tonot know this about one another and tothat extent
remain unknown tothemselves has been my theme ut seems tome forever.
Ryszard Nycz discusses modern epiphany in Literatura jako trop rzeczywistoci.
Universitas, Krakw (2001) 41 and elsewhere.
A. Bielik Robson discusses epiphany as providing affirmative power in the
disenchanted world and the related, inextricable will toparticipate of the
subject as well as the power of the gaze complementing the sphere of ontology in the
Introduction toCh. Taylor rda podmiotowoci. Narodziny tosamoci nowoczesnej
[Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity] transl. M. Gruszczyski
et. al., T. Gadacz (ed.) with an Introduction by A. Bielik-Robson. PWN, Warszawa
(2001) p. L and n. Bielik-Robson develops the idea in Duch powierzchni. 126, 343 and
elsewhere.
Dziewi uwag do portretu Jzefa Stalina In: A. Wat. wiat na haku ipod kluczem.
K. Rutkowski (ed.) Polonia Book Fund, London 1985. 135-136.
127
losophy as Kant would have said.7 What evokes anxious attention or fascination
bordering on awe is the epiphanic scene of appearance, the aura of event in itself.
Beginning with Hofmannsthal, the appearance of an ordinary thing in its proper
form, natural and almost necessary and yet suddenly nonobvious and resisting
our knowledge of it (both visual knowledge and one previously acquired that allow
for its immanentization or assimilation) represents the modern epiphany.8 This is
precisely how an epiphany happens also in The Revolution of Things [Obroty rzeczy]
where the appearance of things is always helped by the presence of the subject.9
The subject reveals itself as anecessary catalyst, an interaction and acopresence,
as the Self is more than the locus of manifestation of principium individuationis.
It is also its cosmic extension: We are starfish. / Not separate from anything. /
Dispersed. (My rozgwiazdy [We, starfish]). In Noce nieoddzielenia [The
Nights of Unseparateness] the subject is acoexistence. It is from my breast
/ that stairs of reality growStrike me / Ostructure of my world! (My Jacobs
of Exhaustion [BCZ]) Biaoszewski facilitates the appearance of things because
the phenomenon never ceases toplease and amaze him: Igape astonished / and
Iastonish myself / and comment on the lives of things around me. (Of My Hermitage With Calling [BCZ])
An older division of labor, as Aleksander Wat observes, assumed surprise and
marvel to be the domain of philosophers while the task admiration was given
topoets.10 This division was abandoned in Romanticism in Balon, sentimental
poet Kajetan Komian writes: Our task is togaze, marvel and praise. His sense
of marvel still concerns, conventionally, the high object of rhetorical decorum (in

this particular case, fairer sex). One of the Romantics compared poetic admiration toachilds sense of wonder.11 But the Romantic poet became aphilosopher.
Admittedly, a philosopher in the service of a beloved absolute, the absolute of
Beauty that demanded admiration, but admiration accompanied by afearful wonder
or awe. Romantic beauty began torelish the sublime, where awe is an important
acategory in the investigation of the nature of esthetic experience. In the gaze of
Mickiewiczs subject in Sonnets of the Crimea, wonder at the world of natural objects
and phenomena is accompanied both by admiration and awe. The postRomantic
poets gladly position themselves in this aesthetic, although, tired with the growing
degree of intellectualization of the discourse on the subject, they are ready toside
with the naive gaze. Beauty, according toJosif Brodski, strips away sense from
reality. Faced with an object or phenomenon that evoke admiration, one does not
ask what they mean, it is enough that they are. Biaoszewski strives tobe achild of
admiration understood in such nave terms.
The instance of the appearance of things does not awe the speaking subject, it
does not frighten nor confuse him, or bring forth resistance or manifestations of
cognitive helplessness in the face of strange order. In the scene of their appearance,
things are illuminated by an aura of positive sublimity and this appearance of things
needs tofind appropriate representation in the language of the poet, arepresentation
worthy of ordinariness taking the form of mystery play:
How glad Iam
that you are asky and akaleidoscope
that you have so many artificial stars.
and that you shine so in amonstrance of brightness when Iraise
your hollowed half globe round the eyes
against the air.
How unrestrained you are
in your richness
my colander. (Grey Eminences of Rapture [BCZ])
128
The stove in the poem is also beautiful in the evening when it enters the
elements/ of monumental shrouding. In Podogo, bogosaw! [Bless, OFloor!]
the presence of the floor, its color and texture, greybrowness of turnip makes an
appearance in several scenes, perseverations, and alternations. Biaoszewski writes
his own Metamorphoses. Each increasingly devout presentation of the object in the
poem is atrace of what its essence appears tobe. Throughout this chase, changes
its ontological status: the thing becomes aconcerting word as in Czachorowskis
poems, the order of language, in other words, the order of late allegory, is revealed
as the proper order of the existence of things. Finally, the attempt toexpress [in
words] turns into an incantation, in aprayerful chant.
This presentation is has been making appearance forms in poetry in increasingly
diversified since Romanticism: next topoetry that entered the circle of tormented

11
S. Coleridge, Biografia Litteraria, Vol. 1, London 1817. 85.

delectation with the sublime and awesome, there is also poetry that is celebratory,
epiphanically hymnal (vide Novalis) but also ironic, arecord of negative sublimity
(vide Baudelaire), inspired by the surprise of things precisely by the simplest
ones. It was Wordsworth who spoke of dignities of plain occurrence (5).12 And
dignities of plain occurrences are only astep away from the dignity of trivial and
insignificant. Mickiewicz gives an intriguing reply tohis friends insistence that he
visited the alleged grave of Homer in Smyrna.
Iwas entirely uninterested in that!There was [at the entrance toHomers Tomb] apile
of manure and rubbish, all remains thrown in together: filth, rubbish, swill, bones, broken
skulls, apiece of old shoe sole, some feathers that Iliked the most. It stood there for along
time, as it all looked tome like front of an inn in Poland. (561)13
12
13
14
15
Dignities of plain occurrence. After: P.V. Marinelli Pastoral. The Critical idiom.
Methuen, London (1971) 5.
After: D. Siwicka. Turcja In: J.M. Rymkiewicz, D. Siwicka, A. Witkowska,
M. Zieliska Mickiewicz. Encyklopedia. wiat Ksiki, Warszawa (2001) 561.
Asmall thing! Is it asmall thing? tosee in the movement of heel,/ in the cork
sole of the shoe tosee the soul at work it is drama! Norwid, Aktor [Actor] (second
version). Act I, Sc. I. 8-14. R. Nycz describes those trivial events and details that
in Norwids Black Flowers and White Flowers become the center point of simple
allegories as an novel project of an epiphanic discourse in Literatura jako trop
rzeczywistoci. 90 and elsewhere.
J. Kwiatkowski Liturgia iabulia in: J. Kwiatkowski, Klucze do wyobrani. PIW,
Warszawa (1964).
129
More than with anything else, Mickiewicz is preoccupied with the scene of ordinary things (in this particular case, apile of rubbish) making an appearance in an
extraordinary way. In Norwid, ordinary things, insignificant and seemingly trivial
details will soon become amedium of most strange correspondence and epiphanic
drama of small things. 14
The world is astorehouse of contemplation tothe author the author of The
Revolution of Things, a place of the carnival of poetry,/ for a solemn unceasing
amazement (Of My Hermitage). What should be noted (and what suggests
the idyll of ones own room) is the fact that the strangeness of everyday objects,
differently than in Freud or too look into more literary and familiar sources
in Tuwim or Gombrowicz, is not sinister or demonic in its character. It does not
result in tormenting repetitions, it does not deprive of sense and turn our definition of reality inside out. Strangeness in Biaoszewski is not ahole in the Great
Other, in the symbolic system that we use totame the world. On the contrary, it
makes reality more attractive and strengthens it. Because of its strangeness,
reality turns out tobe friendly and deserving of adoration, it evokes admiration
instead of dread, moreover as critics have noted Biaoszewskis everyday is
sacralized.15 It is the gesture of sacralization and the accompanying ritualization
of mundane activities directs us most successfully at the notion of everyday lived
as positively experienced Unheimliche. Ordinary objects and actions do not evoke

awed amazement, which does not mean that they do not appear sublime: when
they become the object of attention, they evade description. Their contemplation
leads tothe scene of recognition. Anagnorisis, or recognition, revelation, discovery,
is an old trope that found its way from tragedy topastoral elegy. In modern elegy
it always has the character of epiphany.16 One should emphasize that the elegiac
anagnorisis is always arecognition by someone subjective perspective is always
present in the scene of recognition, and the elegy reveals itself as the starting
form of the subjectivization of poetry, the prototype of the monodist utterance
and, as such, of the lyric. The Romantics chose elegy as their favorite genre and
located monody in reflection exponent of the presence of the speaking subject.
Coleridge believed elegy tobe form of poetry natural tothe reflective mind. It
may treat of any subject, but it must treat of no subject for itself, but always and
exclusively with reference tothe poet himself (15).17 As expected of alate modern
or postmodern poet, Biaoszewski is preromantically lyrical he often gives
up on the monologic utterance but never on the subject, and his manner of representation of things is drastically subjectified. The elegiac perspective turns out
tobe also his perspective, even if it is not directly evoked. Things are and this is
wonderful! but they always break, become lost, fall apart or are destroyed. This
is evident toBiaoszewski who took years towrite AMemoir of the Warsaw Uprising.
But they exist not only in the perspective of loss. They are lost in other ways, too.
In the scene of recognition, the alleged nature of things always reveals itself
tobe something yet different. Does it exist at all then? If it does, it can never be
finally captured, and thus it exists in an almost divine way known from apophatic
theology. Things appear tous always in their revolution [PL obrt, pl. obroty]
therefore in motion, in avolatile form. Atrace of this instability is found in the
language: in Polish, things can take aturn [PL: przybieraj obrt] and tobra
kogo wobroty implies engaging or forcing someone into an intense activity. The
Polish Language Dictionary cites asentence by Henryk Rzewuski as one of the usages
of obrt (pl. obroty) [revolution, spin, turn] Zwyczajnie juryci, nie umiej
rk, wic jzykiem bior nas wobroty. [Since they cannot do it by hand, jurists
use their language]. Qualified as archaic by Witold Doroszewski, the expression
by (znale si) wobrotach means tofind oneself in trouble. Revolution [obrt]
is also present in expressions such as zmiana kierunku, przebieg, tok (sprawy,
rozmowy) [turn of direction, turn of events, conversation turn]. Obrotny [adj.]
means agile, nimble. Things, therefore, appear in their accidental forms of existence. But the majesty of those forms is not in any way lesser than the majesty
of ultimate things:

130
16
17
Compare: A.F. Potts The Elegiac Mode: Poetic Form in Wordsworth and Other Elegist,
Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1967. 36 and elsewhere; K.E. Smythe Figuring Grief.
Gallant, Munro and the Poetics of Elegy, McGill-Queens University Press, Quebec
(1992). 11 and elsewhere.
After: C.M. Schenck Mourning and Panegyric. The Poetics of Pastoral Ceremony. The
Pensylvania State University Press, University Park and London (1988) 15.

Wall, Iam not worthy
that you should fill me with constant wonder,
and you too, fork
and you, dusts (Of My Hermitage)
Writing becomes an act of adoration, joy; in Biaoszewskis poems the speaker

dances as the poets of old did, recalled by Aleksander Wat. And his poetry becomes
afigure of mystery play, of laudatory ritual, of apotheosis. The voice of The Revolution
of Things belongs toan ecstatic who dances before the majesty of ordinary things. This
tone will not change much in his latter volumes, though it is never as clear as here.18
Aragman cannot afford optimism in the attitude tohis art and towards himself ukasiewicz writes in his essay. But, as have already seen, this observation is
not applicable toBiaoszewski! Unlike Rewicz, Czycz, Bursa, and the turpists
of the 56 generation, Biaoszewski has apositive poetic mythology and even though
it cannot be placed within the tradition of the idyll of lyrical inspiration,19 it creates the idyll of writing as participation in the happening of the world. The latter,
in turn, in someone considering himself apoet seems tobe aconsequence of the
idyll of being itself.
First Iwent into the street
down the stairs,
would you believe it,
down stairs.
Then acquaintances of strangers
and Ipassed one another by.
What apity
you did not see
how people walk
what apity. (ABallad Of Going Down ToThe Store [BCZ])
18
19
20
Art Balcerzan writes: is ajoy of multiplication of everything by everything

as we read in Prba dopasowania si from Rachunek zachciankowy ajoy both
childlike and refined. E. Balcerzan, Poezja polska wlatach 1939-1966, Vol. 1: Strategie
liryczne. WSiP, Warszawa (1982) 239.
Balcerzan classifies Mioszs Do Tadeusza Rewicza poety as an idyll of lyrical
inspiration, in other words, an expression of optimistic mythology of poetic art,
and contrasts it with Rewiczs poems from that period, bearing witness tothe
agonizing shame of writing. One should add, however, that Balcerzan points
toSong on Porcelain admitting that Miosz, too, calls this positive mythology into
question. (op. cit. 230, 229)
Op.cit. 237. Balcerzan continues: In Biaoszewski everything is worthy of respect
because literally everything is the locus of constant metamorphoses that fascinate and
131
One could say that, as arecord of described experiences, the text itself becomes
the pastoral otium. It is thus not surprising that Biaoszewski does not shy away
from the role of the poet. On the contrary, he subscribes toit. Balcerzan notes that
Biaoszewskis poetic strategy is in fact astrategy of archpoet: at the core of it
there lies atolerance for everything that exists. 20 Naturally! The sense of being at

home in the world equips Biaoszewskis subject with something more than asense
of security: everything that is becomes the object of poetic activity, therefore an
area that subject tothe poets authority.
Invariably at the source of the arch-poets strategy there lies the character
of Orpheus. He symbolizes poetry as such, but from the earliest days pastoral
poets considered Orpheus tobe also their protagonist.21 The Orphic belief in the
magical, shamanistic powers of the poet and the causative character of language,
residuum of ritual speech, language of mystery plays, can be found in the poets
of the European Renaissance; in Poland, Jan Kochanowskis Song XXIV is an
Orphic praise of poetic art. Arendering of Horaces famous Exegi monumentum
Kochanowskis Song XXIV contains the figure of the metamorphosis of rebirth
(Endowed with apinion that is mighty and rare/ Apoet of two forms, Iwill take
tothe air22 Orpheus was often portrayed as aswan) the birth of immortality.
It is then hardly surprising that readers of poetry hear the echoes of Orphism in
Biaoszewski: More durable than brass is Irena Urbaniaks title of her reading
of Oh! Oh! Should They Take Away My Stove. My Inexhaustible Ode ToJoy
is, one should add, areverse elegy or an unrealized elegy, amanque elegy (complaint, the dirge turns into ahymn, into an incantation that is an affirmation).
Language seen as an inexhaustible source is the cause and the legitimization of
immortality, Urbaniak writes. Her title is ametaphor, the author does not refer
tothe Orphic tradition in the essay but the intuition did not fail her: the modern,
postmallarmean exponent of Orphisms posits the poet as an intelligence writing
in verse, the language of the poem as asinging mystery (amystery as it gives
up on representation) and poetry itself afigure of lost wholeness, universe that
used to echo with the music of the spheres (Friedrich 153; McGahey 130).23 In
The Revolution of Things, music of the spheres resounds when Cecylia plays the
wringer in Tryptyk Pionowy [Vertical Triptich].24 But there are also echoes of the
21
22
23
132
24
render despair impossible () Biaoszewskis hero cannot free himself of the weight
of dazzle and marvel.
Compare: R. McGahey The Orphic Moment. Shaman toPoet-Thinker in Plato, Nietzsche
and Mallarm, State University of New York Press, Albany 1994, C.M. Schenck
Mourning and Panegyric, 2 and elsewhere, 58 and elsewhere. The crucial link
between pastoralism and Platonism, and between Arcadian and modern forms of
initiatory pastoral, is Orphism. Schenck, 20
Transl. Michael J. Miko
First two expressions from H. Friedrich, Struktura noweoczeasnej liryki [The Structure
of Modern Poetry] PIW, Warszawa (1978) 153, the latter by R. McGahey from The
Orphic Moment. 130.
The allusion seems clear tothose familiar with Hail! Bright Cecilia by the British
Orpheus, Henry Purcell, with lyric by Nicolas Brady (Ode toSaint Cecilia),
praising music as the echo of divine harmony. Matters complicate, however, further
in the poem: Saint Cecylia in politure / wheel manual Emmanuel / roller
interval fugue. Perhaps then, it is areference toone of the chorals by Carl Philip
Emannuel Bach, or perhaps Cecylias name is an play on the name of one of the
orchestras? Such as The Saint Cecylia Chorus & Orquestra (created in 1906) or
25
Orchestra dell Akademia Nazionale de Santa Cecylia (1908). Biaoszewski might

have owned their recordings of the compositions by J.S. Bachs son.
Edward Balcerzan comments: Everything returns: this is the foundation of the
arch-poets strategy. In Biaoszewski everything is worthy of respect because literally
everything is the locus of constant metamorphoses that fascinate and render despair
impossible () Biaoszewskis attempts toadjust toEverything. () His arch-poetry
does not demand admission of its uniqueness but it attempts tobecome atheory of
all-poetry () atheory of common poetic experience that does not set requirements
reaching outside the everyday. Poezja polska, 238 and 242. It is an observation very
much applicable tocontemporary orphism very well!
133
longing for Wholeness: the table is asufficient reason for poem with atelling title:
Stoowa piosenka prawie owszechbycie [ATable Song Almost Of The Universe].
In The Salt of Structure seawaves seem toplay Bach and the poet Orpheus,
commands them: waves! / put on your wigs / tssss [BCZ]. Iam all things/ and
sometimes Iam all things he says Liryka picego. [Verse Of The Sleeper]25 With
his sense of humor and inexhaustible linguistic ingenuity, balancing on the verge
of presentation and taking advantage of the incantational power of meaningful
euphonies, Biaoszewski definitely could be referred toas intelligence writing verse.
Asinging mystery as well, one that entrusts its existence tothe volatile substance
of language, one that exists in aconstant oscillation of meanings whose flickering
figures the liminal condition of Orpheus, stretching between the Dionysian and
the Apollonian.
But one should perhaps discuss one more echo of the pastoral poetic tradition in
Biaoszewski, namely, the element of dialogue, always present in his poems. Ancient
idylls gladly used dialogue and the colloquial tone. Virgils mysterious, mysticallyphilosophical (in the words of its publisher) Eclogue VI is amonologue of
Tityrus (containing utterances of others, Silenus in particular). In Theocrituss Idyll
VII, Simichidas introduces into his narrative his own song and the song of Lycidas.
Agon, or dispute, usually apoetic competition between herders in aquiet retreat,
becomes afigure of argument resolved in acivilized, peaceful, even friendly manner
and culminating with an exchange of gifts. Accompanying the dialogue, the speech
of simple people is introduced, with its colloquial tone, the tone of argument and
debate, the tone of confession. This pedigree of dialogue forms blurs gradually, with
the appearance of genres of living speech, folk idiom and the language of several
professions in high literature. From there, other considerations play the key role,
but the beginnings of the conversational idiom in poetry are tobe found in Theocrituss idylls and Virgil eclogues as well as the praise of the familiar represented by
native land and landscape, by closest neighborhood. The interlocutor resident of
Arcadian retreats, detached from everyday obligations becomes afigure of citizen
while his dialogue a figure of debate by the free and happy. The conversation
inscribed in the text is aploy aiming at acompromise between two forms of social
life: the active and the contemplative one. It allows tochange the idyll of solitude
for the idyll of human family. We are not men, nor have other tie upon one another,

but by our word, Montaigne comments (87).26 Unlike in modernism, Renaissance
writers and readers had no doubts that the pastoral is an allegorical utterance and
that it is concerned with ethical goals (Ettin 3).27
Montaigne's position is clear: what he is fleeing, in the final analysis, is not human society
in general but "servitude and obligation"; what he cherishes is not solitude as such, but the
possibility this offers tohim tofocus and find himself so as finally tocommunicate better
with others. Ithrow myself into affairs of state and into the world more readily when Iam
alone. (III, 3, 625). Solitude is the means but not the end; in Montaigne's case, it improves
his sociability. (Todorov 133)28
The closer tomodernity, the more intriguing the dialectic of solitude and community becomes, taking the form of aporia.29 Todorov comments that for Rousseau,
solitude was atreasure that allowed toavoid the trap of alienating mechanisms of
worldly life. The man of opinion, in other words the worldly man, always wears
amask, Rousseau writes in Emile. That which he is, seems nothing tohim and what
he seems tobe, is everything. One could say that it was Rousseau who was the first
tooutline the difference between tre and paratre. It was also Rousseau who, already
in amodern fashion, made the other aguarantee of individualized subjectivity: the
social man lives outside himself, knowing tolive only in the opinion of others. And
it is from their judgment alone that he derives the sense of his own judgment alone
that he derives the sense of his own existence, Rousseau writes in his essay On the
Origin of Inequality Among Men (Todorov 107).30 Temanages toavoid aporia: solitude,
tempting with the promise of selfsufficiency but evoking fear as well, seen also as
de facto impossible, becomes dearly beloved solitude, as the contradiction finds
in it ahappy solution. Solitude is illusory, as for the writing man the presence of
the reader in the text becomes asubstitute of presence, while the text itself becomes
asubstitute for direct communication. Writing is that paradoxical activity which
demands that one flee from others in order tomeet them more effectively, observes
Todorov (138).31 ohe Romantics added tothis the questioning of the possibility of
understanding. The subject of Mickiewiczs ToSolitude is an exile in both in
the world of beloved solitude and outside of it. He is himself only in his text but
he writes it provoked by the language which (as one learns from the famous line in
The Great Improvisation Alone! Ah man! concerning precisely the language)

26

29

27
134
28
30
31
M. de Montaigne Prby [Essays] Vol. 1. Transl. T. Boy-eleski, PIW, Warszawa

(1957. 87). This particular remark refers totaking responsibility for words. After:
T. Todorow Ogrd niedoskonay. Myl humanistyczna we Francji. transl. H. Abramowicz
iJ.M. Koczowski, Czytelnik, Warszawa (2003). 133. [Translation based on: T.
Todorow, Imperfect Garden: The Legacy of Humanism. Princeton University Press (2002)
A.V. Ettin Literature and the Pastoral, Yale University Press, New Haven (1984) 3.
T. Todorow Ogrd niedoskonay .133.
Adam Zagajewskis 1983 essay, Solidarno isamotno is one of the last
examples.
After T. Todorow Ogrd niedoskonay. 107.
Op.cit. 138.

is adeceptive occurrence, blurring and mutilating the intention of the speaker: it
always means something different than it says. Can the substitute, then, take the
place of the original? The latter, if accessible, is accessible without the mediation
of language (An Evening Conversation), in autopia of direct communication, one
beyond the code, allowing topour the soul straight into another (Conversation).32
For astrictly postmodern poet, such as the avantgarde Przybo, the nontransparence of language is no longer aproblem and justifies the raison d'tre of the poet, but
loneliness is undesirable and soon, fortunately, becomes impossible: the co-creative
presence of the other, the reader afuture poet is something expected and assumed,
culminating in the utopian vision of the society of artists.
Biaoszewski lives in the conversation, he sees is as theater avant la lettre. And
not only that. For debuting Biaoszewski, writing is akind of conversation, even
though he does not share the enthusiasm of his avantgarde predecessors with whom,
after all, he had alot in common (maybe this is precisely because the model of communication assumed by the poetry of social realism turned out tobe its caricature.)
After all Ispeak tomen
Idontwrite for wardrobes only.
Be then O I!humpbacked
with the hump of humility
before my fellow beings
and with the hump of understanding. (Omojej pustelni)
32
33
Mickiewicz. The dream of acommunication beyond the code, inherited from

the Romantics by the poets of Young Poland is discussed by Jan Prokop in: Od
retoryki nadmiaru do utopii pozakodowej. ywio wyzwolony. Studium opoezji
Tadeusza Miciskiego, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Krakw (1978) 32 and elsewhere.
Formulated by Emerson, domestication of the idea of culture is arealization of
the Emersonian ide of an intellectual democracy and his concept of the common as
asocial habitus. This and similar Romantic concepts of democratization of culture are
discussed by Cavell.
135
Conversation is, clearly, marked with impaired understanding but in The Revolution of Things, the element of conversation grows stronger, becoming anotation
of speaking (Zadumanie o sieni kamienicznej), and from one book of poems
to the next acquires new senses: an ordinary conversation becomes an allegory
of sociability but also of apolitical dialogue, disappearing or hidden in the years
when Biaoszewskis poems were created. The making public of the domestic
conversation and of the private dimension results in the domestication of the
public sphere, especially in the domestication and commonalization of the idea
of culture.33 This commonalization is essentially synonymous todemocratization.
Biaoszewski is atrue rarity in aRomantic, aristocratic culture laden with gentry
sentiments that have always pushed manifestations of plebeianism into the sphere
of shameful inferiority. His Madonnas from Raphaels paintings enjoy carousel rides
in the suburbs while right next tothem their neighbors, tenants of Art Nouveau,
are asleep, the landscape of left-bank Warsaw evokes images of ancient Mesopotamia

whose bazaar rams are crowned with Aurignac aureoles and where sheepskins of
golden Homers hang down, the roller of the wringer turns, wheel manual Emmanuel / roller interval fugue, and sheets are hung todry by Saint Veronica.
This commonalization also includes his poetic diction and not without areason.
Biaoszewskis language avoids the standards of high and ordered style. It avoids,
to use Mioszs term, a properly set tone, a clear and understandable diction
with no trace of the struggle with the difficulty in translating from the strange and
alienating world of things to the language of the subject endowed with the ability of selfknowledge. Already Biaoszewskis debut volume suggests that there is
aphilosophical distrust behind his practice.
One of the first statements of Cavells Must We Mean What We Say is that we
know neither what we think, nor what we mean and that the task of philosophy is
tobring us toourselves tobring back words from their metaphysical totheir everyday use, or toreplace the conceptual knowledge of the world with asensual one,
or with bringing us closer toourselves which is not something self-evident at all
and which makes the search for ordinariness the most difficult task within human
reach, even if (especially because) it remains within man: No man is in any better
position for knowing it than any other man unless wanting toknow is aspecial
position. And this discovery about himself is the same as the discovery of philosophy,
when it is the effort tofind answers and permit questions, which nobody knows the
way tonor the answer toany better than yourself (xiii). 34
This seems selfevident tothe author of The Revolution of Things:
And they go round
and round.
Piercing us in nebulae.
Try and catch
aheavenly body
one of those
called close at hand
And whose tongue
has savored tothe full
the Milky Drop of an object?
And whose idea was it
that dimmer stars
go round the bright ones?
And who thought up
the dimmer stars? (On The Revolution Of Things [BCZ])
136
34
S. Laugier Koncepcja zwykoci idemokracja intelektualna, transl. M. Apelt, Res Publica

Nowa 2000 nr 12, s. 99. [Cavells quotation from: Must We Mean What We Say? ABook
Of Essays. CUP, 2002. xiii]

The task of poetry, according toBiaoszewski, is tobring us back toourselves, lost
in the labyrinths of language adopted too thoughtlessly and with too much good
faith. What is the way out of the word? he asks (Nie umiem pisa): how do we
leave the word get tothe thing without losing ourselves in the world where both the
deficiency of speech and the strangeness of things hastily assumed tobe extensions
of ourselves lie in waiting? Reports on the meetings of mutually irreducible beings,
such as the translation of an umbrella or translation from the mattress (Dwa
przekady) is both an everyday and amost difficult practice for apoet aware of
his profession.35
35
Ryszard Nycz formulates the notion of translation from the factual into the
expressible inspired byjak topowiedzie from Biaoszewskis later volume,
Oho! R. Nycz, Literatura jako trop. 226.
137
Cezary Zalewski
The One Moment: Photographing in Polish Poetry .
of the Twentieth Century
Photography has become afrequently used device in contemporary poetry, most

likely because it allows access toscenes which, having already occurred, are unique
and irretrievable. On the other hand, it is sometimes confusing as asubject, as it
remains devoid of semantic suggestions. What has been presented is, in the words
of Ewa Lipska:
captured on film
the one moment
in which there was no
time tothink1
138
The resulting aporia seems insurmountable; the choice between adirect reception of momentary image and providing an explanatory comment. The former
is usually the case, hence the large number in Polish poetry of photographic
ekphrases, which, however, leave tothe reader the often difficult task of reconstructing their meaning.
In this context, amore interesting, though uncommon, trend seems tobe the one
which tries tosolve this problem differently. Instead of solely focusing on captured
image, it offers areconstruction of the process that led toits creation. The image is
presented from agenetic perspective, allowing for amore explicit and clear indication
of the meaning of the one, unique moment. The purpose of this essay is topresent

Lipska, Ewa.ywa mier. Krakw: Wydaw. Literackie, 1979. 49. Print. (translated by
Pawe Pyrka)
Zalewski The One Moment: Photographing in Polish Poetry

three poetic texts that precisely for such reasons are not so much concerned with
photographs as with photographing.
7
8
Czyewski, Tytus.Noc--dzie: Mechaniczny Instynkt Elektryczny. Krakw: Skad

Gwny: Gebethner IWolff, 1922. 30. Print. (translated by Pawe Pyrka)
Cf. Pollakwna, Joanna. "Spenienie Dwoiste (Uwagi OTwrczoci Tytusa
Czyewskiego)." Poezja1 (1969): 40.
Cf. Lipski, Jan Jzef. "OPoezji Tytusa Czyewskiego."Twrczo6 (1960): 74-75.
Print.; niecikowska, Beata.Sowo--obraz--dwik: Literatura ISztuki Wizualne
WKoncepcjach Polskiej Awangardy, 1918-1939. Krakw: Universitas, 2005. 120-123.
Print.
As shown in numerous publications of the period. The most important include:
Mediumizm wspczesny iwielkie media polskie (Modern Mediumism and Great
Polish Mediums), Krakw 1936, Spirytyzm wspczesny (Modern Spiritism), Krakw
1936, both by Ludwik Szczepaski and Okultyzm imagia wwietle parapsychologii
(Occultism, Magic and Parapsychology), Lww 1939, by Jzef witkowski. It is
worth noting that authors of those texts use the terminology introduced by Julian
Ochorowicz at the turn of the century.
witkowski, Jzef.Okultyzm IMagja Wwietle Parapsychologji. Lww: Nak. Red.
Miesicznika "Lotos", 1939. 105-106. (translated by Pawe Pyrka)
Ibid. 95-96
Ibid. 94.
139
The poem Mediumiczno-magnetyczna fotografia poety Brunona Jasieskiego (Mediumistic-magnetic photograph of the poet Bruno Jasieski)2 by Tytus Czyewski
has long puzzled its commentators, who as aresult have either completely ignored
it or made an effort tofamiliarize it, by placing in the intersemiotic or intertextual
spaces (the realm of painting3 or surrealism4, respectively). Undoubtedly, the poem
requires aspecific context, one that has been directly indicated in the title. Acomplete
interpretation cannot, therefore, ignore the references tomagnetism and mediumism,
especially since these ideas were extremely popular (and recognizable) in the interwar
period5. Czyewski introduced them tothe initial and final sections of his texts, thus
tracing ahorizon of sorts, upon which the photograph and photographing appear.
Participants in sances would invariably observe the appearance of a matter
called ectoplasm in the proximity of the medium. Initially mist-like and formless,
it would gradually take on the shape and properties of some (usually dead) person.
However, according tothe monographer:
Not all mediums possess the ability toexude enough ectoplasm tomaterialize
afull-sized human figure. Often they are only hands, heads or busts (105-6).6
Thus, the initial sequence of images in which there appear several separated
parts of the body, is the poetic equivalent of psychic ectoplasm. This hypothesis is
confirmed by both the dynamic nature of each of these visions, as well as all accompanying phenomena: the spectral flames7 and akind of telekinesis,8 used toactivate
the keyboard instrument (95-6; 94).

However, Czyewski clearly modifies the course of the sance, using asimultaneous technique. He emphasizes three times that all of these activities take place at
the same time, though (almost) each of them in adifferent location. There is even
aparallelism that arranges both somatic and spatial components based in relation
tothe center. The farther the vision is located (adjacent room, kitchen, bathroom,
corners of the living room), the more external parts of the body (hands, brain, eyes,
legs, fingers, hair) take part in it, and vice versa: the closer tothe medium, the more
inward is the nature of the images (spine, lungs). However, the final vision seems
tobreak this rule:
heart stops beating
and is at this moment
inside the chalice inside the tabernacle
Thus, the heart becomes the center of somatic order, while space is radically transformed: the interior of the house is replaced with the (secret) inner sanctum of
atemple. This spatial shift is not dysfunctional, however, as it signals the passage
into the sphere of another ritual. The eccentric spiritual sance becomes what Julian
Ochorowicz called magnetic sleep (172-5).9 In fact, it probably always was magnetic
sleep, especially if we interpret the onomatopoeia in the opening line as the sound
equivalent of the magnetizers gestures designed toput the magnetized person tosleep.
In order, therefore, appears somatic center (heart), and the space is radically
changed: instead of the house is shown (most secret) inside the temple. Special
Weekend displacement is not dysfunctional, because it signals another move in
the sphere of ritual. This udziwniony seance is in fact what Julian Ochorowicz called
magnetic sleep. The onomatopoeia in the opening line most likely can be interpreted
as referring tothe sound equivalent of movements that the magnetizermakesas
they magnetize the subject toputthem tosleep (209).10
The further course is then related as follows:
you are telling me in your sleep
you are at the ceiling of aGothic cathedral
and you cease tolive
you drown in orange water
Iwake you I
wake you
According toOchorowicz, magnetic sleep (as opposed tohypnosis) does not subdue
people, instead leaving them active so they can experience their state internally and
verbalize it, independent of the magnetizer. However, only the magnetizer can end
the experience, interrupting the sleep in asimilar fashion tohow it was induced
(thus, in Czyewskis poem, the graphic form of the last line corresponds to the
distribution of the opening onomatopoeia).

140
10
Cf. Ochorowicz, Julian.Psychologia IMedycyna.Cz. II. Warszawa: Sk. G. WKsigarni

Gebethnera IWolffa, 1917. 172-175. Print.
Ibid. 209.

The poet brilliantly managed to combine two occult practices. Ectoplasmic
visions turn into dreamlike images, thanks tothe sacred space, in which the (psychic) sance ends,and (magnetic) sleep begins. The two rituals are different,
use different means of articulation, but the extent of their experience seems tobe
similar. The difference is in the perspective; the original medium first materializes
their experience on the outside, and then talks from the inside, relating their own
sleep. Czyewski chose Brunon Jasieski tobe the object of both rituals in order
tofaithfully recreate the extreme sensations. They revolve around the slow yet inevitable fading of life. The first approach emphasizes the somatic aspect of death,
causing disintegration of the body and the slow destruction of all of its parts. The
second perspective on the other hand focuses on subjective sensations (anxiety) and
experience of death, which, as in the case of drowning, comes too suddenly.
Only now the poet decides tointroduce the device promised by the title:
Iset the camera
light the magnetic aurora
and Isee your face
lit from the side by the glow of fires
Ibathe the film in golden water
Icopy tobromide paper
and Iconjure your spectral face
11
12
13
Cf. Szczepaski, Ludwik.Medjumizm Wspczesny IWielkie Medja Polskie. Krakw:

Nakadem Wydawnictwa "Nauka IKultura", 1936. 65-67. Print. and witkowski,
Jzef.Okultyzm IMagja Wwietle Parapsychologji. Lww: Nak. Red. Miesicznika
"Lotos", 1939. 125-130. Print.
This was the function of the photograph of ectoplasm In Gabriela Zapolskas Fin-desiclistka (1897). Here Helena is trying toconvince her adversary (translated by Pawe
Pyrka):
The photographs you see before you are not from the realm of wonders. They are
positive and material objects. They are the shells of our material self,which even
though not visible toall, were quite apparent toIndian anchorites. (Zapolska,
Gabriela.Fin-de-sicle'istka, Powie.Krakw: Wydawn. Literackie, 1958. 446.)
Photographing appears tohave asimilar function in Antoni Sonimskis Negatyw, but
here the object of interest is not aperson:
141
Aparapsychologist would probably remark that photographing at that moment

is already late. Taking pictures was essential, but was always conducted during
the sance or magnetic sleep.11 The goal was toproduce objective and irrefutable
evidence that paranormal phenomena exist,12 and should therefore be systematically explored.
Czyewskis intention is different. He does not intend tosubject the photograph
toscience as the artistic effect of such an operation is always limited. Photos from
sances present that which is extraordinary in terms of what is known and familiar.
The avant-garde artist's strategy is exactly the opposite: Jasieski portrait is created
after aseries of extraordinary effects, but in amanner that makes it possible
torecover them. That which is ordinary will thus appear as uncanny and amazing.13

The very act of taking aphotograph (flash of light) and its production (submerging the paper) contains metonymic references tothe two rituals. The final
result also exhibits this relation: dread caused by deathly sleep probably appears
in the poets eyes, while the face takes on aspectral quality it is dead and separated from the body.
The mediumistic-magnetic photograph thus presents a synthesis, portraying
death from the perspectives of the subject and of the object, simultaneously.
II
Stanisaw Baraczaks Widokwka z tego wiata (A Postcard from this World) is
a poetic synthesis of the metaphysical and concrete experience; the clearer the
presentation of local earthly reality, the stronger the emphasis on the metaphysical. The poem Zdjcie14 (Photo) seems tobe an exception tothis rule, as it shows
the eponymous situation in manner that is stereotypical, too brief and apparently
devoid of genuine reference. It is probably for this reason that identification of its
universal dimension is not obvious and still incomplete15.
It seems, however, that Baraczak deliberately used a schematic approach
to indicate a larger number of phenomena. The process of cropping a picture,
represented by the photographers monologue, refers in fact to a whole range of
other cultural practices that exist in American society, practices which the poet,
as stranger, immediately notices. In deciphering them we find most valuable the
reflections of another tourist, Jean Baudrillard, who was in American more or
less at the same time.
They seem especially important when we consider that Baraczak, as befits
a student of English metaphysical poets, chooses antithesis as the conceit of his
poem. It is organized analogically tothe process of photographing; the poet begins
by adopting anegative strategy, outlining what will not be included in the frame,
then moves tothe proper presentation of what the photo will show. However, tensions can be observed not only between the two perspectives both contain internal
dissonances constructed using the technique of zooming in and out.
14
142
15

Iwill set up my tripod,

And with the hiss of magnesium

Take ahuge negative

Turning clouds of day into everyday shadow

Pulsing poeticality into pounding of poetry

And walls of dust into cathedral gloom.

(Sonimski, Antoni.Godzina Poezji.Warszawa: Ignis, 1923. 63.)

(translated by Pawe Pyrka)
Baraczak, Stanisaw.Widokwka ZTego wiata: IInne Rymy ZLat 1986-1988. Pary:
Zeszyty Literackie, 1988. 42. Print. (translated by Pawe Pyrka)
Cf. Kandziora, Jerzy. "Obserwator Zawiatw. OWierszach Metafizycznych
Stanisawa Baraczaka."WDrodze1 (1990): 98. Print. and Lubaszewska, Antonina.
"WDaguerotyp Raczej Piro Zmieniam."Teksty Drugie4 (1999): 178-79. Print.

The first stage is as follows:
Dontmove; yes, thats it;
Ill just wait for the people
topass and issues too
with which you have too little
in common; oh, this is good;
let me just zoom in to
remove from the frame
millions of unnecessary
misfortunes and words
The act of removal is both physical (of people, words), and metaphorical, or internal
(of issues, misfortunes). This parallelism implies, however, acertain vision that is
worth reconstructing. If no other people appear around the photographed subject
and all experience related totheir presence disappears, it would mean the portrait
is totally focused on the individual dimension of the person, making the representation idyllic. Instead of signs indicating adifficult experience, the face now probably
shows abeaming smile.
Such an image is, on the one hand, typical (especially for photography), but, on
the other hand, it suggests aspecific style of behavior, functioning in American
society. When Baudrillard wondered what the nature of the common phenomenon of
showing joy was, he came tothe conclusion that its artificial, studied character acts
as amask, at the same time covering and creating distance. In America, therefore,
the following principle seems toapply:
Smile if you have nothing tosay. Most of all, do not hide the fact you have nothing tosay
nor your total indifference toothers. Let this emptiness, this profound indifference shine
out spontaneously in your smile. Give your emptiness and indifference toothers, light up
your face with the zero degree of joy and pleasure, smile, smile, smile.16
Baraczak seems toagree with Baudrillards diagnosis. By removing others from the
frame (i.e. beyond the sphere of life), the resulting individualism becomes aparadox,
since it produces avacuum devoid of subjectivity. Achasm impossible tocover
even with such agood strategy, the ubiquitous, self-satisfied smile.
In the second stage the photographer changes his method:
oh yes, stand still
just like that, let me just set
focus tocapture your dream
while awake, your
16
Baudrillard, Jean, and Chris Turner (transl.).America. London etc.: Verso, 1988. 34.
Print.
143
shadow; yes, this is the

expression, the pose;
Ill just step back maybe
toblur abit

the lines
in the face, on the wall in the background;
yes, great, these are the
thoughts, no others
The positive presentation shows even stronger dissonance. On the one hand, the
portrait will be made accurately, so that, again, the external appearance will reflect
the inner experience (dream, thoughts) of the subject. On the other hand, the presentation will be done from adistance, eliminating all details.
From acultural perspective the dissonance is clearly weakened. The intention
tocapture aprecise and multi-faceted image of aperson seems analogous tothe
practice of detailed filming, which Americans, according toBaudrillard often cultivate. The essence of this activity, however, is pure self-reference:
Video, everywhere, serves only this end: it is ascreen of ecstatic refraction. As
such, it has nothing of the traditional image or scene, or of traditional theatricality,
and its purpose is not topresent action or allow self-contemplation; its goal is tobe
hooked up toitself.
Obtained in this way, the self-reflexivity reminds us of ashort-circuit which
immediately hooks up like with like, and, in so doing, emphasizes their surface
intensity and deeper meaninglessness. 17
Thus aphotograph, even one focused on the internal analysis, also participates in the ecstasy of communication. It becomes adoubling, amirror image of
the same. Simultaneously, however, it remains empty, offering no identification
or self-knowledge, only tautological repetition.
If so, then aphotograph inevitably forsakes its unique, strictly individual aspect;
acopy of one person is no different from acopy of someone else. All are equally
silent, and thus could be seen as, paradoxically, the more accurate, the more blurred
and unclear they are. By contaminating these two opposing images, Baraczak
again exposes the nature of American illusions. Because if anyone can exhibit
anarcissistic tendency (thanks tophotography), then on alarger scale everyone is
the same in this regard.
The strategy of demystification serves tointegrate this antithetical poem and that
is why the poet uses it consistently. The final part of the monologue reads as follows:
asnapshot: let time,
its laugh unsympathetic
be quiet
for ablink of ashutter;
144
yes, finally, stay this way amoment;

though its already dusk,
and theres just one left
asingle-use flash

17
Ibid. 37.

The shift of focus from what will or will not be in the frame tothe mechanics of
the camera not only signals the final stage of taking the photo, but also presents its
justification. The mechanism works like any other American device, whose principal purpose is toignore the natural order; the snap of the shutter and the flash of
light at dusk suggest the persistence of the mechanical. This is just an example of
abroader phenomenon, one which so intrigued Baudrillard:
Everything has to be working all the time, there has to be no let-up in man's artificial
power, and the intermittent character of natural cycles (the seasons, day and night, heat
and cold) has tobe replaced by afunctional continuum that is sometimes absurd...You may
seek toexplain this in terms of fear, perhaps obsessional fear, or say that this unproductive
expenditure is an act of mourning.(68)18
Thus photographs appear tonot only generate narcissistic delusion, but in the final
analysis seem toconfirm the aspirations which aim tonegate the passage of time and
its consequences. However, this effort is as pointless as it is energetic; aphotograph at
the very moment it is taken becomes the proof of loss, apermanent work of mourning.
III
In the poetry of Janusz Szuber photographs appear as frequently, as unambiguously. Regardless of whether they belong in the family album or not, their origin is
always distant, often dating tonineteenth century. Viewing such images is sometimes
risky, however, since, as Susan Sontag pointed out, most of them
do not keep their emotional charge. Aphotograph of 1900 that was affecting then because
of its subject would, today, be more likely tomove us because it is aphotograph taken in
1900. The particular qualities and intentions of photographs tend tobe swallowed up in
the generalized pathos of time past. (21)19
18
19
20
Ibid. 68.
Sontag, Susan.On Photography. New York: Picador USA, 2001. 21. Print. N.B. Julian
Tuwims poem Ryciny (presenting 19th century daguerreotypes) is agood illustration
of how pathos appropriates the viewers perspective. (Tuwim, Julian.Biblja Cygaska
IInne Wiersze. Warszawa: J. Mortkowicz, 1935. 79-80. Print.)
Sulikowski, Andrzej. "Twrczo Poetycka Janusza Szubera."Pamitnik Literacki2
(2004): 113-14. Print.
145
Szuber avoids the nostalgic sentimentality by showing adramatic contrast between

what is old and what is current. He uses for this purpose two different techniques.
The first, described by Andrzej Sulikowski,20 carefully reconstructs the concrete
elements of aphotograph and its presentation is imbued with sympathy in an attempt toreach what is deepest in the people portrayed. The second method, and
one rather rarely used, focuses on the intentions that accompanied the very act of
photographing. An example of its implementation is the poem Eliasz Puretz fotografuje uczennice zWyszego Instytutu Naukowo-Wychowawczego wS. podczas majwki

wroku 190221 (Eliasz Puretz photographing schoolgirls from the Higher Institute
of Educational Science in S. during the picnic in May 1902).
The long, almost baroque, title describes alyrical situation that is the starting
point for further reflection. Szuber begins with the presentation of the photographer's actions, aimed at achieving the most appropriate framing. However, this
process takes place not only at the technical level, as it is accompanied by areflection.
In the shadow of tin butterfly wings,
in straw hats tied with ribbon,
In tight corsets their untight bodies,
of which each one might say:
less mine more mine never quite mine.
The photographer tries tozoom in on the schoolgirls standing in front of the lens,
since the details that he points out allow for separation and isolation, only tofinally
focus on whole figures. However, there is no presentation of faces, as if the presence of
too many people prevented individual characterization. Instead, the photographers
reflection focuses on the one element of dress common toall girls.
It is significant that here the corset does not function in the temporal perspective,22
but first and foremost in an anthropological one. The process of framing involves
isolating elements based on the difference between what is artificial (tin butterfly,
straw hat) and natural, but when the photographer is trying tocapture the closest
exemplification of this opposition, it turns out that it is unstable. Acorset is supposed
toimpose ashape on abody that nonetheless eludes its constraints, thus disrupting
the clear arrangement. Otherwise there would exist acomplete separation of the
two orders; from the point of view of the subject, any access totheir body would
be perfectly mediated. Therefore, the photographer uses conditional mood tostate
that the somatic experience of any of the schoolgirls would not be direct, but rather
conventional or solely cultural. However, the fluidity of this boundary suggests that
this pure unmediated experience is not only available tothe schoolgirls standing
in front of the lens, but it is also recognized by the photographer watching them.
This was the intention behind taking the picture or, more carefully, this is the
intention inferred and attributed by someone who much later looks at the effects of
photographers work. The lyrical monologue moves smoothly from the perspective
of the photographs author tothat of an observer, while echoing slightly the previous
reflections and introducing new ones:

21
146
22
Szuber, Janusz.OChopcu Mieszajcym Powida: Wiersze Wybrane 1968-1997. Krakw:

Znak, 1999. 24. Print (translated by Pawe Pyrka)
Unlike In Jerzy Ficowskis Dedykacja which employs atemporal perspective:

In aginger photograph

aface above acorset awrap

in acocoon of oldfashion
Ficowski, Jerzy.mier Jednoroca.Warszawa: Pnstwowy Instytut Wydawn., 1981. 29.
Print. (translated by Pawe Pyrka)

And having what they had no longer
than it takes acamera lens to
blink, already faded and passed tostrangers
who will invent other thighs for those stockings
and for loose white bloomers.
Self-experience, forming the basis of identity for each of the girls, is thus impermanent and momentary. Their private, biographical sphere remains concealed here, but
it seems that it runs similar tohow the image continues tofunction. Both in their
(later) life, and in a(faded) photograph, the students will be watched, observed by
others. Szuber clearly emphasizes the creative aspect of the process; astrangers look
constitutes the somatic dimension, especially in its (hinted at) erotic dimension.
The autonomy observed by the photographer is thus fragile, asort of instantaneous
epiphany of the self, which almost immediately must be surrendered tothe process
of mediation which builds identity through the influence of others.
The final stanza reveals aconclusion drawn from the juxtaposition of the two
perspectives:
Modestly hidden for ever exposed
asks cruel mercy that one once lived
that day month year that minute of inattention.
The poet-observer avoids visualization, which would one more time recreate the
physicality of the schoolgirls. However, he is intrigued by the mere possibility of
this operation, as it attests tothe defenseless, so tospeak, status of photographic
representation. The more the women try tohide from the eyes of others, the stronger
they affect them, stimulating behaviors leading tovarious forms of appropriation.
The poet senses, however, that this is not the effect the photographer had in mind
and in his name, as well as his own, he recalls the original intent. The uniqueness of
the photograph is in the way it (perhaps accidentally) captures amoment of inner
epiphany, which should be admired, not manipulated. Of course, such mercy will
always be cruel, burdened with the knowledge that neither the schoolgirls, nor their
innocent self-perception are there anymore.
In the poems discussed above, photographing is not an autonomous (but technical) activity, insofar as itis included in abroader context, i.e. marked with the
textual references toother types of discourse. In Czyewskis poem the references
can be traced back tothe occult spiritualism, while Baraczak adopts acivilizational
perspective (focused on America), and Szuber an anthropological one. It seems,
therefore, that the relationship between arange of photographic expositions and
the type and frame of reference is based on the prominence of the local context. The
more specific it is (possibly for various reasons), the more accurate and broader the
presentation of photographing (Czyewski, Baraczak). And conversely, the more
147
IV

universal is the type of reflection employed, the less attention is devoted tospecific
activities (Szuber). Thus, paradoxically, the less abstract discourse possesses more
explanatory power, as it is applicable todifferent aspects of the photographic process.
It seems significant, however, that regardless of these differences, all three texts
use the context in asimilar way. It explains the photograph in an almost identical fashion, leading tothe conclusion of athanatological nature. However, thanks
tothe juxtaposition of these poems, we can also observe asort of feedback effect:
photographing (and photography) can now be used topenetrate different discourses,
uncovering in them amore or less hidden fascination with death.
The differences between the poems are therefore visible only in the way they
approach that fundamental question, which is reflected in the texts structuring of
lyrical situations. Czyewski chooses toobserve first the model (and his vision), and
then the finished photograph. Baraczak ignores both these elements and focuses
on the middle one, showing the process of framing of the image. Szuber presents
both framing, and observation of the final effect (however conducted by someone
else). That is because in Czyewski death is observable from the beginning and
photography is there simply todocument it; whereas Baraczak equates the two
processes, presenting athanatological aspect of everything within civilization, and
Szuber assumes that death is atemporal phenomenon, possible tocapture only when
the past compared with the present. In other words, the poems about photography
present mortality before, in, and after the actions of man, both in practice,
and in theory.
148
Translation: Pawe Pyrka
Tomasz ysak
Any translation, and especially any translation of poetry, is inextricably tied

with interpretation. It involves the interpretation of all aspects of the text, from the
apparently most trivial ones, such as its graphic conventions, tothe complexities of the
multi-valued semantics of the text. The ambiguity of expressions in agiven language
requires interpretive and translational operations within the linguistic system. The
degree of organization of poetic discourse poses unique difficulties in translation,
unseen in texts devoid of poetic function. Differences in the intonational and prosodic
patterns of source and target language, which can be observed, among others, in the
assessment of rhythmical formations based on the natural (dominant) rhythm of
the language, can be the cause of problems in translation. Should the translation then
involve the use of the same rhythmical units, which would mean going against the
characteristics of the target language, or their statistical counterparts, thus submitting tothe tyranny of phonetic usage? Another type of challenge in the translation
of poetry is any attempt tointroduce into the target language forms specific toaparticular cultural or literary context. The most difficult case would be one that tests the
consistency of the source language system, both in terms of its purely formal aspects
and aesthetic function. It then becomes glaringly evident that translation must necessarily involve the creation of anew text, whose shadow in some ways obscures the
source, being at the same time its counterpart. In less metaphorical terms it could
be said that something always happens at the expense of something else. Those unavoidable choices prevent equipping the translated work with the complementarity of
the original. Otherwise the translation would become atreatise of endless footnotes.
Miron Biaoszewskis poetry seems tohave been written so as tobe atranslators
worst nightmare. Considering the effort it requires totranslate it from Polish into
149
Miron Biaoszewski as Interpreted .

by Czesaw Miosz: Four Translations

ours, such perception is not surprising. Still, the task has been undertaken and by
someone with natural skill at translating poetry.
Translations published in Postwar Polish Poetry1 (first edition in 1965 and third
edition, expanded, in 1983) include five of Biaoszewskis early works: And Even,
Even If They Take Away the Stove (Ach, gdyby, gdyby nawet piec zabrali); ABallad
of Going Down to the Store (Ballada o zejciu do sklepu); Garwolin a Town for
Ever (Garwolin miastko na zawsze not discussed in this essay); Self-Portrait as
Felt (Autoportret odczuwany); and My Jacobean Fatigues: My Jacobs of Tiredness
(Moje Jakuby znuenia).
At first glance, the poems (And Even... and Ach gdyby) use different editing for
the titles. The translation retains the English convention, while Polish editions follow
Polish typography (with some anthologies capitalizing only the first word, and others rendering the whole title in capitals). Quotation marks disappear in translation,
together with the ellipsis at the end of the title. The introduction of italics (present
in the translation of all titles) does not compensate for the missing quotation marks.
The mechanism of transaction can be observed in the way the two-verse structure of
the original title is divided and in the transformation that the second verse undergoes
as aresult. The change in print size, accompanied by agraphical separation of the
two lines, reduces the second line toakind of commentary (in an effort toexpress
the role of Moja niewyczerpana oda do radoci). Paradoxically, this change does not
involve any drastic change of tension between the two parts of the title. On the other
hand, the translator decided not tofurther emphasize the quoted verse.
The first three pseudo-stanzas retain their character in translation, both in
terms of layout, as well as organization of individual lines. Syntactic parallelisms
are preserved: Mam piec Zabieraj mi piec Oddajcie mi piec (Ihave astove
They take away my stove Give me back my stove), and the proximity of the translation
tothe original can be observed in the identical distribution of the components of
the utterance (repeated syntactic arrangement). Especially noteworthy are only the
additional spaces between the final word and the exclamation mark, and the spaces
between individual exclamation marks. Such graphical fragmentation enhances the
expressive force of exclamations. On the other hand, this layout may result from
the editors preferences.
Further on, the exact method of translation (word for word; precise transposition of graphic arrangement) is abandoned in favor of amore free approach. The
line They took it away (Zabrali), which expresses despair, grief and the acceptance
of fate, is attached tothe segment:
150

agrey

What remains is
naked
hole
Miosz, Czesaw.Postwar Polish Poetry: An Anthology. 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1983.
ysak Miron Biaoszewski as Interpreted by Czesaw Miosz
Sharp margin is used tointroduce achange either In the object or the manner of
perception. Cf. W. Sadowski, Tekst graficzny Biaoszewskiego, Warsaw 1999. p. 46.
151
The shift preserves the principle of conservation of mass, following the ellipsis of
the final line of the original stanza (szara naga jama), which concluded the stairlike progression of the sharp left margin.2 It seems obvious that in this case that the
period is transferred tothe end of astair-like division: szara / naga / jama. The
final pseudo-stanza consistently omits one variation (or realization) of the cluster:
sza-ra-na-ga-ja-ma, impossible to render in English, because of monosyllabic
structure of words (apart from naked) in the cluster greynakedhole. In addition, the
euphonic effect disappears, since the perfect vowel alliteration of the original has
no equivalent, either on the level of vowels, or compensated by consonants. Thus,
it is impossible todistort the sense of belonging of individual syllables toparticular
words, which, in Polish, evokes associations with the syllabic Japanese language. Of
the two options: toremain faithful tothe letter of the text or toretain its literary
conceit, the translator chose the former, while removing the elements which would
be non-functional in the translation. This is what happened tothe indentation at
the beginning of the line szara. Not even szaranagajama remains since, according tothe translator, such awhim is essentially devoid of function and does
not contribute to the translation. As for other minor differences in punctuation,
it is worth mentioning the colon at the end of the line: Itomi wystarczy: which
has been replaced with asemicolon in And this is enough for me;. In the original the
colons role was tobreak the necessary fragmentation of lines, toconstitute asort
of opening. On the other hand, the semicolon separates the self-referential statement by the speaker (And this is enough for me;) from the subject of that statement.
The translation of Ode can be characterized as a dictionary realization, or
one based on simple semantic equivalence. On the other hand, it could be accused
of excessive conservatism and consequent elimination of non-functional elements.
While there can be no objection toits correctness, the translation leaves the reader
unsatisfied. It sacrifices too much, without offering acomparable poetic effect in
return.
In contrast the poem ABallad of Going Down tothe Store is an example of
translatability. Once again, the translation reveals a discrepancy in typographic
conventions the first word of the first verse is printed in capitals with no aspirations tocreate additional focus for arrangement. Apart from this, the translation
remains close tothe original. This can be attributed tothe balladic quality of the
text devoid of traps. The original itself invites an economical translation technique.
Few departures from the standard language, such as the use of complementary forms
of zeszedem (bordering on incorrectness) have no counterpart in translated text.
Other differences are limited topunctuation as required by English. The first line of
the pseudo-stanza IEntered ... ends in an opening of sorts (:), while in the original
it clearly functions as closure (;). The reason for such aprocedure is revealed in
the following line, where instead of acomma, which would promise continuation,
aperiod appears, thus disrupting the sentence character of the whole pseudo-stanza.
152
It is clear that the changes follow the economy of the text, only occasionally rearranging the emphases. The absence of punctuation in the last segment of the original is
not retained: the comma after the first line not only separates the repetitions, but
necessitates taking a breath between the lines. While Ballada... does not insist
on clear end-of-line pauses, A Ballad... clearly indicates its delimitation units.
These minor differences do not change the fact that the English text follows the
Polish original, limiting the changes within the acceptable economy of expression.
It should be emphasized, however, that here the translator would not be faced with
choices so radical as in the case of And Even ...
Aquick comparison of Autoportet odczuwalny with Self-Portait as Felt reveals
the lack of lines in consisting wholly of dashes. Such a grouping of typographic
characters stresses not only adifferent writing convention (absence of text is not
simply noticeable, but rather specifically indicated), but also the status of the line.
The procedure toreplace an empty verse with amarker of absence does not have
the same function as leaving aspace between lines. While an empty verse breaks
the stanza apart, one burdened with typography locates itself clearly within its
tissue. Milosz's decision toremove the line containing only dashes cannot be easily explained. The ellipsis found in the second pseudo-stanza serves toassemble
the latter into one continuous whole. However, the omission present in the last
pseudo-stanza (Autoportret) results in its division into two smaller units. At first
glance, this may seem inconsistent. While the replaced units have the same graphical representation, the substitutions have opposite effects: acomplete ellipsis vs.
aline with removed typography. After all, the form of the text already allows (on
the most superficial level) for both readings. Tochoose between them (as it happens
in translation) is toextract the form (or some of its features) from the realm which
generates (potential) meaning, by assigning toit afixed conventionalized (present)
meaning. Removal of the graphical elements is also an aesthetic statement: form is
treated as amatter of secondary importance tothe content, and thus can be modified
in accordance with the accepted mode of interpretation.
It is worth taking acloser look at the two enjambments which were abandoned in
the translation: Zawsze jednak / peza we mnie (Yet always is crawling in me), and
Nosz sob / jakie swoje wasne / miejsce (Ibear by myself / aplace of my own). In
the first enjambment the predicator is detached from an adverbial the translation
restores the relationship, while retaining the inversion within the syntactic structure
with the subject postponed tothe end of the sentence:
Zawsze jednak
peza we mnie
Yet always is crawling in me

full or not full
pene czy te niepene,

ale istnienie
existence
Self-Portrait removes (purges) elements that would emphasize the distance between the speaker and the content. By avoiding contrastive conjunctions, which only

blur the vision, the translation formulates statements in amore direct manner.
Asimilar cleansing takes place as the second enjambment is deleted:
Nosz sob
Ibear by myself
jakie swoje wasne
aplace of my own
The accumulation of expressions highlighting selfness might seem as inept

translation of: jakie swoje wasne. What in Polish is an enumeration of swoje
and wasne, in English constitutes one collocation my own. My own is after all
both wasne, but also etymologically swoje wasne. The reason for the deletion
of the enjambment was thus aconscious decision toinclude the phrase aplace of my
own. This arrangement, by using the indefinite article a, expresses the perceptual
elusiveness of place as space. The place, which in the original escapes all determination. In translated text there is no escape, as it is caught between indeterminacy
(a) and definite belonging (my own). Therefore, moving my own tothe next line
would be completely meaningless. Polish syntactic pattern would make it impossible
toexpress the meaning of jakie through the article a. (one possible rendering
would be: my own / place).
What is different in the two cases of missing enjambment tothe faithfulness
toword order in Polish (and its semantic implications). The omission of the first
enjambment does not disrupt the syntax of the original pseudo-stanza. The second
ellipsis, however, focuses, through transposition, on the most accurate representation
of the transient nature of the word miejsce (acting in the role of an object). The
above examples show that the interpretation adopted by the translator, while being
areduction (in terms of form), is not reductionist, as the changes can be explained
both within the realm of the new text and in confrontation with the original.
My Jacobean Fatigues: My Jacobs of Tiredness (Moje Jakuby znuenia) is
a poem which most visibly illustrates Mioszs translation practice as applied
toBiaoszewskis texts. It is impossible not toaddress the extension of the title from
one phrase: Moje Jakuby znuenia totwo, apparently redundant versions main:
My Jacobean Fatigues (My Jacobean trouble/problems) and secondary (the translation of the proper title): My Jacobs of Tiredness. The omission of the poems
dedication toArtur Sandauer is not surpising as it would not be understandable
toEnglish-speaking readers; however, the sort of compensatory multiplication of
the title seems puzzling.
Once again the translator manipulates the look of the text, abandoning the
graphical play of some lines being shifted away from the left margin. The positioning in relation tothe margin in the translated text is the same for all lines. The first
pseudo-stanza consisting of six lines has a very symmetrical structure: the first
and fourth line start from the left margin. Onsets of these short lines (in the case
of the first, the onset is also the end of the line) not only have opposite meanings,
153
Miejsce
154

but the positioning of Wyej and Najniej allow for graphical representation
of the spatial arrangement of represented world. The two poles are incidentally
grammatically (semantically) related: wyej (higher) and najniej (lowest).
The proximity of the two words is emphasized by their positioning; avertical reading brings closer the two points, that of what is observed (wyej) and that of the
observer (Najniej ja). The translation focuses on highlighting the contrast by
breaking the first pseudo-stanza into two smaller ones, and additionally abandoning
the shift in positioning. The phonological and morphological similarity between
the two words describing height also disappears as aconsequence of different rules
which govern gradation of adjectives in English (Higher and Lowest). Without the
shifted adjectives, the translated poem appears somehow slimmer when compared
tothe original, but this impression in not validated semantically, unless secondarily,
when juxtaposed with the original.
The alignment of the text tothe left results in the loss of graphical arrangement
which highlighted specific grammatical form, that of comparative and superlative
adjective. The first set of adjectives is followed by another: ale gorzej and gorzej.
The connection between them is disturbed (or enhanced) by aseries of four consecutive negative sentences (also aligned).
With the system of alternating indentations the text ceases tobe just apoem; it
becomes agraphic text in which the visual aspect is no less important, but perhaps
even more important, than the phenomena resulting from its the reading. Miloszs
interpretation appears tobe focused on reading, one performed against the need
towatch rather than recite that is inscribed in the text. His translation is not limited
tochanging the medium (language), but it also interferes with the genre and identity of the work. The resulting simplification is clearly aimed at the presentation
of the content (in the ordinary sense), while ignoring the semantic implications of
graphic form.
On the level of language, the translation also surrenders the texts semantic and
syntactic polyvalence. [H]ejnay ksztatu zamieszkiwania dotyku is expressed in
two lines separated by acomma (just like the third element of the list). It should
be noted, however, that in order toreflect the connection between ksztatu and
zamieszkiwania, the preposition of would have tobe used, which would nullify
the primary, enumerative, function of the list.
In the second half of the pseudo-stanza, the apparent pause (acomma could
be inserted after Najniej ja) appears in translation as aperiod at the end of
the line, thus creating aclear dividing line. This division does not stand out in the
original; it seems that there is an organic connection between the speaking subject
and reality. In the end it is out of the hero's breast that the steps of reality emerge.
The placement of the speakers determinations in front of the specific points of reference for the negation Nie tylko nie jestem / ktrym ztestamentowych bohaterw,
and later ale gorzej ni fldra (i.e. me, by default T..) / przylepiona do dna na
zdychanie, confirms the lack of compatibility between the hero and his world. This
effect disappears in the translation, in which, surprisingly, the graphic arrangement

acts as asemantic unifier for the text. The dramatic tone of the final appeal of the
original: Uderz mnie / konstrukcjo mojego wiata!! is lost as aresult. The originals
mass of text may strike visually, but the translation has stripped the blow of all
its power through unified graphic form. The potential energy of the original could
release true power (and collapse the construction of the world). In comparison,
Mioszs translation resembles astuffed tiger in the museum, which frightens only
in the moment we forget where we are. The only trace of the dissonance between
the hero and his world that is graphically highlighted in the translation is the additional period in the first pseudo-stanza, but such representation of dissonance is
probably not enough tojustify the cosmic disaster. It is therefore somewhat by
chance that the character in the translated text avoids the true force of the impact.
The examples analyzed above illustrate how even acorrect translation can provide adifferent reading of the poets words. Some decisions made by the translator
can be seen as more or less justified, but it seems clear that the translated text tries
tofollow the content of the original as closely as possible (in the ordinary sense),
sacrificing experimentation for the sake of clarity. Although it could be expected
that the experimental features of the original were reflected in the new text, the
benefits of such an approach did not seem significant enough to the translator.
Instead, he tried tocarefully express that which in his interpretation is the essence
of biaoszewski-ness.
155
Janusz Sawiski
Unassigned (XV)
156
*
Poetry of the Time of Martial Law is an immense body of poetic texts, created and
received as aresponse towhat the colloquial language has recorded under the name
of Jaruzelskis war. If the beginning of this kind of poem-writing is clearly marked
by the date of 13 December 1981, the end of this practice appears somewhat blurred
over time. It can be assumed that the martial law, regardless of its suspensions and
terminations, continued as apoetically open reality up to1983, but not later. It was
then that it started toshift in the public consciousness from the position of lived and
felt present tothat of amemory of yesterday, which, albeit not completely closed,
was gradually being obscured by the experience the next day.
When speaking of poetry of the martial law, we explicitly indicate its constitutive
aspect the particular mode(s) of communication, which gave birth tothis poetry
and at the same time placed upon it an indelible stigma: it was the kind of work
un-thinkable outside the specific determinations of martial law. They delineated
its framework of possibility, determined where it would appear and what would
be its linguistic, cognitive and axiological horizon. It lived in the world of martial
law as one of the forms of independent communication between people about the
meaning of the new situation. At the same time the fact of the martial law was in
asense internalized by this poetry as atask (semantic, artistic, moral), which it
attempted tofulfill. What's more, it tried tomake noticeable its direct connection
tothe unique conditions of time and place, highlighting them clearly through appropriate language. Not only were the TV presenters given military uniforms on
13th of December Even the titles of numerous collections of poetry testified
from the other side of the barricade that the authors felt the need touse military
terminology. Raport zoblonego miasta [Report from aBesieged City] (Zbigniew
Sawiski Unassigned (XV)

Herbert), Wojna nerww [The War of Nerves] (Artur Miedzyrzecki), Reduta
lska [Silesian Redoubt](acollection subtitled Wiersze wojennej zimy [Poems of
the Winter of War]), Klski wojenne [Military Defeats] (Antoni Szymanek, alias
Grzegorz Biakowski), Pierwsza idruga wojna wiatw [The First and Second War
of the Worlds] (Leszek Budrewicz), Wiersze wtrybie doranym [Poems in Summary
Mode] (Sergeant Pepper) the list could continue, especially when looking at
titles of individual works. The lexical field of war extended indeed in many texts
metaphorically toprovide quite non-military images, such as landscape (Wkrtce
wit wzejdzie / wbyskach bagnetw [Soon dawn will rise/ in the flashes of bayonets]
Szymanek), physiology (mj brzuchu / od pewnego czasu / grasz tylko wojskowe marsze
[my stomach/ for some time / you have played only military marches] Marek
Mayer, alias Ryszard Holzer) and writing (moje dywizje maszeruj / rwnym rzdem /
przez t stronic [my divisions march/ in even colum / across this page Szymanek).
Various uses of such vocabulary, whether treated literally or metaphorically, whether
serious or ironic, pathetic or mocking proved that the discourse that employed
them wanted topass for militarized speech, for language called toarms and ready
tofulfill his duties on the battlefield.
10th August 1985
After the shock of the night of the 12th December 1981, but even before the start
of circulation of the first underground newspapers and newsletters, which would
contain information about what happened and first attempts at commentary, we
started receiving, along with leaflets and proclamations printed in striking factories,
verse records of the experience of martial law everywhere. Isay everywhere, because
it seemed as if those sheets of paper carrying poetic speech, were conveyed tous from
all corners of the country at once. How many had toprovide relevant texts, copy
them, spread, distribute or scatter! The form of these papers resembled the most
archaic creations of underground printing. Plain typescript was the common the
prototype of all underground self-publishing typed mostly on light green tissue
paper. The light green color is irrevocably fused in my memory with verses of martial
law. When we received an unfortunate later copy of the typescript, the text was often
almost completely illegible. Then upon the typescript azealous and pedantic reader
would by hand put the missing letters, the most likely words and even whole lines.
As the underground publishing movement became more organized in publishing
and editorial teams, the mass of poetic texts relating tothe realities of martial war
gradually increased, toreach its peak in the late spring and summer of 1982. This
growth remained more or less stable throughout the whole of the next year. Green
tissue paper gradually disappeared from circulation, replaced by poems published
in newsletters and magazines. Among the periodicals created in the first half of 1982
the unique contribution tothe work of collecting poetic texts on martial law belongs
toWarsaws Wezwanie (The Call) which from its first issue had been publishing
157
158

large sections of contemporary poetic art. What is more, it was The Call which
offered has the earliest, but at the same time surprisingly sober and accurate, critical
readings of such productions. Since mid-1982 more and more individual collections
and anthologies had been appearing, including the most comprehensive Antologia
wierszy wojennych [Anthology of War Poems] published by NOWa, and soon after
Noc generaw. Zbir poezji wojennej [The Night of Generals. A Collection of War
Poetry] by Wojenna Oficyna, containing only anonymous works. Jzef Gajewskis
bibliography, published last year, recorded more than thirty large and small anthologies of this sort published in the two-year period 1982-1983 in different regions of
the country. So far, Imanaged toget tofourteen of them, and yet it is much more
than can be found in the library of the Institute of Literary Studies, which after all
houses alarge body of uncensored publications. As far as is known tome, it seems
that such collections repeated largely the same texts (asort of nationwide canon),
while more local works, written by local authors and addressed tolocal audiences
remained in the minority.
Who spoke tous in these transmissions sent illegally on tissue paper, in copied
newsletters, magazines, pamphlets, and books?
Seen from this point of view, these works can be divided into three categories.
The first includes works by authors who signed them with their own names, more
or less known based of their prior, and legal, literary output. Often these were the
texts of authors who remained in confinement, were interned or in imprisoned and
who, unlike those acting outside detention, had no reason for literary conspiracy.
The second category consists of works by authors hiding behind aliases and
pseudonyms. Some of them used pseudonyms only in this uncensored sphere of
their writing, while publishing other works legally and under their own names.
The third category includes texts which circulated anonymously, whose identity
and integrity was not protected by any writing subject, whatever its name. The
sender of those was as Stanislaw Baraczak insists the Peoples Anonymous.
Named thus, the phenomenon appears tobe asort of sociopsychological-literary
construct; in reality, however, behind this folk quality of anonymous poems one
could usually find professional writers with recognizable names. The lack of authorial credit was in the case of most works compensated by their reliance on texts
already known tothe audience. There appeared aremarkable number of messages
of secondary character: paraphrases, travesties, or parodies, referring tothe most
popular works, and as such easily recognizable tothe public. In some cases they
were subject toonly minor modifications or adaptations so that they could fit in
thematically tothe circumstances of martial law. The range of original texts thus
appropriated and utilized on secondary level of literary communication was wide
and varied; it mainly included carols, hobo ballads, soldier songs, cabaret pieces,
prayers (especially litanies), poems from school reading lists (such as Do Matki
Polki [Tothe Polish Mother] and Rota [The Oath] ). Some of the more visible texts
were contrafacta, new lyrics written for well-known church hymns, folk songs, or
even disco hits.
This increased intertextuality in anonymous texts, did not, by any means, secure
their integrity. The fact that they were openly parasitic in nature only encouraged their offhand treatment. In the course of circulation they underwent various
deformations, divisions, interpolations, and contaminations. As aresult different
sources frequently offer different local or regional variations of the same texts. Such
multiplicity led toblurring of the limits of texts, with none that would pass as the
original. The texts existence involved minor or major modification, as required
by circumstances of performance, needs or tastes, similarly toworks found in folk
circulation. The interesting aspect of this phenomenon of folklorization was, however, the fact that is occasionally involved works belonging tothe other two categories. Sometimes the text originally published as anonymous appeared later under
apseudonym, and then again under its creators actual name, gradually bridging
the gap separating it from its author. I remember Jarosaw Marek Rymkiewiczs
sheer amazement at an IBL conference devoted tocontemporary poetry (Warsaw
1984), when one of the speakers, anative of Lublin, provided astriking example of
anonymous folk art: Rymkiewiczs own poem, whose authorship he never denied!
The opposite also happened, situations when an anonymous text circulated under
the name of afamous writer. This happened, twice Ithink, toCzesaw Miosz, causing his irritated protests.
Any methodical analysis should include an extensive field of texts which, while
themselves do not fall under the label of martial law poetry as they did not arise
at that specific time, were probably the most important component of the soil in
which it grew. I refer here to numerous collections of earlier works, songs and
song-like, since the time of the Bar Confederation until the sixteen months-long
carnival of Solidarity, which appeared during the period of martial law (though
in later years as well), creating one of the most visible segments of second circulation. Most popular among them were the collections of patriotic or insurrectionist
songs, religious hymns, songs of the Polish Legions and from the Bolshevik War,
songs from the Second World War and the time of occupation. Just as important
were songs associated with the tradition of Solidarity (especially works of Jacek
Kaczmarski and in adifferent way those of Jan Krzysztof Kelus). This field of texts
includes reprints of the old hymn books, but also new compilations based on them,
both standard sets of well-known works, as well as specialized and themed anthologies, e.g. Polskie koldy patriotyczne 1831-1983 [Polish patriotic carols 1831-1983] or
Piosennik Powstania Styczniowego [Songbook of the January Uprising]. In numerous
collections old songs could be found next tocurrent (both anonymous and signed)
works written during the martial law. Such is the nature of, for example, Piosenki
internowanych [Songs of the interned]. There are afew such collections, and each
appeared in several editions, but all had the same title, an ambiguous one at that,
since it meant both the songs created by interned authors, and all the songs which
were simply sung collectively in detention centers. Asimilar mixture of old and new
songs can be found in collections associated with some permanent locations, usually
places important tothe community where these songs were sung. An example of this
159

is the collection, however incomplete, of songs sung at the flower cross in Warsaw,
which was published in several editions by the underground publishers of Huta
Warszawa. These mixtures of old and new material provide very good insight into
the local repertoires and more than other types of publications can be asignificant
source of ethnographic data on the culture of the martial law period.
In general the field of texts discussed above should not be treated as abackground
for what is important in the poetic output of the time of martial law, but it must be
seen as an active element in the creation of poetic speech. It offered asupply of ideas,
utilized by the authors of the poetry of the time, areservoir of images, symbols,
comparisons, formulas, and cliches, from which they drew both creative stimuli
and means of expression, adictionary providing the necessary tricks and patterns of
speech. On the other hand, the collection of texts drawn from tradition and placed in
the context of current social experience, created for the readers aframe of reference,
allowing them toexpect something new from writing initiatives, shaping their ideas
about the character of speech that could today poetically describe anational disaster,
express the feelings of collective despair, and rekindle hope and the will toresist.
15th September 1989
160
*
The poetry of martial law left no room for complications or ideological dilemmas. In all its versions, it shared acommon point of view: it consistently remained
the speech of the abused, the intimidated, the persecuted, and the humiliated: the
voice of those targeted by the war machinery. Ex post, this unified perspective seems
tous quite natural, though, theoretically, its monopoly was not aforegone conclusion. After all, the introduction of martial law involved multitudes of people, not
only policymakers, executors, activists, and officials, but also the apologists, heralds,
hacks and silent supporters, realists, pragmatists, the ideologues of the lesser evil,
and possibly countless more! And yet, curiously, or strangely even, the state of mind
of all these people, their convictions, hopes, rationalizations, and even scruples have
not found any poetic expression.
Of course, they were verbalized in areas of public speech other than poetry.
Thus poetry which recorded the point of view of victims and rebels placed itself in
opposition not toanother poetic discourse, which would express different point of
view (as it didntexist), but tothe non-poetic discourse used by the power structure
and its political collaborators. Newspaper disinformation, propaganda, the deceitful
rhetoric of TV news, evasive arguments and excuses by egghead supporters, martial
orders and notices, sentences by military tribunals all of those marked the martial
law poetrys negative linguistic horizon. It assumed the role of counter-language,
opposed tomodes of speech in the service of violence. Hence the multiple references
tothis negative context; the adoption of words originating in the discourse of violence in order toimmediately unmask the lie it conceals; the use of the propaganda
formula in order tobe able toboil it down towhat it was in reality ahypocritical

clich; recalling the arguments of newspapers in order to promptly expose their
absurd, deceitful, and meaningless nature. This kind of relationship cannot be
identified with any form of dialogue. Toquote the hated words was torefuse them,
todepreciate and expose toridicule or contempt. This double gesture of invocation
and rejection, or, tomimic Biaoszewski, of rejection through invocation, was often
what prompted the very act of speaking, maintained it and tomanaged the growth
of semantic expression.
In the anonymous (pseudo)folk poetry we observe at every step the references
tothe formal patterns of the official language of policy, quoted in the characteristic
seemingly dependent speech of astreet singer or abeggar from the church steps:
Partia, wiodca sia narodu
Ona ocali kraj nasz od godu.
Rurarz, Spasowski za oceanem
Podstpnie knuj razem zReganem
Bra robotnicza ju im nie sprzyja
(Santa Milicyja)
The Party, the leading force of the nation

Will save our country from starvation.
Spasowski and Rurarz are overseas
with Reagan hatching treacherous plot
Brotherhood of workers supports them not.
(Santa Milicyja)
nam grozia wojna domowa

Iwszystko przez Solidarno
Bo ona pono miaa liworwer
Ichciaa wadz zagarn
(Grudzie)
we were threatened by civil war

And all because of Solidarity
it apparently had alevorver
and wanted totake over
(December)
By pooy kres anarchii ikontrrewolucji,

Warcholskim rozruchom, partyjnej destrukcji,
By zalety socjalizmu pozna nard ciemny
Wprowadzi Pan Premier wPolsce stan wojenny
Toput an end toanarchy and counter-revolution,
the rioting of thugs, and partys dissolution,
So that values of socialism would enlighten Poles
The Prime Minister today declared martial law
(Anarchy)
161
(Anarchia)

Sometimes the text develops through the collision of two units of meaning: one corresponding tothe quoted speech, the other expressing the subjects own words. The
latter in asense invalidates the former by means of an unexpected clarification or
simply lethal negation. We learn that the leading force, by declaring martial law:
Wnet odzyskaa sw wiarygodno
Tak jak eunuch odzyska podno.
Na lepsze wszystko si odmieni
Rowa przyszo nam si czerwieni.
Ekonomika tak si poprawi
e nam bez blu odpadnie nawis.
(Wojenny walczyk)
Soon regained its credibility

As the eunuch who regained fertility.
Everything will change for the better
As rosy future gets redder and redder.
Our economy is certain toimprove the most
And well find our monetary overhang lost.
(The Martial Waltz)
And so on and so forth. We can observe here akind of stichomythic pattern: the
first line semantically collides with the second, which is symmetrical and related by
rhyme. The result is that of two voices alternating as in acomedic dialogue.
Such amechanism of signification, however simple or even primitive, was used
not exclusively in the poems belonging tofolklore, or imitating the works of folklore.
It was equally employed in literary poetry, the political lyric, especially from the
beginning of martial law. We find its workings in Ryszard Krynickis epigrams (from
the volume Jeeli wjakim kraju [If in acountry]) full of noble pathos, in which this
double gesture of invocation/rejection appears as afundamental principle for the
development of speech:
Na jaki nard
mie si jeszcze powoywa
samozwacza wadza,
ktra na obcy rozkaz wypowiedziaa wojn narodowi?
Jaki nard miaaby ocala?
Tonard szuka przed ni ocalenia
162
(Na jaki nard?)
What nation
do they dare invoke,
the self-appointed authorities
that acting on aforeign order declared war on the nation?
What nation would they save?
This nation is looking tobe saved from them.]
(What nation?)

Ratujemy ojczyzn
mwi dyktator izdrajca,
gotowi nadal okupowa kraj,
wizi niewinnych
...
(Ratujemy ojczyzn)
Were saving the homeland

say the dictator and the traitor,
willing tocontinue tooccupy the country,
imprison the innocent
...
(We're saving the homeland)
Kami:
Nie chcemy krwi
arozkazuj,
eby bi izabija.
Krzycz:
Historia nas osdzi
kiedy zbrodnie ju ich osdziy.
(Dr ze strachu)
They lie:
We do not want blood
and they order,
tofight and kill.
They shout:
History will judge us
when they have been judged already by their crimes.
All oppositions here are clearly visible. There is the speech of those who spread
false platitudes (about saving the country or saving the nation or vice versa) aimed
toobscure what they actually do as dictators, traitors, torturers and murderers, and
opposite there is the speech of those who expose their actions. Its them and us.
There's no complexity or ambiguity of dialogue, because in this relationship any
possibility of dialogue has been eliminated. There are two types of speech incompatible and mutually untranslatable. And there are two types of speakers, between
whom exists ayawning and impassable chasm. They cannot be considered partners in
communication, for they have become our occupants. Jerzy Malewski (Wodzimierz
Bolecki) aptly called the writings of martial law apoetry without illusions. Indeed,
it seems it finally broke away from all utopian negotiations, so much alive in the
period of sixteen months of Solidarity, said goodbye tothe naive hopes for an effective agreement and settlement and tothe belief in the possibility of developing
the language capable of mediating between the discourse of the communist regime
163
(They tremble with fear)

and the language of social aspirations, of assuming the role of ashock absorber in
their inevitable collisions. Martial law put an end tothese hopes, precisely because
it exposed, hidden beneath the camouflage and disguise of everyday existence, the
true nature of the political system in defense of which it was declared, namely the
occupational nature of communism.
This diagnosis led toan immediate disambiguation of the ideological situation:
those who realized that they lived in the occupied country could not avoid extending that awareness onto the past stages of their existence in that country. They had
tolook again at the past through the lens of their current experience. The reality in
which they lived now turned out tobe just another form of experience that they had
known for along time, but did not know how toproperly categorize. This in turn
meant that the opposition tomartial law was in fact an opposition tocommunism
as such: it was its clear and decisive rejection.
In this state of mind grew the kind of poetry we are discussing here. Of course,
its definitive no was first and foremost aresponse tothe circumstances of the time:
tanks in the streets, mass arrests, raids, internments, fatalities during police and
military action this was areality that demanded opposition in the first place. Bitterness and anger were initially aimed at symbols and figures directly related to13th
December. But the verse attacks against WRON or Jaruzelski (Jaruzel), himself probably the most insulted figure on the Polish political scene since the anti-Targowica
literature, against the traitors in generals uniforms, very quickly expanded beyond
this limited frontline, and embraced the whole of PRL experience. Indeed, the poetry
of martial law, and Imean mostly its folk and pseudo-folk sections, became ahuge
record of anti-communist curses, complaints and grievances, expressed simply and
bluntly, without any indirect or metaphorical devices; aregister in which higher
ideas, of national ad democratic aspirations, were intertwined with mundane troubles of the poor and neglected everyday existence. These complaints and acts of
condemnation, the ridicule and the insults were much older than the martial law,
older than the Solidarity; some referred tothe years immediately after the World
War II and the time of Stalin, others tothe time of Gomuka or Gierek. But so far
they existed in isolation, in everyday speech of different social strata, in political
jokes, sayings, nicknames, rhymes or wordplays. They were only consolidated and
in asense systematized through the anonymous works of post-December years. It
was akind of totaled bill, presented tothe rejected system.
8th October 1987
164
*
Martial law presented poetry, the literary, rather than the folk kind, with atruly
difficult task. Made lazy by its long time existence on the reservation provided by
PRL, it now had toleave its refuge and desperately seek an appropriate language
that could be used specifically toconstruct apoetic analysis of the changes in collective consciousness after the shock of December 13th.

In order totreat this issue from aresearchers perspective, one should first attempt tocreate akind of sociographic description of various versions of this analysis,
taking into account their location aplace occupied by the author in the community
of martial law, which defined the specific perspective of viewing the phenomena.
Poetic speech recorded several of the most common locations:
the point of view of the underground people, the conspirators;
the point of view of the internees and prisoners;
the point of view of university intellectuals;
the point of view of the frightened and confused population;
the point of view of an exile who receives bleak news from the country.
Considering these perspectives, we can observe the recurring coexistence of two
writing strategies, methods of coping with the troublesome task of describing anew
and thus unnamed situation, which poses achallenge tothe existing state of word
(touse Jozef Wittlins term) in poetry. Speaking about the coexistence of two strategies, Imean the fact that both can appear in the works by the same author, and
even more they can work together in asingle text. However, they remain directed
towards two contrastingly different models of poetry.
The first one Irefer toas second-hand imaging. At its core lies the conviction
that what the society painfully experienced in the months of martial law, only appears tobe anew phenomenon. In fact, it is simply avariant of the eternal Polish
destiny inevitably returning in the biographies of successive generations.
Iznowu dugie nocne rodakw rozmowy
Czas tego kraju koem si zatacza
Zpowstania wwojn na nowe powstanie
Krtki czas wolny ipodziemna praca
Idugie trwanie policyjnych nocy
And again, the long night talks of my countrymen
This countrys time returning in acircle
Thus in the poem Do Matki Polki [Tothe Polish Mother] Mat (Jarosaw Markiewicz)
writes about this idea of recurrence and return. The thought of the fundamental
identity of destinies, duties, and defeats of successive Polish generations, naturally
leads toanother thought: namely, that there is no need for poetry towork hard on
inventing anew language togive an account of our present destiny, duty, and defeat,
as the images generated by earlier, especially romantic poetry, remain perfectly
adequate. Stanisaw Baraczak correctly emphasized the role that chorus plays in
many poems of the martial law, aformula that states that something is here again:
Iznowu dugie nocne rodakw rozmowy [And again, the long night talks of my
165
From uprising through war into new uprising

Short time off and more underground work
And the long duration of curfew nights]

countrymen], Znw zdawiony wit wolnoci [Again is smothered the dawn of
freedom], Znowu amiemy si czarnym opatkiem polskiego losu [Once again we
break the black wafer of Polish fate].
All those instances of again are followed by appropriate categorizations of what
it is that repeats itself. The consciousness of the occupational nature of communism,
liberated by the martial law, automatically found the means of expression in the
system of references and images of the occupation of World War II (interestingly
German, rather than Soviet) superimposed on the current experience. What was
perceived and lived began, somehow spontaneously, tofall into afamiliar pattern:
conspiracy against the occupants, police harassment, raids, the underground state,
diversion, sabotage, and camps. This way of reading the present was probably closest
topopular imagination. After all, already in 1968 the students shouted Gestapo at
the police units scattering the street demonstrations. It was not acoincidence either
that the musical jingle of the underground Solidarity radio was Siekiera, motyka
[Axe, hoe], one of the forbidden songs during the German occupation.
However, poetry did not stop on this first popular level of identification. It
searched for necessary means deeper in history, drawing on the grim narratives of
the nineteenth-century. The era of Paskiewicz and the tragedy of the January Uprising provided the most appropriate, as it would seem, models for the expression of
current experience.
Kiedy si obudziem, Polski ju nie byo,
Na skwerze przed Teatrem, jak za Paskiewicza,
Mae wochate konie kozackich szwadronw
Szczypay such traw, krzyczeli setnicy
Isycha byo piew wnieznanej mowie
When Iwoke up, there was no Poland,
On the square in front of the Theatre, as in the time of Paskiewicz,
Small furry horses of Cossack squadrons
Nibbling at dry grass, the screaming centurions
And Icould hear singing in unfamiliar speech
Later in this poem by Jarosaw Marek Rymkiewicz the image of conquered Warsaw
is developed into the image of post-uprising exodus of Warsaws inhabitants in the
autumn of 1944:
Ijak przed wielu laty, Lwowsk, Nowowiejsk
Wychodzilimy zmiasta dugimi kolumnami
166
Pchajc dziecinne wzki, dwigajc walizki

And like many years ago, along Lwowska, Nowowiejska
We left the city in long columns
Pushing baby carriages, carrying suitcases

Another poet, Krzysztof Karasek, who published his poems as Anonymous, says
that before our eyes:
Znw oywaj stare obrazy Grottgera:
Branka, aobne wieci, Lud wkociele, Pierwsza ofiara
...
Jak w63, uGrottgera
znowu pukaj do polskich drzwi,
pukaj noc, wyamuj zfutryn,
gdy nie otworzysz na czas im.
Grottgers old paintings come tolife again:
Captive, Gravely news, The people in the church, First victim
...
As in 63, in Grottger
again they are knocking on the Polish door,
knocking at night, breaking them down,
should you not open them in time.
Next comes the image of those detained, carried across the city chained and terrified. Of course they are carried in kibitka wagons and are:
jak cizceli Konrada, jak cispod Belwederu,
jak ze styczniowej branki,
zgrudniowego poboru.
...
znw powtarzaj tesame gesty, sowa
modlitwy lub przeklestw
In such poems we encounter the world immediately doubled. What is present and
available for observation had no time toappear in its factuality, because from the
very beginning it was imbued with the sense of something historical. That historical meaning came forward, and thus obscured, the image of the present, which as
aresult took on ahalf-unreal, spectral character, deprived of its own weight and
appearing only as arepetition or copy.
But the historiosophical vision, in which the primary sense of the events ofwinter
1981/82 amounts totheir repetitive character did not satisfy the ambitions ofanumber of poets who sought toexpose even more superior sense the meaning of repetition itself. And thus was revived an allegorical vision of inevitable martyrdom, of
Poland permanently crucified, sentenced toGolgotha.
167
like those from Konrads cell or those from Belweder,

from January raids,
or December conscription.
...
again, repeating the same gestures, words
prayers or curses

Przebita wczni grudnia
pka ttnica tej ziemi
wybucha
upywem wisy zwisy
paczem zranionych wd
Pierced by aspear of December
bursts the artery of the land
explodes
in the flow of vistula from vistula
in the cry of wounded waters]
This image comes from the poem Przepowiednie [Prophecies] published under the
pen name of Maciej Komiga (Jerzy Ficowski). In Jarosaw Marek Rymkiewiczs
poem this romantic allegory is becomes more straightforward:
Tociao gwodzie wdoniach ma,
Nad ciaem kry czarna wrona.
Jak caun jest grudniowa mga.
Opatrz! Ojczyzna twoja kona.
(13 grudnia)
This body has nails through its hands,

Above it circles the black crow.
December fog is like ashroud.
Look now! Your homeland is dying.
168
(December 13th)
In general it can be said that poetry discussed here has historiosophically dreamed
through actual history. Besides, the theme of sleep and dreaming is anoticeably common occurrence (Ihave not yet mentioned Ernest Bryll: niem, e Papie wkomy
tak skrwawionej / a narodow barw miaa [Idreamed of the Pope in surplice so
bloodied / until it had the national color...]), creating akind of framework for all these
analogies, parables and allegories. The culmination of historiosophical dreaming
was sometimes, especially in the case of second-rate poets, amartyrological kitsch
or achromolithograph of patriotic zeal.
The second writing strategy, in opposition tosecond-hand imaging Iintend tocall
poetic documentalism. At its core was adesire torecord the momentary truth, and not
the essential or model truth of the time; adesire tocapture and instantly preserve what
has commonly been called the concrete event, situation and experience; atendency
toground the speech in here and now both through athematization of the present, as well as by means of indication, by becoming its mark. Such poetry was eager
todocument the everyday of Jaruzelskis war, the state of mind of people bearing
the burdens of martial law, the peculiar atmosphere of different places and centers
of social activity, and the ways of verbalizing experiences in different environment. It
never strived for ageneral definition, but was rather satisfied with observations that
were aspect-oriented, local, fragmented. It saw the order of the observational data as
abasic level of expression, which validates other levels of meaning.

Poetry which aims toachieve such goals must, before it can say anything about
the world it wants todocument, overcome or remove the obstacles which separate it
from its object. These are, first of all, and in the present case, the time-honored (and
thus immediately obvious) patterns of poetic speech about national calamities, loss
and injustice, atrue maze of intricate symbolism and stylistic principles, in which
even renowned artists occasionally got lost. Getting through the maze toreach its
own world, one waiting on the adequate definition, has become possible because
this poetry greatly reduced those aspects of the poetic which would naturally push
it toward worn patterns. It rejected the rhetorical pathos and the accumulation of
meanings. It chose instead the colloquial, prose-like message and literal description.
It is interesting that the chance toembrace the linguistic perspective unconstrained
by obligations tothe stereotype was offered by aturn tothe poetics thought by many
tobe already used up, namely tothe poetics of Rewicz. Both indicated moments,
that is the colloquialization of speech and the respect for the literal name as the
ground of poetic activity, clearly torefer toit.
In some of its manifestations poetic documentalism was tantamount tofeeding
the tradition of commemorative poetry dedicated torecord important or unusual
events in the life of a specific community or group (e.g. Na przeamanie czogiem
bramy Pafawagu [On the Tanks Breaking Down the Gate of Pafawag] or onierze
przerwali strajk, wkraczajc do Biblioteki Narodowej [Soldiers Broke the Strike by
Entering the National Library] both by Leszek Budrewicz from the collection
Pierwsza i druga wojna wiatw [The First and Second War of the Worlds]). At
other times, documentalism expressed itself through the unusual thoroughness of
descriptions, almost dysfunctional in its excess and thus giving birth, as Barthes
would have it, tothe realistic effect.
One prosecutor (bald and mutters

indistinctly), three judges (the one on
the right puts on glasses belonging tothe one
in the middle, for fun), three bearded defendants
(exchanging smiles with the audience)
three defenders (gray hair, notes,
gowns trimmed with faint green stripe)
...
169
Jeden prokurator (ysy, mwi cicho

iniewyranie), trzech sdziw (ten
zprawej strony zakada dla zabawy
okulary nalece do tego, ktry siedzi
porodku), trzech brodatych oskaronych
(wymieniaj umiechy zpublicznoci),
trzech obrocw (siwe wosy, notatki,
togi obszyte wtym paskiem zieleni),
...
Za oknem
gawron czyci swoj odwieczn tog.
Protokolantka ziewa

Outside the window
Arook is cleaning his eternal gown.
The recording clerk yawns
Quoted above is Adam Zagajewskis Sd [The Court], published in 1982 under the
pseudonym of Sumero. At other times still, the poetic documentalism manifested
itself through akind of quotes from reality seemingly directs records of what
was heard, what came from the outside. As in Wiktor Woroszylskis six-liner which
transferred into poetic speech adialogue between ZOM
O officers:
zdae ten om
no zdaem
janie zdaem
trzeba byo zda
co bd zdawa ibra
zdawa ibra
170
you returned the crowbar

Idid
Idid not
you should have
why would Ireturn it and take it again
return it and take it again
In the writings of martial law there is awhole family of related works particularly
representative of this type of writing. By that Imean the collections and series of
texts produced in the internment camps and prisons. In other words, sets of works
whose distinguishing feature is that the situation of speech is clearly defined at
least in this one dimension: they are broadcast from there: from Biaoka, Jaworz,
Darwko, Godap, Strzelce Opolskie, Nowy Winicz, Zae, and so on. One could
mention collections such as the two Dzienniki internowania [Diaries of internment]
by Woroszylski, Biaa ka [White meadow] by Tomasza Jastrun, Ogie [Fire] by
Jan Polkowski, Zmierzch igrypsy [Twilight and kites] by Antoni Pawlak, Racja stanu
[Reason of state] by Anka Kowalska, Polska wizienna [Poland imprisoned] by Lothar
Herbst, czy Listy do brata [Letters tomy brother] by Grzegorz Musia.
It is indeed significant that the sobriety and relevance of observations, acertain
realistic quality of speech, apreference for facts, an emotional restraint, brevity and
simplicity of expression were all encouraged by the specific location of the subject. In the
Polish literary tradition, the prison cell is rather associated with visionary flights of fancy.
The documentary character of poetic texts was equally determined by their
genres. The authors referred tothem as diaries, prison kites, letters: in other words,
forms used for communicating information, notifying or reporting. For the most
part, these texts indicated their own incompleteness or indefiniteness, sketches
of possible poems, early drafts, poems with no punch lines, punch lines without
poems, ideas for future use, fragments of greater wholes, instances of speech cut in
mid-sentence, barely begun narratives. In terms of genre they could all be catego-

rized as zanoty [notedowns], toborrow the name from Biaoszewski. These are
records which are left in the shape that allows the reader toassume they are still
close tothe objective or psychological situation they have grown out of, and have
not yet moved away from it toadistance determined by conventional form. What
is more, they would be generally held in such proximity by their date of creation.
It was not asecondary or incidental matter for their semantics and pragmatics. By
putting the date under the text, the author wished for it tobe recognized as related
tothe content. The text thus became like aship anchored in the harbor; its creator
preventing it from sail on the waters of unauthorized reading. It was tobe forever
fixed tothe days and months of martial law period.
In order toavoid confusion let me make it clear that Ido not maintain that the
strategy Ihave called here poetic documentalism transformed poetry into the work
of fact or journalistic reporting. It operated within the poetry which was at the same
time personal, civic, religious, moralistic, or even (albeit rarely), metaphysical in its
lyricism. But the point is that all of its varieties were based on acommon ground,
formed by new realities, landscapes, places, situations, events, human reactions;
all of them experienced, validated by observation, clearly identified and named in
aliteral way. They constituted afoundation beyond all doubt for this poetry, akind
of basic dictionary from which it could proceed in many different directions. The
presence of this dictionary in poetic speech, the way it shone through the moralistic,
civic, philosophical or personal content, as well as its role as afactor in initiating the
movement of meaning in the text this is my understanding of poetic documentalism.
7th November 1986
171
It is in fact quite abizarre episode in the history of twentieth-century Polish

poetry. It appeared busy and energetic, having produced a lot of works, and yet
proved tobe barren. It did not introduce anything new tothe development of the
art of poetry; it was not abeginning of any evolutionary sequences, nor did it create
aschool, atrend or its own recognizable style; it remained akind of addendum tothe
various previous conventions, some of them already used up. More importantly, the
readability of martial law poems is entirely limited tothe conditions of the time
of their creation. This is not apoetry simply tobe read outside its original and
primary function. This is where (and when) it was buried forever. Ido not deny,
however, that is avery interesting subject of investigation for literary history as arich
and complex textual reality. And besides, it can serve as arevealing source material
for the study of the changes in the collective consciousness which take place in the
process of transition from communism toatime as yet without afixed name; let us
assume, therefore, that it is post-communism.
29th November 1989
Jerzy Kandziora
That which is slipping away: .
On Exposing the Idiom in Stanisaw Baraczaks
Surgical Precision
Stanislaw Baraczaks readers are accustomed tothe fact that each new collection
of his poems surprises with poetic variety and introduction of previously unknown
registers. Without going back into too distant past, we recall that Atlantis (1986)
brought aseries of image-poems with distinct frames and highly saturated with color,
presenting aspecific hyperrealistic record of time, freed from axiology and polemics
with the language. APostcard from the Other World (1988) continued this new epic
style of poetic narration, but here, even more clearly than in individual poems from
Atlantis, the poet delved beneath the surface of the phenomena, searching in this
world for the secret codes and rhythms of that hypothetical world. This he did more
intensely the more transitory and indelibly sensual seemed reality and everyday life.
172

miaem potpiecz prac
rozbierajc towszystko

Ihad awretched job
dismantling it all*1
says the narrator in the poem Pan Elliot Tischler [Mr. Elliot Tischler], which is an
attempt tobreak through the tangible matter (bits of other people's privacy in the
newly purchased home) tothe transcendent, tothe question about the fate of the
owner of the house after his death. Dismantling Mr. Tischlers wooden structure
aramp tothe garden for his disabled wife can be seen as ametaphor for seeking
different, alternative dimension. The principle of ahidden code governed every poem
in APostcard from the Other World, dictating asophisticated, multi-level organiza1
Unless otherwise note alll quoted passages translated by Pawe Pyrka
tion of rhyme and meter, but also the composition of the whole set, in which the
metaphor of the heros single day, and of single human life, is inscribed along with
the metaphor of conversation with ahypothetical Creator, identifiable in amirror
arrangement of poems which represent the lack of conclusion in that dialogue.
And finally Journey in Winter (1994) afascinating poetic dream, unfolding in
monochromatic tones of winter. Here Baraczak seems toleave behind that poetic
joy of color and image. Ableak, wintry landscape inspired by the songs of Franz
Schubert, and more distantly, motifs from the poems of Wilhelm Mller provides
ascenery free of illusions of domesticity, where aspatial-conceptual philosophical
discourse develops, on the place of man in the universe and the absence of necessity
for human happiness. Adiscourse, we should add, which appears tobe amodern
paraphrase of confessions of adisappointed romantic lover who has been denied
the right tohappiness and rejected by indifferent world.
Released in 1998, Surgical Precision includes anumber of poems written in the
style known from Atlantis and APostcard from the Other World, in which Baraczaks
poetic road reaches its fullness. Iam thinking here among others of Altana [AGazebo] and Pync na Sutton Island [Going toSutton Island], probably some of the
most beautiful Polish poems of the twentieth century. Baraczaks latest volume,
however, is also, and perhaps most of all, an opening of new spaces and paths of
poetry, the existence of which was, admittedly, difficult topredict, reading his poems
from the eighties.
The most remarkable poetic innovation in this volume seems tobe the unusual,
almost expansive presence of idiom. By that I mean both the concept of idiolect
in its literal, encyclopedic sense (as aset of individual properties characterizing
speech of an individual, related totheir origin, education, profession, environmental
habits, stylistic preferences, etc. Dictionary of Literary Terms, ed. J. Sawiski),
and adeep poetic immersion in all other, not exclusively linguistic idioms of the
world the idiom of private biography, of human body, of asection of matter, space,
amemorized sound, amelody line. Idiom appears as adesign principle, indeed as
acenter where most of the poems are crystallized, while the essential poetic drama
of Surgical Precision involves the uncovering of what is hidden in the accident of
idiom: the fundamental mysteries of existence, marks of genius, traces of the sacred,
finished beauty, superhuman principles and logic of the world, all encoded in the
disposable and the mundane, concealed beneath the trivial coating of events. The
reader, being awitness tothese operations of poetry, may initially stand helpless in
the face of individual poems. With an extraordinary passion, Baraczak poetically
appropriates the most peculiar, and in asense the most extraneous areas of reality,
fragments of space, objects, texts of culture, individual words extracted from the
corners of language. They become an object of affirmation; their one-off quality,
their uniqueness and placement outside the order become dramatically enhanced,
perhaps refined in the act of poetry.
The poems in Surgical Precision which display fascination with idiom are
those formed around asingle personal word, expression or an artifact of memory;
173
Kandziora That which is slipping away

poems which enter the secret areas of intimate subconsciousness, of linguistic and
pictorial prehistory: Porcz [Handrail], Za szkem [Behind Glass], Od Knasta
[From Knast], Problem nadawcy [The Senders Problem]. Each of these works,
these poetic revelations, is anchored in a word. A word which carries the entire
personal era (Knast, aname of aconfectioner from Pozna in From Knast, or
fresh pickled cucumbers remembered from distant youth in Behind Glass),
which opens the senses tothe microcosm of matter and its relationship tohuman
existence, limited by time (the idiolectic tubajfor in Handrail), which brings
tolight the seemingly untranslatable idiom of traditional Polish culture (in The
Senders Problem which paraphrases Fredros The Revenge). The word, the idiolect,
is amedium, akey opening atime, an idea, but, as acarrier of those dimensions, it
remains at the same time aseparate entity in apoem. The surprise at the universe of
the word continues, asingle, unique set of sounds and syllables, which could hold,
inscribed within, all the great objectivized world. The fascinating arbitrariness of
the word Czenik, in which someone (?) once (?) inscribed an entire universe,
now completely illegible, yet existing behind the veil of time, beyond the obstacle
of the sounds-letters code:
nikt ju nie wie, co znaczy archaiczny przydomek czy tytu:
... znieksztacony derywat sw cze? czas? nieszcznik? uczestnik?

nobody knows what this archaic nickname or title means:
... distorted derivative of the word hello? Time? Unfortunate? Participant? ]
(The Senders Problem)
The word powiat (district), which is an episode in the poem Powiedz, e wkrtce
[Say, it wontbe long]:
W no, tosowo, te na wp martwe wpowiecie?
Wpowiecie skry wszyscy znaj si nawzajem.
In the ... well, this word also half-dead ... in the district?
174
In the district of skin they all know each other.
The word szczwany (wily) in the poem Debiutant w procederze [Rookie in the
Business], which carries an extinct grammatical category and awhole tradition and
cultural idiom is now lost in social memory (although the poet does not ask about
this prehistory in the text, something tells him make use of this particular word
repeatedly). Finally, there are the deep connotations of the title word porcz in
Handrail, bearing the refrain, Kto spamita? Ikto si odwdziczy?
In all these examples, the poetic amazement comes from singularity and accidentality as faces of the infinity, from the discovery that there is no territory of
language, that each idiom is able tocontain the universe, and finally that someone?
something? inscribes, encodes the universe, the absolute, the perfection, into colloquial words, familiar and indigenous expressions, dwelling in the dialects of
the language, in sanctuaries and provinces of time, space, culture, and that it does

so, moreover, against the human hierarchy of the center and the periphery of
the world.
The poems Handrail and Behind Glass present perhaps the most radical attempt toreveal the universe in singularity and uniqueness. They start from idiolect,
from aprivate word, which not only carries its individual meaning, its designation,
but what is more, it carries the mark of its single use or production. It is aword that
happened in aparticular situation, which makes it even more accidental, more
apart from the rest. And that word becomes an idea, revealing its unpredictable
potency; it activates times and spaces.
Handrail, an extremely mysterious poem, is happening somewhere on the
borderlines of language, inorganic matter of wooden railing and someone's human
life, which is heading into collapse, into non-existence. Two words porcz (rail)
and tubajfor (polonized two by four dimensions of timber used tobuild the
railing) radiate in the poem from their material, wooden core. They become carriers of the pre-idea of there is no other way toexpress it woodenness, combining
in that incantation of tubajfor with with the pre-idea of carpentry as awisdom of
shaping matter, in which human existence can find support:
Milkliwie oscha dobro kanciastej porczy
z jakby spolszczy imigrant-ciela tubajfora
(two-by-four): kto spamita? Ikto si odwdziczy
za jej sosnowe wsparcie, za rytm, wjakim jczy
wporze przypywu zawias pomostu, raz po raz,
eliwnie? Postna szczodro.
Taciturn dry kindness of angular railing
made from (by immigrant-carpenter) atubajfor
(two-by-four) who will remember? And who will repay it?
Once heard, the idiom tubajfor is repeatedly echoed, transformed, but still
reminiscent of the original on the level of sound and rhythm. It is inserted into
a sophisticated rhyming pattern of the villanelle, which also provides framework
for the whole poem: : two-by-four ... Tu? Bd. Wr. ... Stj. Bd. Trwaj. ... To? Byt.
Twj [two-by-four ... Here? Error. Back. ... Stop. Be. Exist. ... This? Your. Life]. This
series of warnings, pleas and judgments seems tobe, hidden in the idiom, avoice of
aGuide? APerson who Knows the Way? AGuardian? It is one of many mysteries
of this poem. The word porcz (rail) undergoes multiple alliterations but returns
with its core unchanged thirteen times in rhyming position, in accordance with rules
of villanelle. It seems entwine the poem, towrap around the ends of lines, protecting
the text from dissolution, holding together that which is impermanent. It seems
toreenact in its verse-making role the idea of caring matter, repeatedly expressed
175
for its pine support for the rhythm in which

at high tide the hinge moans on the pier, again and again,
like cast-iron? Fasting generosity.

in the poem, most clearly in the chorus of And who will repay it? The existence
of inanimate matter is in the Handrail opposed tothe vision of dissolution, the
end of human life, in the evocative image of human fear of passing:
... Kto pamita? podnosi wzrok, wdziczny,
znad niewywoywalnych negatyww tczy:
zimnych gbin? Azimnych tonie metafora:
igliwia skostnie mrowi wnas, nas tpo drczy
prchno, ktremu trzeba oku, plomb, pajczyn
filtrujcych owadzi mrok, podpr iporad:
Stj. Bd. Trwaj. ...
... Who remembers? looks up, grateful,

from undevelopable negatives of rainbow:
cold depths? And cold is not ametaphor:
needles of stiffness tingling inside us, torments us dull
rot, which needs bindings, seals, spider webs
tofilter the insect darkness, support and advice:
Stop. Be. Exist. ...
The idiom of the rail is aresponse tothese fears. Areaction tothe vision of an
inverted rainbow, of cold depths, stiffness and rot, which can be associated
with luminescent layers of acemetery, of underground space, unreachable by human voice (the ambiguity of the phrase undevelopable negatives of rainbow).
The proximity of the world of things, of inorganic material, more durable than the
human body is seen as astabilizing context for human life saturated with the fear
of passing and end:
Postna szczodro, najcianiej podrczny
pie nauk zheblowany wprzyziemny, bezdwiczny
gos, wlini prost, prost jak prg czy zapora:
Tu? Bd. Wr.
Fasting generosity, the tightest handy

trunk of sciences planed into mundane soundless
voice, into straight line, straight as threshold or barrier:
176
Here? Error. Back.
The relationship between man and things of inanimate matter is an area of, so
tospeak, heightened sensitivity in the poetry of Stanisaw Baraczak. In another
poem from the collection, Pakaa wnocy, ale nie jej pacz go zbudzi [She cried in the
night, but it wasntwhat woke him], there is the creak of wood, rattling against

the chimney/ branch, wind, trembling glass, which are said tobe alien toaffairs
of people more in the sense of asoothing recognition that there is an autonomous
sphere of inanimate entities which makes us, humans, realize that the logic of this
world is not directed at mankind. This theme emerged clearly already in Baraczaks
Journey in Winter. This impartiality, ontological separateness and individuality
of inanimate matter would be, if Iread She cried in the night, but it wasntwhat woke
him, asource of tranquility. In Handrail the substantiality, the texture of wood,
its grain, which we touch and deeply experience, give achance todelay the existential drama, the pain of passing. The longevity, the actual materiality of the railing
confirms (porcza), the continuity of the world, in light of which ones own death
is less painful.
Another line of associations and an area of experience are opened by the idiom
fresh pickled cucumbers in the poem Behind Glass. The poem has features of
poetic epiphany. The starting point is the image: kitchen, noon, cucumbers in ajar,
amoment in time, in space perhaps in distant past. Similarly, at the end of the
text the poetic narrative is released from the solution of idiolect, in which it was
previously stuck and which at the end radiates adifferent picture, astreak of memory
released from the element of language, ascene in amovie theater:
ten wrodzony wasz opr iupr
jak dwie bruzdy na twarzy takiej, jak mia Gary Cooper
wsynnym kadrze, te za szkem zreszt, za strzaskan wpromienne drzazgi
szyb. Twarz zbrodawkami iwszystkim, struk potu, fadami skry;
ale tak jasno wtedy, ze trzydzieci lat temu, wsalce
kina Muza, na cianach, na ich tynku iboazerii
jej ekranowy odblask wypisywa: wolno-, niewierny
Tomku, wsamo poudnie, czyli wkadej chwili, wolno cisprawdzi
t mgiek na szkle soja, krwotok tej szyby, puls gwiazdy,
sprawdza ycie, wasne, na przegubach wiata kadc plepe palce.
The ending of the poem, therefore, opens itself touniversals and presents amoving
description of existential experience: youthful initiation into freedom, loneliness,
maturity, into feelings of the worlds ungraspability, its mystery, beauty and suffering. Thus we could read the final lines of the poem.
Before this opening, however, we observe in Behind Glass acertain exegesis
and sacralization of idiolect, an investigation into the nature, the substance of the
177
this innate resistance of yours and stubbornness

like two lines in the face like that of Gary Coopers
in the famous shot, also behind glass, apane shattered into radiant
splinters. Face with warts and all, atrickle of sweat, folds of skin;
but so clearly then, some thirty years ago, in the auditorium of
Muza theater, on the walls, the plaster and the paneling
its screen reflection spelled out: you can, doubting
Tom, at high noon, so any time now, you can check for
the mist on the glass jar, the bleeding of the pane, the pulsing of the star
check for life, your own, placing half-blinded fingers on the worlds wrists.
178

cucumber and its freshness. Fresh pickled cucumber as an idiom is permanently
inscribed in acertain era, acertain domain and community; it is acondensate of
some old-fashionedness and steadfastness, of quiet domestic resistance tooppression,
towinds of history, tothe era of simplification once? Or now? All of its features
the thickness of the skin, the greenness (synthesis of the blue blood of noble ancestors and the yellow bile of unfulfilled present), the garlic vigor, the upright
position, with dignity, packed tight in acollective jar, and finally the freshness
(maosolno), synonymous with lack of fulfillment somehow produce double
meaning; they are qualities of cucumber matter, and at the same time trace amap
of that formation, asocial genotype of mustachio / vilniuses and subcarpathians
before the First War lost in the modernity of the twentieth century. Along with
this formation, its idiolect enters the poem through echoes of antiquated proverbs
and sayings, here diluted and incomplete (like the fresh pickled cucumbers), and
also in distress, because intertwined and undermined by some shreds of newspeak,
newspaper language of television advertising lingo.
The whole text in general seems torecreate aform of cucumber jar. The narration becomes saturated with this paremiological, conservative and preservative
ingredient like pickles in ajar with salt. Also, the formal shape of Behind Glass
its tightness of packed verses, which through their length seek touse every bit
of room available with no respect for caesuras or syntax, and the absence of white
space in the text resulting from the lack of division into stanzas all those seem
tohave been adopted from the prototype form of cucumber jar.
As mentioned, the path of associations, which runs from prototypical fresh
pickled cucumber leads tothe opening of the poem onto an existential perspective.
The initial image of kitchen at noon, of cucumbers and glass jars, will be repeated,
though not literally, in the epiphanic final image, aframe from amovie watched
some thirty years ago, in the auditorium of / Muza theater: High Noon, in which the
face of Gary Cooper is also behind glass and its texture with warts and all, atrickle
of sweat, folds of skin somehow resembles the unwavering aspect of cucumber
in distress. At this point, in this epiphany of remembering, the narrative subject
becomes in asense finally personalized; it becomes someone's memory, biography,
someone's life story. Everything previously described in the poem can be found in
this biography, which cannot be separated from the pre-history it holds within, and
from which it emerged into independent existence, capable of checking, of rebellion,
confidence and freedom. And the key tothis biography will always be the jars in the
kitchen and the mysterious words: fresh pickled cucumber.
Behind Glass is abeautiful, poetically daring text, something radical and, like
Handrail, maximalist in reaching out tothe essence of time, history, biography, and
language. Apoem that is apraise of idiom, and is within the realm of Baraczaks
individual poetics particularly revolting. It is like a return to linguistic poetics,
which seemed tohave subsided in American experience, withdrawn before the accumulation of images of the New World, and probably translatological experiences
(Bishop, Larkin, Merrill, Hardy, Frost, Auden). This time, however, the idiolectic

word, which is in the center of the poem, hides beneath the surface of its singleness
awhole universe, an infinity; it is the prototype, the mother-word, unlike before,
when word had tobe reminded of its referents and meanings, shown the way into
the world.
The fascination with idiolect, and more broadly, the fascination with the amazing journey of common places (loci communes) within idiolects, across languages,
times and cultures, the fascination with their existence how it is concealed in exotic
subcodes appeared already in Baraczaks earlier works, such as in the poem Wrzesie
[September] for the volume Atlantis:
Wpokoju zbiurkiem, tablic inie dajcym si otworzy oknem
(klimatyzacja) wyjania znaczenie zdania
gonic za ywiokami drobniejszego pazu
grupie zoonej zMulata, Japonki, dwojga Anglosasw,
nowojorskiego yda ikalifornijskiej Irlandki.
... Za oknem wieyczka Lowell House
zoci si wsocu, jak co roku wieo odmalowana.
... Wpromieniu
co najmniej mili (1609,31 m)
jeszcze przez dobre pi minut oprcz niego nie bdzie nikogo,
kto by wiedzia, co znacz sowa splny acuch oraz ziemskie kolisko.
In aroom with adesk, blackboard and awindow that wontopen
(air conditioning) explains the meaning of the sentence
pursuing smaller molluscs for the sport alone1
toagroup consisting of aMulatto, aJapanese woman, two Anglo-Saxons,
New York Jew and an Irishwoman from California.
... Outside the window the tower of Lowell House
golden in the sun, as every year, freshly repainted.
... Within
at least amile (1609.31 m)
for agood five minutes there wontbe anyone apart from him
who would know what is it means toencircle the vast world with chains
of harmony.
Mickiewicz, Adam.Ode toYouth Adam Mickiewicz, 1798-1855: In Commemoration of

the Centenary of His Death.Paris: Unesco, 1955. 177-180. Print. (translated by George
Rapall Noyes and Marjorie Beatrice Peacock)
179
This perfectly contemplative text, devoid of aclear thesis or message is the early
record an intuition which in Surgical Precision will be developed in aseries of
poems. Note that September becomes crystallized through the astonishment at the
distance between two idioms, that it arose at the point of intersection of the language
idiom afew words of aSlavic poet of the first half of the nineteenth century, and
the spatial idiom the image of asunny day in an American college. The poem
Window, also from Atlantis offers asimilar record of interaction between two idioms:
apicture of suburban landscape outside aclosed window the poet writes directly
about the idiom of afternoon meets imposed upon him asoundtrack agreet-
180
ing addressed toaneighbor, spoken in aforeign language, in which (next door)

neighbor and (biblical) neighbor are one and the same / word.
Thus, September and Window show aclash between the idiom of language and
that of space. Here we are actually at the starting point apoetic concept, acertain
idea which will be fully realized in Surgical Precision. That is because the area
that is complementary tolanguage idiom is in Baraczaks latest volume precisely
the idiom of space. Such spatial counterpoint toHandrail and Behind Glass can
be found in much more extensive poems Implozja [Implosion] and the eponymous
Chirurgiczna precyzja [Surgical Precision].
On the surface, the two texts could not be more different from the hermetic
Handrail or Behind Glass, poems completely immersed in the element of language. However, Iwould like tosuggest that Implosion and Surgical Precision
are poems born of the same idea: todiscover in the ordinary and peripheral quality
of idiom and accident, acertain joke (an idea, aplan) of the Creator. Or, if you will,
amysterious principle of nature which states that perfection, genius, time, space
and its absence, all these universal categories cannot exist outside form, substance,
common matter, sensory and transitory concreteness.
Idioms and accidents are often subject topitiful human depreciations; they can
be ignored by physiognomists who establish the canon of male beauty (which is what
the poem Tenors is about, indirectly), become the despised and shunned storyline
of ones own life, much less alluring and clear than the life of ahero in aromance
film (Tears in the Cinema), or be considered aprofessional failure, like the glass
clinking on the recording of Bill Evanss concert (in Hi-Fi). However, it is the
poets job not be deceived by the apparent insignificance and dimensionlessness of
the idiom, topossess the necessary intuition and tosense at least the existence of
the code in the accident, even though decoding its signs, this letter tothe world
(The Senders Problem) is virtually impossible.
Thus, Implosion and Surgical Precision. Both poems appear tobe quite loose
and open poetic narratives. They seem toappear and vanish with their narrator, like
quotes, averbal event, asoundtrack, contaminated by the non-poetic extravagance
of speech, the lack of poetic drama or aclear punchline.
Implosion is arecord of the demolition of ahigh-rise belonging toan insurance company, a narration firmly anchored in a section of time and space, half
journalistic, with atouch style of alocal afternoon paper or radio station. What is
striking here is the eagerness torecord details, aslightly offhand visual perspective
and acareful look at the transformation of space with atouch of personality of the
narrator asomewhat ironic, momentarily distanced commentator; apoet-witness?
areporter? afriendly neighbor?:
Od wczesnego rana
tum gromadzi si wok placyku bariera
iwozy policyjne, awic nie napiera,
raczej gstnia iwierzy, e zapowiadana

transmisja TV przegra wkonkurencji zsamym
yciem (co wcale nie jest regu). ...
... Szesnastopitrowy
wystawiony na soce (jak kto niewiadomy,
e opalanie si tokrok do melanomy),
smuky wieowiec firmy ubezpieczeniowej
pry swj biay beton izielone szyby,
stabilny, cho tak silnie party naszym wzrokiem.
From early morning
the crowd gathered around the square the barrier
and police cars, so it didntpush,
rather thickened and believed that the announced
TV broadcast would lose in competition with actual
life (which is not the rule)...
Sixteen stories
exposed tothe sun (as someone unaware
that sunbathing leads tomelanoma),
aslender tower block of insurance company
The personified narrative super-consciousness that has been introduced to this

event does not shut the space of the poem; it is also just an event, aparallel one,
with its jokes, ironies and bons mots which move parallel tothe collapsing walls of
the building and undulating emotions of the street audience. The reader will not
experience complete identification with the persona; it will not be the authoritative off-screen voice from outside the poem which could explain the meaning of
all this presentation, its poetic intention, which would reveal another level and the
final message of the text.
The same characteristics of averbal event, captured as if at arandom section
of time and space, can be observed in Surgical Precision, afour-part poem, much
longer than Implosion. The chatty narrators monologue is aslightly pretentious
display of social eloquence in the form of reminiscing and commenting on the socalled current issues: politics, medicine, social behaviors, particularly regarding the
surgical profession, with an addition of some personal anecdotes, gossip and hearsay
about surgeons, adose of pettifogging, political correctness and encyclopedic erudition,
full of rhetorical vigor and including afew witty comments in foreign languages.
Ithink it would be amisunderstanding toread this poem with exaggerated attention
tothis discursive-anecdotal layer, toread it without the quotation marks, without
realizing that in fact we are dealing with another type of narrative idiom present in
Baraczaks collection. Surgical Precision is actually anarrative flow, captured in
181
flexed its white concrete and green windowpanes,

stable, though so strongly pressured by our looks.
182

afairly random moment of someone's life and their linguistic activity, arecord of
existence. Existence in the idiom of time, space, language. Perhaps, as when reading
Implosion, the reader of Surgical Precision experiences something akin toacrisis
of confidence, alack of astable foothold in the text, since the narrative subject immersed in this polyphony of its own plurality of expression, is unacceptable as an
authority that would explain the overall meanings of the poem, and is not, we fell,
the one holding the key tounderstanding the poem.
Can we then say that out of those four poems that particularly interest us here,
Implosion and Surgical Precision, these reports from the world, it would
seem semantically simple, filled with space, imagery and narration and devoid of
ambiguity and poetic condensation, are actually more understandable, unambiguous,
lighter than Handrail and Behind Glass, both saturated with dark surprising linguistic associations and developing vague substantial exegeses, entering
the microcosm of words and matter? Here is how we come tothe key paradox: in
poems where the figure of the narrator and the idiom of space were specifically
emphasized, i.e. Implosion and Surgical Precision, the lyrical subject is in fact
equally internalized and the sense of those poems is situated as much outside the
referential function of words and sentences, as it is in the case of hermetic poems,
those focused on idiolect and the mother-word from which they derive their narration and poetic potential.
One could go further; the perceived difficulty of reading somehow connects the
two pairs of texts and in away opens the chance of acomplete reading and discovery
of the problem of idiom. The reading trauma experienced in contact with, on the
one hand, Handrail and Behind Glass which eliminate the commentator and
seem extremely hermetic, arbitrarily enclosing their space in asingle word or object,
and on the other hand Implosion and Surgical Precision, which are disturbing
because the imposing presence of the commentator and equally arbitrary opening
of space, should provoke us totransfer the reading of these texts and of the whole
volume toahigher level, toseek acommon principle, the principle of idiom. It is
difficult tosay whether what we observe here is apoetic strategy intended by the
author. But the fact is that the four interpreted poems constitute the center for the
problem of idiom in Baraczaks collection and testify tothe authors poetic and
philosophical fascination with the topic; they appear tobe watching each other
and by identifying tensions, antinomies and symmetries which exist between them
it is possible tounderstand the crucial theme in the whole of Surgical Precision.
With that in mind, let us go back tothe poems Implosion and Surgical Precision and try toanswer the question: what meanings, hidden in the idiom of space
and narration, are tobe found in these works?
Implosion in some respects resembles Baraczaks Birdwatchers [Obserwatorzy ptakw] from the volume APostcard from the Other World. The latter transcends
the limits of genre scene, or acollection of trip impressions, which it seems tobe at
first. From acertain point the bird watchers are themselves being watched by some
inner eye of the poem. From this perspective their communal perfectionism and

hobby celebrations appear tobe as much an entry into the world of ornithology, as
an escape from the world of no classification, from realizing their painful existential
singularity. This idea is reflected at the end of the poem:
Wic wiat moe jest po to, by przeszy, otworzy
nas czasem znak, jak strzaka: JESTE TUTAJ:
wrd ludzi, obcych, ale jestecie zaufaj
po jednej stronie, wspobserwatorzy
ptakw, pogody, innych rzeczy.
However, it seems that Implosion, unlike Birdwatchers, is immersed in the idiom

of time and space incomparably deeper and, perhaps, completely. Just like Surgical Precision is totally immersed in the idiom of speech and idiom of narration.
In both these poems the absence of commentary is in some sense acommentary
itself. These poems in particular, through their lack of thematic message, their
radical entanglement with the sensuality of space (Implosion), with the flesh of
language, narrative vigor and plurality of expression (Surgical Precision), point
with unusual intensity at an alternative reality that was not described, or expressed
in them. They point tothe non-being or non-existence (Implosion) and silence and
mystery (Surgical Precision), categories not subject to human description and
verbalization, and in fact, belonging tothe transcendent space. And it is these that
are actually the poetic theme, the great absentee in Implosion and Surgical
Precision. The main theme of Implosion apoem so intensely preoccupied with
matter and existence, is its opposite non-existence. The main theme of Surgical
Precision so intensely spoken is eventually that which was not said silence.
Each of these poems indicates its opposite in that it arbitrarily singles out arandom
part of space, arandom part of someone's monologue, and in the way that these
fragments continue in their lack of justification, since the lyrical narrator in both
texts belongs entirely tothe realm of idiom, the sphere of the expressible, opposite
of which remains the Inexpressible. Such is the character of poetic operation in these
texts. Both of these poems, so strongly rooted in the idiom of everyday life, turn out
tobe in the deepest sense philosophical, touching with the whole of their surface
and thus reflecting that which cannot be named, described, or presented in any way.
The middle section of Implosion is the scene of collapse of the building and
slow contemplation of the three dimensions of space. The rhythm of the poetic
description for moment seems tocoincide with the rhythm of the structures dissolution, perfectly exhausting the dramatic potential of all phases of the process without
a single unnecessary word. With this purely poetic slowing down of perception,
the sequence holds for amoment the disintegration of matter, and leads the poem
183
So the world might be in order topierce and open

us sometimes with asign like arrow: YOU ARE HERE:
among men, strangers, but you are trust
on one side, co-watchers
of birds, weather, other things.

outside the limits of the immediate playful relation and into the space of geometric
abstraction. (Incidentally, we could probably sense some metaphysical overtones in
the fact that majestically collapsing building belongs toan insurance company):
najpierw szko okien
bezgonie wzdo si irozpryso, jak gdyby
pod jednoczesnym ciosem kilku setek pici,
po sekundzie popartych wielokrotnym grzmotem;
wschodnia fasada, najpierw dziwnie wolno, potem
coraz nieodwracalniej, jakby coraz ciszy
by dla niej obowizek zachowania twarzy,
osuna si; za ni, po spirali, prdko,
eksplozje przemykay si zpitra na pitro;
nowe grzmoty; przekroje biur ikorytarzy,
zapanych na zaledwie wystygym uczynku
pustki wewntrz; zapaci, pionowe itpe,
cian; harmonijkowate skadanie si piter;
jeszcze nie opad na towszystko dach budynku
ju ogromny kb pyu rs mu na spotkanie;
oskot trwa jeszcze ju go pochaniaa wrzawa,
gwizdy, oklaski ....
first the glass windows
silently swelled and were shattered, as if
hit at one moment by afew hundred fists,
in asecond supported by multiple thunder;
the eastern facade, oddly slow at first, then
more irreversibly, as if it was harder
and harder tomaintain face,
sank down, and after, in aspiral, quickly,
explosions darted from floor tofloor;
new thunders; sections of offices and hallways,
caught in the act barely getting cold
emptiness inside; collapses, vertical and dull,
of walls, floors folding up like apaper fan
the roof did not yet settle upon it all
184
and already ahuge cloud of dust rose up tomeet it;

the noise still rang yet already absorbed by clamor,
whistles, applause
Thus Implosion, so intensely frozen in existence, in the idiom of real space,

simultaneously and silently suggests, or rather implies acomplementary space of
Non-being. At the end of the poem the narrator and witness tothe event records the

cooling down of emotions of spectators after the successful collapse of the building,
casually alluding tosomething that is behind us and was left behind:
... So thats it? Yes, it is. Its past nine.
The crowd goes back towhere cars are parked.
carried by the wind bits of pink fibers
used for sealing, clouds of brown dust
squeeze into the streets, chasing us. Something was
ceased tobe: there is avacuum, visible, slender.
But that is behind us and was left behind.
The narrator, being one of us, carelessly, recklessly abandons the accident, just when
something begins toopen up, when one should start tolook carefully, because another story begins, here signaled by the ending and the subtle breach of the poems
shape: an additional, superfluous line that starts something we, who are seduced
by tangibility, who are slaves of the senses and incorrigible empiricists leaving the
scene of the event, will not experience, nor sense.
How about Surgical Precision? Does this poem, like Implosion, carry hidden signals indicating that its visible world, the order of the narrative, its human
emotions, omniscient quivering, rhetorical elephantiasis, in fact the whole idiom
of speech is actually there instead; instead of silence, instead of some transcendent code or message with which this monologue, auniversal human monologue,
will never meet, but which it will always miss? Such asignal can undoubtedly be
found at the end of the poem. Similarly toImplosion the ending has atexture
of ashimmering hologram, its own poetic ambiguity. The cartoon joke about surgeons it summarizes is yet another scene belonging tothe genre of black humor,
perfectly positioned in the whole sequence of similar anecdotes present in the
monologue. At the same time, however, such ending of the poem actually revokes
the significance of the monologue itself, placing it in quotation marks; everything
that was said may only serve todesignate ablank space left by amystery that is
ungraspable and extraverbal:
Rysunek: operacja wtoku; pochylone
plecy chirurgw tworz spoist zason,
ponad ktr wystrzela jak zprocy, wysoko,
liski wewntrzny organ (ledziona, na oko)
agwny chirurg wrzeszczy obecnym wtej scenie:
Nie wyrzuca tomoe mie jakie znaczenie!.
aco przypadkiem, ale, gdy czego dotyka,

wiadomym, e jest wane to, co si wymyka.
185
Nie demiurgiem chirurgiem by, chociaby takim:

nie bardzo precyzyjnym, niepewnym, co znakiem

Cartoon: operation in progress; the surgeons
backs serve as kind of bodily curtain
over which shoots out high above the team
aslippery internal organ (seems tome, aspleen)
and the chief surgeon yells at those in the room:
Do not throw away we may need it soon!
Not god, but asurgeon seems better career,
even one not precise and often unclear
what asymptom is and what simply acoincidence,
but one that when touching can get aclear sense
of things weight and confidently be able tosay
that important is that which is slipping away.
Perhaps the same thought about mans inevitable missing of what is significant,
about the diverging paths of human experience and of the unknowable, is also
inscribed into the structure of Surgical Precision. One could wonder about the
arbitrarily changing form of stanzas in the poem, and, perhaps more importantly,
about that forms incompatibility with the logical framework of narration. This
meaningful lack of precision, the mid-sentence and mid-thought breaks in the flow
of the monologue, caused by variation in the form of the stanza could suggest that
the whole architecture of the poem, including its arbitrary division into four parts,
is governed by some strange and mysterious logic, not identified with the intention
of the monologist. The latters surgical story, moving forward with anarrative
vigor and aslightly narcissistic self-confidence of someone who never found words
and language toresist the process of articulating the world, is confronted with the
logic of ahigher order. Adifferent, competing rhythm, superimposed on the poetic
monologue, seems tobe encoded in the text, in its extraverbal space, in the form
of amessage: we speak of, name and describe the world, but our discourse forever
misses the worlds true pulse; it is always speaking beside the world.
An issue not tobe missed in the consideration of Surgical Precision is the very
clear autothematic, as well as autobiographical character of the poem. The monologuing narrator is an Everyman, but also Stanislaw Baraczak the poet, author of
the text. The poem is saturated in ahumorous and self-ironic way with the idiom
of the authors biography and works. It contains abiographical thread, recognizable
by no small group of readers: the story of an operation the poet underwent after
leaving the country:
wyrostek, przewieziony wbrzuchu przez Atlantyk
(zapomniany appendix mojej kontrabandy),
186
odezwa si abyem dawno po czterdziestce

inarobi kopotw: nie do, e pk, jeszcze
wszystko wok zakazi, jakby kamikaze
dar si we mnie: Mam zgin? Dobrze, gimy razem!.

the appendix that Ismuggled across the Atlantic
in my belly (forgotten) began crazy antics
I've been long in my forties and this was the first
time it caused trouble, then decided toburst,
and infect all around, as kamikaze fighter
it screamed: If Idie, you wontmake it either.
At the same time the poems bears some characteristics of poetic self-paraphrase;
by changing the outline of the stanza four time, it becomes akind of agallery of
Stanisaw Baraczaks poetic formats, afinal revision, a display of self-quoted
capabilities of Baraczak-the poet.
By applying the idiom of his own biography and poetics, the author of Surgical
Precision places himself and his work on the side of this universal monologue that
will never be completed, will never reach the essence, the mystery, since those are
on the side of Silence. Ithink it is worth noting that serene self-irony inscribed in
the poem and in its concept, which is binding the winded monologue, transitory
in its mental fads, in its anecdotal randomness and grandiloquence, in acomplex,
variable structural pattern of rhymes and stanzas. In Surgical Precision one can
also encounter, albeit significantly changed, many afigure known from Baraczaks
poetry. As in the first part of the poem when we read through asentence of almost
Proustian proportions, with unusually lengthy embedded elements, and with asigh
of relief after astanza and ahalf we welcome its ending, along with the fact that in
spite of numerous included digressions, it turned out tobe perfectly written out
in lines and rhymes, and fortunately saved its ultimately unquestionable logic.
According tothe principle Ihave already described here, the more visible and
powerful the autobiographical element in Surgical Precision, the more it points
in the direction of its opposite the transience of life present like a negative
throughout the monologue, in its entanglement in the now, in the accelerated
respiration which is lifes too ostentatious manifestation. Autothematism, on the
other hand, communicates the inevitable moment when ones work misses the Mystery that escapes poetic expression, the result of which can be ahumorous poetic
hyperactivity of the author in this poem. And Ithink that this autothematic frame,
bearing the message: My poems are just uncertain indications of something that
we should not throw away as we may need it soon helps tounderstand why
Surgical Precision gave its title tothe entire collection and in some sense supports all of Stanisaw Baraczaks work, so much inclined towards the Unknowable.
187
Magorzata Czermiska
Ekphrases in the Poetry of Wisawa Szymborska1
Astudy of ekphrasis in Szymborska's work may seem amisguided idea. The

poet dedicated few poems to works of art, and critics have already identified
and analyzed them.2 So far, however, I have come across no attempt to apply
the concept of ekphrasis in the interpretation of Szymborska's poems (except
some occasional uses by Joanna Grdziel and Wojciech Ligza), although the
eponymous poems in one of the volumes, namely Ludzie na mocie (1986)
[The People on the Bridge] is a model example. Other attempts appear quite
early, at the very beginnings of the poet's work, namely in Malowido wPaacu
Zimowym [The Painting in the Winter Palace] (in the volume Pytania zadawane
sobie 1954 [Questions to Oneself]),3 and in Dwie mapy Breugla [Brueghels

188
The following paper was written for Wisawa Szymborska's Poetry, an international
conference, which was organized in May 2003 in Stockholm by the Royal Academy
of Letters, History and Antiquities in cooperation with departments of Slavic Studies
of universities in Stockholm and Uppsala; it will be published in the volume of
conference proceedings. Polish version is published by the organizers gracious
consent.
Faryno, J. Semiotyczne aspekty poezji osztuce. Na przykadzie wierszy Wisawy
Szymborskiej, Pamitnik Literacki 1975 vol. 4; J. Kwiatkowski Arcydzieka
Szymborskiej, in: Rado czytania Szymborskiej. Wybr tekstw krytycznych,
ed. S. Balbus, D. Wojda, Krakw 1996 (original sketch was prepared in 1977);
J. Grdziel wiat sztuki wpoezji Wisawy Szymborskiej, Pamitnik Literacki 1996
vol. 2; W. Ligza Opoezji Wisawy Szymborskiej. wiat wstanie korekty, Krakw 2001.
Anna Bikont and Joanna Szczsna note (Pamitkowe rupiecie, przyjaciele isny Wisawy
Szymborskiej, Warszawa 1997, pp. 113-115) that the poems motto was With authentic
event In the background, but asked about it the poet could not recall where she had
Czermiska Ekphrases in the Poetry of Wisawa Szymborska

Two Monkeys] (Woanie do Yeti 1957) [Calling Out toYeti, 1957), while later we
can find them in almost every volume. Only Leonard Neuger, when interpreting
Elegia podrna [Travel Elegy], noticed ahidden reflection on ekphrasis, but
at the same time assumed that it is understood by the poet tobe achallenge that
cannot be met.4 The critic comes tothe conclusion that despite the ineffability
of the experience and the resulting impossibility of ekphrasis, the poem speaks of
the necessity of undertaking this task over and over again. The evidence of the
poets belief in ineffability is, however, not completely convincing here, as it is
supported by aquote from adifferent poem by Szymborska.
My reading of Travel Elegy emphasizes the problem of the unreliability of
memory, which Neuger underestimates. In my opinion the motivation behind the
elegiac mood in the poem (in fact quite humorously treated) is not so much the difficulty of ekphrasis, as the fleeting character of impressions of the journey. Evidence
of this is in the first stanza, also repeated later in the text. Both the initial appearance with its particular semantic character, and the repetition bid the reader totreat
the thought contained in the stanza as the key idea of the poem. It is an idea of the
wealth of experience in the present (everything), which is opposed tothe scarcity
of what remains in memory (nothingtohold):
Everything's mine but just on loan,
nothing for the memory tohold,
though mine as long as Ilook.
The theme of merciless oblivion returns two more times in the poem:
Memories come tomind like excavated statues
that have misplaced their heads.
Iwon'tretain one blade of grass

as it's truly seen. (Szymborska 29, 31)5
read about it. The two authors suggest that the anectode might have been referring
tothe painting in the so-called Hall of Fame or The War Gallery of 1812 in the
Winter Palace (reprint of The Painting in Wiersze wybrane, Warszawa 1964;
without the motto)
Neuger, L. Biedna Uppsala zodrobin wielkiej katedry (Prba lektury Elegii
podrnej Wisawy Szymborskiej), in: Rado czytania...
Szymborska, Wisawa, trans. Stanisaw Baraczak, and Clare Cavanagh.Nothing
Twice: Selected Poems. Krakw: Wydawn. Literackie, 1997. 29, 31.
189
Neuger is right topoint out that the issue of necessity and at the same time impossibility or at least difficulty involved in ekphrasis appears in Szymborskas texts as
a matter of importance and one worthy of consideration, not in Travel Elegy,
however. On the other hand, I would agree that we can observe the echo of that
thought in the poem Clochard, which Iwill discuss soon.
Ekphrasis is one of those devices adapted by literature from rhetoric which has
aroused great interest recently among literary theorists, because of its relevance

tothe consideration of the linguistic capabilities of presenting extraverbal reality, and of the relationship between word and image. It is not the goal of this
text toelaborate on the subject discussed in many book and even more articles.6
However Iwill reiterate, on the basis of various sources, that ekphrasis (or descriptio) as afigure of thought, also called hypotyposis (evidentia) is adescription which
visualizes with such clarity that the listener, according toQuintilian, will have
the impression that they can actually see the described object, rather than simply
hear the sound of words. Over time, the meaning of the term ekphrasis was limited
tothe description of awork of art (painting, sculpture or buildings), which is either
incorporated into alarger whole (e.g. narrative), or is aseparate text then treated
as arealization of the genre.7 Ekphrasis acquired its genological distinctiveness in
late antiquity in the Byzantine Empire, and it owes its permanent presence in the
literary tradition in part tothe fact that for centuries (until the eighteenth century) it was one of the mandatory exercises in the teaching of rhetoric in schools.
(Ziomek 91, Michaowska 94-5)8
Contemporary poets are not concerned about the requirements of Ratio Studiorum, but traces of genre conventions have survived in poetic realizations, such as
in the standard example of Keats Ode on aGrecian Urn or explicitly classicist,
not only in style, but also in its theme, Na biust rzymski wmuzeum wSpirze
[On the Roman Bust in the Museum in Speyer] by Iwaszkiewicz from the volume
Powrt do Europy [Return toEurope]. The title or the text of apoems should include
areference tothe described work of art its author, title or acharacteristic feature
that allows it tobe identified. Sometimes the subject of the description may not be
asingle work of art, but awhole class of them, e.g. representing the work of afamous
artist, aschool, agenre or an era. Ekphrasis involves the belief in the visual potential
of words and their superiority over images. Micha Pawe Markowski notes that the
concept of ekphrasis contains aparadox, which is at the same time the paradox of
any representation:
On the one hand, it seeks tovisualize the object (by showing the object of description), on
the other hand it does everything toemphasize the method of its presentation (narration
or description). (Markowski 13)9

190
Markowski, M.P. Ekphrasis. Uwagi bibliograficzne zdoczeniem krtkiego komentarza,

Pamitnik Literacki 1999 vol. 2; and Pragnienie obecnoci. Filozofie reprezentacji od Platona do
Kartezjusza, Gdask 1999 (especially the chapter Prolog. Ikony iidole).
Krzywy, R. Konwencja iautopsja wopisie dzie sztuki na przykadzie ekfraz
kocioa Mdroci Boej wpoezji barokowej Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis
no. 2011, Prace Literackie XXXVI, Wrocaw 1998; R. Popowski Retoryka
wpnoantycznych opisach dzie sztuki in: Retoryka antyczna ijej dziedzictwo,
ed. J. Axer, Warszawa 1996.
Ziomek, J. Retoryka opisowa, Wrocaw 1990. 91; T. Michaowska, Poetyka ipoezja
(problemy interpretacji poezji staropolskiej) in: Zagadnienia literaturoznawczej
interpretacji, eds. J. Sawiski, J. wich. Wrocaw 1979. 94-95.
Markowski, M.P. Pragnienie obecnoci. Filozofie reprezentacji od Platona do Kartezjusza,
Gdask 1999. 13.

The effect of this paradox is well illustrated by Szymborska's poems, since the poet
always makes use of stylized language, specially chosen vocabulary and word building techniques, which characterize the work of art no less vividly than the actual
meaning of words. The poet translates visual signs in literary ones not only thanks
tosuch stylistic treatments, but also through appropriate structures of discourse.
In addition to description, which is typical of ekphrasis, she introduces dialogue,
narration in the form of mini-anecdotes, or chooses to dramatize what is shown
in the picture. These operations allow for the proliferation of metaphorical meanings and associations which can produce amuch richer, subtler and more concise
interpretation than would be possible through literal language and with the use of
scientific terminology of art history.
The author of Rubens Women not only wrote about adozen poems that can
be located within the above definition of ekphrasis as agenre of expression, but also
spoke out openly about her way of understanding the possibilities of description
of works of art. In one of aseries of short sketches called Lektury nadobowizkowe
[Optional Reading], while discussing the book by Aleksandra Oldzka-Frybesowa
ZParya wprzeszo (1973), she gives praise tothe value of literary description,
even though we live in the age of the ubiquitous visual culture and the possibility
of direct access tooriginal works of art:
Even today there exist in literary description certain aspects that have by no means been
devalued. First of all, in the description the time passes much slower, if not quite differently. There is room for reflection, far-reaching associations and all the other delights of
contemplation...So lets observe whatever is tobe observed, lets journey whenever the
opportunity arises, lets sightsee as much as possible. But if we sometimes feel sorry that
the image on the screen flashes before our eyes never toreturn, if, while travelling, it
suddenly turns out that we have ten minutes tosee Van Eycks altar, or that we cannot
see Vermeer for the endless crowds, that tight shoes have spoiled the joy of exploring
the Alhambra, let's get the book and return to the staid literary description... Having
said that Icould now move on toanother topic, but Iwould like tobring up one more
advantage of this quiet and honest prose. It is the ability todescribe architecture. For
if painting can be quite easily described, architecture reluctantly surrenders towords.
When capturing spaciousness, we lose the details, and vice versa. And it is horribly
difficult toexpress its mobile immobility. I'm talking, of course, of the treasures of old
architecture. (Szymborska 43)10
10
Szymborska, W. Lektury nadobowizkowe. Cz druga. Krakw 1981. 43.
191
The statement about the relative ease of describing painting in comparison with
architecture may seem surprising at first, but we should remember that when the
poet said this, she had already written poems such as Brueghels Two Monkeys,
Rubens Women or AByzantine Mosaic, all dedicated tothe interpretation of
pictures. And Clochard, in which she decided not todescribe the Notre-Dame
Cathedral in the belief that

(not built, no, rather
played upon alute)
Even the supplicatory sigh: save me, sacred folly of description! did not help in this task.
Here the poet truly abandoned ekphrasis as impossible, unable toeven finish the sentence:
in aParis like
in aParis which (Szymborska 25)11
And, as we remember, instead of describing Gothic architecture, decided tospeak

about the tramp sleeping in the garden outside the walls of the Cathedral in apose
reminiscent of medieval sculptures found upon tombs.
Belief in the visualizing power of the word is not always as unwavering in Szymborska's texts as it is in the discussion of Oldzka-Frybesowas book. Alittle earlier
in Optional Reading, when mentioning the release of an album with reproductions
of Vermeers works (1970), the poet wrote:
To describe Vermeers paintings with words is a futile task. A much better means of
expression would be music for astring quartet, with two violins, abassoon and aharp.
(Szymborska 33)12
Emerging here is asort of private hierarchy of arts, in which Szymborska seems

toplace music at the highest position, because, after all, even the indescribable beauty
of Notre-Dame is not in the fact that it was built, but rather played upon alute.
However, when writing further on Vermeer, the poet grants art historians the right
toattempt an effort tocreate averbal description, as such is their vocation and
profession. (n.b. this type of ekphrasis is called critical by scholars, todifferentiate
it from literary ekphrasis13). Szymborska herself immediately makes use of the right
of description granted toart historians, but mainly in order toenter into adispute
with an author writing about Vermeer, one whose interpretations did not convince
the poet. She ends her essay with two miniature ekphrases, of which Iwill quote
the second one because of its polemical vigor:
Ilook and it all seems wrong. Ican see the miraculous light of day touching different kinds
of matter: the human skin, the silk of robes, the chairs upholstery and the whitewashed
wall; amiracle that Vermeer repeats constantly, but ever in new versions and with fresh
glare. Where is that coldness and alienation? What would those even refer to? The woman
puts her hands on the spinet, as if she wanted toplay apassage, perhaps for fun or torecall
it. She turns her head towards us with apretty half-smile on anot very comely face. In that
smile there is thoughtfulness and apinch of maternal indulgence. And so she has looked
at us, including the critics, for three hundred years. (Szymborska 34)14

11
12
192
13
14

Twice: Selected Poems. Krakw: Wydawn. Literackie, 1997. 25.
Szymborska, W. Lektury nadobowizkowe. Krakw 1981. 33.
The difference between literary and critical ekphrases, introduced by M. Rifaterre is
discussed by A. Dziadek in the essay Problem ekphrasis dwa Widoki Delft (Adam
Czerniawski iAdam Zagajewski) Teksty Drugie 2000 no. 4.
Szymborska, W. Lektury nadobowizkowe. Krakw 1981. 34.

This trust in the word and in poetry, expressed directly in the above sketches, and
culminating in the poem Rado pisania [The Joy of Writing], although always
counterpointed by aslight shadow of irony, is present in all of Szymborska's poetic
ekphrases. Let us now briefly review the poems that can be included in this genre,
starting with the most striking and undeniable examples. Brueghels Two Monkeys
and The People on the Bridge are texts that could illustrate adictionary definition
of ekphrasis. The first includes the exact title of the painting and the artists name
together with abrief, but extremely precise description of the background and the two
monkeys. Its interpretative framework is anightmare in which one needs toretake
the matriculation examination. The poet decodes the message of the painting as
abitterly ironic accusation of cruelty, known from her other poems, such as Mapa
[Monkey], Tarsjusz [Tarsier], and Tortury [Tortures].
In The People on the Bridge the description of what is in the painting is again
concise and detailed at the same time, the name of the painter, Hiroshige, appears
in the text, and the identity of the specific work can found in the English collection of Szymborskas poems, People on aBridge, translated and published by Adam
Czerniawski, which reproduces on its cover the Japanese artists color woodcut from
the British Museums collection, entitled Ohashi Bridge in the Rain.15 Here, too,
the precise description of the image is not an end in itself, but ameans toformulate
auseful reflection on the artists victory over time, areflection similar tothat which
is found in the final sentences of The Joy of Writing:
The joy of writing.
The power of preserving.
Revenge of amortal hand. (Szymborska 63)16
In Szymborskas other ekphrases we can no longer as surely identify aparticular

work as aprototype for the description. In the case of Miniatura redniowieczna
[AMedieval Miniature] critics cite as the probable source of inspiration Matins
painted by the Limbourg brothers for the Duke de Berry, except that the poem depicts
ascene more or less corresponding tothe two miniatures July and August with
the addition of elements not present there. (Kwiatkowski 356, Ligza 179)
Whereas whosoever is downcast and weary,
cross-eyed and out at elbows,
is most manifestly left out of the scene.
15
16
Czerniawski In atranslators note thanks Richard Edgcumbe for his help in

identifying which of the color woodcuts by Hiroshige Utagawa was the inspiration for
the poem. (Cf. W. Szymborska People on abridge. Poems, introduced and translated by
A. Czerniawski, LondonBoston 1996. xvi.
193
Even the least pressing of questions,

burgherish or peasantish,
cannot survive beneath this most azure of skies.

And not even the eaglest of eyes
could spy even the tiniest of gallows
nothing casts the slightest shadow of adoubt.
Thus they proceed most pleasantly
through this feudalest of realisms.
This same, however, has seen tothe scene's balance:
it has given them their Hell in the next frame. (Szymborska 199, 201)17
Ithink that these absent elements, drawn from asecond picture, could have been
found by the poet in amuch later cycle called Seasons by another favorite painter
of hers, whose style creates a clear counterweight to the sweetness of Limbourg
brothers miniatures, namely Pieter Brueghel the Elder. In AMedieval Miniature
the most important means of characterizing the style of painting is the stylization
of language: the humorously treated archaisation and the word-building experiments with forms of superlatives, which probably would have been appreciated by
Gombrowicz, the author of Trans-Atlantyk:
Up the verdantest of hills,
in this most equestrian of pageants,
wearing the silkiest of cloaks.
all chivalry and rivalry,

so if the first is fearsome of countenance,
the next one strives tobe more daunting still,
and if he prances on abay steed
the third will prance upon abayer,
and all twelve hooves dance glancingly
atop the most wayside of daisies. (Szymborska 199)
In several other poems can be found asynthetic characterization of style, rather than
reference toaspecific, individual work. In an interview, the poet said:
I was asked ... which of Rubens paintings inspired me to write Rubens
Women. Of course there is no such painting. It is a description of the style
(Szymborska 96).18
It seems that asimilar situation can be found in Mozaika bizantyjska [AByzantine Mosaic].Yet even in those ekphrases where the depicted work can be identified with certainty, or at least very high degree of probability, Szymborska's poems
direct the attention of areader through specific elements toward the impression
of style as awhole. In Rubens Women, the description of apainting which does
not exist, but is still most probable in terms of subject and style, can serve not

17
194
18

Twice: Selected Poems. Krakw: Wydawn. Literackie, 1997. 199,201.
Powrt do rde. Rozmowa zWisaw Szymborsk, in: K. Nastulanka Sami osobie.
Rozmowy zpisarzami iuczonymi, Warszawa 1975, p. 306; qtd. in J. Grdziel wiat
sztuki..., p. 96.

only tocharacterize the painter, but also tojuxtapose the two types of femininity, or
rather two different ways of presenting the female body in art. One is precisely the
lush sensuality of full, baroque shapes, relying on physiology, the other an ascetic
spirituality of slim, fleeting, bird-like women of the Middle Ages, in whose presentation the poet finds asurprising foreshadowing of the contemporary worship of the
slender figure of movie stars:
The thirteenth century would have given them golden haloes.
The twentieth, silver screens.
The seventeenth, alas, holds nothing for the unvoluptuous. (Szymborska 35)19
The same opposition emerges in AByzantine Mosaic where the ascetic ideal of
early medieval carnality, modestly hidden under aloose and rigid garment is contrasted with the nudity of ababy whose beauty is that of baroque putto and clearly
belongs among Rubens' Women:
Pink and shameless as apiglet,
plump and merry, verily,
all chubby wrists and ringlets came he (85,87)
19

195
AByzantine Mosaic is comprised wholly of dialogue. It might seem aviolation of

the rules of ekphrasis which relies completely on description; however, some features
of mosaic-style representations from the time of the late Empire and some elements
of Byzantine culture are perfectly depicted not only through the attribution in the
title, but also thanks tothe archaic stylization of language, appropriate vocabulary
and epithets. Wojciech Ligza convincingly showed the presence of slightly humorous
stylization which recalls the lovers exchanges in Song of Songs and the subtext
of such knowledge about the life of the Byzantines as can be gained for example
from Secret History by Procopius of Caesarea (Ligza 184-6). We can guess that the
imperial couple do not neglect their marital duties, since at the beginning of the
conversation they assure each other of mutual admiration for their attractiveness,
and since there is afruit of their relationship: anewborn son. The dialogue of the
spouses allows us toalso draw conclusions about the mentality of the era. The model
of physical beauty is clearly ascetic; it assumes shyness and fear of nudity, as in the
case of the thirteenth-century painting contrasted with Baroque presentation in the
poem about Rubens.
The subject of the imperial couples conversation: the birth of unexpectedly
plump baby reinforces the impression that we are not dealing with an exact ekphrasis
of the mosaic depicting the Empress Theodora and the Emperor Justinian together
with their accompanying retinue in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna. However,
the humorously pathetic names Theotropia and Theodendron and their godly
dignity make the mosaics of San Vitale one of the possible sources of inspiration. The
hieratic stiffness of appearance and behavior suggested in the poem reflects the type

of silhouettes presented in Byzantine mosaics that Ravenna is famous for. Therefore
aminor detail in Ligzas otherwise thorough investigation might be corrected:
The association of women's palms with palm leaves probably refers tothe famous mosaics in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna (sixth century), presenting
the retinue of the Empress Theodora (184).
No palm leaves can be found in the mosaic of Theodora, nor in that of Justinian, but they are acharacteristic and frequently repeated element in the mosaics
of another church in Ravenna, namely San Apolinar Nuovo. If these are indeed
the source of inspiration for the poet, we are dealing with across-contamination of
several works of art, analogous tothe case of synthetic characterization of Rubens
style or the presentation of medieval miniatures.
The landscape with trees, apath which undoubtedly reaches its goal, apeasant
woman and ahouse, which is shown in the poem Pejza [Landscape], could have
come from the brush of one of the Dutch masters. Ligzas findings indicate that the
subject of ekphrasis here is Meindert Hobbemas painting from the National Gallery
in London The Road toMiddelharnis (1689). The description in the poem indeed
corresponds toanumber of details in the painting which is known as an example of
perfectly balanced and symmetrical composition, in which the artist has achieved
great level of expression, conveying adesire for escape and the poetry of infinity
(Gennaille 98).20 The first lines of the poems pretend tobe descriptive, but soon turn
out tobe the beginning of amonologue delivered by amodern woman, suddenly
embodied in the figure painted in the picture. At the same time she addresses her
man who remained in the present time and is standing in front of the painting. Her
monologue includes two points of view, as in the trick of dependent speech, when
the speaker in the same sentence combines the mentality of aseventeenth-century
peasant with the intellectual distance of acontemporary woman. The idea which
can only be realized in literary work: that the viewer of the painting enters into it
and identifies with the painted figure, at the same time retaining the ability totalk
about it toanother viewer standing in front of it serves as areflection on the boundary between life and art, past and present, as well as on the sense of strangeness that
can suddenly come between people who are close toeach other, and invasive feeling
as if they were separated by centuries.
Fetysz podnoci zpaleolitu [APalaeolithic Fertility Fetish], so far Szymborska's only poem describing asculpture, relates toyet another concept of femininity.
Although details presented in the poem correspond exactly tothe appearance of the
famous Venus of Willendorf, the poet decides not touse this name for the character,
instead calling her the Great Mother, a name from ancient fertility cults.21 This
primal femininity is also abundant in shape and presented exclusively in aphysical and impersonal dimension as we have seen in the ekphrasis of Rubens, yet its

196
20
21
Gennaille, R. Sownik malarstwa holenderskiego iflamandzkiego, trans. E. Maliszewska,

H. Secomska, Warszawa 1975. 98. Cf. also M. Praz Mnemozyne. Rzecz opowinowactwie
literatury isztuk plastycznych, trans. W. Jekiel, Warszawa 1981. 224.
Grdziel, J. wiat sztuki. 99.
22
The descriptions of photographs have already been pointed out by J. Faryno

(Semiotyczne. .., p. 137), but he incorrectly contrasted them with descriptions of
paintings and decided that the poet sees photographs as having exclusively negative
value. Amuch more nuanced interpretation of the poems about photographs was
carried out by W. Ligza (Opoezji 260-269).
197
meaning does not refer tosexual desire, but tothe natures power of motherhood, its
elemental life-giving force. In the description of the figurine we encounter the style
of everyday speech, simple phrases typical of spoken language and characteristic
of someone who focuses on afew basic categories outlined by anarrow horizon of
everyday life, without resorting tothinking about something as useless as beauty,
decoration, ornament.
In this poem, as in AMedieval Miniature, AByzantine Mosaic and Landscape, there is aplayfully ironic distanced attitude tothe convention that appears
between the image and the speaker as something palpable, and thus complicates full
identification; an ironic duality, noticeable at the level of style. In ekphrases which
refer toworks from the Paleolithic period, the Byzantine Empire, the Middle Ages
and the seventeenth century, the poet uses different means of language archaization
and customizes the choice of vocabulary, but at the same time maintains aclear
style and vocabulary of the twentieth-century point of view. The convention of the
past is indeed clear and in this sense acceptable from the perspective of the primary
consciousness of the subject in the poem, but it makes it impossible toapproach
art in the same way as in the case of Brueghels Two Monkeys or The People on
the Bridge, where the sense of the poem was identical with the meaning read from
the painting.
Similarly, this identifying, rather than ironic, attitude towards Rembrandts
art can be found in the poem Pami nareszcie [Memory Finally], which is not
a properly ekphrasis, but uses elements of its poetics. The theme of the poem is
adream of dead parents, whose vision in adream echoes the style, theme and coloring techniques of Rembrandt portraits in interiors. The whole lyrical monologue,
its reaching into memory, is inscribed in the depiction of imagined scene with the
parents sitting at the table, adreamed up image, which, however, has astrangely
strong relationship with painting, since the awakening is both touching the real
world and achiseled picture-frame.
We find ekphrasis in Szymborskas work not only in relation totraditional forms
of high art. The poet has expanded its use tothe phenomenon now appearing in the
modern, technicised culture, and having autilitarian, rather than artistic character.
Such decision is characteristic for the imagination of the poet, who can creatively
see poetic themes even in areas foreign toliterature, such as scientific inquiry or
the most common aspects of everyday life. In fact, Szymborska has applied the
venerable form of ekphrasis tophotography, and not just the purely artistic kind, but
also toatelier portraits, press photography and private amateur photography.22 The
clearest example here is the poem Znieruchomienie [Frozen Motion], carefully
describing the picture of Isadora Duncan standing in the atelier in an awkward, stiff

pose. The theme of the poem is the contrast between the mundane details of astars
everyday life (acorset) and what was the legendary about her art the freedom and
lightness of adancers movement.
The poem Pierwsza fotografia Hitlera [Hitlers First Photograph] presents
amuch starker contrast between the tone of aphotographic image and what we know
about the life of afamous person. The wording of the title meets the requirements
of the poetics of ekphrasis exactly, as the poem contains anumber of details which
allow us torelate it toaspecific, named object (though not one that can be defined
as awork of art). The subject of the description is the first known photograph of
Hitler.23 The future Fhrer is one year old. At the bottom of the picture there is
information about the photo studio: J.F. Klinger, Braunau, Stadtgraben.
Sh-h-h, let's not start crying, sugar.
The camera will click from under that black hood.
The Klinger Atelier, Grabenstrasse, Braunau.
And Braunau is asmall, but worthy town (Szymborska 269)24
The photograph is usually reproduced together with the newspaper section containing the news of the birth of Alois Hitlers son, published in the society pages
of local newspaper on May 5th, 1889, so two weeks after birth. This, rather than the
photograph itself, gives rise tomemories of his birth:
Precious little angel, mommy's sunshine, honey bun.
While he was being born, ayear ago,
there was no dearth of signs on the earth and in the sky: (269)
The poem parodies the mythical pattern of the narrative of the birth of ahero accompanied by extraordinary circumstances, since these signs are in the style of
petty-bourgeois kitsch:
spring sun, geraniums in windows,
the organ-grinder's music in the yard,
alucky fortune wrapped in rosy paper.
Then just before the labor his mother's fateful dream.
Adove seen in adream means joyful news (269)
Perhaps this style hides the belief in the banality of evil? The boy in the photograph
is like the tots in every other family album (269). There is no description of his
appearance in the poem. The poem is akind of sentimental and adulatory monologue
about the baby and tothe baby just before having apicture taken by aphotographer
in aprovincial town. The ironic style parodies the chattering enthusiasm, full of
diminutives, and the names of baby accessories. Only in the last three lines of the

198
23
24
Reproduced e.g. In K. Grnberg Hitler prywatnie, Toru. Troja or in R.Ch. Brooken

Adolf Hitler. Wzlot iupadek tyrana, trans. J. Kalinowski, Gdask 1994.

poem the voice of ahidden narrator, speaking from adifferent historical perspective, breaks through. This narrator is already acquainted with the little boys future
deeds and therefore can note that at the time of that picture:
The two discussed poems about photographs talk about the crossing of boundaries
of time. This theme, which we already know Szymborskas previous ekphrases, also
dominates the two descriptions of photographs from the latest volume. Chwila [Moment] includes two texts which already in the title indicate the subject of description:
Negatyw [Negative] and Fotografia z11 wrzenia [Aphotograph from September
11]. The former describes anegative image of an anonymous, private photograph of
aman sitting at atable in the garden and is built on the principle of antithesis. The
opposition of light and dark areas which on the negative is the reverse image of reality shows the contrast that exists between the world of the dead and the living. At
the level of language the reversal is present in the modifications tofixed phrases and
idiomatic expressions (aghost/ trying tosummon the living, offer him questions
toany answer, life/ the storm before the quiet). The personal tone of the monologue, addressed toaclose person now dead, bears similarity tothat of the adjacent
Suchawka [Receiver] or Poegnanie widoku [Parting with aView] from the volume
Koniec ipocztek [The End and the Beginning], which makes us read it as an elegy.
Aphotograph from September 11 describes awell-known press photograph,
showing small silhouettes of people jumping from the burning tower, one of the
countless images of the terrorist attack in New York. Stylistically speaking, this is
not adescription of an object, but adynamic unfolding narration of what is happening. The reflection in this ekphrasis once again returns tothe topic of time being
frozen in an image. This time, however, it is not accompanied by the confident, even
triumphant note known from The Joy of Writing or The People on the Bridge.
Instead there is horror, similar tothe presentation of the last moment before the
explosion of abomb in Terrorysta, on patrzy [The Terrorist, Hes Watching].
The characteristic feature of all of Szymborskas ekphrases is in my opinion
the fact that their presentation of aselected work of art is not an end in itself, but
ameans toanother end, which is some reflection stimulated by the original work.
The descriptive element in ekphrases is always dependent on the interpretative idea
which allows us tosay something interesting about the problems which interest the
poet also in her other works, thematically unrelated tothe aesthetic qualities of any
painting. These problems are mainly time, the creative power of an artist, human
cruelty throughout history and different ways of understanding femininity. Ultimately, these ekphrases say more about the imagination of the poet than about the
works of art they depict. However, they say it differently than in poems where the
space between the poet and her readers is not occupied by any painting, sculpture
of photograph serving as an intermediary.
199
No one hears howling dogs, or fate's footsteps.

Ahistory teacher loosens his collar
and yawns over homework. (271)

Finally, there is one more, this time half-facetious, argument for the vital role of
ekphrases in Szymborskas works. The evidence of their inspirational power is for
me the fact that another author wrote apoem, an ekphrasis, which as in Szymborskas
case is dedicated toaphotograph. And as in Szymborskas poems it is not simply
adescription, but has been formulated as aliving monologue addressed tothe portrayed person. The level of detail and the accuracy of the description (it mentions
the time indicated on the watch on the wrist resting next toacup of coffee!), as well
as the direct reference tothe title and author of described image make it amodel
example of the genre. Iam of course referring tothe poem by Agneta Pleijel entitled
Do fotografii Wisawy Szymborskiej, wykonanej przez Joann Helander [Tothe
Photograph of Wisawa Szymborska taken by Joanna Helander].25
200
25
Polish translation by Leon Neuger along with the reproduction of Joanna Helanders
photograph can be found In: Rado czytania Szymborskiej, 5-6.
Hanna Marciniak
Our monuments are ambiguous: .
On Rewiczs Epitaphs1
Wordsworths Essay upon Epitaphs, one of the founding texts of the Romantic
concept of elegiac poetry and aesthetics of the Sublime, important also for their
modern varieties, reads:
Based on the translation by Adam Czerniawski in: Rewicz, T. Poezje Wybrane.

Selected Poems. Wydawnictwo Literackie: Krakw, 1994. All quotations from
Joanna Trzeciaks translation in: Rewicz, T. Sobbing Superpower: Selected Poems of
Tadeusz Rewicz. W.W. Norton & Company, 2011. Quotations from Bill Johnstons
translation in: Rewicz, T. New Poems. Archipelago Books, 2007. Where English
translations were unavailable, Ipropose my own working version of the quoted
passages based on the following Polish editions of Rewiczs work: Utwory zebrane,
Vol. 1-12. Wydawnictwo Dolnolskie, Wrocaw 2003-2006; Proza Vol. 3 [Pr3, page
number]; Poezja Vol. 1 [P1, page number]; Poezja, t. 2 [P2, page number]; Poezja,
t. 3 [P3, page number]; Poezja, Vol. 4 [P4, page number]; Matka odchodzi [M, page
number], Paskorzeba. Wydawnictwo Dolnolskie: Wrocaw, 1991. [P, page
number].
Wordsworth, W. Essay upon Epitaphs. Poetry & Prose, selected by W.M. Merchant,
Rupert Hart-Davis, London: 1955. 605-607.
201
And, verily, without the consciousness of aprinciple of immortality in the human soul, Man
could never have had awakened in him the desire tolive in the remembrance of his fellows
neither could the individual dying have had adesire tosurvive in the remembrance of his
fellows, nor on their side could they have felt awish topreserve for future times vestiges of
the departed; it follows, as afinal inference, that without the belief in immortality, wherein
these several desires originate, neither monuments nor epitaphs, in affectionate or laudatory commemoration of the deceased, could have existed in the world. (Wordsworth 605-7)2

The following paper is an attempt tohighlight the differences between Rewiczs
idea of apoetry of mourning and the model postulated by Wordsworth. Rewicz
reinterprets several characteristics of the latter, such as the category of Sublime,
elegiac mood of sorrow and nostalgia, poetics of prosopopeia, as well as faith in the
power of poetic imagination confronted with finality. He also re-evaluates several
classical funeral topoi, including the monument of poetry, the notion of eternal fame,
the concept of non omnis moriar, consolation motifs and laudations of the departed,
and the belief in the indestructibility of cultural memory. In Rewicz, the principle
of immortality in the human soul is replaced by areflection on the importance of
remembering and the inevitability of forgetting, the indestructibility of trace, and
the omnipresence of disintegration. His reflection on mortality and immortality,
permanence and impermanence, presence and absence, (auto)redemptive power of
poetry and the inevitability of loss is almost exemplary in its ambiguity.3 His meditation on emptiness and form, and the ethical and moral dilemma of inexpressibility
and non-representativeness of death are of importance, too.
Speaking of the role of memory in Rewiczs work, Iam referring toboth individual experience and cultural memory, the latter, in Rewiczs case, skeptical and
revisionary, always aware of the painful areas of discontinuity, referencing tradition
in a manner akin to Vattimos Verwindung. Rewicz reaches for European topoi
and myths usually tostress their semantic devaluation or ambiguity. They remain,
however, anecessary and familiar cultural ground for his work. By constituting its
fundamental negative reference field, tradition also becomes one of integral components of Rewiczs writing. An analogous strategy can be observed in the area
of genre memory of elegiac literature.
Elegiac poetry, especially its variety that stems directly from the classical tradition, is one of the clearest realizations of the strong concept of literature understood
as asignifying activity of an individual establishing for itself apermanent cultural
biography and existence stored in the common memory and independent from the
finiteness of biological life, the inevitability of passing and physical disintegration.
The theme of eternal fame, important for literature as defined above, in elegiac
poetry takes the form of homage paid tothe deceased, apraise of their virtue, their
elevation and glorification. Meta-poetical reflections on the power of poetry express
certainty that art can ensure immortality or at least its substitute. This is because
the word, sanctioned metaphysically by its relation toLogos the eternal and holy
proto-model and aconstant center is characterized by permanence, aclear meaning
and astable, hierarchical relation between the sign and the signified.

202
Iunderstand ambiguity tobe aconjunction of mutually exclusive alternatives

in its strict, strong sense, fundamentally different from semantic indeterminacy
proposed by Ryszard Nycz in his discussion of the semantics of Rewiczs
poetry (Tadeusza Rewicza tajemnica okaleczonej poezji. Literatura jako trop
rzeczywistoci. Universitas, Krakw: 2001. 197) Utterance constructed in such
afashion always results in an antinomy of blanket interpretative hypotheses, leading
inevitably toakind of cognitive deadlock, atrap of irresolvable choice. (Ibid. 198.)
Marciniak Our monuments are ambiguous
Zawadzki, A. Koniec nowoczesnoci: nihilizm, hermeneutyka, sztuka. In: Vattimo,

G. Koniec nowoczesnoci. Trans. by M. Surma-Gawowska. Introduction by A.
Zawadzki. Universitas, Krakw: 2006.xviii.
Rewicz parodies or negates Horatian themes. In On All Fours, he dissects the
myth of the monumentalized poet-laureate, parodying the topoi of wings of poetry
and poetic monument. In one of the short stories, Ra, an exalted recitation of
Kochanowskis Hymn 24 [Pie XXIV] at an authors evening is juxtaposed against
the distractedness and trite thoughts of the poet. In *** (Kto mi zwiza rce)
[Whoever tied my hands] the impossibility of poetic flight is neither grotesque, nor
ironic it is an image of acrippled poet, cut off from the transcendental dimension
of reality.
For future reference Iam quoting the discussed passage in full: Iknow that Ishall
wholly die/ and from this flows/the small comfort// which gives me strength/
toexist outside of poetry. (Wiem e umr cay / istd pynie/ tasaba pociecha//
ktra daje mi si/ trwania poza poezj.) It is important tonote that the Polish verb
trwa (exist in the quoted passage) also means toremain or tocontinue
toexist. [PP]
There are two possible readings of Hlderlins line [from Remembrance]
Was bleibet aber, stiften die Dichter quoted by Rewicz in his poem titled
Tojednak co trwa ustanowione jest przez poetw [That which remains
is established by the poets.] In his interpretation, G. Vattimo emphasizes
enduring, as tied tothe concept of monument and trace, while Heidegger stresses
permanence. It would be interesting tosituate Rewiczs reading in relation
tothese two, although due toobvious constraints doing so is impossible in this
essay. See: Vattimo. G End of modernity and Heidegger, M. Holderlin and the
essence of poetry. Elucidations of Holderlins Poety. Translated toPolish by S.
Lisiecka. KR, Warszawa: 2004.
203
Two Horatian topoi: exegi momentum and non omnis moriar are constitutive for
this poetry that has the power of expressing, making permanent, and eternalizing.
Both of them rely on perfection and finiteness of artistic form in two senses of
the Latin perfectum (Zawadzki xviii).4 They are an expression of faith in the permanence of the subject both the poet (as in Horaces Exegi monumentum and
Non usitata) and the person sung about guaranteed by the continuity of memory.
Horaces Donarem pateras, places the of poetic laudation above the commemorative value of monuments.5
In Der Tod ist ein Meister aus Deutschland (In Memory of Paul Celan),
Rewicz recalls Horaces non omnis moriar but arrives at its paradoxical opposite:
Iknow that Ishall wholly die/ and from this flows/ the small comfort.6 (SS 170) Is
existence tobe understood as homeless vegetation in adeserted world / the gods
had left? Does existence outside of poetry voluntarily giving up on poetry in favor of the truth of experience juxtaposed against literary, cultural, and eschatological
myths not rather seem alacking condition? How is existence tobe understood:
as that which remains enduring and surviving through time or that which
continues toexist eternal permanence despite time, afeature of indestructibility.7
Why does the thought of death as annihilation, ultimate destruction of life, bring
comfort? What does it mean towholly die?

Our monuments
are ambiguous
they are shaped like apit
our monuments
are shaped
like atear
moles
built our monuments
under the earth
our monuments
are shaped like smoke
they go straight toheaven
(Rewicz 1994 73)
Zbigniew Majchrowski believes the monument tobe the most important motif in
Rewiczs poetic imagination and astutely identifies its multiple versions and
obsessive repetitiveness as an attempt at answering the question about the shape
of memory.8 I would supplement the discussion of the commemorative issue in
Rewicz (including remembrance, homage, memory) with the question of representation and expressibility implied by the monument (as well as the related themes
of stone, sculpture, and cathedral).
Amonument shaped like apit is tied tothe drastic image of death as falling,
acharacteristic of Rewiczs early poetry and stemming from the conviction of the
impossibility of resurrection and ultimate decomposition of the human body stripped
of the sacral dimension of corporeality. An oneiric vision of agrave that no longer
signifies the passage from the carnality of earthly existence towards eternal life of
the soul returns also in one of his later poems *** (wicher dobija si do okien)
[wind battered the windows]. Monument shaped liked smoke sends us toMassacre of the Boys and *** (Einst hab ich die Muse gefragt) where the tree loses
its symbolic value of a cultural topos, transformed into a tree of black smoke,
adead tree/ with no star in its crown. (Rewicz 1994 21) These appear tobe two
variations of acounter-monument which through its (non)existence touches the
problem of visual representation of liminal experience and the monumentalization
of memory.9 Rewicz seems tobe aware of the fact that once memory is assigned
the form of monument, we relieve ourselves, toan extent, of the duty toremember.
10
His ambiguous monuments neither elevate (also in the spatial meaning of

204
10
Majchrowski, Z. Pomniki wyciu itwrczoci Tadeusza Rewicza.[Monuments

in Rewiczs life and work] Presentation at Przekraczanie Granic conference,
Wrocaw 27-30 March 2006. Post-conference volume [in print].
Counter-monument is aform of monument tothe memory of Shoah victims that
negates and destroys itself, disappearing with time, leaving an empty space and
lasting only in the living human memory.
See: Leoni, G. The First Blow: Projects from the Camp at Fossoli. Holocaust
Remembrance. The Shapes of Memory. G. Hartman (ed.) Blackwell, Oxford,
UKCambridge, Mass: 1994.
11
12
13
The theme of poet as amole, an antithesis of poet as abird complements the

discussed phenomenon. It evokes the value-giving spatial associations with solarity,
lightness, exaltation, and purity the mole poet is oriented at the earthly, heavy,
low, and dirty. The mole as ameta-poetic theme appears in Rewicz paired
with areflection on old age and death (in Teraz) or re-evaluation of his work
and maturation into silence (Tojednak co trwa [That which remains]. It is
also significant that the motifs of monument as ablack mound of soil (czarny
kopczyk), and the poet as amole return also in the commemorative Elegia
(pamici Cz. M.) [Elegy. Tothe memory of Cz. M.]
Kunz, T. Strategie negatywne wpoezji Tadeusza Rewicza. Od poetyki tekstu do poetyki
lektury, Universitas: Krakw. 2005. 225.
In his essay titled Wounded Poet. (Tothe memory of M. Jastrun) Rewicz writes:
Ioften tell myself: stop that! Stop writing epitaphs. Run away from this growing
cemetery. But then Irecall Jastruns words: If you still remember, write it down
may not everything be lost in this country. And Isit down tomy craft, rebellious
and angry, Ibegin tomove my hand with apen across paper. (Pr3, 386)
205
the word), nor eternalize, as they are easily annihilated themselves in the process
of organic decomposition, their feeble condition and shapelessness a testimony
touniversal destructibility.11
Rewiczs Preparations for aPoetry Reading, both volumes of Dzienniki [Diaries] and all of his books of poetry contain an elegiac cycle which expands continuously through addition of new poems devoted tothe memory of close and distant
friends, mostly poets, writers and critics as well as important artists unknown in
person. Two commemorative volumes: Our Elder Brother and Mother Departs have
aspecial status among his writing. Iwould like todevote my attention tothese two
works in particular, their obituaries, epitaphs, meditations and commemorations,
and tothe concepts of the other side, memory and poetry inscribed in them.
Memory in Rewicz is an ambiguous force. On the one hand, it is akind of
moral obligation, as it establishes the identity of man, community and culture,
even when it is the acute kind of memory, one testifying toloss and unattainable
wholeness rather than completeness of any kind (Kunz 225).12 In fact, rejecting the
illusion of repair, the poet seems tovalorize negative experiences that brand with
inerasable trauma. His reference toHlderlins hymnal Remembrance [Andenken] (in Tojednak co trwa [That which remains]), where Hlderlin points tothe
special role of the poet as the agent establishing reality and ensuring its endurance
through remembrance and commemoration seems of importance in this context.
On the other hand, the imperative toremember becomes acurse tothe living and
appears as aforce oppressive tothe body, threatening the psychological and physical
integrality of the Self. Eventually, it transforms into asense of guilt, betrayal and
denial of the deceased. This ambivalence accompanies the poet from the earliest
verses in Anxiety and Red Glove (see: Mask and Tothe Dead) tohis late work:13
Ipoet shepherd of life/ have become shepherd of the dead/ Ihave labored too
long on the pastures/ of your cemeteries Depart now/ you dead leave me/ in peace//
this is amatter for the living (Rewicz 2007 72-73).

For the dead, being locked inside memory entails an almost physical, compulsory connection tolife; it entails impossibility todepart and dissolve into nothingness, necessity toremain in the liminal, ontologically unstable emptiness filled with
traces: The dead inhabit my life. They start tolive rich lives in the landscape of my
memoryAm Itowrite the book of the dead? Is it not better tobury [them] and
leave towards future? (Tosamo (wspomnienie oKarolu Kuryluku), Pr3 78-79).
At this point we have arrived, Ibelieve, at afundamental contradiction governing
Rewiczs complicated vision of the beyond and his ambiguous concept of mourning. On the one hand, writing amemory about the Dead is almost always afight
against time and death for me. Its an attempt tosummon the Dead Toraise the
Dead with the word. Toturn him back, tear him away from the land of the Dead
Do they live only as long as their image does in our memory? Aperceptible and
corporeal image. (Zamknicie Pr3 95-97) On the other hand: Irecall the dead
more and more often, even though Iam reluctant towrite about them. Iwanted
tobury them and bid them farewell in poetry. (Tosamo Pr3, 78).
Rewicz is aware of the inconclusive character of his eschatological and metapoetical reflection: When Iwrite, Ipile up contradictions. And this is all I can
offer him. (Pr, 12) he says in one of the essays, Zostanie po mnie pusty pokj
[An Empty Room Will Be Whats Left Of Me], tothe memory of Leopold Staff. The
self-contradictory vision of the other side emerging from his commemorative and
elegiac work reveals itself, as Maria Janion astutely observes, already on the level
of language, in aspecific construction of phrase that foreshadows adeclaration of
faith and concludes as adeclaration of lack of faith (Janion 151).14
Now as Iwrite these words Mothers eyes, peaceful and watchful rest upon me.
She looks at me from the other world the others side which Idontbelieve in
(Teraz [Now], M, 10).
For afew months now

my Friend
Kornel Filipowicz
has been in the otherworld
while Icontinue in this one
Ido not believe in the afterlife
so Iam trying tounderstand
your crossing the threshold
into the otherworld
206
Conversation with aFriend (Rewicz 2011 171)
Iwould like tolet this paradox resound fully, emphasize that Rewiczs poetry of
mourning situates itself somewhere in-between Ido not believe and Iam trying
tounderstand. Ido not think it necessary totry and arrive at all costs at asingle
conclusion and impose adefinite interpretation onto all those contradictions. One

14
Janion, M. Toco trwa. Twrczo 2000 Vol. 5. 151.
15
16
17
Ibid. Nadmiar blu. yjc tracimy ycie. Niepokojce tematy egzystencji. W.A.B.,
Warszawa: 2001. 195.
Rewers, E. Pustka iforma Teksty Drugie 2002 Vol. 2/3. 311. ukowski, T. Non
omnis moriar? Res Publica Nowa. 2000 Vol. 5. 69.
Skrendo, A. Tadeusz Rewicz igranice literatury. Poetyka ietyka transgresji, Universitas,
Krakw: 2002. 150.
207
should rather accept both poles of Rewiczs antitheses and attempt toarticulate the
nuances of this ungraspable and notoriously ambiguous thanatological conception.
Rewiczs contradictions seem derive from his reflection on the expiring of the
Absolute [Wygasanie Absolutu] that brings about the fatal erosion of language and
poetry. He writes continuously about the death of poetry, which corresponds towriting
about the death of God; he seems tofind an analogy between poetry and God (195).15
His elegiac reflection oscillates between the word and the body; by incorporating what
seems impossible tocoexist, it places equation marks between biology, psychology,
and semiotics. It moves fluidly between different dimensions of death: from the
literal, biological death, dying off and decomposition of matter, through the death of
the soul and memory, word and art, tothe disappearance of sacrum.
Afundamental question Rewicz seems tobe asking is as follows: can poetry
that is deadthat is mortal (Pr3, 163) save anything in any way or make anything
permanent? How can the word, devoid of its metaphysical foundation, impermanent
and helpless against disintegration, eternalize and ensure immortality? Perhaps the
word is only atrace reminding of loss, aspace where that which is absent resounds
and seeks shelter? If so, the only function of poetry of mourning would be serving
as ahardly consolable vigil of death, adefense of its irreducibility and incomprehensibility, chasing shadows that run away into nothingness or guarding the empty
space marked by those shadows (Rewers 311; ukowski 69).16
How towrite in adying language about the dying of man? If the writing of elegiac
poetry is doomed tofailure (in the sense of the impossibility of raising the Dead
with the word), does it inevitably entail an even more painful failure of adding
one death toanotherthe experience of double death? (Skrendo 150).17
How does one invent a language and manner of representation which would
ensure not aform of immortality toman inasmuch as they would save the fact of
death from aesthetization and fetishization by its becoming aliterary topos or
theme. It would have tobe poetry that, paradoxically, ensures immortality todeath
itself as an event that is unimaginable and inexpressible, an event that cannot be
easily assimilated in the formal order of the cultural organization of experience.
It would have tobe language as something more than acontinuation of the deadly
annihilation by representation. The question of appropriateness, of the right tocross
an unspeakable line with the use of word and image, of entanglement in conventions that figure and aestheticize the originally amorphous and asemantic inhuman
reality, lies at the crux of Rewiczs funeral poetry.
Among the most moving moments of Dziennik gliwicki, [Gliwice diaries] some
passages of which were included in Mother Departs, there is ascene where the poet-

son reads poetry tothe dying woman. Iwanted toread afew poems tothe Mother,
but she falls asleep; she is weakened. The poems sounded so strange anyway, so
distant (M, 108). There is something fundamentally inappropriate, even cruel, in
it, something that the poet himself is well aware of. The thought of the inacceptable
incompatibility of art tosuffering and asense of guilt caused by the dry eyes of
the poet who imperturbably continues topolish the form of his lamentations is
one of the most important, most recurrent topics of the volume. The scene returns
in another poem *** (Ukryem twarz wdoniach) [Ihid my face in my hands]
tothe memory of Helmut Kajzar: Ibrought him apoem/ Iread and voice failed
me/ he died/ and Ihave lived for 22310 days already/ twenty two thousand/ three
hundred and ten (P3205).
The aporetic vision of the other side and the border between the world of the
living and the world of the dead is another fundamental problem in Rewiczs
work. In his poetic sketch, Znaem boga poezji [Iknew the god of poetry], apart
of Zostanie po mnie pusty pokj [An Empty Room Will Be Whats Left Of Me],
the other side is presented as the deepest, stony silence, as the great Nothing.
Similarly, in AConversation With AFriend or Kartki wydarte zdziennika [Pages
torn from ajournal]: More and more of them pass tothe other side, And then,
great calm will come. Nothing. Neither salvation, nor damnation or Last Judgment,
neither hell nor heaven, nor transmigration of souls. The great Nothing that day
after day is coming tome. (Pr3, 350)
Rewiczs Nothing is sometimes constructive and affirmativedynamic
and active (Nic, czyli wszystko [Nothing, in other words, everything] (Pr3, 183)),
afalse substitute of dying reality that fills the ontological void. On the other hand,
his Nothing is always alack. It is always aspace left behind (Zamek na lodzie.
(Notatka z lutego 1962 roku) [Castle built on ice. A note from Feb. 1962] (Pr3
174)).18 Trauma, asense of hollowness and acute memory of the poet defending
emptiness as emptiness, rejecting easy consolation and hasty restitution of degraded
values, are aresponse tothe acute lack of reality, tothe absence of ground and
vertical dimension of the world (Kunz 225; Skrendo 118).19 Awound healing too
quickly and forgetting about the loss would be the essence of ethical nihilism.
And Nothing after death reveals itself as an empty space of silence and stillness, as in the poem Doors in which: in the illuminated landscape/ a third
door/ opens/ and beyond it in amist/ towards the back/ alittle tothe left/ or in

208
18
19
It is an essay of special importance for Rewiczs reflection on the cultural and

moral crisis of modernity and parallel inventiveness in the search for adequate forms
of representation for inexpressible and irrepresentable experiences. Ameditation
on the liminal status of emptiness (between being and non-being) returns in the
poem Bocca della Verita and in Kartki wydarte zdziennika gliwickiego[Pages
torn from Gliwice diary]: External world, nature; all of it surrounds interior that is
empty. But this emptiness has aform it appears as hunger, thirst, waiting. Is there
afood that will finally feed the hunger of contemporary man? (Pr3,317)
Kunz, T. Strategie negatywne .225. Skrendo, A. Niewczesna poezja Rewicza.
Kwartalnik Artystyczny 2006 Vol. 2. 118.

the centr/ Isee / Nothing (M 63). Considering the context of Mother Departs and
its eschatological vision, it seems particularly important that the poem, which has
four versions and alternate endings, was rewritten again and given adifferent one
(Skrendo 198-9).20 Aclearer separation and substantiation of Nothing achieved
through new delimitation of text, the emphasis of capitalization combined with the
unusual use of asingle negative in asyntactically affirmative sentence, transform
the last two stanzas (so far atestimony toathwarted act of seeing) into an account of it, an account of aremarkable vision of something that is not / does not
exist (Skrendo 138).21
Eponymous doors is one of Rewiczs figures of passage. The themes of bridge,
gate (the poem brama) or gates, as in the moving The Gates of Death (tothe
memory of Henryk Bereska) are also inscribed in this symbolic of transition. These
figures are usually negated, however, devoid of symbolic meaning as aresult of loss
of aconnection tothe ritual. Transition no longer entails achange of ontological
status of the person experiencing it, nor does it entail access tothe transcendental
dimension, tosomething radically different. Aspatial passage does not become
aspiritual passage. 22 The Gates of Death in the title do not designate aclearly
defined and reliably localized ontological border. It turns out that life itself is aceaseless, painful squeezing through the invisible door, as death is its immanent part:
The gates of death
The secret of their construction
is that the gates are not there
an at the same time they are
wide open toall
they are so narrow
that they must be squeezed through
in the sweat of one's brow
in bloody labor
for years on end squealing
or screaming in fear
20
21
22
Ibid. 198-199. The version printed in [P2] is the one we know from Face: troch
wlewo / albo wrodku // nic / nie widz (P2 324) [emphasis mine, PP],
semantically most divergent from the version in Mother departs. [Due tosyntactical
differences between English and Polish, translation proposed by Czerniawski
(Rewicz 1994 145) alittle tothe left / or in the centre// Isee/ nothing erases
some of the syntactical oddity mentioned by the author further in the essay. In this
particular case Idontsee/ anything appears tobe closer translation of the version
in Faces. Paradoxically Isee/ nothing when translated literally toPolish results in
Widz / Nic, the syntactically unusual construction discussed above. PP]
Skrendo, A. Tadeusz Rewicz . 138.
See: A. van Gennep Obrzdy przejcia. Systematyczne studium ceremonii. [The Rites of
Passage] Translated by B. Biay, introduction J. Tokarska-Bakir, PIW, Warszawa:
2006, especially chapter: Przejcie fizyczne [The Territorial Passage].
209
(Rewicz 2011 253)

Of the two poetics of funeral texts distinguished by Antonina Lubaszewska, those
written against the death of the text or for the death of the text, Iam particularly interested in the latter strategy (Lubaszewska 588, 586, 577).23 Iunderstand
the death of the text here as aprocess in which the text becomes an equivalent
tolethal process of disappearance. The purpose of writing is, paradoxically, the
pursuit of absolute visual silence, hence the elimination of the verb (means of
dynamizing the work), nullification of metaphor, fragmentation, silences and evasions. In order tonarrate death through the great Nothing of the text, it is reduced
towhite space, ablank sheet of paper (Lubaszewska 581, 580, 579). An image of
death becomes the death of an image, as in the poem *** In memory of Konstanty
Puzyna.24 Spaces between the lines here acquire in this case the same semantic
status as actual the lines, and even begin todominate; the gradual reduction of the
lexicon leads toatautology, acomplete decay of language and meaning: so that's/
all/ mummy// yes sonny/ that's all/ and nothing more/ nothing more/ so that's all
of life/ yes that's all (Rewicz 1994 257). The death of the text in Rewiczs
funeral poems seems tocorrespond toaspecific way of experiencing death as dissolution, crumbling, erosion.
Death in the text on the other hand is not so much asubject or theme of
the work, but rather akind of internalized, though inexpressible and directly unrepresentable, though inscribed in the text, silence, absence, or lack. Although death
is pure negativity and indeterminacy, adeath of experience and the impossibility
of an image, it can be captured only in the form of substantiated and concretized
representations. It turns out, however, tobe the most empty image, since the obstacle
which separates us from its subject is impossible toovercome,25 the most definite
obstacle of all. Death is therefore always represented by something else, and the
verbal or visual substitute surrounds the inner void, because the thought of death
is outside, that is, it cannot be taken by death itself (Lubaszewska 579).26 What is
significant, Rewicz rarely refers toits personifying figures, the most traditional of
thanatic symbols, which anthropomorphize that which is non-human (Mikoejko

23
24
210
25
26
Poetics, in which death in the text is against the death of the texts, in the case of
texts dedicated tolate writers and poets, is realized as dynamization and internal
dialogization of the text by use of quotations, allusions and paraphrases of their
works. Its goal is tocomplement the work of the deceased, as it becomes not only
an expression of mourning, but also an attempt tokeep alive the memory and the
interpretation of one's way of existence, the existence through ones work
(A. Lubaszewska, mier wtekcie przeciw mierci tekstu, Ruch Literacki 1996 Vol.
5. 588, 586, 577.)
In this case the disappearance is literal: when we compare the manuscript tothe
printed work we can observe consistent reduction of forms of expression and
proliferation of the whiteness of the blank page. Cf. P. 18-19.
Lefebve, M.- J. Limage fascinante et le surrel. qtd. in M. Guiomar. Zasady estetyki mierci
(transl. T. Swoboda). Wymiary mierci, ed. S. Rosiek. sowo/obraz terytoria: Gdask.
2002. 82.
Lubaszewska, A. mier wtekcie przeciw mierci tekstu, Ruch Literacki 1996 Vol. 5.
579
27
28
29
Mikoejko, Z. Kilka sw uumarej in mier itekst. Sytuacja ostateczna

wperspektywie sowa. sowo/obraz terytoria: Gdask. 2001. 51. Of particular
significance here is the poem Der Tod ist ein Meister ..., in which death is personified
in adouble fashion: as afemale (beautiful Stranger) and amale (ein Meister)
figure. La mort, Celan's suicidal death in the waters of the Seine is apersonification
of death which does not deprive one of their face and name, nor strips the intimate
encounter of its mystery. The poet refers tothe phantasm of the Great Mother in the
metonymic phrase: open womb / of river / deaths oblivion (P3 271). Der Tod, on
the other hand, means the dehumanized mass extermination in death camps. The
unrepresentable taboo of the Shoah is only suggested by the allegory of the master
from Germany from Celans Todesfuge (which is adual mediatization emphasizing
the impossibility of direct representation). According toJean-Luc Nancy, the
Holocaust is the event in the history of the West and its culture, after which afigural
representation of death from the perspective of life, one understood as hypotyposis,
total and self-absorbed presence made present,
is no longer possible. Death, as

inappropriable property of existence, which is called finite in the sense of fullness,
in its unity and integrity or indispensability, in its being-in-the-world, was stolen...
As aresult one cannot come into the story of life for which it would provide access,
i.e. entry and exit, an opening See also Zakazana reprezentacja, (trans. A. Dziadek),
Teksty Drugie 2004. Vol. 5.
Kunz, T. Strategie negatywne 117.
Lubaszewska, A. mier wtekcie przeciw mierci tekstu, Ruch Literacki 1996 Vol. 5.
579, 577-578.
211
51).27 Driven by the imperative toexpress pure negativity, the author of Monuments creates forms which are rather inverted, hollow, double-negated (Kunz 117).28
One such negative strategy of representation seems tobe the theme of the silent
seed and the inner poem.
Dying of loved ones is thus experienced by the poet as adepletion of existence,
the ontic weakening of reality. The posthumous Nothing is apenetrating force,
breaking up existence from the inside: The space where Ilive is diminished not
only by the passing of the years of my life, but also by the faces of those who leave.
At first going away slowly, reluctantly, one at atime, then faster, more numerous,
almost en masse. Sometimes it seems to me that Im floating on an ice floe. Its
surface cracks, becomes ever smaller (Identity (memory of Karol Kuryluk),
Pr3 78). This experience translates into the use of narrative archetype of death,
one of the anthropological structures of imagination, constituted by the image
of breaking, tearing...extraction, separation, farewell, departure, disappearance,
transitions, distance .... In this way, death as atheme begins toappear tobe one
of the semiotic-narrative structures, involving the collapse of syntactic and logical
coherence of the text by means of disjunction of the relation between subject P and
an object Othat is life (Lubaszewska 577-8).29 Its equivalent on the level of poetic
imaging become the themes are loss, degradation and erosion: Ifeel tired. Constantly crumbling. Something is crumbling, collapsing. (M 99) notes Rewicz in
Dziennik gliwicki [Gliwice diary], written during the illness and death of his mother.
Similarly in That Rustle:

That rustle
life pouring
from aworld full of objects
into death
it's through me
like ahole
in reality
this world pushes through
into the next
(SP 237)
Nothing is no longer aradical antithesis of something, it seems rather adestructive force, ever present within reality. There is acontinuous osmosis between
the two, death is no longer alimit which crowns abusy life; death is an internal
vacuum, which dilutes the density of becoming, ameontic component diminishing
the ontic substance of life (Janklvitch 344-5). 30 Life is thus still present in the
posthumous void as atrace.
At this point, Ishould clarify the categories of form and emptiness which are
used here. Idefine form, following Ewa Rewers understanding, as contribution of
the mind tothe object of study. Thanks toform, amind can perceive and comprehend an experience in aunique and specific way. Experience is thus the opposite
of form understood as such (Rewers 309).31 As emptiness Iunderstand something
ontologically indeterminate, aliminal space between being and not being. Irefer
toPlato, who defined this space as admitting not of destruction, an undifferentiated ground providing aseat for all that has birth, which should be outside of
all forms (Plato 82, 84).32 Thus understood, emptiness is amorphous and invisible,
and as aconsequence, unimaginable and inexpressible. Emmanuel Levinas seems
torefer tothis tradition of thought when he writes:
Let us imagine all things, beings and persons, returning tonothingness. What remains
after this imaginary destruction of everything is not something, but the fact that there is [il
y a]. The absence of everything returns as apresence, as the place where the bottom has
dropped out of everything, an atmospheric density, aplenitude of the void, or the murmur
of silence. There is, after this destruction of things and beings, the impersonal field of
forces of existingExisting returns no matter with what negation one dismisses it. There
is, as the irremissibility of pure existing.
(Lvinas 46-7)33
Levinas considers the possibility of being without nothingness, which leaves no

hole and permits no escape, when death refers toloss of corporeality and subjec
30
31
212
32
33
Janklvitch, V. Quoddit jest niezniszczalna. Nieodwoalno nieodwracalnoci.

(trans. M. Jastrzbiec-Mosakowski). Wymiary mierci. 344-345.
Rewers, E. Pustka iforma . 309.
Plato, and Peter Kalkavage.Plato's Timaeus: Translation, Glossary, Appendices and
Introductory Essay. Newburyport, MA: Focus Pub./R. Pullins, 2001. 82, 84/
Lvinas, Emmanuel.Time and the Other and Additional Essays. Pittsburgh, PA:
Duquesne UP, 1987. 46-47.

tivity, dissolution in pure, undifferentiated existence, but it cannot be acomplete
annihilation of being (Lvinas 50).
Nothing does not mean nothingness then, but rather the empty space left after
something, aloss, an acute trace of absence which, like astigma, or achronic
wound, continuously focuses attention and leaves long-term effects paradoxically
proving the persistence of being of that which does not exist, which is past and is
no longer perceptible in ordinary experience, but remains surprisingly indestructible (Nycz 107).34 The dead are paradoxically present as an absence, persist in the
language of the living, but as silence, in memory as silent faces. Their ontological
status is impossible todefine, they cannot be said toexist, but simultaneously one
cannot determine their irreversible disappearance. The Shadow that appears in
the poem *** (Iwaded through the dream), exists neither in adream nor the
waking world, it is something in many ways unstable, something located on the
border or perhaps even itself being the border, the name for its experienceit is
like atrace of being impressed on non-being, acircle on the surface of nothingness
(Skrendo 151).35 Nothing as space left after something retains the remnant of
something:
an empty room
empty?
but Iam in it
Iam Iwrite
Ilisten tothe silence
on the pillow the hollow
left by your head
being filled
being smoother
by time
(Rewicz 2011 187)
34
35
36
Nycz, R. Tajemnica okaleczonej poezji. Trzy glosy do twrczoci Tadeusza

Rewicza. In: Zobaczy poet, ed. E. Guderian-Czapliska, E. Kalemba-Kasprzak,
WiS, Pozna: 1993. 107.
Skrendo, A. Tadeusz Rewicz . 151.
Lvinas, Emmanuel.Collected Philosophical Papers of Emmanuel Levinas ; Translated by
Alphonso Lingis.Dordrecht, Netherlands: M. Nijhoff, 1986. 104.
213
According toLvinas atrace is something outside the order of reality, something

which disrupts its temporal and ontological homogeneity. He who left traces in
wiping out his traces did not mean tosay or do anything by the traces he left. He
disturbed the order in an irreparable way. He has passed absolutely (Lvinas 104).36
Blind and unreadable trace is neither asign (smion), acipher left todecode, nor
aclear material impression material (typos) of the source entity. It is rather and indelible, but hardly identifiable remnant (ichnos), in which absence gains an advantage

over presence. Atrace of being is something indestructible, which remains after
existence and what death cannot completely erase (Janklvitch 352).37
Death destroys the whole of aliving being, but it cannot destroy the fact that they lived;
death turns toashes and dust the psychosomatic human architecture, but quoddit of lived
life still exists in these ruins; everything that belongs tothe nature of being is perishable,
that is it exposes this being in different ways todecay, dissolution, decomposition; only
this invisible, intangible, simple and metaphysical je-ne-sais-quoi that we call quoddit,
escapes annihilation.
(Janklvitch 352)
These traces, when embedded in the memory and consciousness of the living,
transform their mental space into posthumous space, where the dead not so much
persist as static, reified images, but actually live. They are granted the attributes
of presence and vitality: The dead are still with me. Isee them alive. They perform
agesture, their faces...They are as present as the living. But my ties with them are
somehow stronger than with the living. Death. Locked in my memory (Pages torn
from Gliwice diary, Pr3, 317).
Despite being an inalienable part of the world of the living, the dead are silent.
They are able toperform movements and gestures, their faces are clear and able
toexpress, but the life they lead in the space of memory is asilent life. Communication with them is always an illusory communication, amonologue or prosopopoeia:
Isit on the bench, and talk toStaff and Przybo. The dead are silent, and Itell
them what has happened tome since they left...Staff is smilingIremember that
smile, youthful, roguish even. Iremember that smile. (Tale of Staff, Tuwim and
the Roses Pr3, p 52-53).
In Rewiczs poetry the concepts of non-being and diminishing as internalized
and indelibly present components of existence are also illustrated by the theme of
silent seed: Oh how it sprouts and grows in me/ the silent seed/ of dead fruit/ rises
tothe light/ punctures the blind clay/ of my body/ breaks wooden tongue (P1 364).
It is ashocking image of aliving human body becoming atomb; one of Rewiczs
visions of afterlife: my mother was walking towards me/ Dontbe afraid, Isaid,
you are in the ground/ no one can harm you, hurt you, touch you...you are in me
no one can touch you/ humiliate you hurt you (M, 69, emphasis mine H.M.).
As an interiorized empty signifier functioning without phenomenal
subject...apresence, which refers tothe absence, the dead exist in the body and the
consciousness of man, disintegrating them by placing them on the border between
life and death (Thomas 43).38 They are the source of excruciating memory, painful
like athorn: Iam the pit full of memories/ one on top of another (P1 280), Ihouse
the dead/ it is where they found/ the last refuge (P2 209) . Death is an integral part

214
37
38
Janklvitch, V. Quoddit jest niezniszczalna. Nieodwoalno nieodwracalnoci.

(trans. M. Jastrzbiec-Mosakowski). Wymiary mierci. 352.
Thomas, Louis-Vincent. Trup. Od biologii do antropologii. Wydawnictwo dzkie: d.
1991. 43.

of life, indispensable emptiness inside the fullness: death in the living me/ dug
corridors/ screaming inside me/ like an abandoned cave/ full of bones (P3 244).
The textual equivalent of internalized lack is the speech broken and marked by
the wound of silence hiding the unspeakable: When the light falls/ on my poem/
Isee death in it/ ablack grain/ of ergot/ in agolden head of wheat/ which drifts off/
beyond the horizon (ukowski 150; Rewicz 2011 162).39
The silent grain is also asilent inner poem, the proper core of poetry, hidden beneath the words of external poem40. This motif, obsessively recurring in
Rewiczs writing starting from Posowie do poematu [Afterword tothe poem]
finds its most compelling articulation in aseries of paradoxical unwritten poems
about the implosion of poetry,41 such as: *** (Itried toremember), APoem
(Iwanted todescribe), *** (poetry doesntalways), now. They are the
records of aporetic gestures of placing and (simultaneously) removing the mark,
word-traces of the dissolution of words. Afterword tothe poem, ametapoetic appendix tothe poem Na powierzchni iwrodku [On the surface and inside], is
adevelopment of the poem originally sketched in the essay Zamknicie [Closure],
dedicated tothe memory of Zdzisaw Hierowski:
There are
inner poems
and outer poems
there are poems
tangible full sensual
which enfold the others
secret and empty
like peel and pulp
enfolding and hiding
the seed
the grain
Closure (Pr3, 97)
Slow and careful
you must take off the words
strip image of image
strip shapes of colors
images of feelings
tothe core
tothe language of suffering
todeath
Afterword tothe poem (P3 108-109)
39
40
41
ukowski, T. Zagada ajzyk poetycki Tadeusza Rewicza. In: Literatura polska wobec
Zagady, ed. A. Brodzka-Wald, D. Krawczyska, J. Leociak, iH: Warszawa 2000. 150.
This difference is crucial tothe poet. See Afterword...
Oimplozji poezji , A. Czerniawskis conversation with T. Rewicz, Poezja 1989. Vol.
2. 10.
215
In the commentary to the sketch Rewicz ponders how to bring out from the
depths and tothe surface the silent, hidden inner poem. The act of uncovering

is an experience of crippling tear, almost physical disintegration, when that which
is secret and empty and absolutely negative, rips off the coating of realized poem
and comes out into the light with blood and water (Pr3, 98). The inexpressible core
of the text is compared tothe elusive (non)presence of the dead in the memories of
the living: This is how the dead hide behind my memories and how Zdzisaw is
hiding behind these words. Icannot reveal him. He is there, behind athick curtain,
behind the veil. Ican not reveal it, because Iknow that he is not there, that Iwill
not not find him (Pr3, 98). In this instance, death is an impassable barrier tolife;
it makes it impossible tojourney tothe world of the dead, whether through memory
of imagination, and toexpress what is not in the language of what is.
The core of poetry, the actual tragedy unfolding inside the poem (Pr3, 152)
turns out tobe the tragic inability toexpress in terms of presence and the language of life experience the non-experience of an event not meant42 for aliving
person (Cichowicz 8). Poetry about death cannot present any experience, because
that which begets the poemis precisely what hasnttaken place, occurred, nor
happened in the individual event, towhich the poem refers, without describing it
(Lacoue-Labarthe 28).43 Death, ostentatious, yet incomprehensible, transparent,
but unreadable, complete, and at the same time representing absence, belongs
tonon-verbal events (Czpliski 9),44 and thus cannot adequately made present in
the language. It is the destruction and deprivation of language, avulnerability in
discourse, amonosyllable, unpronounceable, which cantbe named or confessed.45
In Gliwice diary the poet helplessly watches as his mothers dying becomes
the process of losing the language, agradual deprivation of the semiotic universe.
Words are used only tocommunicate (?) physical pain, while thought and language
are reduced tothe language of suffering/ todeath.
Mother speaks less and less, says fewer words, as if she were losing them. Sometimes she
mutters, mumbles especially after waking up. Most frequently repeated words are: air,
water, burns, hurts. She communicates with looks and signs...The babys gibberish will
be shaped into the words of life the babble of those going away is adiminishing, decay
and dissolution of words, leading tothe final silence. (M 107).
Can something that has death as its constitutive meontic core be asalvation from
death? The poetic word is amortal word, not only due tothe lack of asacred archetype, but also because it designates death and, as such, is the lack of words. And
yet, the omnipotent mortality, while leading tothe erosion of language and paralysis

42
43
216
44
45
Cichowicz. S. mier: gwat na idei lub reakcja ycia. Wstp Antropologia mierci. Myl
francuska, trans. S. Cichowicz, J.M. Godzimirski. PIW: Warszawa 1993. 8.
Lacoue-Labarthe. P. Poetry as Experience, trans. A. Tarnowski. Stanford University
Press: Stanford Cal. 2004. 23.
Czapliski. P. Szczeliny mierci. Mikrologi ze mierci. Motywy tanatyczne we wspczesnej
literaturze polskiej, Poznaskie Studia Polonistyczne. Seria Literaturoznawcza: 2001.
9.
Aris. P. mier odwrcona. trans. J. M. Godzimirski, In: Antropologia mierci .
243.
46

49

47
48
50
51
Legeyska, A. Gest poegnania. Szkice opoetyckiej wiadomoci elegijnoironicznej, Poznaskie Studia Polonistyczne. Seria Literaturoznawcza 1999. 129.
Nycz, R. Tadeusza Rewicza. 200.
Stankowska, A. Inne stany arcypoezji Kwartalnik Artystyczny. 2006 Vol. 2. 122.
Tokarska-Bakir, JZanik dowiadczenia: diagnoza antropologiczna. In: Nowoczesno
jako dowiadczenie, ed. R. Nycz, A. Zeidler-Janiszewska, Universitas, Krakw: 2006.
According tothe author rituals are tools toensure the continuity of experience
'(Przemiany, in: A. van Gennep Obrzdy przejcia13), and the modern suspicion of
ritual is one of the causes of loss of experience, loss of asense of continuity and the
possibility of identifying with the experience of ancestors and others. Contemporary
death is de-ritualized, not experienced by the community, prohibited. The
indecent drama of natural death is not culturally processed, but repressed and
tabooed (.M. di Nola Triumf mierci. Antropologia aoby, ed. M. Woniak, trans.
J. Kornecka et al. Universitas, Krakw: 2006. 100.)
Baraski, J. Anestetyzacja tanatyczna, czyli ostrategii ponowoczesnej kultury wobec
mierci, In: Tanatos. Problemy wspczesnej tanatologii. Vol. 7. ed. J. Kolbuszewski.
WTN, Wrocaw: 2003. 45.
Writing about the experience of death, Imean only the death of another human
being. Death of oneself abolishes, along with subjectivity, the category of
experience.
217
of imagination, at the same time stimulates the evolution of consciousness of the subject.
Paradoxically, therefore, it can be said that Rewiczs poetry grows, continues
thanks toobsession with dying. Death keeps this poetry alive (Legeyska 129).46
Understood both literally and metaphorically, the multi-dimensional experience of death becomes the archetype of the poet's various experiences of liminality.
Conversely, the liminal experience is in Rewiczs poetic anthropology usually an
experience of death, and more precisely, atraumatic experience of disintegration
dissolution of matter, annihilation of real reality, destruction and scattering of
meaning (Nycz 200).47 At the same time, however, the death is tothe poet aparadigmatic and fundamental experience of the prior, and only reality (Stankowska
122).48 In adegraded and aesthetically anesthetized world where not only the value
of experience, but its very category has disappeared,49 and where death was rejected
and made meaningless because it is only the negation life and cannot be accompanied by anything more than an empty denial of life (Baraski 45),50 the experience
of universal mortality and inevitable disappearance may become the only form of
authentic experience of reality.51
The unusual frequency of imagery associated with stone, sculptures and monuments is typical of Rewiczs funeral texts, as he often compared writing of funeral
poetry toputting up tombstones, engraving epitaphs, or carving cemetery monuments. In Closure he writes: The graveyard of poems is growing, poetic tombstones for the dead. They grow next toone another like fresh graves (Pr3, 96). In
Zraniony poeta [...Wounded poet], memories of the dead are called tombstone
inscriptions. Ihave buried too many loved ones, friends and acquaintances, too
many enemies Memories as grave stones rest on my mind, my emotions, he says
(Pr3, 386).

Rewiczs epitaph is in my opinion avariation of the monument topos. If we consider the monument tobe the fundamental commemorative formula for the poet,
connected with the problem of the shape of memory, as well as akind of prototype
for the negative strategies of presentation and an emblem for the inexpressibility
of experience52, the epitaph is an almost exemplary implementation of the concept.
Writing about Rewiczs poetic tombstones, Itherefore have in mind rather the
multifaceted relationships of his funeral and commemorative poems with so understood monument topos, than references toformal aspects of traditionally understood
antique or old Polish epitaphs.
However, in the sketch entitled Mj wiersz [My poem], the author's interpretation of Chiaroscuro, we find references to Kochanowskis Laments, to the
tradition of Renaissance tombs and Baroque graves and gravestones (Rewicz
66).53 In the poem itself the clear allusion would be the line sea carved out/ of
black stone (P3 244), a baroque periphrasis of death. Rewicz criticizes the
elaborate imagery, complains about the hungry images that obscured the inner
poem and destroyed its original, concise (and most literal) version. The metaphor
of overwhelming gravestone becomes ametapoetic description of the poem itself:
The poem, with its first nucleus, light and clear, was buried beneath the baroque
gravestone...So more verses attached tothe first crude structure, as if tothe wall of
death someone added abaroque tomb (Rewicz 66-7). Thus we can observe avery
clear division between the naked wall of death and the added tomb, between
the core of the poem, which is black grain of ergot, as an image of illness and
death, and its verbal and visual representation. Between what is horrifyingly real
and asemantic and the added order of signs (Rewicz 67).
Jean-Didier Urbain calls this ambivalent combination of sculpture and grave
aliminal object, suspended between life and death, form and emptiness, asemiotic
space established by the living (sculpture) and asomatic space dominated by chaos
and decay (sepulcher). Being an empty signifier, it simulates aperformance of the
fullness of reference. It carefully censors, conceals, camouflages the original
trauma of death and the terror of annihilation and reification (Urbrain 314).54
What is negated by Subject is not the grave itself, but its alleged emptiness, its insignificance,
its prevailing silence, the impenetrability of its darkness...The Funeral Object is asignal that
there is no gaping void; it gives meaning tothe absurd, tells about the life after death, and
makes death the beginning of the second existence (because that which we can tell about
must exist!). Thanks tothe imaginary relationship between the visible and the invisible,
between signifier and signified, the Object transcends; everything becomes endowed with
meaning: Object as well as death. (Urbain 321)55

52
53
218
54
55
Iwrite about this in my text Tadeusza Rewicza architektonika dowiadczenia

(Wielogos, 2007 /1)
Rewicz, T. Mj wiersz. Odra. 1984. Vol. 3. 66.
Urbain, J.-D. Rzeba/Grb: przedmiot graniczny. trans. M.L. Kalinowski, In:
Wymiary mierci 314.
Urbain, J.-D. Wstron historii Przedmiotu Funeralnego. trans. M.L. Kalinowski,
In: Wymiary mierci 321.

It is both amaterial object placed in the physical space and perceivable by senses
and apsychological border, adivision between the conceivable and representable and
that which paralyzes the possibility of conceptualization and representation. Being
impenetrable, it prohibits, censors, separates and conceals something; it divides the
world in two, doubling it, because it locates itself between reality and the world of
imagination. The authentic perception of the world of the dead ends where the
Object stops; that is where the world of imagination is realized, and where amyth
is born (Urbain 313-4).56 Being an opaque cognitive obstacle and a sign of the
fundamental impermeability and secrecy, aliminal object implies at the same
time the possibility of transgression through an act of imaginative contemplation:
Tocontemplate aFuneral Object is toinhabit it, toundergo asort of petrification,
to meld with it and become one, to penetrate inside it and to discover there the
undisturbed life of the dead and participate in it for amoment; it is tomake this
the object an emblem of mysterious and prolonged life after death tolive with it
(Urbain 314).57
Such petrified imagination58 moving beyond its condition life and constructing atomb of its own forms, representations and signs, upon the emptiness,
must be aware of the fundamental ambiguity of this transgression. It is not only
about crossing ontological and epistemological border, but also ethical one the
limit of appropriateness.
And thus, once again, Rewiczs poetry, which begins by emphasizing its
weaknesses and inabilities, and stressing that it doesnt explain anything or
doesntfulfill hopes (P2 421), turns out tobe afascinating poetry of poetry
acomplex metapoetic reflection on the sense and possibilities of literature in the
face of human experience.
56
57
58

Wymiary mierci 313-314. According toMikoejko, the language of funeral texts,
especially the epitaphs, is amythical language that goes where logos refuses togo.
Speech is helpless in the face of that pre-ontological experience, in which
everything has its beginning and end...Only myth can reach that realm of non-being,
which is bubbling with becoming and passing away, only myth can get toits apeiron,
its endlessness (Kilka sw uumarej 33) However, its seem that the language of
myth is for Rewicz anegative reference, something impossible and inaccessible.
Wymiary mierci314.
There is an interesting similarity between this metaphor and Rewiczs
autothematic expressions. In his texts we encounter such suggestive selfdetermination of the subject as: IAgrey man with imagination / small, stonelike
and inexorable (P1 68), while the topoi of sculpture and monument are, next
tophysicality, an area upon which the poet draws most frequently in his poetic and
metapoetic imaging.
219
Authors Biographical Notes
Zdzisaw apiski, Professor in the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish

Academy of Sciences. Interested in 20th century literature and literary theory. His
published works include Norwid (1971, 1984); Ja, Ferdydurke (1985, 1997); Gombrowicz
ikrytycy (1984); numerous articles devoted tothe oeuvre of Julian Przybo, Miron
Biaoszewski, Czesaw Miosz and Witold Gombrowicz, editor of Teksty Drugie.
Co-editor of the Sownik realizmu socjalistycznego, 2004).
Recently edited Bakakaj Iinne opowiadania, avolume of Collected Writings of Witold
Gombrowicz (2007) and is currently working on acollection of poems by Czesaw
Miosz for the series of Biblioteka Narodowa.
220
Clare Cavanagh, Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures at Northwerstern

University. Interested in 19th and 20th century Russian poetry, modern Polish poetry,
translation, theory of the literature and gender. Her most recent book, Lyric Poetry
and Modern Politics: Russia, Poland, and the West (Yale University Press) received
the 2010 National Book Critics Circle Award in Criticism. She also published Osip
Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition (1995). She is also an acclaimed
translator of contemporary Polish poetry, whose awards and honors include the John
Frederick Nims Memorial Prize in Translation, the Katharine Washburne Memorial
Lecture in Translation, the PEN/Book-of-the Month Club Prize for Outstanding
Literary Translation. She is an Associate Editor of The Princeton Encyclopedia of
Poetry and is currently working on abook Czeslaw Milosz and His Age: ACritical Life
(Farrar, Straus, and Giroux).
Arent van Nieukerken PhD, Foreign Member of the Polish Academy of Science
(PAN), works in the Slavonic Studies Department at the University of Amsterdam.

His published works include Perspektywiczno sacrum szkice oNorwidowskim romantyzmie (2007) and Ironiczny konceptyzm nowoczesna polska poezja metafizyczna
wkontekcie anglosaskim (1998). Ha has also published extensively on Polish postwar
poetry and is currently working mostly on Polish Romanticism. She is also an acclaimed translator of Russian and Polish poetry, among others Mikoaj Sp-Szarzyski,
Adam Mickiewicz, Mikhail Lomonosov and Konstantin Batyushkov.
Jan Boski (1931-2009), literary historian and critic. Worked in the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences (1959-1969) and at the Jagiellonian
University (since 1970). Author of numerous studies devoted tothe work of Mikoaj
Sp-Szarzyski, Stanisaw Wyspiaski, Konstanty Ildefons Gaczyski, Stanisaw
Ignacy Witkiewicz, Marcel Proust, Samuel Beckett and others. Published books on
contemporary literature, theatre, culture and mentality, among others Zmiana warty,
Odmarsz, Romans ztekstem. Co-founder and chief editor of an academic journal Teksty
(1972-74), collaborated with Teksty Drugie.
Ryszard Nycz professor in the Department of Polish Studies at the Jagiellonian
University, and in the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of
Sciences. Editor in chief of the academic journal Teksty Drugie, editor of the series
Horyzonty nowoczesnoci (Universitas) and Nowa Humanistyka (Institute of
Literary Research Press). Author of the following books Sylwy wspczesne (1984,
1996), Tekstowy wiat (1993, 2000), Jzyk modernizmu (1997, 2002), Literatura jako
trop rzeczywistoci (2001), Poetyka dowiadczenia. Teoria nowoczesno literatura (2012).
Jacek ukasiewicz poet, literary critic and historian of literature, professor at the
University of Wrocaw. Author of nine volumes of poetry and numerous academic
articles on history of literature and literary criticism, among others, Republika
mieszacw (1974), Rytm czyli powinno. Szkice o ksikach i ludziach po roku 1981
(1993), Ruchome cele (2003), Jeden dzie wsocrealizmie (2006), TR (on Tadeusz Rewiczs poetry, 2012). His awards and honours include PEN Club Literary Award,
Kazimierz Wyka Prize for the lifetime achievement in artistic and critical work, and
Special Gdynia Literary Prize 2013.
Anna Nasiowska, professor works at the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish
Academy of Sciences, member of the research group Literature and Gender. Editor
of the academic journal Teksty Drugie. Published numerous academic works as
221
Bogdana Carpenter professor Emerita of Slavic Languages & Literatures and Comparative Literature at the University of Michigan. She is the author of The Poetic
Avant-Garde in Poland 19181939 and Monumenta Polonica: The First Four Centuries
of Polish Poetry. She translates the contemporary Polish poetry. She was also the
editor and translator (with Madeline G. Levine) of Czesaw Mioszs selected essays
ToBegin Where IAm.

well as prose. Most recently she published abiography of Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska (2010), aselection of writings of Stefania Zahorska (with her introduction)
(2010) and an autobiographical novel entitled Konik, szabelka (2011).
Magorzata Czermiska professor at the University of Gdask. Interested in theory
of the novel and non-fiction, Polish literature of the 20th century, as well as relations
between literature and visual arts. Her books published in the last decade include
Autobiograficzny trjkt: wiadectwo, wyznanie i wyzwanie (2000), Pisarki polskie od
redniowiecza do wspczesnoci. Przewodnik (2000, together with Grayna Borkowska
and Ursula Phillips); Gotyk ipisarze. Topika opisu katedry (2005). She edited avolume
of translations entitled Autobiografia (2009).
Tomasz ysak, PhD, an assistant professor at the University of Warsaw. His dissertation thesis, entitled Inherited Trauma? Holocaust in the Texts by Second Generation Survivors in the United States and Poland, and much of his recent work continues tofocus
on representations of the Holocaust in relation totrauma studies and psychoanalysis.
Currently working on the translation of academic texts on trauma studies, as well as
teaching courses on translation and film. His new research project is devoted tothe
Sonderkommando. He has been aMellon Fellow at the University of Edinburgh
and Fulbright Visiting Lecturer of Polish Studies at the University of Washington.
Jerzy Kandziora professor in the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences, works on history, documentation and editing of literature. His
published works include Zmczeni fabu. Narracje osobiste wprozie po 1976 roku (1993),
Ocalony w gmachu wiersza. O poezji Stanisawa Baraczaka (2007). He has written
extensively on Miron Biaoszewski, Jerzy Ficowski, Czesaw Miosz, Stanisaw
Baraczak, Tadeusz Konwicki, Stanisaw Lem in Polish academic journals such
as Pamitnik Literacki, Teksty Drugie, Poznaskie Studia Polonistyczne, Ruch Literacki.
222
Janusz Sawiski Professor emeritus in the Institute of Literary Research of the

Polish Academy of Sciences where since 1967 he was the head of the Department
of Literary Theory. Renown editor of Sownik terminw literackich (1972) and co-author of numerous academic textbooks. His published works include Koncepcja
jzyka poetyckiego awangardy krakowskiej (1965), Dzieo jzyk tradycja (1974). Editor
of an academic journal, Teksty, apredecessor of Teksty Drugie. He inititaed
amonumental publishing series of the Ossolineum, entiled Vademecum Polonisty.
Member of numerous academic committees and councils, among other Rada Fundacji na Rzecz Nauki Polskiej.
Hanna Marciniak PhD candidate in the Department of Comparative Literature at
Charles University in Prague, translator. The author of the book, Inwencje irepetycje.
Formy do wiadczenia poetyckiego wtwrczoci Juliana Przybosia (2009) as well as articles and translations in academic journals such as Teksty Drugie, Artium Quaestiones,

Pamitnik Literacki and Slovo asmysl. She is interested in Polish and Czech post-avant-garde movements and the question of testimony, memory and postmemory
in literature and visual art.
Marek Zaleski professor in the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy
of Sciences, literary historian and critic, in 1987-2007 he co-edited the academic
journal, Res Publica and Res Publica Nova, member of the jury of Nike Prize for
Literature (2005-2007). He published numerous articles in journals in Poland and
abroad, as well as the following books Przygoda drugiej awangardy (1984), Mdremu
biada? (1990), Formy pamici (1996); Zamiast. Otwrczoci Czesawa Miosza (2005),
Echa idylli (2007). He was awarded Gdynia Literary Prize (2006) and the Kazimierza
Wyka Prize (2009).
223
Cezary Zalewski, professor in the Department of Literary Theory at the Jagiellonian University. Author of the following books Powracajca fala. Mityczne konteksty
wybranych powieci Bolesawa Prusa iElizy Orzeszkowej (2005) and Pragnienie, poznanie,
przemijanie. Fotograficzne reprezentacje wliteraturze polskiej (2010). He published numerous articles in Pamitnik Literackim, Ruch Literacki and Teksty Drugie.

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Index of Content .

Czesaw Miosz and Polish School of Poetry

Authors Biographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Photography, or rather the process of taking photographs as arecurrent theme in poetry,

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Translation: Anna Warso

1. The Lyric Under Seige

Frank Lentricchia, Criticism and Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

Edmundson, Literature against Philosophy, 6. Aleksander Wat, Ciemne swiecidlo

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

2. Reframing the Verbal Icon

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

The blackened plain spreads out

Before the first red tones

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

Kak svetoteni muchenik Rembrandt, Sobranie sochinenii, 1: 249. Herbert, Barbarian

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

The Polish artist is the barbarian in the garden of European civilization, in

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

Poems New and Collected, 156-157.

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

Hewed off, abducted, horrifying, smothered: the language evokes not so

with horrifying ears of wax

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Przedmowa, Poezje wybrane: Selected Poems, 96-97.

Cavanagh The Limits of Lyric: Western Theory

Szymborska, Poems New and Collected, 68.

Arent van Nieukerken

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

J. Boski, Miosz jak wiat, Krakw 1989, p. 18.

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

poranne koysanie mrz [] pierwszy blask dnia [Wt. 1, p. 121].

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Dust as we are, the immortal spirit grows

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Boski, Miosz jak wiat, p. 59.

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Oto dlaczego mode pokolenie/ Tamtych poetw polubio wmiar,/ Hod im

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Wczasach dziwnych iwrogich ylimy [...] [Wt. 1, p. 79].

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

Koo portu przechodz uliczk Galipaud [Wt. 2, p. 301].

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Okazuje si tutaj sprzeczno pomidzy poszczeglnym ioglnym,/ Bo kochali go

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry

J. Boski, Miosz jak wiat, p. 101.

Nieukerken Czesaw Miosz and the Tradition of European

Czesaw Miosz and the Polish School of Poetry