SBM 1

School-Based Management
An International Perspective
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School-Based Management
An International Perspective
Edited by
Ami Volansky
Isaac A. Friedman
State of Israel
Ministry of Education
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Graphic Design:
Printed by:
Published by:
Shoshana Shahar
Scorpio 88
Publication Department, Ministry of Education, Devora Ha-Niviah 2,
Jerusalem, Israel
ISBN: 965-444-031-8
2003 All Rights Reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieved system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher.
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CONTENTS
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman
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9
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PART I THEORY
New Vision of School-Based Management: Globalization, Localization,

and Individualization
Yin Cheong Cheng
31
The Self-Managed School as an Intelligent Organization
57
Isaac A. Friedman
A Theory of Learning in the Self-Managing School
Brian J. Caldwell
93
PART II LEADERSHIP
Innovative Concepts for Effective School Cultures: Earned Leadership

and Elective Contributorship
Vivian Williams
117
Organizational Vision in Self-Managing Schools: Walking on

Thin Ice
Adam E. Nir and Ronit Bogler
141
PART III THE DYNAMICS OF SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT
The Development of Self-Managed Schools in England: Combining

Local Choice with Central Regulation
Rosalind Levai
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6.
School-Based Management: The United States Experience

Michael W. Kirst
201
From Experiment to Educational Policy: The Transition to School-Based

Management in Israeli Schools
Ami Volansky
217
The Theory and Practice of School-Based Management for

School Effectiveness: An International Perspective
Yin Cheong Cheng
233
Index
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Contributors
Ronit Bogler is a lecturer in the Department of Education and Psychology at Israel's
Open University. Her research interests include educational leadership as well as job
satisfaction for school teachers. Her most recent publications include "The Influence of
Leadership Style on Teacher Job Satisfaction" in Educational Administration Quarterly
(2001) and "Two Profiles of School Teachers: A Discriminant Analysis of Job
Satisfaction" in Teaching and Teacher Education (in press).
Brian J. Caldwell is a professor and the Dean of Education at the University
of Melbourne, Australia. His international work over the last decade includes
presentations, projects and other professional assignments in 28 countries, with several
assignments for OECD, UNESCO, UNICEF, World Bank and the Asia Development
Bank. He is co-author of books that have helped guide educational reform in a
number of countries. He was President of the ACEA from 1990 to 1993, and was
awarded its Gold Medal in 1994.
Yin Cheong Cheng is a professor and the Director of the Center for Research and
International Collaboration of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. He is also
the head of the Asia-Pacific Center for Educational Leadership and Educational
Quality, and the founding vice-president of the Asia-Pacific Educational Research
Association. His major research interests include educational effectiveness, school-based
management, educational reforms, teacher education and paradigm shifts in education.
Prof. Cheng has published eight books and nearly 150 book chapters and academic
journal articles all over the world, and his research has won him numerous international
awards.
Isaac A. Friedman is the Director of the Henrietta Szold Institute, the National
Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, and serves as one of its senior
researchers. He teaches education and organizational psychology at the School of
Education of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His major research interests include
psychological and organizational aspects of teaching, the school climate and culture,
principal training, measurement and evaluation.
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Michael W. Kirst is a professor of Education at Stanford University. He was president

of the California State Board of Education, and staff director of the U.S. Senate
Committee on Manpower and Poverty. Kirst is a member of the American National
Academy of Education, and is on the management board of the Consortium for Policy
Research in Education.
Rosalind Levai is a professor of Economics and Finance of Education at the
Institute of Education, University of London. Her research deals with the allocation
of resources to and within schools, and the management of finance and resources
in schools. She is research associate at the DfEE-funded Center for the Economics
of Education, where she is working on projects concerning the relationship between
school resources and student outcomes.
Adam E. Nir is a lecturer and head of the Educational Administration and Planning
Program at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His current interests and research are
in school-based management, educational planning and human resource management.
Among his most recent works are "The Impact of School-based Management on
School Health" in the Journal of School Leadership (in press).
Ami Volansky is the Deputy Director for Policy Planning and Assessment in
Israel's Ministry of Education. Dr Volansky is an adjunct lecturer at the School
of Education of Tel Aviv University, specializing in the processes of centralization
and decentralization in education systems. He initiated and led the transition to
school-based management in Israel's school systems, as well as other system-oriented
changes, and has served as consultant for higher education under five education
ministers.
Vivian J. Williams is the Director of the Norham Center for Leadership Studies and
Emeritus Fellow, St. Peter's College, University of Oxford. The research projects she
has conducted were generously funded through awards from the Leverhulme Trust,
London, and the Norham Center for Leadership Studies, Oxford.
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PREFACE
In April 2001, a conference was held in Israel on the topic of School-based
Management. Participants at this conference were principals, policy-makers, scholars
and experts from Israel and abroad. Some of the lectures presented at that gathering
have been compiled into this book, in the hope of adding to the ever-increasing
wealth of information in the field of education on this method of school management,
which perceives the school as a source of authority and accountability for educational
outcomes.
This book is aimed at those who formulate educational policy, holders of key
positions in educational institutions and local authorities, researchers, lecturers and
education students. They may find this book to be a source of both theoretical and
practical information on questions pertaining to advanced and innovative school
administration, changes in management culture, and ways to empower schools as a
source of decision-making authority.
But primarily, this book is dedicated to the leaders of the education systems
the school principals. They are the ones who bear the main burden and stand at the
forefront of the educational enterprise on a day-to-day basis. Expectations for pupil
achievement and criticism when those expectations are not met are aimed at them,
while they attempt to lead a complex, human system in a changing environment.
Principals create an educational experience for the thousands of pupils in their charge,
and what they do determines, for good or bad, the quality of their education and
consequently, the quality of society as well.
During one of our school visits we met a principal who had been head of a school
for 26 years. In essence, some 20,000 pupils passed under his baton, equivalent
to a mid-sized sports stadium. No other societal role enables us to have a greater
qualitative and quantitative impact upon the future of so many thousands of young
people than that of the school principal and his teachers. It is to them that we
dedicate this book in recognition and appreciation of their efforts, with hope for their
continued success.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Publication of this book was made possible through the assistance of many individuals.
First and foremost, we express our thanks to the authors, both from Israel and from
abroad. Their expertise in this field has helped us convey to readers the knowledge that
continues to develop throughout the world. Based on their extensive understanding, we
were able to present both theoretical and research advances, thereby helping to formulate
educational policies to improve the quality of our teaching, and make our schools the
focus of authority and accountability for educational outcomes.
This book is being published in both English and in Hebrew, and the process of
bringing the book to press was more complex than anticipated. Special thanks go to Sagir
International Translations, Ltd. - to Penina Arbit and Michele Sagir for linguistic editing
of the English edition and to Raya Cohen for linguistic editing of the Hebrew version.
Puah Shai was enlisted to prepare the book for press, and her competence and unfailing
professionalism allowed us to overcome the many obstacles involved in preparing the
book. Shoshana and Yochanan Shahar created the tasteful layout and design, and worked
on the actual printing. Last but not least, thanks to Naomi Eyal, director of the
Publications Department of the Ministry of Education, for her devoted and continuous
supervision throughout the publishing process in both languages.
Many within the Ministry of Education are involved in the transition to school-based
management in Israel and the struggle for its implementation. Without the faith of
district superintendents, administration directors and department heads, and without
their understanding that certain powers must be relinquished, this process of change
would never have become a reality and this book would not have seen the light of day. To
them, and to many other leaders within the education system, the Ministry of Education
and local authorities, we express our gratitude and appreciation.
Special thanks are due to the small staff at the Ministry who have had to bear with
the day-to-day burdens, crises and numerous difficulties of implementing the transition
to self-management, headed by Dr. Chaim Rubinstein and Nili Biron. Thanks as well
to Asher Lichtenberg for his dedication in preparing the material contained in this book,
and to Annette Hazut, executive secretary for the Planning Division, whose proficiency in
handling the endless details were a help to all of us in publishing this book.
Above all, special appreciation goes to Ronit Tirosh, Director-General of the Ministry
of Education, who encouraged the printing and publication of this book from the day she
took office.
Without the contribution of all these individuals, neither the English edition nor the
Hebrew edition of this book would have been possible.
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INTRODUCTION

Education systems throughout the world are undergoing a period of tension and
conflict surrounding two approaches to school management, between the centralized,
hierarchical, authoritative model of school management, and an administrative
model based on a new system of parities along the path from centralization to
decentralization, while viewing the school itself as a source of authority, accountability
and responsibility for educational outcomes.
Although in some cases the centralized model is deeply rooted within the
organizational culture of education systems, the model that delegates to and empowers
the schools and underlies the theory of decentralization of authority is relatively
new, both in terms of its theoretical conception and in how it is practically applied.
Another element behind the tension is the difficulty in finding a new equilibrium, as
centralized systems are finding it hard to give up the power they enjoy and surrender
to the school, as the end unit that provides educational services, the full credit needed
for a new management system.
Beginning in the 19th century and until the last quarter of the 20th century,
preference was given to the centralized management of education systems. Gradually
it became clear that education should not be a privilege afforded to only a minority of
the population but rather must be established as a right to which everyone is entitled.
Toward the end of the 19th century the requirement to provide elementary school
education as "education for all" was formulated; at a later stage, during the first half
of the 20th century, this requirement was extended to secondary school education as
well. The early 20th century also marked the birth of the "welfare state," inspired
by movements for social equality. These movements reinforced the trend toward
"education for all." They called for equality for all social strata, and were the driving
force behind processes of legislation and reforms, offering basic services to citizens with
regard to income supplements, unemployment benefits, pensions, housing and health,
and education. This policy was intensified in the wake of World War I, and even more
so after World War II. At that point, many countries appropriated the authority for
organizing educational services from private or semi-official organizations including
the church, communities, local authorities, and various corporations and reorganized
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them in such a way as to guarantee both uniform administrative procedures and

the principle of equality in the provision of educational services. These procedures,
supervised by the state, were organized differently from country to country, but the
basic trend was the same greater centralization of educational services. Thus, for
example, in England, educational organization was concentrated under the authority
of LEAs (Local Education Authority), in North America education was organized
by school districts, while in France, Sweden and Israel operational authority was
concentrated in the hands of the central government.
Beginning in the 1960s, two elements of criticism were being leveled against the
process of centralization. One element, which doesnt relate exclusively to education,
resulted from the claim that the variety of services offered as part of welfare policies led
to the formation of bureaucratic mechanisms and organizational monoliths that were
controlled and run by the state. These centralized systems generated an increasing
sense of unwieldiness and lack of control, excessive public spending and a need for
organizational efficiency. There was a growing feeling that, instead of serving the
citizens, these mechanisms were making them feel alienated, angry and rejected.
Another aspect that came under criticism was the claim that the citizens dependence
upon bureaucratic and hierarchical mechanisms neutralizes the feeling of initiative
and creativity among organization employees, to the point where it could jeopardize
the organizations ability to achieve its goals (Friedman, 1962; Gamble, 1985; Hayek,
1960).
In the field of education, two principal arguments were raised concerning the
impact of centralization. One had to do with the complexity of the organization; the
other concerned the states inability to effectively supervise the quality of education,
the proof of this being the schools failure to bridge the gaps in academic achievement
among different ethnic and social groups.
In the organizational sphere, the claim was that the centralized structure was
burdensome for the schools, to the point that it reduced their ability to achieve the
educational objectives established by the state. Critics argued that the larger and more
complex the organization became, the greater was the internal inconsistency involved
in its management. Different units within the organization overlapped and often
clashed in terms of timetables or aspects of official and unofficial policy and even
acted in conflict with one another, although this was generally limited to complex
organizations. The tendency of the centralized system toward fragmentation burdens
the curriculum the schools are supposed to be implementing and makes it difficult
for the school to realize established educational objectives. Political pressure for the
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Introduction
rapid implementation of programs, recommendations by the professional and public

committees that are established periodically, expectations of officials at the national,
district or local, as well as the legislative level, to improve achievement, all conspire
to make the schools job more complex. The result is a "project-oriented mentality"
among schools, which threatens to make the education system a victim of its own
method. In a democratic government, particularly one with an unstable coalition,
every new term of office brings with it new programs and initiatives: new banners are
run up the flagpole while others are taken down, new slogans replace the old ones,
rhetoric is replaced by different rhetoric, and the schools are required to respond to
meet the expectations and pressures from outside agencies. The result is that the pupil
and his needs, the school and the community it serves, are all pushed aside. In this
type of organizational structure the pupil is not at the center; rather, the instructions
from on high are at the center, and teachers are expected to respond and carry them
out (Hallak, 1991; Hill & Bonan, 1991; OECD, 1989; Volansky, 1999).
The second argument was the lack of effective state supervision of the education
system and its outcomes. This criticism went hand in hand with the education systems
being expanded and being opened to everyone. The Crowther Report, published in
England in 1959, stated that, "Among the families of manual workers it is still the
exception for a child to stay at school after he is legally free to go" (UK Department
for Education, 1959).
In the wake of the Crowther Report, England appointed a commission to examine
the factors that prevented the lower socio-economic sectors of the population from
enjoying significant benefit from educational services. The commissions report,
entitled Half Our Future and published in 1963, 19 years after passage of the
Secondary School Education for All Act, begins as follows:
Approximately one-half of our secondary school pupils, [from the weaker
sectors of the population] will become one-half of the citizens of this
country, half of the workers, half of the mothers and fathers, half of the
consumers . Therefore, they are half our future (UK Department for
Education, 1963, p. viii).
In analyzing the causes underlying the difficulties these pupils experienced in school,
it was found that:
The evidence of research increasingly suggests that linguistic inadequacy,
disadvantages in social and physical background, and poor attainments in
school, are closely associated. Because the forms of speech which are all
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they ever require for daily use in their homes and the neighborhoods in
which they live are restricted, some boys and girls may never acquire the
basic means of learning and their intellectual potential is therefore masked
(ibid., p. 15).
Criticism regarding the quality of education and the lack of national objectives grew
in the United States, too. In 1983 a report entitled A Nation at Risk was submitted to
the US federal government. The findings contained in this report indicated that:
23 million American adults are illiterate;
13% of 17 year-olds are functionally illiterate;
In minority groups, the rate of illiteracy reaches as high as 40%;
The USA placed last on achievement tests seven times, compared with other
industrialized nations.
The expansion of education systems, the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s and
their impact on education systems, and the dissatisfaction with the states ability to
guarantee effective mechanisms for supervision and control, together with criticism
concerning the effect of centralized control in those countries where it was the
norm, brought various countries to the limits of their ability to stand up to public
criticism and expectations to improve education. It became clear to education systems
that existing management methods did not enable them to withstand the stress and
organizational difficulties that had been discovered, and they were no longer equipped
to operate such a large-scale education system. Moreover, the nature of education is
such that it fosters involvement and multiple centers for decision-making, making the
reality even more complex. Parents organizations, teachers organizations, districts,
locally elected school boards, and the schools themselves all have an impact that may
result in the definition of priorities that sometimes differ from those established by the
central authority.
As a result of the criticism, many countries over the past two decades have attempted
to implement far-reaching mechanical changes in the structure of education system
authority and organization. Thus, for example, the achievements of the education
system in England and Wales have been the subject of ongoing monitoring since the
early 1970s. The transition to "secondary school education for all" and the opening
of the gates to higher education following the Robbins Report, resulted in a sweeping
attack on the quality of public education in professional, public and political circles,
which finally ended in a comprehensive legislation in 1988. This legislation led to a
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Introduction
redistribution of responsibilities and accountabilities. While the government focused

on defining curricula and monitoring achievement, the schools themselves were
given expanded responsibilities and, in practical terms, switched over to school-based
management (Smyth, 1993; Volansky, 2003).1 The education system in Canada
underwent a significant process aimed at merging districts in order to achieve increased
equity and equality. This process of merging school districts led to the reorganization
of education into large-scale, centralized operational units, which fostered a sense
of unwieldiness and the feeling that proper attention was not being paid to the
individual within the organization either the pupil or the teacher (Gue, 1985). As
a result of various processes, some provinces encouraged their schools to switch to
self-management, while the curriculum remained the responsibility of the province.
Beginning in 1973, the federal government of Australia started to become more
involved in what was happening in the different states by establishing a federal
education commission. The purpose of the governments involvement was to increase
equality between schools, as well as with regard to curricula and the assessment
of achievement. At the same time, the schools in three Australian states switched
over to school-based management (Caldwell & Spinks, 1998; OECD, 1989). France
has been famous for its centralized policies since the days of Napoleon. In 1982-84
the authority of the secondary school councils was expanded in several spheres, the
ideology underlying this reform being the school in the center. Since World War II, the
Swedish education system had been characterized by a high degree of centralization,
but beginning in 1974, Sweden instituted a process of serious decentralization for
the purpose of guaranteeing a modern curriculum, reinforcing principles of equality
and ensuring a relatively unified administrative system. The decentralization was
carried out by delegating authority to both the schools and local authorities, while
dismantling the administrative machinery of the central government (OECD, 1989).
The education system in the United States underwent three waves of changes, in the
wake of a series of publications warning about the status of the American education
system. First, in the early 1980s, federal involvement in education was coordinated
with the state leadership. In 1989, President Bush, Sr., and the state governors agreed
on six national goals for education that were to be achieved by 2000. At the same
1
The inspiration for this major legislation in England and Wales in 1988 led to the adoption of
"market principles in education" and included additional components beyond school-based
management.
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time, a gradual process was instituted for empowering schools in some states and
their transition to school-based management (Volansky, 1995). The Israeli education
system is also characterized by a high degree of centralization, whose roots go back
to the waves of immigration following the establishment of the state in 1948. As a
result of mounting criticism from teachers organizations and other parties within the
system, a process of educational autonomy was introduced in the mid-1970s. This
process became more powerful in the 1990s, with schools gradually moving to a
system of school-based management.
In all of the processes taking place in different countries, both those characterized by
a high degree of centralization and those typified by a high degree of decentralization,
there emerged a broad common denominator for agreement the separation of
the central authority of the state or federal government from the responsibilities
delegated to the schools. Generally speaking, the trend that is becoming a world-wide
phenomenon is to have government authority and involvement in three main areas.
These are:
defining curricula and educational objectives;
defining budgetary criteria, inter alia, to reduce educational gaps;
defining standards and assessing achievement.
While the state tends to define the "what" What should be taught? What will be
achieved? What steps are to be taken in order to reduce gaps? there is a growing
movement to expand the operational authority of the schools regarding how to realize
its goals and, in practical terms, schools define "how" to achieve the objectives defined
by the state. This is an integrated management approach, which enables the state to
determine national values and goals through curricula and by monitoring achievement
while being liberated from ongoing bureaucratic management, and by granting a
greater level of operating freedom to those who are closest to the pupils the schools.
This new management system has two primary sources of inspiration. One source
of inspiration is business organizations. As the environment of business organizations
became more complex and more competitive, the more often these organizations
were faced with crisis. Studies by Argyris (1982), Drucker (1977), Gamble (1985),
Peters & Waterman (1982), and Srivasta & Barrent (1988) found that under certain
circumstances, organizations that excel are those that succeed in infusing their
employees with a shared vision; defining a (limited) number of organizational values
that can motivate workers; defining shared operating goals; defining mechanisms of
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Introduction
control; and undertaking widespread decentralization that leaves the organizations

secondary units with plenty of maneuvering room, in terms of both discretion and
initiative and innovation. It was clear that organizations that were able to grow,
even during times of crisis, had adopted the operating principles described above.
Underlying the change was the adoption of a new approach regarding the position of
the individual within the organization as a source of energy and motivation for success
(Handy, 1988; McGregor, 1985).
The second inspiration for education reform was the findings of research conducted
on effective schools. These studies resulted from disappointment in the results of
efforts to increase equality of educational opportunity. In the 1970s, findings began to
mount from studies that examined the impact of factors such as community, family,
school and class on differences in educational achievement. These studies consistently
showed that such disparities were primarily explained by the cultural assets of the
pupils family. The work conducted by Coleman (1966) in the US had a significant
influence. The report findings point out that:
Home environment variables were the most important in explaining the
variance in achievement levels for all racial and regional groups, and school
facilities and curriculum were the least important variables (Coleman et
al., 1966, p. 325).
The findings of the Coleman report set off a series of professional discussions and
motivated many other research studies. Jencks (1973), like Coleman, found that a
pupils scholastic achievements are influenced by and contingent upon his family
background more than the school as an educational organization and social institution.
Kerensky (1975) summarized the two reports as follows:
The school has much smaller role in a childs total education than most
teachers and parents have assumed . What the child brings to school is
more important than what happens in the classroom in determining the
kind of person he will become (Kerensky, 1975, p. 44).
The findings of these studies, along with additional studies conducted by Bernstein
(1961) and Halsey et al., (1980), which concluded similar findings, motivated
educational researchers to find an answer to the question, Were there schools whose
organizational and administrative methods enabled scholastic success even for pupils
from low socio-economic backgrounds? Was it possible to neutralize the family
background of these pupils so that it would not serve as a factor preventing positive
achievement?
Indeed, during the 1970s and 1980s, research findings showed that under certain
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organizational conditions schools were found to be "effective," "excellent" and

"outstanding." The main thesis of this movement toward effective schools was based
on research findings indicating that under certain operational and management
conditions schools could raise standards significantly, achieve better results and be
more efficient (Bashi et al., 1990; Caldwell & Spinks, 1988, 1998; Chen, 1995;
Cheng, 1996; Cuttance, 1985; Friedman, Horowitz, & Shaliv, 1988; Hopkins,
1987).
Despite differences in the issues examined, these studies appeared to share a
fundamental common denominator, that schools that have a collective educational
vision; define clear objectives; operate a monitoring and feedback system for assessing
goals; have a shared and supportive management style; encourage initiative, creativity
and individual responsibility; can make decisions in real time; and focus their efforts
on the curriculum and promoting the needs of their pupils these schools are more
effective and boast higher scholastic achievement.
The findings spearheaded the formulation of new management theories and
methods for schools. The theory essentially turned the management pyramid upside
down. From now on, instructions would come not from the top down, but rather
by focusing on addressing the pupils needs, on the assumption that those who were
closest to the pupil were better equipped to assess his needs. According to the new
approach, encouragement was given to enterprising, creative solutions to problems,
solutions devised by the school faculty using, perhaps, unconventional methods that
didnt necessarily follow the paths and instructions that until now had been established
by supervisory personnel or the central authorities. No longer would officials outside
the school be seen as responsible for educational outcomes, rather for better or worse
outcomes would depend upon the actions of the individual teacher or the schools
teaching staff. A teachers image and achievements, the success of his pupils, the
pupils affect for their school, and the schools status within the community now rested
in the teachers own hands and sense of self-efficacy, commitment and accountability.
Such an approach cannot be carried out unless most of the means which until
now had been in the hands of central authorities outside the school, are handed over
to the educational institution itself and its teachers. They are the ones who must
make decisions based on their professional judgment in order to maximize pupil
achievement. This change is part of the process to restructure the education system
that is presently underway in a number of countries around the world. In order to turn
the school into an organizational unit that can provide for its own needs and make
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Introduction
decisions in real time, a comprehensive organizational change must take place within
all of the organizational units that have been the source of managerial and financial
authority until now. Such a reform and change is based on delineating all those who
are part of this interaction districts, local authorities, personnel from the Ministrys
head office, and school principals. The essence of the change sometimes operates in
opposition to "human nature", in that certain officials outside the school must transfer
their authority and power to the schools. This process of change can empower the
school and weaken those who have relinquished their authority, and therefore, in
many countries around the world, the process is fraught with difficulty and tension.
The theory being developed in the field of self-management is based on fundamental
research conducted in other disciplines. These include motivation theories, which
draw on the field of psychology; the subfield in psychology that deals with peoples
resistance to change; research with regard to locus of control and self-efficacy; the field
of organizational behavior in an environment of change, based on the new science
of chaos and disorder; the field of feedback which is based on systems theory; the
sphere of decision-making, taken from organizational theory; the area of resource
management, derived from economic theories. This knowledge, which focuses on the
school as an organizational unit, is one side of the coin. The information presented
in this book is part of the ongoing, growing process that is likely to shed light on the
schools capacity to become more effective by improving educational achievements.
The more knowledge we acquire about school management, the more we become
aware of the complexity involved in running the individual school, a complexity that
takes form as part of an extensive, multi-faceted management theory exposing the
intricacies of working in and managing an educational institution. This book does
not deal with the other side of the coin the management of education systems
from the perspective of the center nor does it discuss the role of state, district
or local educational authorities. This book focuses on the "how" how to manage
schools, emphasizing an internal examination of the schools work processes. To enable
implementation of school-based management theory, we must formalize and expand
theories and practices concerning the role of the central authority (state, district, local
education authorities) into a comprehensive management theory, thereby constituting
both sides of the coin, two integrated management systems that rely on each other.
This book is divided into three parts. The first section focuses on formulating
theoretical perspectives on school-based management. The second section of the book
concentrates on the meaning of this new leadership perspective and the conditions
for making it effective. The third section presents some of the things taking place in
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various countries, including the tension involved in the reciprocal relations between
the central authority and schools undertaking self-management. This book is the
result of the first international conference on this subject held in Israel in 2001. Most
of the authors featured in this publication presented their work and research findings
to the conference.
The first article by Yin Cheong Cheng contributes to both our theoretical and the
practical understanding of school-based management in the new era of globalization,
while comparing it with several other new, important aspects of education, such as
localization and individualization. School-based management, which has become
a major international trend in the last ten years, is a major means of promoting
effective decision-making and resource use to meet the diverse school-based needs in
education. This line of thinking maintains that school restructuring is necessary, in
the authors view, but not sufficient for facing the challenges of the era of globalization
and information technology. Accordingly, school-based management should aim to
facilitate a new paradigm of education that emphasizes the development of students
contextualized multiple intelligences (CMI). Through globalization and localization,
with the help of information technology and networking, the school can bring in a
variety of resources and intellectual assets from the local community and different
parts of the world to support world-class teaching and learning in each classroom,
for every teacher and pupil. Through individualization, the human initiative and
motivation of all pupils can be encouraged so they can develop their economic, social,
political, cultural, and learning intelligences more effectively. Finally, Cheng argues
that the new school-based management should aim not only to improve internal
school processes but also to create new educational goals and enhance the relevance of
education to the future through triplization. Such a school can support each student
in becoming a contextualized multiple intelligence citizen who will be engaged in
life-long learning and will creatively contribute to building up a multiple intelligence
society and global village.
Isaac Friedman presents the self-managed school as an intelligent school. With
this in mind, he defines two concepts: organizational intelligence and the intelligent
organization, both of which rely upon the concept of human intelligence. An
intelligent organization is one that formulates for itself clear thinking and behavior
patterns and follows them in order to achieve its objectives. The behavior of an
intelligent organization is expressed by properly assessing the present, learning from
the past and from changes in the present, and by correctly anticipating and preparing
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Introduction
for the future and, in particular, preparing for the future based on the findings of these
assessments. The intelligent behavior of the organizations members is expressed via the
changes they make, of their own free will, in response to a changing reality. Friedman
defines five types of intelligence: reflective intelligence (which includes task-oriented
behaviors, professionalism and improvement); strategic intelligence (which involves
formulating a mission statement, defining objectives and deciding how to carry
them out); contextual intelligence (which includes community-orientation, thinking
big and a system-oriented perspective); collegial intelligence (which involves shared
management within a school, cooperation with parents and the community, support,
mutual assistance and giving credit where it is due); and ethical intelligence, which
is based on human, spiritual and moral values. In addition, Friedman surveys the
research that has dealt with the processes that typify the self-managed school and
points to the fact that these processes reflect a high level of several organizational
intelligences. Friedmans article contributes to both our theoretical understanding and
practical application. At the applied level, the intelligence approach towards studying
organizations can serve as a powerful analytical tool for assessing self-managed
schools, defining their level of school-based management and indicating directions for
improvement, if needed.
Brian J. Caldwell opens his article with a description of the decentralization and
devolution of authority introduced in 1,600 government schools in Victoria, Australia,
which constitute some 70% of all the schools in this state. The decentralization policy
involved transferring 93.7% of the budget to schools, defining curriculum standards
in eight subjects, teacher hiring policies, and requiring of every school a framework of
accountability to the community from which the pupils come. The article focuses on
the relationship between the self-managed school and learning outcomes, by surveying
three generations of research in this field. The first generation of studies found that
there was little evidence to support the notion that self-management is effective in
increasing pupil performance. The second generation of studies was conducted at
a period of time when the self-management reform had become more entrenched,
when budgets were given to the schools, a framework for standards of accountability
were defined, and the curriculum was defined by the central government. Findings
from this phase were not so clear-cut and again, no actual basis was found to
support the argument that self-managed schools were effective in increasing scholastic
achievement.
The third generation of studies, published at the end of the 1990s, indicated a
connection between the self-management of schools and their effectiveness with regard
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to learning, performance and curriculum. Caldwells explanation for the development

in this generation of studies as compared with the previous generations is that policies
toward schools were more clearly defined and expectations regarding the connection
between self-management and academic performance were spelled out. Furthermore,
at this point in time the researchers now had available to them a broader spectrum
of performance data and indicators concerning scholastic achievement. The principal
findings, obtained in a series of studies, indicate that personnel and professional
benefits, improved curricular planning based on pupil performance and adapting
teaching to pupil needs, increased confidence in raising the level of self-management,
school-based planning of resource allocations, and an increased sense of direction
and purpose, together with enhanced accountability and responsibility that all
of these factors pointed to the connection between self-management and scholastic
performance. The author concludes his article with a recommendation to policy-makers
and claims that a precondition for improving performance is structural rearrangement
in the direction of decentralization at various levels throughout the education system,
with change focused around the children and the class if there is to be an impact on
the improvement of pupil performance.
The article written by Vivian J. William deals with the concept of effective school
culture within the context of the 1988 Education Reform Act in England and Wales.
A key element of this reform was the devolution of financial and personnel control
to the individual school level, which was called "Local Management of Schools"
(LMS). The most significant outcome of the reform has been the gradual acceleration
of cultural change within the schools. Research findings concerned with school
leadership demonstrate that older, more traditional organizational models for the
effective working of schools are neither appropriate nor fully able to engage the talent,
abilities and experience of graduate and skilled professionals who work in schools
not least because they are unenthusiastic about positively contributing as subordinates.
According to Williams, as schools become increasingly more complex organizations,
there is persuasive evidence that the majority of teachers in them would always choose
to contribute fully to the development of more effective schools within a culture
of collective purpose that valued them and the quality of their contributions. Head
teachers and other teachers are being required to "manage" and "lead" schools within
cultures that are fundamentally different from those of a decade earlier. Recent trends,
in the authors view, are for leadership in schools to increasingly emphasize the benefits
of cultures for collective educational purposes rather than ordered control through
hierarchical management roles. The main research finding is that leaders earn their
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Introduction
status from others who elect to follow, which means that earned leadership is an
accorded status, not an appointed one, gained through mutual trust and a recognition
of professional commitment to education and consideration of their attitudes, values
and comprehension.
Adam Nir and Ronit Bogler discuss the role of vision as a key element for effective
leadership of school-based management. Organizational vision is directed not only
inward, to serve as a compass for school personnel, but also outward, toward people
in the schools local community. This duality may produce conflicts of interest under
certain circumstances, especially for leaders in self-managing schools. The authors
argue that a vision of school-based management should be conceived as a blend of
the qualities of the schools environment, the qualities of the schools leader, and the
attributes of the school staff. The article discusses likely consequences of disregarding
these three essential leadership components. Furthermore, it is argued that in reality,
a discrepancy is likely to exist between a schools inner qualities and the expectations
directed at it from external agencies. The greater the discrepancy, the higher the
chances that school leaders will articulate an illusionary vision that will mostly
serve populist purposes rather than educational ends. The authors claim that when
articulating a vision, the emphasis that is placed on the need of self-managing schools
to respond to local expectations should be moderated, depending on the different
types of interaction between schools and their communities.
Rosalind Levai considers the development of school-based management in
England and Wales and examines the efficiency of this reform and the policy
of allocating resources to schools. The main driving force behind school-based
management in England was, and remains, improving efficiency and raising
educational standards. A further reason is the political appeal of giving parents broader
scope in expressing school choice. The development of school-based management
in England was followed by a considerable extension of the power of the central
government over school and a diminution of the powers of local education authorities
which, prior to 1988, had managed local school systems with little interference
from the central government. Decision-making power, particularly with respect to
resources, including private sponsorship and personnel, has been decentralized from
Local Education Authorities (LEAs) to head teachers and school governing bodies.
Thus, the net result of the reform is that the Ministry of Education determines the
strategy and manages the performance of its sub-units (LEAs and schools) by setting
performance goals, monitoring them against these goals and applying sanctions and
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rewards accordingly. Schools are given managerial discretion over how to utilize the
resources allocated to them, including determining how to spend the allocated budget;
curriculum matters such as time allocations, textbooks, some choice of syllabus at the
secondary school level; or other matters such as defined performance goals, review of
payment awards, monitoring teachers performance, admissions policy, and having a
"school development plan." In conclusion, the author examines performance indicators
since the implementation of school-based management.
The article by Michael Kirst includes both a historical analysis and a current view
of school-based management in the United States. The historical section stresses that
the basic unit of US school organization was the school district, not the school.
This historical structure has hindered and limited the spread and effectiveness of
school-based management. The US school system was formed from the bottom up,
with over 120,000 school districts (now reduced to 14,000). The elected school board
governs the district, and most school boards resist school-based management in its
pure form. From 1900-1920, US cities created centralized districts that established
uniform policies and direction for all schools. This "one best system" ended much of
the autonomy within each school and introduced standardized budgets, personnel,
curriculum, etc. School-based management was lost in this centralized efficiency
model that persists to this day in large and small cities and suburbs. School-based
management has also been hampered by a lack of confidence in the ability of site-level
educators to manage well. Opponents contend there is not a lot of site-level talent
waiting to be unleashed by school-based management. Rather, extensive capacity
building is needed before school-based management can begin. But few districts have
been able or willing to invest in this site capacity, including information systems
and rethinking principals ubiquitous role. Kirst argues that US scholars do have
good plans on how to make school-based management work. But there is a lack
of agreement on who should control these self-managed schools teachers, parents,
administrators, or all three? Although there have been many successful cases of
school-based management in the United States, the amount of school improvement
has not been overwhelming. This is partly due to the fact that it is difficult to measure
change. Kirst concludes that without a political coalition and commitment, SBM will
not be implemented on a large scale.
Ami Volanskys article describes the background underlying the transition to
school-based management in Israel. Teachers organizations were the first, in the
early 1970s, to call upon the Ministry of Education to liberate schools from extreme
centralization because under the existing management conditions teachers were
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Introduction
avoiding personal responsibility for the quality of education, and exhibited a lack of
interest and initiative. As a result, a process was introduced to delegate authority to the
schools in pedagogic matters. During the 1980s, it became clear that the statement of
intent issued by the Ministry of Education did not pass the test of reality, the result
being that the Ministrys policy to grant operational authority to schools remained
theoretical, a "right with no opportunity." On the basis of these findings, the Ministry
of Education decided to adopt new implementation principles. Beginning in 1996, the
transition to school-based management was introduced, through which the operating
authority in terms of budgeting and performance evaluation was transferred to
schools. From now on, every school was expected to define a work plan that included
clear pedagogic goals, obtaining feedback regarding the defined goals, and striving
toward decision-making processes that would lead to increased commitment and
accountability for educational outcomes. Despite increased efforts by the Ministry
to transfer the locus of decision-making power from the Ministry and the local
authorities to the schools, by the year 2002 only some 700 schools have become
self-managing schools. The article describes severe opposition to delegating authority
to the schools and the unwillingness of key personnel to relinquish their own power in
favor of the schools, to the point that the Israeli education system has not yet passed
the point of no return to traditional centralized management patterns.
In his second article included in this book, Yin Cheong Cheng develops a theoretical
perspective concerning the complexities of managing school effectiveness and the
link between school effectiveness and school-based management. The author argues
that most past educational reforms, which focused on fragmentary improvement and
remedial treatment, are insufficient to bring about holistic school development and
long-term effectiveness and inevitably many of them resulted in serious frustration,
if not failure. The author explains that the failure of past international school
reforms is often due to (1) ignoring the relevance of school goals to the rapidly
changing environment, and (2) the lack of understanding with regard to internal
school processes. Therefore, the relevance of school goals and the improvement of
internal school processes should be considered the two key elements for implementing
school-based management and improving school effectiveness. Cheng offers a
necessary knowledge base for practicing school-based management in the pursuit of
school effectiveness, which should include the theory of school-based management,
knowledge about healthy school profiles, the technology of strategic management, the
dynamic concept of maximizing multiple effectiveness, the idea of layer management,
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the theory of congruence in school, the knowledge of total home-school cooperation

and community support, and the new paradigm of school leadership. Moreover,
in order to assess and monitor school effectiveness as a whole, certain models are
developed, such as the goal model, resource-input model, and total management
model. These comprehensive theoretical, as well as practical, multiple models can, in
the authors view, contribute to the practice of school-based management for greater
school effectiveness.
REFERENCES
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London: Jossey-Bass.
Bashi, J. et al. (1990). Effective schools: From theory to practice. Jerusalem: Van Leer
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Bernstein, B. (1961). Social structure, language and learning. Educational Research,
3(3).
Caldwell, B. J., & Spinks, M. J. (1988). The self-managing school. London: Falmer
Press.
Caldwell, B. J., & Spinks, M. J. (1998). Beyond the Self-managing School. London:
Falmer Press.
Chen, M. (1995). The effective school and the integrative class. Studies in
Administration and Educational Organization, 20, 47-88 (in Hebrew).
Cheng, Y. C. (1996). School effectiveness and school-based management - A mechanism
for development. London: Falmer Press.
Coleman J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M.,
Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (Eds.). (1996). Equality of educational opportunity
(The Coleman Report). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Cuttance, P. (1985). Framework for research on the effectiveness of schooling. In D.
Reynolds (Ed.), Studying school effectiveness. London: Falmer Press.
Drucker, P. (1977). People and performance: The best of Peter Drucker on management.
London: Heinemann.
Friedman, I. A., Horowitz, T., & Shaliv, R. (1988). School effectiveness, culture and
climate. Jerusalem: Henrietta Szold Institute (in Hebrew).
Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Gamble, A. (1985). Britain in decline. London: Macmillan.

Gue, R. L. (1985). An introduction to educational administration in Canada. Toronto:
McGraw-Hill.
Hallak, J. (1991). Managing schools for educational quality and equity: Finding
the proper mix to make it work. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Halsey, A. H. et al. (1980). Origins of destinations. Oxford, England: Clarendon.
Handy, C. B. (1988). Understanding organizations. London: Penguin.
Hayek, F. A. (1960). The constitution of liberty. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Hill, P. T., & Bonan, J. (1991). Decentralization and accountability in public education.
New York: Rand Corparation.
Hopkins, D. (1987). Implications for school improvement at the local level. In D.
Hopkins (Ed.), Improving quality of schooling. London: Falmer Press.
Jencks, C. (1973). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in
America. London: Allen Lane.
Kerensky, V. M. (1975). The educative community. National Elementary Principal,
54(3).
McGregor, D. (1985), The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.
OECD - Office of Economic Cooperation and Development (1989). Decentralization
and school improvement: New perspectives and conditions for change. CERI.
Peters, T., & Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Harper.
Smyth J. (Ed.). (1993). A socially critical view of the self-managing school. London:
Falmer Press.
Srivastva, S., & Barrent, F. (1988). Foundations for executive integrity: Dialogue,
diversity, development. In S. Srivastva (Ed.), Executive integrity. London:
Jossey-Bass.
UK Department for Education (1959). Fifteen to eighteen (the Crowther Report).
London: Central Advisory Committee for Education.
UK Department for Education (1963). Half our future (the Newsom Report). London:
Central Advisory Committee for Education.
Volansky, A. (1995). Development trends in the American education system. Jerusalem:
Ministry of Education (in Hebrew).
Volansky, A. (1999). The dialectic between decentralization and centralization. In
E. Peled (Ed.), Ministry of Education Jubilee Publication. Tel Aviv: Ministry of
Defense Publications (in Hebrew).
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Volansky, A. (2003). The "Pendulum Syndrome" of centralization and decentralization

processes in education - The case of England and Wales. Tel Aviv: Ramot Publishing,
Tel Aviv University.
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NEW VISION OF SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT:

GLOBALIZATION, LOCALIZATION, AND
INDIVIDUALIZATION
Yin Cheong Cheng

INTRODUCTION
International Trends Towards School-based Management

To cope with the challenges from the rapidly changing environment in 1990s and
the 21st century, numerous educational reforms and school restructuring movements
have been implemented to pursue educational effectiveness and school development
not only in Canada, the USA and the UK in the West, but also in the Asia-Pacific
regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Mainland China, Singapore, Malaysia and
Hong Kong (Cheng & Townsend, 2000). The search for effective schools, the shift
to school-based management, the emphasis on development planning in school, the
assurance of school education quality, the implementation of new curricula and the
application of information technology in education are typical examples of efforts
towards educational reform (Caldwell & Spinks, 1992, 1998; Cheng, 1996, 2001a,
2001b; Hargreaves & Hopkins, 1991; MacGilchrist, Mortimore, Savage, & Beresford,
1995; Murphy & Beck, 1995; Reynolds & Cuttance, 1992; Stringfield, Ross, &
Smith, 1997).
Among all these reforms, school-based management (SBM) is one of the most
salient international trends of school reform, which emphasizes decentralization down
to the school level as the major means for promoting effective decision-making,
improving internal processes, and utilizing resources in teaching and learning to meet
the diverse school-based educational needs. Even though there have been different
types of challenges, difficulties and problems in implementing SBM, numerous
opportunities have been created for the schools, teachers, parents, educators, education
officers and even educational leaders engaged in such school reform to rethink
educational practices, develop themselves, modify roles, formulate innovations, and
improve the educational outcomes of their schools (Cheng & Chan, 2000; Cheng &
Cheung, 1999).
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Yin Cheong Cheng
School-based management and improvement of internal process

In the past decade of implementation of SBM, a key issue has often been how to
improve or even re-engineer the internal school process so that the school as a whole
can add value through school effectiveness. The answer to this issue requires a new
knowledge base regarding internal school processes, indicating how a school can
maximize use of its internal resources to achieve optimal conditions for operation and
continuous development in management, teaching and learning, within the changing
environment of the new century.
Integrating from my previous research on school effectiveness and school-based
management (Cheng, 1996, 1998), a new knowledge framework of internal school
processes can be proposed to guide the implementation of school-based management
for internal improvement and development. This new framework includes the
following types of knowledge, as summarized in Table 1:
1. Principles of school-based management
2. Knowledge of school healthy-functioning profile
3.
Knowledge of strategic management
4.
Knowledge of multi-level self management in school
5.
Knowledge of dynamic process
6. Knowledge of layer management

7.
Knowledge of congruence in school
8.
Knowledge of total home-school collaboration and community support
9.
Knowledge of transformational leadership
It is hoped that through the implementation of SBM within this framework, schools
can facilitate continuous learning and development of pupils, personnel and the
schools themselves; increase support from parents and the community; improve
technology in education and management; and meet the needs and challenges in the
rapidly changing educational environment.
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New Vision of School-based Management
Table 1
A knowledge framework of internal school process for SBM
The new knowledge framework
of internal school processes
Key elements to be
achieved in school
re-engineering
1. Principles of
school-based
management
Principle of Equifinality
Principle of Decentralization
Principle of Self-managing system
Principle of Human initiative
School autonomy
and self-initiative
2. Knowledge of
healthy school
profile
A Positive profile on:

school mission
nature of school activities
management strategies
use of resources
roles
human relations
quality of administrator
evaluation of effectiveness
Monitoring educational quality in
school
Healthy and smooth

school functioning
Including critical components:

Environmental analysis
Planning and structuring
Staffing and directing
Implementing
Monitoring and evaluating
Participation and leadership
A cyclical process of continuous
learning, action, and development
Continuous
organizational
learning and school
development
School self-management
Group self-management
Individual self-management
Self-learning and development of
individuals and groups
Mutual influence and support among
individuals, groups, and the school
Human initiative of
individuals, groups,
and the school
Awareness of unbalanced situation

Adaptability and flexibility to set up
priority
Maximizing long-term effectiveness of
multiple functions
Multiple
effectiveness of five
school functions
Matrix of school process

Layers: administrator , teacher and
pupil
Layer as comprehensive unit
Management, teaching, and learning as
holistic processes
Development cycles on layers
Holistic school
education and
maximum
opportunity for
teaching and
learning
3. Knowledge of
strategic
management
4. Knowledge of
multi-level
self-management
5. Knowledge of a
dynamic process
for multiple school
effectiveness
6. Knowledge of
layer management
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Yin Cheong Cheng
Table 1 (continued)
Key elements to be
achieved in school
re-engineering
The new knowledge framework

of internal school processes
7. Knowledge of
congruence in
school process
8. Knowledge of
home-school
cooperation and
community
support
9. Knowledge of
transformational
leadership
Congruence in school process:

Across actors, domains, and levels
Between-layer
Within-layer
Congruence in technology:
Between-types
Within-type
Congruence in culture:
Between-types
Within-type
Reducing internal
wastage, increasing
synergy and
maximizing
effectiveness
Total parental involvement in school

education
Total family education as a strong
partner
Community support
Provision of
necessary resources,
ideas, and
legitimacy in
education and
management
Shift to transformational leadership
Shift to multi-dimensions of leadership:

structural, human, political, cultural, &
educational
Driving force for

developing members
and re-engineering
school
Challenges to SBM in a new era

The dramatic impact of the new information technology, economic globalization,
international market competition, worldwide concerns for pollution and peace, as
well as increasing local social-political demands, have generated rapid changes and
developments in nearly every society throughout the world (Cheng & Townsend,
2000). In such a fast-changing era, schools and teachers are faced with numerous
new problems, uncertainties, and challenges rising from their internal and external
environments. They are often expected to perform a wide range of new functions
to support the rapid advances in individuals, local communities, societies, and
international relations (Cheng, 1996; Tsui & Cheng, 2000).
In the last decade, policy-makers and schools had implemented numerous initiatives
in education with aims to improve school performance. Although a great deal of effort
has been invested in this aspect, people, if not disappointed, still doubt very much
whether the performance of teachers and schools can meet the challenges and needs
of the new century, even though schools and teachers have already worked very hard.
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Recently, there has been a rapid, worldwide economic transformation towards an

information-based or knowledge-based economy. The new generations are expected
to be more self-learning, creative and adaptive to the changing environment with
multiple intelligences and a global outlook. People are beginning to be aware of the
limitations of the traditional paradigms and efforts regarding educational quality,
and are increasingly concerned with the relevance of existing educational aims and
practices on the future in a new era of globalization and information technology
(Cheng, 2000a, 2000b). In these few years, paradigm shifts in education are strongly
urged through educational reforms in some countries and areas, for example, the
USA, UK, Australia, Hong Kong, and others (Cheng, 2001a, 2001b).
Undoubtedly, the current efforts of SBM are necessary and important for improving
and enhancing the internal school process. To a great extent, SBM represents the
advancement and application of human knowledge to school management and
educational practice. When considering the tremendous impact of globalization and
information technology on every aspect of human life in the new century, we believe
a paradigm shift in education is necessary. We believe SBM should have a new
vision that aims to facilitate such a paradigm shift in education, to establish a new
educational paradigm and develop new educational aims and practices for future
generations. Therefore, this paper aims at presenting a new vision of SBM, which can
further support all ongoing efforts of SBM in the challenging new millennium.
NEW EDUCATIONAL PARADIGM
Different parts of the world are now in the process of globalization in technological,
economic, social, political, cultural, and learning spheres (Cheng, 1999). The world
is quickly becoming a global village, in which different parts of the world are
rapidly being networked and globalized through the Internet and different types
of IT, communications, and transportation (Albrow, 1990; Naisbitt & Aburdence,
1991). Most countries and regions are finding they share more common concerns.
Moreover, the interactions between nations and people have become unlimited,
multi-dimensional, multi-level, fast, and frequent. People have become more and more
mutually dependent through international collaboration, exchange, and interflow.
According to Cheng (1999), human nature in the social context of the new millennium
will be a multiple person a technological person, economic person, social person,
political person, cultural person, and learning person in a global, multi-cultural
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Yin Cheong Cheng
village of information and high technology. Both individuals and society need multiple
developments in the technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning
spheres. Life-long learning and a learning society (or knowledge society) are necessary
to sustain the continuous multiple development of individuals and society in a
changing new century (Drucker, 1993, 1995). Society must move towards becoming
a multiple intelligence and learning society that can provide the necessary knowledge
and intelligence base and serve as a driving force to support multiple developments.
Whats more, the individual must move towards becoming a multiple intelligence
citizen who can contribute to the development of a multiple intelligence society.
In such a context, there is an emerging paradigm shift in education. According to
Cheng (1999, 2000a), the paradigm should be shifted from the traditional site-bounded
paradigm to a new triplization paradigm. The new paradigm will emphasize
the development of students contextualized multiple intelligences (CMI) including
technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning intelligences; and the
processes of triplization including globalization, localization and individualization in
education. (For a detailed description of contextualized multiple intelligences, please
see the Appendix).
Triplization in education
Globalization: This refers to the transfer, adaptation, and development of values,
knowledge, technology and behavioral norms across countries and societies in different
parts of the world. The typical phenomena and characteristics associated with
globalization include the growth of global networking (e.g., Internet, worldwide
e-communications, and transportation); global transfer and interflow in technological,
economic, social, political, cultural, and learning spheres; international alliances
and competitions; international collaboration and exchange; the concept of the
global village; multi-cultural integration; and use of international standards and
benchmarks.
Implications of globalization for education should include maximizing the global
relevance, support, intellectual resources, and initiative in schooling, teaching, and
learning (Caldwell & Spinks, 1998; Daun, 1997). Some examples of globalization
in education are: web-based learning and learning from the Internet; international
visit/immersion programs; international exchange programs; international partnerships
in teaching and learning at the group, class, and individual levels; interactions and
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sharing through video-conferencing across countries, communities, institutions, and

individuals; and new curriculum content on technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning globalization.
Localization: This denotes the transfer, adaptation, and development of related values,
knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms from/to the local contexts. It has
two types of meanings: First, it can mean the adaptation of all related external
values, initiatives, and norms to meet local needs at the society, community, or site
levels. Second, it can also mean the enhancement of local values, norms, concerns,
relevance, participation, and involvement in related initiatives and actions. Some
characteristics and examples of localization include: local networking; adaptation of
external technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning initiatives to
local communities; decentralization to the community or site level; development of
indigenous culture; meeting community needs and expectations; local involvement,
collaboration, and support; local relevance and legitimacy; and concern for school-based
needs and characteristics, social norms and ethos (Cheng, 1998; Kim, 1999; Tam,
Cheng, & Cheung, 1997).
Localization in education means maximizing local relevance, community support,
and initiative in schooling, teaching, and learning. Some examples of implementing
localization include community and parental involvement in school education;
home-school collaboration; ensuring school accountability; implementing school-based
management, school-based curriculum, and community-related curriculum; and
developing new curricular content with regard to technological, economic, social,
political, cultural, and learning localization.
Individualization: This suggests the transfer, adaptation, and development of related
external values, knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms to meet individual needs
and characteristics. The importance of individualization to human development and
performance is based on the concerns and theories of human motivation and needs (e.g.,
Alderfer, 1972; Manz, 1986; Manz & Sims, 1990; Maslow, 1970). Some examples
of individualization are: providing individualized services; emphasizing human
potentials; promoting human initiative and creativity; encouraging self-actualization,
self-management and self-governance; and concern for special needs. The major
implication of individualization in education is maximizing motivation, initiative, and
creativity of pupils and teachers in schooling, teaching, and learning through such
measures as implementing individualized educational programs; designing and using
individualized learning targets, methods, and progress schedules; encouraging students
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Yin Cheong Cheng
and teachers to be self-learning, self-actualizing, and self-initiating; meeting individual

special needs; and developing students contextualized multiple intelligences.
Using the concepts of triplization, pupils, teachers, and schools can be considered to be
globalized, localized, and individualized through the process of triplization. Or, simply,
they are triplized. The major features of the new triplization paradigm with regard
to learning, teaching and schooling are completely different from the traditional
site-bounded paradigm. In order to facilitate development of SBM towards a new
paradigm of education, these features are described below in figure 1.
Technological
globalization
Localization
Social
globalization
Learning
globalization
Individualization
EI
PI
TI
SI
LI
Political
globalization
CI
Cultural
globalization
Economic
globalization
Figure 1. Process of triplization: Globalization, localization, and individualization
New paradigm of learning

In the new paradigm of school education, students and their learning should be
individualized, localized, and globalized (Cheng, 2000a) (see Table 2).
Individualized learning: This assumes that the pupil is at the center of education.
Pupils learning should be facilitated in a way such that all types of transfer,
adaptation, and development of related values, knowledge, technology, and norms
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during the learning process can meet their needs and personal characteristics. Their
potential, particularly their contextualized multiple intelligences (CMI), can develop
in an optimal way. Different students can learn in different styles. Individualized and
tailor-made programs (including targets, content, methods, and schedules) for different
students are necessary and feasible. Pupils can be self-motivated and self-learning
with appropriate guidance and facilitation, and learning becomes a self-actualizing
process of discovery, experience and reflection. Since information and knowledge are
accumulated at an astonishing rate but are outdated very quickly, it is nearly impossible
to make any sense of it all if the purpose of education is mainly to deliver skills and
knowledge, particularly when pupils can find the knowledge and information easily
with the help of information technology and the Internet. Therefore, the paradigm
for the new century emphasizes that the focus of learning is on learning how to learn,
think, and create. In order to sustain life-long learning, it should be enjoyable and selfrewarding.
Localized and globalized learning: Students and their learning should be facilitated
in such a way such that local and global resources, support, and networks can be
utilized to maximize the opportunities for their development during the learning
process. Through localization and globalization, there are multiple sources of learning
for students, both inside and outside their schools, locally and globally, rather than
being limited to a small number of teachers in their schools. Participation in local
and international learning programs can help them achieve the related community
and global outlook and experiences beyond schools. Additionally, their learning is
a type of networked learning. They will be grouped and networked locally and
internationally. Learning groups and networks will become a major driving force to
sustain the learning climate and multiply the learning effects through sharing and
mutual motivation. We may expect that each pupil can have a group of life-long
partner-students in different corners of the world to share their learning experiences.
It is expected that learning happens everywhere and is life-long. School education
is just the start or preparation for life-long learning. Learning opportunities are
unlimited. Students can maximize the opportunities for their learning from local
and global exposures through Internet, web-based learning, video-conferencing,
cross-cultural sharing, and different types of interactive and multi-media materials
(Education and Manpower Bureau, 1998). Students can learn from world-class
teachers, experts, peers, and learning materials from different parts of the world. In
other words, they can experience world-class learning.
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Yin Cheong Cheng
Table 2
Two paradigms of learning
New triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Individualized learning
Reproduced learning
Pupil as the center

Individualized programs
Self-learning
Self-actualizing process
How to learn
Self-rewarding
Pupil as the follower

Standard programs
Absorbing knowledge
Receiving process
How to gain
External rewards
Localized and globalized learning
Site-bounded learning
Multiple sources of learning

Networked learning
Life-long and everywhere
Unlimited opportunities
World-class learning
Local and international outlook
Teacher-based learning
Separated learning
Fixed period and within school
Limited opportunities
School-bounded learning
Mainly school experiences
Traditional paradigm of learning

In traditional thinking, pupils and their learning are part of a process for reproducing
and perpetuating the existing knowledge and manpower structure to sustain the
societys development, particularly in the social and economic spheres (Blackledge
& Hunt, 1985; Cheng & Ng, 1992; Hinchcliffe, 1987; McMahon, 1987). It is no
surprise, then, that education is perceived as a process for pupils through which their
learning is reproduced to meet the needs of the society. The traditional profiles for
students and their learning are clearly different from those in the new paradigm (see
Table 2).
Reproduced learning: In school education, students are the followers of their teacher.
They go through standard programs of education, in which pupils are taught in
the same way and at the same pace, even though their abilities may be different.
Individualized programs seem to be unfeasible. The learning process is characterized
by absorbing certain types of knowledge: students are "students" of their teachers, and
they absorb knowledge from their teachers. Learning is a disciplinary, receiving, and
socializing process, such that close supervision and control on the learning process is
necessary. The focus of learning is on how to gain knowledge and skills. Learning
is often perceived as hard work, for the purpose of achieving external rewards and
avoiding punishment.
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Site-bounded learning: In the traditional paradigm, all learning activities are

school-bounded and teacher-based. Pupils learn from a limited numbers of school
teachers and their prepared materials. Therefore, teachers are the major source of
knowledge and learning. Pupils learn the standard curriculum from their textbooks
and related materials assigned by their teachers. Students are often arranged so that
they learn in a separated way and are made responsible for their individual learning
outcomes. They have few opportunities for mutual support or to learn from one
another. Their learning experiences are mainly school experiences, alienated from
the rapidly-changing local and global communities. Learning happens only in school
within a given time frame. Graduation tends to be the end of students learning.
New paradigm of teaching

In the new triplization paradigm, teachers teaching should be triplized: individualized,
localized, and globalized (see Table 3).
Individualized teaching: Teachers and their teaching are facilitated to take full advantage
of their potential to maximize student learning. Teaching is considered a process
for initiating, assisting, and sustaining students self-learning and self-actualization;
therefore, teachers should play the role of a facilitator or mentor who can support the
pupils learning. The focus of teaching is to arouse pupils curiosity and motivation to
think, act, and learn. In addition, teaching is about sharing with students the joy of
the learning process and its outcomes. For teachers themselves, teaching is a life-long
learning process involving continuous discovery, experimenting, self-actualization,
reflection, and professional development. Teachers should be multiple intelligence
teachers who can set an example for students in developing their multiple intelligences.
Each teacher has his/her own potential and characteristics, and different teachers can
teach in different styles to maximize their own contributions.
Localized and globalized teaching: The new paradigm emphasizes that teachers and
their teaching should be facilitated in such a way that local and global resources,
supports and networks can be brought in from local communities and different parts
of the world to maximize the opportunities for their development in teaching and
their contributions toward students learning. Through localization and globalization
there are multiple sources of teaching, for example, self-learning programs and
packages, web-based learning, outside experts, and community experiential programs
inside and outside their schools, locally and globally. Teachers can maximize the
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Yin Cheong Cheng
opportunities to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching from local and global
networking and exposure through Internet, web-based teaching, video-conferencing,
cross-cultural sharing, and different types of interactive and multi-media materials
(Education and Manpower Bureau, 1998). With their help, pupils can learn from
world-class teaching materials, experts, peers, and teachers in different parts of
the world, so that their teachers teaching can become world-class teaching. By
participating in local and international development programs, teachers can achieve
a global and regional outlook and engage in experiences beyond the schools.
Furthermore, their teaching is a type of networked teaching. Teachers are grouped and
networked locally and globally to develop and sustain a new professional culture, and
to multiply the effects of their teaching through sharing and mutual motivation. They
become world-class and networked teachers through localization and globalization.
It is not a surprise that each teacher can have a group of life-long partner-teachers
in other parts of the world to continuously share and discuss experiences and ideas
relating to their professional practice.
Traditional paradigm of teaching

As discussed in the traditional site-bounded paradigm of learning, teaching is often
perceived as part of the process for reproducing and perpetuating the existing
knowledge and manpower structure to sustain the societys development (table 3).
Reproduced teaching: Teachers are the center of education. They have some technical,
social, and professional competencies to deliver knowledge to pupils. Teachers teach
using a few standardized styles and patterns to ensure that standardized knowledge is
taught to pupils, even though teachers potentials and personal characteristics may be
different. Their main task is to transfer some of the knowledge and skills they have to
pupils, and therefore teaching is often a disciplinary, delivery, training, and socializing
process. Whats more, teaching is often perceived as hard work for the purpose of
achieving some external standard in examinations.
School-bounded teaching: In the traditional paradigm, teachers and their teaching are
bounded within the school. Schools are the major venue for teaching and teachers are
the major source of knowledge. Teachers are often arranged to teach in a separated way
and are made responsible for their teaching outcomes. They have few opportunities for
mutual support and to learn from one another. Their teaching is bounded such that
they teach the standard curriculum with textbooks and related materials assigned by
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their schools and the education authority. The teachers and their teaching are often
alienated from the fast-changing local communities or international contexts. From
this traditional perspective, teachers are clearly school-bounded and separated, and
will rarely have any global and regional outlook to develop a world-class education for
their pupils in the new century.
Table 3
Two paradigms of teaching
Individualized teaching
Reproduced teaching
As facilitator
Multiple intelligence teacher
Individualized teaching style
Arousing curiosity
Facilitating process
Sharing joy
As life-long learning
As center
Partially competent teacher
Standard teaching style
Transferring knowledge
Delivery process
Achieving standard
As a practice of previous knowledge
Localized and globalized teaching
School-bounded teaching
Multiple sources of teaching

Networked teaching
World-class teaching
As world-class and networked teacher
School-bounded
Separated teaching
Bounded teaching
Mainly school experiences
As school-bounded and separated teacher
New paradigm of schooling

Similarly, the characteristics of schooling in the new triplization paradigm are also
contrastingly different from those of the traditional paradigm, as shown in Table
4 (Cheng, 2000a). School is perceived as a facilitating place to support students
learning. School itself should be a contextualized multiple intelligence environment,
supporting students to develop their multiple intelligences. Each school has its own
strengths, potential, and characteristics. Based on their strengths, different schools can
conduct and manage schooling in different styles to maximize their own contributions
to students learning. The focus of schooling is to encourage curiosity and motivate
both pupils and teachers to think, act, and learn in a multiple intelligence way.
Schooling is also an open process to initiate, facilitate, and sustain self-learning and
self-actualization of pupils and teachers. It provides opportunities to share the joy of
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Yin Cheong Cheng
learning and teaching among teachers and pupils. In order to face the challenges of
the new century and pursue contextualized multiple intelligences, school must be a
continuously learning and developing organization, involving continuous discovery,
experimenting, actualization, reflection, and development on an institutional level.
Schools and their schooling should be managed and facilitated in a way that brings
in local and global resources, supports, and networks to maximize opportunities for
their development and contributions to their pupils learning and teachers teaching. In
addition to the school itself, there are multiple sources of teaching and learning, such as
self-learning programs and packages, web-based learning, outside experts, community
experiential programs, etc. both inside and outside the school, locally and globally.
Parents and communities, including social services, business, and industry, are actively
involved in schooling. The partnership with them is necessary to support effective
networked schooling and multiple sources of learning. Locally and globally networked
schooling can provide a wide spectrum of learning experiences and maximize
opportunities for teachers and students to benefit from various settings and cultures.
With the help of globalized schooling, students can learn about world-class experiences
from different parts of the globe. Schools can maximize the opportunities for
teachers and pupils to enhance the quality of teaching and learning from local and
global networking and exposure. Schools in the new paradigm are conceptualized as
world-class and networked schools.
Traditional paradigm of schooling

Traditionally, school is perceived as a place for reproducing and perpetuating the
existing knowledge and structures, and therefore schooling is a process for "being
reproduced or reproducing." It is reproduced on the basis of existing key social
elements such as traditional values, beliefs, knowledge and structures in the society.
And, the school itself is reproducing or perpetuating these social elements to the
next generation through teaching and learning. A school is assumed to be the central
place for education and a source of knowledge and qualifications, which delivers
some knowledge and skills to pupils, socializes them into given norms, and qualifies
them to meet the specified standards. Schools should be organized and managed in
some standardized styles and patterns to ensure standardized knowledge and norms
to be delivered to pupils, even though schools characteristics and strengths may be
different. The main task of schooling is to transfer certain knowledge and skills to
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students, and teachers are the ones who perform this transfer. Therefore, schooling
is a disciplinary, delivery, training, and socializing process aimed at qualifying pupils
to satisfy the manpower needs of the society. Inevitably, schooling is hard work for
both students and teachers for the purpose of achieving some external standards in
examinations. It is no surprise, then, that a school is a stable bureaucracy equipped
with a designed structure, policies, and procedures to ensure the standards of teaching
and learning outcomes.
From the traditional perspective, a school is almost like an isolated island bounding
all activities of schooling, teaching, and learning in a very narrow way. There is no
clear need to have strong community linkage and parental involvement, as the school
is the major source of knowledge and qualifications. Parents and communities are
just recipients of educational outcomes. Schools are often arranged to manage in a
separated way in order to be kept accountable for their schooling outcomes. Schools,
even within the same community, have few opportunities for mutual support or to
learn from one another. Schools can provide a standardized environment, curriculum,
textbooks, and related materials for teachers and pupils to teach and learn. The
opportunities for learning are quite limited. School life and its activities are alienated
from the rapidly changing external "real" environment or local communities. Schools
are bounded and separated from the outside world.
Table 4
Two paradigms of schooling
Individualized schooling
Reproduced schooling
A facilitating place
Multiple intelligence school
Individualized schooling style
Place for curiosity
Open process
Sharing joy
As a learning organization
A central place
Source of knowledge and qualifications
Standard schooling style
Place for transfer
Qualifying process
Achieving standard
As a bureaucracy
Localized and globalized schooling
Bounded schooling
Coupled with multiple sources

Community and parental involvement
Networked schooling
World-class schooling
As a world-class and networked school
Isolated school
Weak community linkage
Separated schooling
Site-bounded schooling
Alienated experiences
As a bounded and separated school
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Yin Cheong Cheng

NEW VISION OF SCHOOL -BASED MANAGEMENT
Decentralization, school autonomy, site-based decision-making, and flexible use of

resources themselves are the means but not the final aims of school-based management.
The above paradigm shift in education inevitably demands that ongoing school-based
management efforts have a new vision in the new millennium, in addition to the
existing targets at improving internal school processes.
If we believe that in the new millennium, our world is moving towards multiple
globalization and becoming a global village with boundless interactions among
countries and areas, our new generation should be expected to act as multiple
intelligence (MI) persons in a rapidly-changing and interacting global village. The
development of society should be towards a multiple intelligence (MI) society. SBM
should embrace a new vision to provide a learning environment for developing students
as MI citizens who will creatively contribute to the formation of an MI society and an
MI global village with multiple developments in the technological, economic, social,
political, cultural, and learning spheres.
Therefore, the new vision of SBM should facilitate a paradigm shift from
the traditional site-bounded education towards the new triplization education
and to provide a triplized (i.e., globalized, localized, and individualized) learning
environment, with the support of information technology and various types of local
and global networking, for developing pupils triplized self-learning ability and their
multiple intelligences.
SBM should help our schools, teachers, and pupils become triplized in the new
century. Our learning, teaching, and schooling will finally be globalized, localized,
and individualized with the help of the information technology and boundless
multiple networking. We will have unlimited opportunities and multiple global and
local sources for life-long learning and development for both pupils and teachers.
New curriculum and pedagogy should facilitate triplized learning and make it an
interactive, self-actualizing, enjoyable, and self-rewarding process of discovery. New
curriculum and pedagogy should be triplized, as well as multiple intelligence-based,
so they can provide world-class learning for pupils. Pupils can learn from world-class
teachers, experts, peers, and learning materials from different parts of the world in
any time frame and obtain a local, regional, and global exposure and outlook as
an MI citizen. The new vision of SBM will help transform education into triplized
and world-class learning for pupils to meet the challenges and needs of the new
millennium.
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With this new vision, the success of school-based management implementation in

schools will be assessed through the following key questions:
1. How well can learning, teaching, and schooling be triplized through SBM? (This
question aims to ensure that SBM can support pupil learning, teacher teaching,
and schooling in a globalized, localized, and individualized environment.)
2. How thoroughly will pupils learning opportunities be maximized through the
IT environment, networking, teachers, and schools under SBM? (This question
intends to ensure that SBM can maximize opportunities for pupils learning and
development in a triplized MI environment.)
3.
How well can the pupils self-learning be facilitated and sustained as potentially
life-long learning, with SBM? (This question aims to ensure that maximized
opportunities for pupils self-learning are sustainable throughout their lives.)
4.
How well can pupils multiple intelligences and their ability to triplize their
self-learning be developed through SBM? (This question focuses on ensuring
the relevance of SBM on the outcomes of pupil learning in terms of multiple
intelligences and their ability to triplize their self-learning.)
CONCLUSION: VALUE ADDED AND CREATED BY SBM
The new vision of SBM brings important implications for policy formulation and
implementation at both the school and system levels. SBM in the new millennium
aims not only to improve internal processes for achieving some given school goals, but
also to ensure the relevance of educational practice and the new paradigm of education
for the future, and to create new school goals for their pupils.
Value added through SBM: To improve the internal process through SBM, we can use
the new knowledge framework of internal process including: principles of school-based
management, knowledge of school healthy functioning profile, knowledge of strategic
management, knowledge of multi-level self-management in school, knowledge of
dynamic process, knowledge of layer management, knowledge of congruence in
school, knowledge of total home-school collaboration and community support, and
knowledge of transformational leadership. With the improvement of the internal
school process through SBM, the school can achieve more of its given school goals
such that it adds value in terms of school effectiveness from time t1 to time t2, as
shown in area A in Figure 2. This is what we call value added in school effectiveness
in current education reforms.
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Yin Cheong Cheng
Value created through SBM: To ensure and enhance the relevance of educational
practice for the future through the new vision of SBM, we should facilitate a
paradigm shift in school education to the new paradigm, with emphasis on the
development of students multiple intelligences and capacity for life-long self-learning
and the process of triplization in schooling, teaching and learning. We believe the
processes of globalization, localization and individualization in education can bring in
international and local resources and intellectual assets to each classroom, each teacher
and each student, to create new educational goals relevant to the future and maximize
opportunities for learning and development. While the school improves its internal
process and enhances the relevance of school goals or creates new education goals,
the school can create new values (that differ from the given school goals) in school
effectiveness from time t1 to time t2, shown in area B in Figure 2. This is value
created in school effectiveness through the new vision of SBM. (Here, it is assumed
that enhancement of goal relevance or the development of new goals will only occur
through the improvement of internal process.)
Relevance to the Future
t2
Enhanced/New
Goals
Increased
Relevance
Given Goals
t1
Area B:
Value Created
Area A:
Value Added
Improvement of Internal Process
Figure 2. SBM for "value added" and "value created" in school effectiveness
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We hope all SBM schools will become value-added and value-created schools in Israel
or other parts of the world. Finally, I have a dream. In light of the great efforts to
implement SBM in every school:
All our students will become triplized MI students. They will fully enjoy life-long
self-learning and actualization and become contextualized multiple intelligent
citizens.
All our teachers will become triplized MI teachers. They will share the joy of
triplized learning and teaching with their students and pursue life-long learning
and professional development.
All our schools will become triplized MI SBM schools. All educators and
teachers will be dedicated to making their contribution to triplization in learning,
curriculum and pedagogy and to creating unlimited opportunities for life-long
learning and development in the new century, for all of their pupils in different
parts of the world.
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new American schools designs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tam, W. M., Cheng, Y. C., & Cheung, W. M. (1997). A re-engineering framework for
total home-school partnership. International Journal of Educational Management,
11(6), 274-285 (UK).
Teele, S. (1995). The multiple intelligences school: A place for all students to succeed.
Redlands, CA: Citograph Printing.
Townsend, T., & Cheng, Y. C. (1999). Educational change and development in
the Asia-Pacific region: Challenges for the future. The Netherlands: Swets and
Zeitlinger Publishers.
Tsui, K. T., & Cheng, Y. C. (2000). Multi-dimensional teacher performance in
the new century: Implications for school management. Asia-Pacific Educational
Researcher.
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Appendix
Contextualized Multiple Intelligences
adopted from Cheng (2000a)
In the light of the biological origins of each problem-solving skill, H. Gardner (1993)
suggested that there are seven human intelligences, including musical intelligence,
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, linguistic intelligence,
spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. This
biological perspective of multiple intelligences may be useful to understand an
individual's cognitive competence in terms of a set of basic abilities or "intelligences"
(Gardner, 1993). When we want to design a curriculum and pedagogic methods to
develop students' related abilities and intelligences to survive a context of complicated
technological, economic, social, political, and cultural environments, however, this
perspective may be too "basic" and limited and does not have a strong and direct
relevance to such a context in the new century. Comparatively, it is useful to design
curriculum and pedagogy for early childhood education or lower primary education
to develop their basic abilities, but it is not sophisticated enough for higher form
education, which should be highly contextualized to the social, economic, political,
cultural, and technological developments (Berman, 1995; Guild & Chock-Eng, 1998;
Guloff, 1996; Mettetal & Jordan, 1997; Teele, 1995).
My previous research on school effectiveness (Cheng, 1996) has shown that
there are five different types of school functions in the new century, including the
economic/structural functions, social functions, political functions, cultural functions,
and educational functions. All these functions represent the different contributions of
education to development of individuals, the school as an institution, the community,
the society, and the international community in these areas. To achieve these functions,
education should develop students' intelligence in the areas of these five functions.
Further, taking into consideration the traditional assumptions of human nature in
social contexts (Bolman & Deal, 1997; Schein, 1980), as well as the importance of
technology to development, we can assume that human nature can be represented by
a typology, including technological person, economic person, social person, political
person, cultural person, and learning person in a complicated context of the new
century. Therefore, human intelligence should be contextualized: that is, in the context
of the technological, economical, social, political, cultural and learning environments
in the new millennium. As such, human intelligence can be categorized into the
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Yin Cheong Cheng
following six contextualized multiple intelligences (CMIs), including technological

intelligence, economic intelligence, social intelligence, political intelligence, cultural
intelligence, and learning intelligence (see end of Appendix for summary table).
Based on these contextualized multiple intelligences, a pentagon theory of CMIs
development for reforming education, curriculum and pedagogy can be proposed to
meet the developmental needs in the new millennium. It suggests that school education
should be redesigned based on the premises of a new paradigm(see Figure A).
Technological
intelligence
Economic
intelligence
Social
intelligence
Learning
Learning
intelligence
Intelligence
Political
intelligence
Cultural
intelligence
Figure A. Pentagon theory of CMI development for redesign of curriculum and

pedagogy (with globalization, localization, and individualization)
1.
Relevant to the development of CMIs. The development of students' contextualized

multiple intelligences is the basic condition for the development of individuals,
institutions, communities, societies, and international communities in the
complex local and global contexts, particularly in the technological, economical,
social, political, cultural and learning aspects. Therefore, the curriculum,
pedagogy, and school education should be reformed with clear relevance and
concrete linkages with the development of CMIs.
2. Encouraging CMI interactions. The relationships among these six CMIs are
interactive and mutually reinforcing, with the learning intelligence at the center
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3.
4.
5.
as shown by a pentagon as in the Figure. The design of school education

should encourage and facilitate such interactions and reinforcements among
CMIs. This has strong implications for the needs of balanced curriculum and
pedagogy not only in lower grades of primary and secondary education but also
in tertiary education, if we want to have citizens with broad mind sets or multiple
intelligences to deal with the diverse challenges in the new era.
Facilitating intelligence transfer. Intelligence transfer from one type to other types
(e.g., from economic intelligence to political intelligence or social intelligence)
should be encouraged and facilitated to achieve a higher level of intelligence or
meta-thinking. The transfer itself can represent a type of intelligence creativity
and generalization. It is hoped that inter-intelligence transfer can be transformed
into a dynamic, ongoing and self-developing process not only at the individual
level but also at the group, institutional, community, society, even international
levels. This will be very important to the creation of a high level knowledge-based
and thinking society or an intelligent global village.
Placing learning intelligence at the center. To accelerate the development of all other
CMIs, the development of learning intelligence can play a central role. Instead
of teaching and learning a huge volume of information and factual material,
the content of curriculum and the process of pedagogy should put emphasis
on developing students' ability to persistently learn how to learn systematically,
creatively, and critically. This may partly reflect why the current educational
reforms in different parts of the world emphasize the ability and attitude to
life-long learning in curriculum and pedagogy (Education Commission, 1999;
Townsend & Cheng, 1999).
Developing CMI teachers and CMI schools. The success of implementing CMI
education for students depends heavily on the quality of teachers and the school.
Whether teachers themselves can develop and possess a higher level of CMI,
and whether the school can be a multiple intelligence organization and can
provide a MI environment for teaching and learning, will affect the design and
implementation of CMI education. Therefore, in the reform of school education,
how to develop teachers as multiple intelligence teachers and schools as multiple
intelligence schools through staff development and school development inevitably
become an important agenda and necessary component.
6. Globalization, localization, and individualization of education. In order to

maximize the opportunities for development of CMIs for students, teachers,
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Yin Cheong Cheng
and the school, globalization, localization, and individualization in schooling,

teaching, and learning are important and necessary to the reform of school
education, curriculum, and pedagogy in the new era. The following paragraphs
will highlight their conceptions and implications for development of CMIs.
Contextualized
Multiple
Intelligences
Definition of the Contextualized Multiple Intelligences
Learning
person
Learning
intelligence
The ability to learn and think creatively and critically and to optimize
the use of biological/physiological abilities
Technological
person
Technological
intelligence
The ability to think, act and manage technologically and maximize

the benefits of various types of technology
Economic
person
Economic
intelligence
The ability to think, act and manage economically and to optimize

the use of various resources
Social person
Social intelligence
The ability to think, act and manage socially and to effectively

develop harmonious interpersonal relationships
Political
person
Political
intelligence
The ability to think, act and manage politically and to enhance

win-win outcomes in situations of competing resources and interests
Cultural
person
Cultural
intelligence
the ability to think, act, and manage culturally, to optimize the use of
multi-cultural assets and to create new values
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THE SELF-MANAGED SCHOOL

AS AN INTELLIGENT ORGANIZATION
Isaac A. Friedman
Researchers in the fields of education, economics, psychology and administration have
dealt extensively with the role of the school and its ability to fulfill the tasks assigned
to it. Over the last four decades, the literature has reflected a greater and more focused
interest in this topic, with researchers concentrating on the degree to which the school
is effective, both as an organization in general and as an educational organization in
particular. Many studies have been conducted on this subject, and their findings have
yielded important ideas capable of enhancing school performance and reinforcing
the level of commitment and accountability of principals and school faculties. One
of the important results of attempts to improve the performance of the school as
an organizational unit, and that of its employees, is the concept of school-based
management (or self-managed schools). This is a unique organizational culture
characterized by feedback processes, shared decision-making, and a great deal of
autonomy in the utilization of human and financial resources.
This article presents the processes and characteristics of schools in general, and
self-managed schools in particular, from a different point of view, using the theory
of human intelligence as the theoretical and conceptual framework. It proposes a
definition of the concept of organizational intelligence, according to which the school
is defined as an organization that functions on the basis of wisdom, knowledge
and skill; in other words, an intelligent organization. The term "organizational
intelligence" will serve as an analytical tool for understanding events that occur in
both self-managed schools and schools that are not self-managing.
The goal of this article is to help researchers and practitioners understand the
processes that take place in schools and to act in order to improve and enhance them.
The intention is not to evaluate different types of schools, nor to recommend any
one pattern of behavior. The chapter begins with a description of the key concepts
of human intelligence, on the basis of which an organizations behavior patterns can
be defined as organizational intelligence. A schools organizational intelligence is
comprised of five major intelligences: reflective, strategic, contextual, collegial and
ethical (which consists of three sub-intelligences). The practice and performance of a
self-managed school is examined in light of these five types of intelligence.
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Isaac A. Friedman
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE AND ITS DIMENSIONS
The concept of intelligence emerged from the examination of human functioning and
was based in particular on observation of people as they confronted problem-solving
and attempted to learn difficult and demanding subjects such as arithmetic, languages
and history. While some people demonstrate no difficulty with study or problem
solving, others do experience difficulty and there are those who fail utterly in their
studies. This discrepancy in degrees of success indicates the differences in human
abilities and the existence of interpersonal difference in the components that direct
human intellectual activity. Efforts to identify these components and classify them
can be found in the ancient philosophical thought of the Greeks. Plato clearly
distinguished between three aspects of human knowledge and spirit, which he called
intellect, emotion and desire. Plato compared intellect with a charioteer holding onto
the reins, while emotion and desire were compared to the horses pulling the chariot.
These images hint at a possible division of labor and the specific roles incumbent on
the various aspects of human knowledge and spirit, and perhaps on the differential
abilities of each. Aristotle simplified this triple classification by combining emotion
and desire, making a single unit of them, and demonstrating the contrast between
a persons cognitive or intellectual ability and his other abilities. Cicero, the Roman
jurist, politician and orator, called the Platonic and Aristotelian concept that defines
human cognitive or intellectual ability intelligentia, and the term we now use was thus
coined (Eysenck, 1979).
Classic intelligence is defined as cognitive ability, but the precise and full meaning
of this ability has never been wholly clarified, despite the many efforts that have been
invested in this question (Colman, 2001). The systematic search for the meaning of
human intelligence gained significant momentum during the early part of the last
century. In a symposium published in 1921 in the American Journal of Educational
Psychology, fourteen of the leading researchers at that time proposed their definitions
of intelligence. These definitions included "the ability to perform abstract thinking"
(Lewis Madison Terman); "the ability to react properly from the point of view of truth
or facts" (Edward Lee Thorndike); and "the capacity for internalization, adaptation
and instinctive adjustment, the ability to redefine an internalized adjustment in light
of experience based on trial and error, and the ability to consciously realize the
adjustments and changes to which the person is exposed in the form of observable
behavior directed towards gaining advantages for the individual as a social animal"
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The Self-managed School as an Intelligent Organization
(Louis Leon Thurstone). Simply put, the definition proposed by Thurstone describes
an intelligent person as one who formulates certain thought patterns and behavioral
modes, internalizes them, and is then capable of changing these patterns and methods
at will in response to a changing reality and the messages that are transmitted to him
from this reality. Such a person learns from his surroundings and from experience,
draws conclusions from this learning and applies them in order to improve his position
and well-being in the environment in which he functions. These definitions indicate
the multiple abilities involved in intelligence, or intelligent behavior. They include the
limitless ability to learn from mistakes both those made by the person himself and
those made by others, the ability to internalize these lessons, and the ability to change
patterns of thought and behavior on the basis of lessons learned, information acquired
and an understanding of the changed reality.
These definitions rest on the perception of man as a social animal, in other words
a creature who exists in the society of other creatures, and who must be constantly
alert in order to monitor the behavior of the others and adapt himself to changes in
that behavior. The active nature of intelligence is reflected in the intelligent persons
striving for achievements, perpetual exploration and searching, and choosing between
multiple alternatives. Three typical patterns of intelligent behavior are: determined
performance (the tendency to choose a defined direction for action and pursue it
without being distracted or sidetracked from the original path); the ability to adapt
means in order to achieve defined goals; and the capacity for self-criticism, which
includes dissatisfaction with partial solutions that do not really solve the problems
being confronted (Binet & Simon, 1909). Intelligence is, therefore, the general ability
of the individual to function in a manner directed at achieving a goal, and to think
rationally within his own environment (Wechsler, 1958). Towards the end of the
twentieth century, papers appeared in the literature that proposed other types of
intelligence, with emphasis on emotional and social aspects, and moral values, as
complements to classic intelligence that focused on a persons cognitive abilities. These
types of intelligence will be discussed in greater detail below.
The definition of the concept of intelligence is strongly related to its measurement.
Several generations ago, first-year psychology students throughout the world learned
to define intelligence as follows: "Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure"
(Hilgard, 1962, p. 404). We no longer define human intelligence that way, but the
strong connection between our definition of the concept and the methods used to
measure it is still in place (Nevo, 1997). This strong connection is based on the
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Isaac A. Friedman
idea that those human behaviors that can be observed and studied, measured and
evaluated, must be distinguished from the hidden ability that underlies observed
behavior, directing it and facilitating its existence. The existence of such a hidden
ability is only indirectly evident, or can only be concluded with the help of the
scientific rules of research procedure, which analyzes information obtained through
observation and study. We can therefore only evaluate explicit behavior and observable
performance, and draw conclusions as to a persons underlying abilities from the
findings of our observations. Various tests investigate particular patterns of human
behavior. If we find a strong degree of correlation that reflects a connection between
these behavior patterns, then we may conclude that the different tests are measuring
common latent characteristics that are hidden from the eye of the observer.
Early theoretical models of intelligence led practitioners and researchers to believe
that intelligence is a single, one-dimensional conceptual unit. In other words,
intelligence is in effect "a single entity" that has different aspects, and while each
of those aspects can be measured separately, when taken together they measure a
single attribute which is intelligence. A person can therefore be defined as "very
intelligent" or as "very unintelligent" (and of course as somewhere in between). This
approach however, gave rise to many doubts among both the public and researchers.
Practitioners and researchers both pointed out that people who had been perceived as
"not intelligent" in academic studies and activities, were very successful in practical
disciplines. These people were highly successful as musicians, athletes, and expert
craftsmen (with "golden hands"), while their success on classical intelligence tests was
very low. Doubts with respect to the single factor approach to intelligence are also
evident in the work of Raymond Cattell (1966), who posited that intelligence has
two factors rather than one. Cattell called the one factor fluid general intelligence
and the second, crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence includes the capacity for
creative thought, abstract thought, the ability to draw conclusions from data and to
understand the essence of relationships and connections between different phenomena
and people. Crystallized intelligence includes the things people learn from experience,
and is thus strongly influenced by the environment.
With the development of cognitive psychology and the emphasis this scientific
discipline placed on models of information processing, the way was paved for a new
approach to the study of human intelligence. This approach is based on attempts to
understand the cognitive processes that take place when we are involved in intellectual
activities. Instead of trying to explain intelligence in terms of factors, this approach
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attempts to identify the intellectual processes underlying behavior. This approach

assumes that differences in the performance of tasks is contingent upon the various
cognitive processes people employ, and also on the speed and accuracy of those
processes. This new approach engendered new theories of intelligence, three of
which the theories of Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg, and Stephen Ceci are
particularly pertinent to our topic.
Gardner (1993) developed his theory of intelligence in direct response to the

classical perception of intelligence as the ability to think rationally. He defined
intelligence as "the ability to solve problems or generate results that are significant
within a defined social context or community" (p. 15). He was influenced by the
various roles adults fulfill in different cultures the success with which they do so
being contingent on a wide spectrum of skills and abilities. His observations led him
to the belief that the assertion of a single intelligence is incorrect. Instead, people
possess multiple intelligences that operate together and in concert. He proposed that
there are seven distinct types of intelligence (linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical,
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal and interpersonal). Gardner stressed that
each person has stronger and weaker intelligences, and this is what differentiates
people from one another and explains their different behavior and abilities.
Sternbergs theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988), which is known as the triarchic
theory, consists of three sub-theories: the componential sub-theory, regarding cognitive
processes; the experiential sub-theory, also known as the two facet theory, concerning
the effect of experience and learning on intelligence; and the contextual sub-theory,
which takes into account the impact of the individuals environment and culture
on shaping his intelligence. The most developed of the three sub-theories is the
componential theory, which deals with the components of cognition. In this context
Sternberg identified the following three components: metacomponents, used for
planning, controlling and supervising, and for assessing the act of information
processing during problem solving; performance components, used for implementation
of the problem-solving strategies; knowledge-acquisition components, for screening
information (and classifying it as more or less relevant), combining pieces of
information into a whole, and making comparisons (between new information
obtained and existing information). The second sub-theory relates to learning and
experience. It claims that intelligence rests on two key tasks: coping with new
situations (understanding the situation, identifying the main components needed
for a solution, adding new information to existing information, and combining
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Isaac A. Friedman
pieces of information into a comprehensive solution), and initiating a routine of

cognitive processes so that they become almost automatic. The contextual sub-theory
involves adapting to the environment, and there are three methods of coping with
context-related problems: shaping the environment to suit ones needs; adapting to
environmental conditions; and selecting a different environment.
Ceci (1990) bases himself on Sternbergs theory while emphasizing the context
in which things happen and in which the individuals behavior and its impact on
problem-solving are examined. Ceci also believes that there are multiple cognitive
potentials rather than a single intelligence. From his point of view it is to a large extent
context that determines intelligence. In other words, the degree to which a person is
successful in solving problems and the way in which he confronts them are influenced
by biological-personal background factors and contextual factors. These factors are
the degree to which the person is familiar with the type of problem that he is facing,
the degree to which the problem is tangible for that person, his degree of motivation
to solve the problem, and the amount of relevant information he possesses in order to
deal with the problem.
In summary it might be said that modern theories of human intelligence indicate
that people have different abilities; that each of these abilities can have its own distinct
force and space; and that they are readily distinguishable. In light of these theories,
it is proper to examine human intelligence from different angles and define a person
and his abilities differentially.
As recently as the second half of the 1990s, additional new directions became
evident in research into intelligence. These were not attempts to refute existing
theories of intelligence, but rather added other patterns of intelligence, such as
emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) and spiritual intelligence (Zohar & Marshall,
1994), to them. Emotional intelligence is expressed in many ways, the fundamental
one being the harnessing of emotions in order to enhance performance and learning.
This does not only mean curbing our emotions or making them more effective,
but also utilizing them in accordance with the task to be performed. Emotional
intelligence is based on a high sense of self-awareness, which serves as the basis for
many important behavior patterns, such as empathy. The more open we are to our
own emotions, the better we are at reading our own feelings and those of others. The
ability to know what others are feeling can be of use in a variety of areas in life:
from sales and commerce to romantic relationships, from parenting and compassion
to political activity. Emotional intelligence also encourages social intelligence. A
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person blessed with a superior sense of social intelligence is able to communicate

well and easily with others, is keenly aware of their reactions and feelings, can lead
and organize, and is capable of handling the controversies that often emerge in every
human activity.
Another type of intelligence, which is perceived as complementary to emotional
intelligence, is spiritual intelligence. Spiritual intelligence differs from emotional
intelligence primarily in its power to change the shape of things. It facilitates asking
whether a person wants to continue acting within the frameworks in which he lives,
or whether he wants to change them or move on to other frameworks. Zohar and
Marshall are credited with formulating this type of intelligence (Zohar & Marshall,
1994). Spiritual intelligence enables one to be creative, to change rules and alter
conditions. It endows him with the capacity to notice, develops his moral sense, his
ability to refine and moderate inflexible rules through understanding and compassion,
while at the same time recognizing that such understanding and compassion have
their own limits. Spiritual intelligence helps us deal with questions of good and evil,
and to envision new, far-reaching possibilities.
ORGANIZATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE INTELLIGENT
ORGANIZATION
This paper proposes the idea of "organizational intelligence" which expresses an

organizations ability to achieve its goals and uses it to coin a new concept: the
intelligent organization. The notion of organizational intelligence is based on cognitive
psychology and its emphasis on models of information processing, in the attempt to
identify the mental processes that underlie behavior and assume that differences in the
performance of tasks are contingent upon the different cognitive processes people use.
This concept is also based on non-cognitive approaches in intelligence research, that
is, emotional and spiritual intelligence. Organizational intelligence and the intelligent
organization can be defined thus:
Organizational intelligence is an organizations collective ability directed towards
achieving its goals. It is expressed through organizational processes and includes the
combined abilities and experiences of its members. It constitutes a part of the organizations
culture, which has been formulated during the course of its existence.
An intelligent organization is one that formulates its own cognitive patterns and clear
behaviors, and employs them in order to achieve its goals, develop and flourish. Its members
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Isaac A. Friedman
can accurately assess the present, draw conclusions from the past and from changes in the
present, foresee the future and prepare for it. It is capable of changing these patterns and
behaviors at will in response to a changing reality.
An administrative organization is "a network of roles and flow of activities aimed
at achieving shared goals" (Robey, 1986, p. 16). "Network of roles" describes the
organizations structure and "flow of activities" refers to organizational processes.
Organizations are social tools planned by human beings, with that planning directed
at the achievement of strategic goals. The strategy is defined as the determination
of goals and objectives, and the allocation of the resources needed to attain them.
Organizations function within an environment and not in a vacuum; as such they are
context-dependent. The environment in which organizations function is comprised of
numerous components and agents, the predominant ones being: consumers, suppliers,
competitors, the work place, the scientific-technological community, and supervisory
bodies. The environment constitutes a source of support as well as uncertainty, and
also the resources required by the organization. Uncertainty is generated as a result
of changes within the environment that occur unexpectedly. An organization must
adapt itself to its environment and continue to adapt itself as necessary when changes
take place in the environment or within itself. Organization managers may take a
reactive approach, as well as a proactive approach, with a view to monitoring the
sources of environmental uncertainty and those resources that are obtained from the
environment as carefully as possible. Organizational strategy refers, inter alia and
perhaps chiefly to the manner in which the organization chooses to manage its
relationships with the environment. For example, the organization can adapt itself
to demands dictated by the environment, but it can also proceed in directions that
challenge environmental dictates. These adaptive behaviors, which are also considered
adaptive organizational strategies, are designed to preserve the organization and ensure
its continued existence and prosperity.
An organization contains processes directed at facilitating its existence and
development. There are six such process that should be mentioned:
Planning. The planning process includes decisions pertaining to the organizations
goals and what members of the organization must do in order to achieve them.
During the planning process, the organizations members ask themselves where
they are at a given time, where they want to go, and how they should go about
getting there.
Organization. The organization process is the creation of a structure. This
structure includes the work units and the people who staff them.
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Motivation. People in an organization need encouragement, support and direction

in order to fulfill the jobs they are responsible for. The motivational process is
meant to achieve this.
Feedback and control. The feedback and control process is aimed at ensuring that
the organization is indeed achieving its goals, and to what extent it is doing so.
Decision-making. Decision-making processes are designed to help the organization
choose a particular path of action, or a particular result, by making an informed
choice.
Communications. This process promotes the exchange of information between
two or more people.
We can assess the intelligence of an organization by examining its organizational
processes. The processes that reflect organizational intelligence will be those that
permit the organization to formulate cognitive patterns and behaviors that will enable
it to exist successfully within its commercial, organizational and social environment,
and in particular will enable it to change these patterns and behaviors at will, in
response to a changing reality and the messages that are transmitted to it by this
reality.
Motivation and communication processes

Defining work
goals and
objectives, work
processes and
organizational
structure
Planning and
decision-making
processes
Organizational
processes
Feedback,
control and
supervision
processes
Figure 1. Organizational processes expressing intelligent organizational behavior

Figure 1 presents the continuum of an organizations major processes. From the point
of view of organizational intelligence, the most important process is that of feedback,
control and supervision. This process is designed to answer the key question of how
and where the organization is progressing in its work and whether it is achieving
its goals. Furthermore, this process answers other questions such as whether the
organizations environment is changing in a way that is likely to have an impact on
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Isaac A. Friedman
either its goals or the means for achieving them, and whether it is necessary to adjust
the organizations behavior.
According to Sternbergs componential theory (Sternberg, 1988), the cognitive
metacomponents include the processes of planning, control and supervision, which are
also directed towards information processing and problem-solving. The performance
components group involves the organization process. This includes, among other
things, the creation of a structure, the ability to carry out the decisions that have been
made, and the motivational process. The knowledge-acquisition components which
are used to screen information, classify it as more or less relevant, combine pieces
of information into a whole, and compare new information obtained with existing
information include the communications processes and, to a large extent, the other
organizational processes as well (see Figure 1).
All of the processes described above involve people who implement and influence
the processes, and are influenced by them in return. These people act together, as
a collective within the framework of an integrated social network, rather than as
individuals. Each person brings his intellectual ability to the organization, that is, his
personal intelligence. The combination of all these intelligences serves as the basis for
the organizations collective intelligence. The organizational processes are therefore
affected by the organizations collective intelligence.
An intelligent organization strives toward achievement and is perpetually exploring,
searching and choosing actions from among the wide range of options available to it,
on the basis of rational considerations. The organization chooses defined directions
for action and resolutely pursues them, without swerving from its original path. It has
self-critical facilities and is not satisfied with partial solutions that do not truly address
the problems it faces. On the basis of the approach which holds that intelligence is a
one-dimensional phenomenon, it might be argued that an organization can be either
very intelligent or not all that intelligent (in which case it will be a failure). Conversely,
on the basis of the approaches which hold that intelligence is a multi-faceted concept,
we can try to characterize the organization according to a number of types of
intelligence. Each type of intelligence can be related to as a potential, the existence of
which affords the organization access to types of thinking and behavior that are suited
to different subjects and actions. On the basis of Sternbergs triarchic theory (1988),
the organization can be seen as even more complex. Cecis theory (1990) emphasizes
the context in which a person acts, and this corresponds to organizational culture
and its role in assessing an organizations capability. The organizations culture relies
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most extensively on its history, the knowledge and experience it has accumulated,
on its successes and failures. Organizational intelligence, according to this theory,
depends on multi-cognitive potential, the expression of which is contingent upon the
knowledge that the organization has acquired in its spheres of activity.
Of what benefit is the conceptualization of the organizational process as
organizational intelligence, and how can it help us understand and improve the
organization? This question can be answered on two levels. On one level regarding
the organization as an intelligent entity is an analytical tool that enables us to
classify the organization and its abilities differentially, and thus analyze its ability
to successfully fulfill its goals. Perceiving the organization as an intelligent entity
can provide a cognitive basis upon which to work toward reinforcing certain types
of intelligence within the organization in order to enhance the organization and
increase its effectiveness. On the second level conceptualization of the organizational
processes as organizational intelligence generates an important link between two
conceptual worlds: the world of human intelligence, with the tremendous knowledge
and vast array of analytical tools it affords us, and the organizational world, which is
an utterly applied and practical world.
We can also see organizational intelligence as a reflection of accountability. The
behavior of an intelligent organization reflecting a high level of accountability. The
concept of accountability in organization theory, which generally refers to the need
to report the results of the organizations work and assume the consequences for these
results, relies on administrative and economic theories pertaining to work incentives
and control within the organization. Accountability reflects the relationship between
those charged with operating organizations and institutions and those who have
the power and ability to replace them. Accountability is the process in which those
who are held accountable must explain, as rationally as possible, the results of their
efforts to fulfill the goals and objectives associated with doing their jobs (Browder,
1975). Kirst (1990) claims that accountability can be expressed in six different ways:
(1) Accountability through reporting on performance (performance reports include
measurement and assessment using tests or indicators that demonstrate performance);
(2) Accountability by meeting standards or regulations; (3) Accountability via
incentive systems (reward for outcomes, with incentives that are aimed at encouraging
the performance of specific actions; this approach ties performance to results);
(4) Accountability through market reliance (market forces are likely to be the best
assessment of an organizations functioning a "good" organization will survive, a
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"bad" organization will not); (5) Accountability through changing the locus of control
or authority within the organization (an organization that is functioning properly will
be given more autonomy, an organization that is not functioning properly will be
restricted through close supervision); (6) Accountability by means of position changes
(internal evaluation versus external evaluation, with internal evaluation serving as a
tool for accountability).
It can be demonstrated that intelligent organizational behavior reflects at least five
of the six aspects described above. An intelligent organization maintains, above all,
feedback and control processes, which also include performance reports (see Figure
1). The feedback and control relate to work goals and objectives defined by the
organization (or for the organization by outside agencies authorized to do so), as well
as all of the other processes and the standards that have been set for the organizations
operations. Thus, the feedback and control processes reflect the first and second
aspects of accountability (see above). Intelligent organizational behavior is directed
toward ensuring that market forces do not cause the organization to disappear,
and that it continues to exist and develop instead (reflecting the fourth aspect of
accountability). An intelligent organization hence draws conclusions from the findings
of its feedback, re-examines its goals, work process and other processes including
those concerned with motivation and communication. Changes are implemented as
needed, as part of this intelligent behavior. Changes aimed at increasing motivation
may reflect accountability through incentives (the third aspect). Changes regarding
work methods and the organizational structure are likely to reflect accountability
through changes in positions (fourth aspect).
THE GOALS OF THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANIZATION
This chapter focuses on the administrative organization, the school. A school is also an
"organization," something we tend to forget because of the focus on pupils, teachers,
and the social and educational processes that take place within it. As an organization,
the school directs its activities towards achieving the goals for which it exists. The
question we must now try and answer is: what are the main goals or main tasks of the
school as an organization, and which its collective intelligence is aimed at achieving?
Many researchers have attempted to respond, only to find that the answer is not readily
available. Attempts to assert the schools goals definitively have always engendered
questions. Firstly, attempts to define the goals of the school have always been limited.
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Every proposed definition was criticized on the grounds that the definition was either
too narrow or too broad. Secondly, any definition of school goals was perceived as
a "prescription" for success that did not take the possible diversity between schools
into consideration. Thirdly, every proposed definition was based on values, or on
certain value judgments, and could therefore not be adequate for different population
groups.
In the most general sense it can be said that the school is designed to educate
the pupils, to imbue them with knowledge and information, to train them for
work, creativity, and a beneficial and satisfactory life within an advanced society
(MacGilchrist, Myers, & Reed, 1997). Research during the second half of the
twentieth century was not favorably disposed towards schools or teachers in terms
of their contribution to pupils education and their instruction. Since the early
1960s, studies with extremely similar findings have been published in several
countries throughout the world, describing the minimal contribution of schools
to their pupils academic achievements. The research findings showed that pupils
scholastic achievement was linked to their family background, and to characteristics
relating to their home and environment, rather than to what the school was doing for
its pupils. For example, studies conducted in the late 1950s in England showed that
only 5% of the pupils whose fathers had finished school at age 16 continued on to
higher education, while 57% of the pupils whose fathers had finished school at age
18 and over continued on to higher education. These studies further showed that
45% of the pupils whose parents earned well (doctors, lawyers, senior-level clerks)
continued on to higher education, while only 2% of those whose fathers worked
in lower-paying or non-professional jobs continued on to higher education. These
findings thus indicated that the achievements, academic level and future occupation
of the pupil could be predicted on the basis of the socio-economic status of his parents,
regardless of the quality of the teaching at his school (Beare, Caldwell, & Millikan,
1994).
The most cited documentation of the troubling link between a pupils socio-economic
background and his anticipated scholastic achievements was formulated in the early
1960s by an American team headed by James Coleman (Coleman et al., 1966).
Coleman and his team conducted a very comprehensive study involving tens of
thousands of pupils from all parts of the country, in an attempt to survey the
achievements of the American school and to propose means of improving them. The
primary finding that emerged from Coleman and his associates research was that the
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likelihood of a pupil being prepared for employment in a prestigious profession, or

being ready for academic studies after completing his high school studies, depended
on the pupils social background. A strong correlation was also found between the
pupils individual sense of ability, or his perceived ability to control his destiny, and
his academic accomplishments. The pupils individual sense of ability was found to
be linked to his parents level of education and professional occupation. Furthermore,
studies performed by Coleman and his associates showed that the socio-economic
status of the friends of a pupil from a weak background could predict his scholastic
success better than the characteristics of this school and his teachers. Colemans study
further indicated that given the negligible influence of the schools characteristics,
the teachers characteristics (education, tenure) were more prominent contributors
to predicting the pupils scholastic successes, although in statistical terms this
contribution was also minor.
The primary significance of the findings presented by Coleman and his colleagues
is that the school is not "effective," in the sense that it does not succeed in leaving
its mark upon the child. And the reports major recommendation can indeed be
summarized as follows: Schools will be considered successful if they can reduce the
degree to which a pupils educational opportunities are contingent upon his social
background. We can assume a series of contingent probabilities: among them the
probability of a pupils being prepared for work in a given profession or certain
academic studies at the end of his high school education, which is contingent upon
his background or social origin. The effectiveness of the school consists, in part,
of making contingent probabilities less contingent, in other words, less dependent
upon social background. Equal educational opportunity is directed not only at
equality between schools, but at equalizing their effectiveness, so that their influence
overcomes the disparity in starting points among pupils who come from different
social groups (Coleman et al., 1966).
Studies similar to those carried out in England and the US were conducted in
Australia and New Zealand during the 1960s and 1970s. These studies also tried to
assess the degree to which schools successfully achieved their goals by examining their
contribution to pupils success in matriculation exams. These studies showed that if
we could ascertain the parents socio-economic level, their occupation and degree of
satisfaction with the school, and if we could feed this data into a computer, we would
be able to predict quite accurately what would happen with this young person, what
his level of education, his achievements and his profession would be. The explanation
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offered by the researchers was that when attitudes towards education in the home
conflict with the schools attitudes, the pupil tends to prefer the former and reject the
latter. The dominant figures in such a possible conflict are the parents. They are the
ones who convey the importance of schooling and education to their children, and
they are the ones who urge the pupil towards higher academic achievements in school
(Moore, 1974).
The findings of studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s clearly indicate that
although the school contributes to the pupils education and success, its influence
is far less significant than teachers or parents would expect. What the pupil brings
to school from his home and family is much more important than what goes on
in the classroom. The conclusion that was ruefully reached by education researchers
in various countries was that under certain conditions the school does not have a
significant impact on the achievements of the pupil and his success in later life. In
light of these findings researchers and public officials averred that the school was
not effective in determining the pupils future. On the other hand, the more the
school was able to increase the chances of pupils coming from socio-economically
weak homes of succeeding academically and in life the more effective the school was
thought to be.
Educational researchers felt that schools should not continue to operate in their
present format, because by so doing they were liable to perpetuate an undesirable
social order. They also felt compelled to act in order to rehabilitate the injured pride
of the school and restore it to its rightful and important standing. Klitgaard and Hall
(1973) attempted to identify "unusually effective" schools after evidence had pointed
to schools in socio-economically weaker regions that were producing particularly good
pupils. These researchers, who were not educators, found that some of the schools
they examined had particularly high levels of scholastic achievement, low drop out
rates, and graduates who furthered their studies and became established adults. A
movement of researchers and educators, sometimes known as the Effective Schools
Movement, thus emerged. It worked to understand the factors underlying the schools
effectiveness in order to reinforce them and enhance the level of school effectiveness.
The Effective Schools Movement went beyond the social-academic aspect of school
effectiveness and assigned additional tasks to the school. The school should also
maintain proper decorum and discipline among its pupils, alongside their personal
well-being; it should teach pupils professional abilities as well as daily life skills; and it
should establish a harmonious relationship with the community.
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The movement to restore the schools tarnished reputation gained momentum at

the end of the 1970s (Reid, Hopkins, & Holly, 1988). One of the more important
studies that outlined the unique characteristics of the effective school was conducted
by Rutter and colleagues (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, & Ouston, 1979). The study,
which encompassed twelve London schools and lasted for more than eight years,
found that schools that succeeded in bringing the achievements of its weaker pupils to
impressive levels possessed the following characteristics:
Lessons were directed at the achievement of clear and predefined outcomes in the
content areas being studied;
Teachers planned their lessons and worked as a team, with older and more
experienced teachers supervising the work of younger teachers who were just
starting out;
A system of incentives both positive and negative was in place, along with
immediate feedback for pupils on their performance;
Pupils were told that they were expected to take responsibility for their actions,
their successes and failures, as well as their daily performance;
Homework preparation was strictly monitored. The expectation that pupils

would work hard and succeed was made unequivocally clear to both pupils and
teachers;
A positive and affirmative atmosphere and ethos prevailed.
Research on effective schools continued during the 1990s as well, and outlined
strategies for augmenting the schools contribution towards the education of its pupils
and the creation of a better future for them. Today it can be said that the contribution
of the school that maintains a known set of conditions can exceed the contribution of
the pupils individual characteristics. Sammons (1999) summarizes the findings that
were collected through the late 1990s, and lists eleven mechanisms of effectiveness
that characterize effective schools (ibid., pp. 195-214). These are described briefly
below.
1. Professional leadership: The leadership of the school principal was found to be the
most prominent factor in studies on school effectiveness. The leadership of an
effective principal is strong and directed at the accomplishment of clear goals.
These principals tend to be proactive, regulating the external pressures exerted on
the school and pushing for change and improvement. Such principals employ a
cooperative and collegial management style by sharing leadership tasks with their
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staff and delegating authority, but serving as the most senior professional within
the school.
2. Shared vision and goals: The research indicated that schools are more effective
when the staff agrees on the schools values and goals, and realizes those values
and goals by means of collaborative work and decision making. Effective schools
also display consistency in their work, which is reflected in the faculty members
agreement with regard to teaching processes and mutual assistance and support,
both among themselves and between them and the pupils. A collegial and
cooperative atmosphere was found to be a very important factor in increasing a
schools effectiveness.
3.
Learning environment: The schools ethos is partly determined by the vision,

values and goals of the faculty and the manner in which they work together,
as well as by the atmosphere in which the pupils operate; in other words, the
learning environment. The learning environment must be orderly and attractive.
An orderly learning environment not only requires order, quiet, and cleanliness in
the building and its surroundings, but also that the pupils exercise self-control.
4.
Focus on teaching and learning: The schools main goal relates to teaching and
learning. The focus on teaching and learning is defined, inter alia, in terms
of establishing quantifiable objectives, measuring outcomes and examining the
processes leading to the achievement of these outcomes. Time spent in school
must be devoted, as far as possible, to learning. This component of school
effectiveness can be measured by several variables: (1) The amount of time
during the day devoted to "scholastic" (academic) subjects, or the number of
academic subjects taught in relation to the other subjects; (2) The amount of
time the teachers spend on academic materials with the pupils; (3) The amount
of attention teachers devote to academic objectives compared with the time
spent nurturing interpersonal relations with the pupils; (4) The lesson plan; (5)
The absence of external interruptions that can be a distraction to teaching and
learning. This component places heavy emphasis on the academic learning and
scholastic achievement demanded from the pupils.
5.
Task-oriented teaching: Task-oriented teaching is based on the effective organization

of lessons and the teachers work, the clarity of the goals expressed by teachers,
and lessons that are properly structured. Effective teachers address all the pupils
in the classroom and speak clearly, are task-oriented, do not judge their pupils
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during the lesson and manage a composed classroom. Effective teachers expect
superior achievements from their pupils, and offer them encouragement and
support.
6. High expectations: An effective school projects high expectations of teachers,
pupils, and all those connected with the schools work. The faculty reflects these
high expectations and does everything it can to pose intellectual challenges for
both pupils and teachers.
7.
Positive reinforcement: Reinforcement, whether in terms of discipline or pupil

feedback, is an important component of effective learning. Reinforcement is
expressed through understandable and fair rules of behavior, the giving of
feedback, rewards and praise for all aspects of scholastic achievement and all
aspects of the pupils behavior in school.
8.
Monitoring and supervision of the pupils progress: Mechanisms based on supervision

of the performance and progress of the pupils, the class, and the school as a unit,
constitute an important aspect of school effectiveness. These mechanisms must
monitor the performance of individual pupils, as well as the performance of the
entire school. The combination of feedback with the supervision and information
obtained from internal assessment during the schools decision-making processes,
ensures that the information collected will be put to active use by the faculty and
administration.
9.
Pupils rights and obligations: School effectiveness studies show that a pupils
self-respect and belief in his own ability are improved when they are given an
active role to play in the school, and when they are afforded an opportunity to
participate in shaping their learning processes.
10. Partnership between the school, the home and the community: Effectiveness studies
have shown that a supportive and cooperative relationship between the school,
the familial home and the community can have a positive effect. This is especially
true when parents are involved in their childrens studies.
11. A learning organization: Effective schools are learning organizations in which the
teachers and principals learn continuously and stay up-to-date in their chosen
disciplines in accordance with their individual needs and the needs of the school.
School development generally takes place within the school itself, with the
ongoing focus on helping to improve classroom teaching and the curriculum.
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School effectiveness can be assessed from a dynamic point of view, and as such the
changes taking place within organizations and their work environments must be taken
into account. Public and private organizations have recently been undergoing rapid
changes, primarily as a result of fast-paced technological changes having to do with
the introduction of computers into many fields and advancements in communications.
Added to these is the quality and quantity of information becoming available and
accessible to everyone. Organizations therefore need to be able to adjust and adapt
to changing environmental conditions. The structure of these organizations and their
internal processes will change as their environments and the demands made upon
them are transformed. High adaptive capacity is contingent on an especially high
degree of flexibility, the commitment of responsible employees who are dedicated to
the organization and its goals, the proper use of staff members to perform various
tasks, and emphasis on basic professional skills. Now more than ever, organizations
will have to define their vision and objectives clearly and openly. This will require
the organizations personnel to clarify their goals for themselves; and determine and
define the identity of their consumers and the recipients of their services, what their
consumers want and what their service recipients value most. In order to operate
more successfully, organizations will adopt democratic principles in the future. The
practical implication of these principles is that organizations will share more with
their workers and their environment, which will have a tremendous impact on both
the employees and the organizational environment. The democratic principle in the
organizations work will demand a greater personal contribution from employees and
hence also give them a greater sense of responsibility and caring. Organizations will
increasingly become "learning and modernizing organizations," because the knowledge
needed to operate them will be updated more rapidly than we are accustomed to.
The organizations employees will be able to become, and may have to become, more
autonomous than before, by reinforcing their shared vision and goals and enhancing
interpersonal and organizational unity.
Organizations will have to do more in future to find new channels of operation.
The modernization approach must be instilled in all areas of the organization and
its processes. It should guide the workers, engage teams in the planning of shared
work, and become a natural and integral part of the organizations culture, work
and thinking patterns. More and more, organizations will be required to direct their
activities toward a more varied consumer market and provide for a broader range of
service recipients. Finally, those who head the organizations will need, to a greater
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extent, to look beyond the boundaries of their organization and operate within a
community framework that encompasses many people and organizations.
By the same token schools, as organizations, cannot remain in their present format
and will have to undergo changes in their structure, processes, and the values upon
which they are based. According to Leithwood (1999), schools in the near future
will be based on the following three principal values: inclusiveness, efficient reliability
and initiative. Inclusiveness means that schools will involve more agents in their
decision-making processes and will cover more areas of activity in the pupils education
and development (such as social and emotional dimensions together with intellectual
ones). Efficient reliability means that schools will have to fulfill the tasks with which
they are charged more faithfully, doing so as efficiently as possible. Initiative implies
that schools will have to be able to examine the systems in which they operate, to
anticipate the changes they must make in order to continue operating successfully, and
initiate the activities needed to achieve those changes. More than ever, the school will
have to operate as an intelligent organization.
THE SCHOOL AS AN INTELLIGENT ORGANIZATION: THE FIVE
SCHOOL INTELLIGENCES
The findings concerning the effective school and modern theories of human
intelligence can serve as a foundation for formulating areas of activity in which the
school can become an intelligent organization. Based on the concept of organizational
intelligence, as defined above, we will now focus on the organizational intelligence of
the school. Our discussion will be based on the assumption that in order for the school
to succeed in fulfilling its goals, in order to ensure that its efforts and contribution
towards the education of the younger generation are significant and meaningful, and
in order to meet the challenges of the future and environmental pressures, it must be
an "intelligent organization" with multiple intelligences.
Intelligent behavior on the part of the school can be expressed in three areas:
the organizational, the pedagogic, and the values spheres. The organizational sphere
refers to the school as an organization, and thus it does not distinguish between the
school and any other administrative organization. The pedagogic sphere relates to the
unique professional aspect of the school as an organization, while the values sphere
particularizes the school and sets it apart from every other professional organization.
This sphere can be considered the "keystone" of the schools intelligences. These
intelligences are the driving force that pushes the school toward success in advancing
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its students to properly adapt to the environment and its rapidly-changing conditions,
and to acquire work patterns that are appropriate for life in the 21st century.
The degree to which an organization succeeds in addressing its problems, and
the ways in which the organization employs each of the five intelligences depends,
according to Ceci (1990), on internal contextual factors: the extent to which the
organization is familiar with the problems it must confront, the degree to which the
problems are concrete issues for the organization, the organizations level of motivation
to solve the problem and the amount of relevant information possessed by the person
who must cope with the problem. The information the organization has accumulated
during the course of its development is also very significant. Cecis theory stresses that
intelligence relies on high cognitive potential whose expression is contingent on the
knowledge the individual has gained in a particular sphere. This theory emphasizes
that organizational knowledge is essential for realizing intelligence.
Figure 2. The five school intelligences

Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the schools five intelligences. We describe
them below in greater detail and specify their different components.
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Reflective intelligence
Reflective intelligence is the ability to perform a critical, analytical assessment of processes
and their outcomes, to draw conclusions, to find meaning and relationships between facts
and the lessons learned from success and failure.
The ability to learn from mistakes, both those made by the organization itself and
those made by other organizations, and the capacity to internalize this learning, is
what underlies the concept of intelligence. Therefore, this intelligence is "the mother of
all intelligences" for a school and encompasses a group of capabilities. This intelligence
expresses the active nature of intelligence, as perceived by Binet (Binet & Simon,
1909). The readiness to learn from mistakes, to be creative in finding solutions to the
problems that led to errors or to the problems created as a result of the errors and,
in particular, the ability to recognize the existence of errors all these are based on
spiritual intelligence (Zohar and Marshall, 1994).
A schools reflective intelligence is expressed in both the organizational and the
pedagogic spheres and, naturally, in the values sphere. In the pedagogic sphere, this
intelligence is teaching based on feedback-based teaching and includes the ability
to assess pupils progress in their studies by collecting quantifiable data, as well
as information that is difficult to quantify but can be evaluated qualitatively. It
is the ability to change and improve based on the information collected and the
conclusions reached, and the ability to inculcate this intelligence as an educational
heritage. In the pedagogic sphere, reflective intelligence encompasses the following
three sub-components:
a. Task-oriented: Focusing on teaching and learning, which is expressed as setting
quantifiable objectives, measuring outcomes and examining the processes leading
to the achievement of these outcomes (how much time is spent on "academic"
subjects compared with other subjects, such as discussing topics related to current
events, social and public issues, etc.; the relative amount of time teachers spend
discussing subject matter among themselves; the attention teachers devote to
nurturing personal and interpersonal relationships with pupils), and a proactive
approach.
b.
Professionalism: Improving the teachers professional knowledge in the subjects

being taught and teaching methods; consistency in their work, effective
organization of lessons and the teachers activities; goals that are clearly defined
by the teacher, and lessons that are properly structured.
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c.
Innovation and improvement: Searching for innovative methods and new subjects
to teach, improving the level of teaching, improved feedback and, especially,
implementing the feedback results in the schools work.
The schools reflective intelligence in the organizational sphere is feedback-based

management. Feedback-based management constitutes ongoing and regular
examination of the schools priorities by collecting data and information from within
the school and the external environment. This intelligence is the ability to change and
improve the schools functioning in light of the information collected.
Reflective intelligence is also found at the basis of a learning organization (Senge,
1990). Thus the school is seen as an organization that learns about itself and learns
about learning. This intelligence ensures that learning and teaching are examined
regularly and will be developed and improved, and it assumes that learning and
teaching are subjects that can certainly be assessed and modified when necessary.
Strategic intelligence
Strategic intelligence is the ability to establish goals and formulate objectives according
to accepted rules and principles, to act with determination to achieve those goals, and to
anticipate the effect the present will have upon the future. It enables the school to plan the
activities needed to improve its performance, thereby realizing the schools vision.
The school strives for achievement, does not stop searching and exploring, and
chooses from among a variety of alternatives. Its activity consists of three components:
the tendency to choose defined directions of activity and continue without deviating
from them; the ability to adapt means in order to achieve defined goals; and the
ability for self-criticism, an unwillingness to accept partial solutions that do not really
solve the problem. Therefore, strategic intelligence expresses the dynamic aspect of
intelligence, according to both Binet (Binet & Simon, 1909) and Wechsler (1958).
It is also founded on spiritual intelligence, which allows one to see new, far-reaching
possibilities (Zohar & Marshall, 1994).
This intelligence is comprised of the following three sub-components:
a. Vision: Formulating an organizational and pedagogical vision, based on the
values and goals of both teachers and pupils.
b. Objectives: Defining operative objectives for the various components of the
schools vision.
c.
Modes of implementation: Defining methods of operation in order to attain the

operative objectives defined.
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The practical activities associated with strategic intelligence involve constant and
regular examination of the schools priorities, and the ability to amend them in
accordance with changes in the internal and external environments, objectives or
new tasks. Strategic intelligence is reflected, in particular, in the organizational and
pedagogic spheres. In the organizational sphere, this intelligence serves as the basis
for defining the school's vision and the means for its realization (see the characteristic
"common vision and shared goals" as described above in Effectiveness Studies), as
well as the basis for developing the methods and means to improve the professional
capabilities of those engaged in the educational process. Strategic intelligence is
the foundation of the schools professional leadership, which is described in the
Effectiveness Studies as the most prominent factor that can account for a schools
success or failure. It isnt difficult to discern the connection, and perhaps even the
dependence, between reflective intelligence and strategic intelligence, and for this
reason they are depicted as being adjacent to each other in Figure 2.
Contextual intelligence
Contextual intelligence is the schools capacity to integrate its social, professional and
physical environment. It is expressed in the ability of the schools personnel to take a
sober, informed and critical look at the environment and the community in which it
functions and the world in which it lives, and to act in order to properly assimilate into
this social space. This intelligence is characterized by responsiveness and openness
to new ideas and events in its immediate surroundings, and an ability to learn
from the environment. It is also characterized by the ability to initiate internal
changes necessary from exposure to outside ideas and events. This intelligence enables
the existence of a supportive relationship between the school, the home and the
community, which makes a significant contribution to the schools effectiveness.
Included are the following three sub-components:
a. Community-mindedness: Familiarity with the community around the school, its
desires, needs and problems, and the ability to understand the communitys
abilities and requirements.
b. "Thinking big": Being open to new ideas and events in the nearby surroundings,
and the ability to learn from the environment.
c. System-oriented perspective: The ability to initiate the internal changes that derive
from exposure to external ideas and events. The ability to see the impact of the
schools decisions from a broader perspective.
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Miles and Snow (1978) present four key strategies used by organizations to adapt
to its environment, which are:
1. Defensive strategy: The organization does not change, in either its technology,
structure or operating methods. Instead, the organization turns much of
its attention toward improving existing operations and making them more
effective.
2. Investigative strategy: The organization continually searches for new marketing
opportunities and tries out new products. This strategy is fertile soil for generating
changes and dealing with uncertainty.
3. Analytical strategy: Organizations that operate with two types of markets and
sources of supply: one helps maintain stability, while the other generates change.
With regard to stable markets these organizations employ formal, organized
processes. In their less stable or more stormy markets, the organizations
carefully survey their surroundings looking for new ideas, and quickly adopt
those changes that offer the most promise.
4. Reactive strategy: According to this strategy, the organization reacts to its
environment only when forced to do so.
Contextual intelligence, therefore, is strongly linked to strategic intelligence, and
therefore they appear next to one another in Figure 2.
Collegial intelligence
Collegial intelligence is the ability to benefit from working together through mutual
support and cooperation in order to improve ones ability to function as an individual, and
within society at large. It includes the following three sub-components:
a. Shared management within the school: Defining procedures and processes so that
teachers, and to a certain extent pupils as well, can share in defining the
schools goals and objectives. Joint decision-making and sharing information
from feedback. Dividing up tasks and delegating authority to the school staff.
b. Involving parents and the community: Defining procedures and processes that
involve parents, and to a certain extent the community as well, in defining the
schools goals and processes.
c. Support, mutual assistance and "giving credit": Agreement among staff members
and mutual assistance. Cooperation and offering personal and professional
support. Creating a work environment that is not merely order, quiet and
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cleanliness in the buildings and surroundings, but which also requires teachers to
be self-critical.
Practical behaviors of this intelligence range from including teachers in the
decision-making process, to teachers working together in teams, to involving pupils.
Underlying collegial intelligence is a recognition of the power of synergy, that is,
understanding that the shared efforts of the staff members to achieve organizational
goals yield more than the sum of the efforts of each participant when working as
an individual. This intelligence is an important factor in increasing the schools
effectiveness. It also includes the ability to instill collegiality towards pupils as
an educational heritage. This intelligence relates to intrapersonal intelligence and
interpersonal intelligence, classifications proposed by Gardner (1993), and it draws
heavily from spiritual intelligence (Zohar & Marshall, 1994) and emotional intelligence
(Goleman, 1995).
Values intelligence: Humanistic, spiritual and ethical values

This intelligence is what differentiates the school from other organizations, and
it serves as "the keystone" for the schools other intelligences. It comprises three
elements.
a. Humanistic values: Values intelligence in the sphere of humanistic values is
the ability to enable the feelings of pupils and staff members to be expressed
and recognized, through consideration and respect. The practical expression of
this intelligence is an awareness of feelings, emotional management, the ability
to understand what motivates other people and how to work together. This
intelligence also includes attributes such as motivation, perseverance, controlling
feelings and moods, and not allowing pressure to ruin the ability to think and
act.
b.
Spiritual values: Values intelligence in the sphere of spiritual values focuses on the
ability to strive towards harmony, peace and spirituality. Spirituality is perceived
as being the source of creativity. It sparks ones creative ability, enables
consideration of people and events with empathy and encourages loyalty and
caring, hope and compassion. Schools can define spirituality in various ways, but
the basic idea underlying the different interpretations is that spirituality means
recognizing the value of life and human beings, and recognizing the potential
contribution of each person to others and to every member of the organization.
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c.
Ethical values: Values intelligence in the sphere of ethical values is the schools
ability to define its ethical purpose and express this in practical terms as fairness,
justice and equality. Ethical intelligence can find its practical expression within
the curriculum, as well as through the proper distribution of resources within the
school.
Values intelligence is based on emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) as well
as spiritual intelligence (Zohar & Marshall, 1994). It requires a high level of
self-awareness which, in turn, serves as a basis for empathy and a highly developed
sense of social intelligence.
SCHOOL INTELLIGENCES IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE THEORIES
The combination of contextual intelligence and the intelligence of learning and

experience allows one to choose the best strategy for adapting to the environment
according to the classification of strategies proposed by Miles & Snow (1978 see above
for details). Reflective intelligence is closest in concept to learning and experience.
Strategic intelligence can rely on Sternbergs componential sub-theory (Sternberg,
1988), which deals with mechanisms for processing information, performance
components and knowledge acquisition components (sifting through the information
that flows into the organization, dividing it into relevant and irrelevant information,
comparing new knowledge with knowledge already in the organizations possession,
and combining bits of information into a complete, coherent body of knowledge).
Contextual intelligence, within the framework of the five intelligences, is very similar
to if not identical with Sternbergs contextual sub-theory of intelligence. Collegial
intelligence, is unique to the operation of an organization, where individuals join
forces to work together. Ethical intelligence is unique, as emphasized above, to a
school, although we may presume that other organizations also have distinct ethical
values regarding which their members should display intelligent behavior.
The concept of school intelligence comprised of five intelligences is broader than
Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988). According to Sternberg,
an organizations processes and activities can be divided into the following three
groups:
1. Componential intelligence, which includes three types of processes: (a) metacognitive
processes: planning, supervision, control and decision-making; (b) performance
processes: carrying out decision-making and problem-solving strategies;
(c) knowledge-acquisition processes: processes for collecting information.
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2. Contextual intelligence, which includes processes for studying the organizational

environment, defining means for adapting to the environment using three
strategies: adapting to the environment, shaping the environment to the
organizations conditions, and selecting a different environment (by moving to a
new geographic location or choosing a different sphere of occupation).
3.
Intelligence of learning and experience, which includes processes of change and

coping with new situations, identifying the key components needed to identify
a solution, adding new information to existing information and combining
bits of information to find a comprehensive solution. This type of intelligence
also involves initiating a routine of cognitive process and allowing them to
become automatic, such as work procedures, standards of work and a stable work
environment.
The approach that the schools normative behavior directed towards maximum success
in achieving its goals must be intelligent behavior comprised of five intelligences
also corresponds with the findings obtained from the studies on effective schools.
Below we see the connection between the different school intelligences and the
eleven components that characterize effective schools (Sammons, 1999). Reflective
intelligence includes both the components of the learning organization (no. 11) and
monitoring and supervision of the pupils progress (no. 8). Strategic intelligence includes
a common vision and shared goals (no. 2), a focus on teaching and learning (no. 4), and
task-oriented teaching (no. 5). Contextual intelligence includes partnership between the
school, the home and the community (no. 10). This component is also a part of collegial
intelligence, which includes the component of the schools learning environment (no.
3). Human intelligence includes high expectations from pupils and teachers (no. 6) as
well as positive reinforcement (no. 7). Ethical intelligence includes the pupils rights
and obligations (no. 9). Thus, the findings of the school effectiveness studies provide
an empirical basis for believing that the operation of a school based on the five
intelligences will cause its level of effectiveness to be high. Professional leadership (no.
1) is the key to employing the schools processes of organizational intelligence, and
without it the level of effectiveness will be lower.
THE SELF-MANAGED SCHOOL AS AN INTELLIGENT ORGANIZATION
The self-managed school is an organization whose decision-making core is internal.

School-based management grew as an organizational-educational issue under the
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inspiration of the Effective School Movement, which established the goal of

demonstrating that schools have the genuine capacity to have an impact on the
education and development of their pupils. The effective school must be capable of
overcoming the limitations and inadequacies found in the homes of pupils from lower
socio-economic sectors of the population, and give them a better education than
these homes can provide. The schools self-management is based on the fact that
the school has significant autonomy in financial and administrative matters, and is
subject to a minimum degree of supervision from the centralized authorities. In this
way, the schools administrative goals can be defined according to the schools own
characteristics and needs, while the teaching staff can (and must) be more responsible
for how resources are used so they can address problems and engage in effective
educational activities for the schools long-term development (David, 1989).
Beginning in the late 1970s, Israel became more aware of the need to increase
the schools pedagogic and administrative independence. This concept, which was
fundamentally different from the traditional idea of centralized administration, hoped
to transfer the center of gravity from the Ministry of Education, the center, to the
school. Attempts were made by the Education Ministry to increase school autonomy,
aimed at expanding administrative decentralization, in order to achieve the following
goals:
Delegation of authority directly to the schools would enable them to concentrate
on planning for education needs and budgeting them in the field;
Authority and responsibility would be concentrated at the point closest to the
pupil and his family;
The school principal, staff and community would make effective use of existing
resources based on the needs of the school and its pupils;
Schools would be able to make real-time decisions better suited to addressing
individual needs, because only the institution itself has the best vantage point for
accurately assessing these needs;
Fundamental and advanced conditions would be created to turn schools into
"effective schools" characterized by clear institutional goals, staff satisfaction and
high levels of achievement;
An autonomous, enterprising management style would be ensured, one that seeks
out resources rather than merely receiving them, adapts itself to the changing
needs of the target population, the curriculum and the community at large, and
helps relieve "bottlenecks" within a short period of time;
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A valid method would be developed for the assumption of responsibility, by

combining responsibility with authority;
A suitable, practical platform would be made available for involving parents and
the community in education and developing the schools unique qualities as part
of the greater community.
Before the 1996 academic year, the Ministry of Education decided to take things
one step further in the decentralization of pedagogic and administrative authority,
to turn schools into self-managed institutions. Self-managed schools were defined as
institutions characterized by the following five points:
1. School-based definition of clear pedagogic goals for staff members;
2. Adaptation of the curriculum to the schools pedagogic goals;
3. School-based internal feedback for the purpose of advancing relevant pupil
populations;
4. Expansion of the schools authority with regard to personnel matters;
5. Increased independence for the school in managing its budgets.
During the second half of the 1995 academic year, preparations began for
implementation of the program as an experiment in nine schools. Two objectives
were established for this experiment: (a) to provide relevant information in order
to examine the model underlying the concept of school-based management; (b) to
provide relevant information regarding the transition processes of traditional schools
to school-based management. The experiment was introduced with the 1996 academic
year, and was monitored by a follow-up study conducted by Friedman, Barma and
Toren (1997). In this study, the researchers found that by the end of the first year of
school-based management every school included in the experiment understood quite
well the principles of self-management, its advantages and its limitations. The primary
goals of the schools that had been part of the experiment on school-based management
centered on the following three main issues:
1. Developing the pupils individual capabilities (inculcating tools for acquiring
knowledge, being able to choose subjects independently and to focus on them,
etc.);
2. Developing civic abilities among the pupils (training the child to be a useful
member of the community and society);
3. Developing an autonomous organization (this goal is centered on an organization
comprised of teachers, pupils and parents who act autonomously).
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Approximately one-half of the teachers (52%) indicated that the school goals had
been defined by all of the teachers in the school, 42% of the teachers noted that the
goals had been defined by the school staff, 5% stated that the goals had been defined
by the principal himself, and 1% of the teachers indicated they didnt know who had
defined the schools goals.
In a follow-up study conducted by the researchers (Friedman, Barma, & Toren,
2001), the self-managed school was defined this way:
A self-managed school is an educational institution that defines for
itself clear educational, social and administrative goals; in which the
teachers, pupils, parents and the community share in decision-making; and
whose principal and staff strive resolutely to achieve them. The pedagogy
and administration in the school are flexible and change over time in
accordance with the needs and desires of the various participants in the
educational process. The school is largely independent in how it uses
its personnel and financial resources, and resources are available to staff
members, who are accorded flexibility in how they are used. The schools
organizational climate is open and based on autonomy and trust. The
school reports to the central authorities regarding the goals it has set, the
manner in which it allocates its resources, the priorities it has defined, and
its educational and social outcomes (ibid., p. 15).
Furthermore, the researchers found that self-managed schools, in accordance with the
above definition, exhibit the following processes or phenomena:
1. Feedback-based management: The pedagogy and school organization are defined,
and changed over time, through openness, sensitivity to what is happening "in
the field," and awareness of the impact this effort and educational investment
have on the service recipients and those involved in the education process.
Teachers present their work to the parents, the school offers parents feedback on
pupils satisfaction with the programs it implements, parents are notified if their
children stray from accepted performance levels.
2. Goals: The school has a clear vision that is known to everyone involved teachers,
parents and pupils and the schools vision corresponds with its activities. The
school establishes clear educational, social and administrative goals (as part of
the schools philosophy and its vision), and the principal and staff work resolutely
toward realizing them. The schools goals also reflect the desires of the pupils and
the parents.
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3.
Shared management: Pupils, parents and community share in the processes and
decisions under school-based management. Parents also participate in preparing
(together with the teachers) social projects for the school; pupil representatives
are included in making decisions in the school, and they are included on various
committees and join in initiating or planning the schools social programs.
4.
Open organizational climate: The schools curricula, as well as its organizational

and educational frameworks, are flexible; authority is delegated to staff members,
who are made to feel they are trusted.
5.
Autonomy in utilization of personnel and financial resources: The school has a great
deal of independence in deciding how to use its personnel and financial
resources.
6. Resources are available to the staff: Resources are made available to members of
the school staff (teachers and others), and they are entitled to use them with a
great degree of freedom and flexibility.
The findings of the two follow-up studies (Friedman, Barma, & Toren, 1997, 2001)
clearly indicate that the processes that characterize self-managed schools reflect a high
level of several organizational intelligences:
a. Feedback-based management. This points to a high degree of reflective intelligence,
in which the schools organization and pedagogy are defined and openly change
over time, with sensitivity to what is happening "in the field" and awareness of
the effect these efforts have on the educational activities. This reflection is also
shared by parents and the community.
b.
Process of defining goals. This indicates a high level of strategic intelligence, as

it reflects efforts to formulate an organizational, pedagogic vision based on the
values and goals of both staff and pupils. It also expresses the operative goals
for the vision, as well as the means for carrying out and achieving the defined
operative goals.
c.
Shared management. This includes parents, teachers, pupils and the community,
and indicates a high level of contextual intelligence, particularly regarding the
community components and the system-oriented perspective of this intelligence.
d. Open organizational climate. This shows a high degree of collegial intelligence,

especially regarding the components of support, mutual assistance and "giving
credit" that are included in this intelligence.
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e.
The goals specified in the research findings of Friedman, Barma and Toren
(1997) point to a high level of ethical intelligence, and in particular, a high degree
of humanistic intelligence (developing the pupils individual capabilities, civil
capabilities and autonomy).
The schools autonomy is related to its right to determine and define its own goals
and values, which are linked to the general goals and values of the education system.
In attempting to assess the goals related to the schools ethical intelligence, as seen
in the studies of self-managed schools, we must remember that the schools included
in the self-management program were not schools that had just been established.
Rather these were schools that had been around for quite a while, schools possessing
organizational and other values that had directed and guided their activities for many
years. The study cannot offer findings regarding the changes that took place in these
schools with the transition to self-management. Perhaps self-managed schools need
to focus their attention on the issue of ethical intelligence in order to clarify their
values, and ensure that these values are suited to those of society, and fit it with general
policies around the country.
REFERENCES
Beare, H., Caldwell, B. J., & Millikan, R. H. (1994). Creating an excellent school.
London: Routledge.
Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1909). New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level
of subnormals. Annals of Psychology, 11, 191-205.
Browder, L. (1975). Whos afraid of educational accountability? Denver, CO: Cooperative
Accountability Project.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scientific analysis of personality. Chicago: Aldine.
Ceci, S. J. (1990). On intelligencemore or less: A bio-ecological treatise on intellectual
development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M.,
Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (Eds.), (1966). Equality of educational opportunity.
Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Colman, A. M. (2001). A dictionary of psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
David, J. L. (1989). Synthesis of research on school-based management. Educational
Leadership, 46, 45-53.
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Eysenck, H. J. (1979). The structure and measurement of intelligence. Berlin, Germany:

Springer-Verlag.
Friedman, I., Barma, R., & Toren, S. (1997). School-based management: Changing the
schools management culture. Jerusalem: Henrietta Szold Institute (in Hebrew).
Friedman, I., Barma, R., & Toren, S. (2001). Self-management level in the school.
Jerusalem: Henrietta Szold Institute (in Hebrew).
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Hilgard, E. R. (1962). Introduction to psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World.
Kirst, M. (1990). Accountability: Implications for state and local policy makers.
Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Department
of Education.
Klitgaard, R. E., & Hall, G. R. (1973). Are there unusually effective schools? Journal
of Human Resources, 10, 35-47.
Leithwood, K. (1999). An organizational perspective on values for leaders of future
schools. In P. T. Begley (Ed.), Values and educational leadership (pp. 25-50). New
York: State University of New York Press.
MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K., & Reed, J. (1997). The intelligent school. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing, Ltd.
Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1978). Organizational structure and process. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Moore, W. E. (1974). In loco parentis: A research report from the generation study of
secondary school students. Sydney, NSW: NSW Education Department.
Nevo, B. (1997). Human Intelligence. Tel Aviv: The Open University (in Hebrew).
Reid, K., Hopkins, D., & Holly, P. (1988). Towards the effective school. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Robey, D. (1986). Designing organizations. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Rutter, M., Maughan, M., Mortimore, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours:
Secondary schools and their effect on children. London: Basic Books.
Sammons, P. (1999). School effectiveness. Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger
B.V.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth principle: The art and practice of the learning organization.
New York: Doubleday.
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Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence. New
York: Viking.
Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence. Baltimore:
Williams.
Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. N. (1994). The quantum society. New York: Bloomsbury.
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A THEORY OF LEARNING IN THE

SELF-MANAGING SCHOOL
Brian J. Caldwell
School-based management, also referred to as local management or self-management,
is a feature of the school reform movement around the world. Caldwell and Spinks
(1998) consider the building of systems of self-managing schools to be one of the
three major "tracks" of change in education, the others being an unrelenting focus
on learning outcomes and the creation of schools for the knowledge society. Once
established, self-management appears irreversible. A noteworthy illustration is the
support among the three major political parties in the British election in 1997, and its
expansion under the Labor government to the extent that local education authorities
are expected to decentralize a higher proportion of available funds than had been
required under the Conservative government. It is not limited to the western or
developed world, nor is it a policy thrust of a particular political ideology. A recent
conference of UNESCO in Paris was concerned with implementation in developing
nations. Most international aid agencies support major initiatives for the devolution of
authority, responsibility and accountability to schools.
There is an increasing body of literature on developments in different nations. Each
setting is unique and this is especially the case in Israel. Noteworthy is the account
by Gibton, Sabar and Goldring (2000) of how principals of autonomous schools view
implementation. Volansky (2001) provides a history of developments in Israel that is
of great interest to researchers, policy-makers and practitioners in other nations, given
its affirmation of issues arising elsewhere, but also its account of several distinctive
features.
An important issue in every setting is the extent to which there is a theory
of self-management that goes beyond descriptions of practice and statements of
assumptions, beliefs and expectations. The purpose of this paper is to propose a
theory of the self-managing school that is particularly concerned with the relationship
between self-management and learning. Evidence is drawn from macro-research across
national boundaries and micro-research that modeled the links to learning at the
school and classroom levels.
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CONTEXT
While evidence will be drawn from different nations, particular attention will be
given to research and development in Victoria, Australia. Australia is a federation of
six states and two territories. Education is the constitutional responsibility of the states,
although the national (commonwealth) government plays a major role because it
provides much of the funds through general and special purpose grants. Approximately
70% of pupils attend schools owned and operated by the government and about
30% attend schools owned and operated by churches or other non-government
organizations. There are roughly 1600 government schools in Victoria.
There has been a steady shift toward self-management in all Australian states
over the last 30 years, but Victoria has gone further than any other in a nation
of traditionally centralized school systems. It is now the largest system of public
education anywhere to have decentralized as much as 90% of its state budget
to schools for local decision-making, being 93.7% in 2001 (DEET, 2001). The
comparable figure in Britain is 87% under the enhanced self-management policies of
the Blair government.
There are four noteworthy features about the management of public schools in
Victoria. First, is the decentralization of the budget. Second, is a curriculum and
standards framework (CSF) in eight key learning areas that applies to all schools.
Third, all except short-term staff members are employed by the state, even though
they are selected at the school level. Fourth, is a framework of accountability that
requires all schools to report to their communities and the school system on an annual
and triennial basis regarding a range of indicators, with system-wide testing of pupils
in several key learning areas at two points in primary education and one point in
secondary. The integrating mechanism for this approach to school management is the
school charter. All schools have a charter, which is a relatively short document that
reflects an agreement between a school and its community on the one hand, and the
school and the state education department on the other. It sets out the special nature
of the school, priorities for planning and budgeting, and strategies for achieving those
priorities. The charter has a three-year duration and is the focus of the triennial
review. A school council, a majority of whose members are parents, makes policy and
approves the budget of each school. The principal is the chief executive officer.
It is important to note that this approach to self-management has evolved over
30 years, with periodic major steps that raised the extent of local authority and
responsibility to a new level. The last such step change followed the election of the
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A Theory of Learning in the Self-managing School
Kennett government in 1992 (see Caldwell & Hayward, 1998 for an account of the
design and implementation of this reform). The Kennett government lost in 1999 and
the new Bracks government commissioned an enquiry, which has recommended that
the broad features of the 1992 reforms should be maintained, including self-managing
schools.
THE CONCEPT OF THE SELF-MANAGING SCHOOL
The term "self-management" rather than "school-based management" is used in this

paper. It is helpful to clarify the concept of the self-managing school, especially the
roles of central authorities and schools.
Decisions with regard to resources are central to self-management, as illustrated in
the definition of Caldwell and Spinks (1998) based on their earlier conceptualization
(Caldwell & Spinks, 1988) and further refinement by Bullock and Thomas (1997):
A self-managing school is a school in a system of education to which there
has been decentralized a significant amount of authority and responsibility
to make decisions about the allocation of resources within a centrally
determined framework of goals, policies, standards and accountabilities.
Resources are defined broadly to include knowledge, technology, power,
materiel, people, time, assessment, information and finance (Caldwell &
Spinks, 1998, pp. 4-5).
It is important to stress that "a self-managing school is not an autonomous school
nor is it a self-governing school, for each of these kinds of schools involve a degree of
independence that is not provided in a centrally determined framework" (Caldwell &
Spinks, 1998, p. 5). The role of government in the "centrally determined framework"
is noteworthy. A recent statement on self-managing schools in Victoria referred to
an important caveat to the doctrine of self-management: Government
clearly reserves the right to intervene where it believes it is necessary to
ensure the appropriate levels of outcomes for all students. This caveat is
part of an overall commitment to equity in education and training and is
demonstrated in several initiatives (DEET, 2001, p. 1).
Operating in such a framework does not conflict with principals preferences
for self-management. It is noteworthy that principals in Britain value the central
framework provided by their local education authorities. The results of a recent MORI
poll of 1,000 principals included the following findings:
94% felt that local education authorities should stay;
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Brian J. Caldwell
78% stated that local education authorities are best placed to support and
challenge schools that are causing concern;
93% believed their local education authorities had been helpful in the
implementation of literacy and numeracy strategies.
Secretary of State David Blunkett stated that, "If Government reform is to be a

success, central intervention must be balanced by autonomy for individuals, local
communities, schools" (DfEE, 2001).
THREE GENERATIONS OF STUDIES ON THE IMPACT OF
SELF-MANAGEMENT
After several decades of reform, it is fair to ask about the extent to which there has
been any impact on scholastic outcomes for pupils. It is sobering to note the consistent
finding in early research that there appear to be few, if any, direct links between local
management, self-management or school-based management and learning outcomes
(Malen, Ogawa, & Kranz, 1990; Summers & Johnson, 1996). Some researchers have
noted that such gains are unlikely to be achieved in the absence of purposeful links
between capacities associated with school reform in this instance, local management
and what occurs in the classroom, in learning and teaching and the support of
learning and teaching (see Bullock & Thomas, 1997; Cheng, 1996; Hanushek, 1996,
1997; Levai, 1995; OECD, 1994; Smith, Scoll, & Link, 1996).
New ground is broken in this paper to the extent that research of the kind
cited above can now be seen as constituting the first generation of studies of
self-management, and that second and third generations of studies are now evident. It
is in the third generation that the nature of the correlation between self-management
and learning outcomes can be mapped in a manner that can be trustworthy in policy
and practice.
The primary purpose of this paper is to report school-based evidence of links
between self-management and learning outcomes for pupils in the third generation
of studies. This evidence confirms the generally positive ratings of principals in
second generation studies in public education systems where all elements of a
comprehensive reform program have been in place for several years. Particular
attention is given to findings from a five-year longitudinal project in Victoria. Links
between self-management and learning outcomes are modeled and mapped. The
paper concludes with implications for policy-makers and practitioners.
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THE INCONCLUSIVE NATURE OF THE CORRELATION IN FIRST- AND
SECOND-GENERATION STUDIES
The research that constitutes the main focus of attention in this paper is in fact from
the third generation of studies on the broad phenomenon of self-management. Two
earlier generations are discernible, the first of which was concerned with the impact of
self-management, with most studies undertaken in the United States. The much-cited
work of Malen, Ogawa and Kranz (1990) falls into this category, with Summers and
Johnson (1996) providing a meta-analysis of the first generation. They located 70
studies that purported to be evaluations of self-management, but only 20 of these
employed a systematic approach and only seven included a measure of pupil outcomes.
They concluded that:
There is little evidence to support the notion that self-management is
effective in increasing student performance. There are very few quantitative
studies, the studies are not statistically rigorous, and the evidence of
positive results is either weak or non-existent (p.80).
Apart from the "overwhelming obstacles" in the means for assessing the impact of
self-management, Summers and Johnson drew attention to the fact that few initiatives
"identify student achievement as a major objective. The focus is on organizational
processes, with virtually no attention to how process changes may affect student
performance" (Summers & Johnson, 1996, pp. 92-93).
For Hanushek, the findings are not surprising because of the absence of a
purposeful link between self-management and pupil performance. He noted the review
of Summers and Johnson and observed that "decentralization of decision-making has
little general appeal without such linkage and, indeed, could yield worse results with
decentralized management pursuing its own objectives not necessarily related closely
to student performance" (Hanushek, 1996, p. 45).
In a report on the effects of school resources on pupil achievement, Hanushek (1997,
p. 156) drew attention to the finding "that simply decentralizing decision-making is
unlikely to work effectively unless there exist clear objectives and unless there is direct
accountability." It is the absence of this framework that characterizes the context for
what are described herein as first generation studies. Self-management in the United
States was and, for the most part, continues to be a modest initiative compared
to local management in England and Wales, or the self-managing schools of
Victoria. On the decentralization side, few resources were shifted to the school level
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Brian J. Caldwell
for local decision-making. On the centralization side, curriculum and standards

frameworks and requirements for accountability were rudimentary in most instances.
Self-management was, for the most part, a well-intentioned effort to empower teachers
and, to a limited extent, the community, and there was little correlation between
expectation, process or outcome and pupil learning.
The second generation of studies accompanied the more far-reaching reforms in
self-management, with most of the available budget in a school system decentralized
to the local level within a comprehensive and centrally-determined curriculum,
standards and accountability framework, as in Victoria. In general, the findings have
been as inconclusive as the first generation. Levai (1995, p. 190) found that, of
four criteria associated with intentions for the local management of schools in Britain
(effectiveness, efficiency, equity and choice), "cost-efficiency is the one for which
there is most evidence that local management has achieved the aims set for it by
government," especially through the opportunity it provides for schools to purchase at
a lower cost for a given quality or quantity than in the past, and by allowing resource
mixes that were not possible or readily attainable under previous, more centralized,
arrangements. For effectiveness, she concluded that there is "little evidence from
this [case study] sample of schools of local management stimulating any significant
changes in the way schools operate with respect to their core technology of teaching
and learning" (Levai, 1995, p. 105).
In Britain, as elsewhere, there was no research that endeavored to map a
cause-and-effect relationship between local management and discretionary use of
resources on the one hand, and improved learning outcomes for pupils on the
other hand, based on the findings of studies that yielded strong opinion-based
evidence that gains had been made (for example, Bullock & Thomas, 1994). Drawing
predominantly on evidence from Britain (England and Wales) but referring also to
outcomes elsewhere, Bullock and Thomas concluded that:
It may be that the most convincing evidence of the impact of local
management is on the opportunities which it has provided for managing
the environment and resources for learning, both factors that can act to
support the quality of learning in schools. What remains elusive, however,
is clear-cut evidence of these leading through to direct benefits on learning,
an essential component if we are to conclude that it is contributing to
higher levels of efficiency (Bullock & Thomas, 1997, p. 217).
Bullock and Thomas then went to the heart of the issue:

If learning is at the heart of education, it must be central to our final
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discussion of decentralization. It means asking whether, in their variety

of guises, the changes characterized by decentralization have washed over
and around children in classrooms, leaving their day-to-day experiences
largely untouched. In asking this question, we must begin by recognizing
that structural changes in governance, management and finance may leave
largely untouched the daily interaction of pupils and teachers (Bullock &
Thomas, 1997, p. 219).
A review of reform in Australia, Britain and New Zealand, Sweden and the United
States led Whitty, Power and Halpin (1998, p. 111) to conclude that "there were
insufficient grounds to claim that self-managing schools are currently enhancing
student attainment." While these authors fail to cite findings from third-generation
studies of the kind set out below, their conclusion is generally fair as far as findings in
second-generation studies are concerned.
CLARIFYING THE LINKS IN THIRD GENERATION STUDIES
A third generation of studies emerged during the last two years of the 1990s. The
policy context was the same as for the second generation, namely, local management
in England and Wales and self-management in Victoria, with the emergence of more
comprehensive and coherent systemic reform in the United States, such as in Chicago.
There are, however, three important differences to mark this generation of study. First,
by the late 1990s, a substantial set of data on pupil achievement had been established
as a result of system-wide tests that enabled change at the local level to be tracked
over several years. Schools were also able to draw on an increasingly extensive pool
of other indicators. Second, the policy framework had become more explicit with
respect to expectations for schools to make the link between elements in the school
reform program and learning outcomes for pupils. This reflected changes on track 2
("an unrelenting focus on learning outcomes") in the classification of Caldwell and
Spinks (1998). Third, researchers were utilizing an increasingly sophisticated array
of techniques for analyzing data, including structural equation modeling and data
envelope analysis, along with more focused approaches to case study.
Macro-analysis of TIMSS data on pupil achievement

Support for policy settings that balance centralization and decentralization in a
system of self-managing schools comes from recent analysis of pupil achievement in
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Brian J. Caldwell
39 nations. The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) was
the largest international comparative study of pupil achievement ever undertaken.
Information was gathered on a range of factors as part of the project, including pupil
and family characteristics, resources and teacher characteristics, and institutional
settings. Analysis of the performance of more than 260,000 pupils from 39 nations
was undertaken at Kiel University in Germany and reported by Woessmann (2000).
Regression analysis yielded interesting findings that confirm the efficacy of a balanced
approach.
Woessmann (2000, p. 79) concluded that "the only policy that promises positive
effects is to create an institutional system where all the people involved have an
incentive to improve student performance." Among the policy settings that are
favorable to pupil performance are the following:
Centralized examinations;
Centralized control mechanisms in curricular and budgetary affairs;
School autonomy in process and personnel decisions;
An intermediate level of administration performing administrative tasks and
providing educational funding;
Individual teachers having both incentives and powers to select appropriate
teaching methods;
Scrutiny of pupils educational performance;
Encouraging parents to take an interest in teaching matters.
It is important to note that "centralized control mechanisms in curricular and
budgetary affairs" refers to centrally determined frameworks, not to the manner of
implementation at the school level. In the case of budgets, this refers to the existence
of a funding mechanism that specifies how funds shall be allocated to schools; schools
then determine how these funds are deployed at the local level.
Comprehensive reform in Chicago

An increasing number of school districts in the United States are establishing local
management on the scale now evident in England and Wales, but these are still a small
minority among the 15,000 jurisdictions in that nation. The public school district in
Chicago is one such system with a comprehensive and relatively coherent set of reforms
dating from 1988. The stated goal of the Chicago School Reform Act was to raise the
level of pupil achievement to match national norms. According to Hess (1999) the
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chief mechanism for achieving this goal is a system of school-based decision-making,

with school councils and local responsibility for school improvement planning, budget
allocation and selection of staff within a framework of system-wide standards and
tests.
There is promising but contested evidence of the impact of school-based
decision-making and learning outcomes in Chicago. As reported by Lawton (1997,
p. 3), reading scores in 1990 were compared with those achieved in 1997. Nearly
half of the schools included in the study posted impressive gains, with Donald
R. Moore, Executive Director of Designs for Change that conducted the study
reporting "'strong evidence that the schools that have taken the greatest advantage
of that decision-making opportunity [under decentralization] are improving pupil
achievement," with the most improved schools having higher ratings stemming from
a school council focus on improvement, principals, teacher influence, teacher parent
relationships, safety, cooperative teacher effort and learning. While the researchers
included controls on pupil backgrounds in their analysis, other researchers not
involved in the study questioned whether sufficient attention had been paid to changes
in pupil demographics on a school-by-school basis.
The most powerful evidence of a correlation between self-management and learning
outcomes in Chicago, arguably in any jurisdiction, has emerged in the longitudinal
studies of the Consortium on Chicago School Research (Bryk, 1998; Bryk et al.,
1998). Value-added measures of pupil achievement over a number of years were
included in the design of an innovative productivity index. A model of direct and
indirect effects, including a capacity for self-management, was derived. As with the
earlier study cited above, this evidence is contested. Hess (1999) reported mixed
experience in the analysis of longitudinal achievement data over a 10-year period and
detailed case studies of experience in 14 schools. His conclusion on the importance of
resources is striking:
Budget analyses... and interview comments from principals show that
discretionary funds were important to schools in their efforts to change.
Principals said over and over that these funds were the engine that allowed
them to make changes in their schools. We found, however, that their
efforts were compromised to the extent that they were forced to siphon off
resources to maintain programs cut by the board of education to balance
the budget each year. Further, we have seen that some schools spent a lot of
new discretionary money without much to show for those expenditures in
terms of effective use of funds to foster improved student learning. More
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Brian J. Caldwell
money was crucial to improvement in the schools where improvement was

taking place. But more money did not automatically translate into better
student outcomes. How the money was used does appear to matter (Hess,
1999, p. 81).
Research in Victoria helps explain how money may be used in efforts to achieve
improvements in learning outcomes for pupils.
Self-managing schools in Victoria

The objectives and purposes of the reforms in Victoria in the 1990s range from
educational ("to enhance pupil learning outcomes," "to actively foster the attributes
of good schools"); professional ("to recognize teachers as true professionals," "to allow
principals to be true leaders"); community ("to determine the destiny of the school,
its character and ethos") and accountability ("for the progress of the school and the
achievement of its pupils").
Findings cited here are drawn from several research projects. The primary source
is the Cooperative Research Project, a joint endeavor of the Education Department of
Victoria (the state agency responsible for public education), the Victorian Association
of State Secondary Principals, the Victorian Primary Principals Association, and
the University of Melbourne. The project began in mid-1993 and concluded in
mid-1998, completing on schedule a planned five-year longitudinal study of processes
and outcomes. Seven statewide surveys of representative samples of principals were
conducted and these covered virtually every aspect of the reform, including its
impact on learning outcomes for pupils (Cooperative Research Project 1994, 1995a,
1995b, 1996, 1997, 1998). Seventeen investigations, including two reported here
(Hillier, 1999; Wee, 1999a, 1999b) focused on discrete elements, including leadership,
professional development, new workplace practices, resource allocation and school
improvement.
More recent work, including the studies of Hillier and Wee, expanded upon the
work of the Cooperative Research Project in an international collaborative effort,
pooling research from Australia (University of Melbourne), Britain (Open University)
and the United States (University of Wisconsin at Madison). There were two purposes
for this larger effort, which was supported by the Australian Research Council: first,
to develop models for funding that transcend national boundaries; and second, to
investigate the impact of school-based decisions about resource allocation on learning
outcomes for pupils.
Successive surveys of the Cooperative Research Project consistently found that
principals believed there had been a moderate to high level of realization of the
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expected benefit in respect to improved learning outcomes for pupils. In the final
survey in 1997, 84% gave a rating of 3 or more on the 5-point scale (where 1 is "low"
and 5 is "high").
As in the second generation of studies, such findings do not shed any light on the
extent to which the capacities fostered by the reform impact on learning outcomes.
Structural equation modeling using LISREL 8 (Jreskog & Srbom, 1993) was
employed in the analysis of data in the 1995, 1996 and 1997 survey. The model
reported here derives from the 1997 survey (Cooperative Research Project, 1998).
The first step was to create seven clusters of related survey items and to treat
these as constructs. These constructs were formed from 45 survey items concerned
with attitudes to the reform (Confidence in the attainment of "schools of the future"
[SOF] objectives), support (Curriculum and standards framework [CSF] curriculum
support), and outcomes (Curriculum and learning benefits, Curriculum improvement
due to the curriculum and standards framework, Planning and resource allocation
benefits, School and community benefits, Personnel and professional benefits).
Figure 1 illustrates the explanatory regression model that depicts the interdependent
effects among variables (in this instance, latent variables that represent the constructs)
on the variable Curriculum and learning benefits, which is the object of interest in this
section of the paper. Standardized path coefficients are shown, representing the direct
effects (all paths are statistically significant beyond the p < 0.05 level by univariate
two-tailed test). The fit between the data and model is very good indeed, with an
"Adjusted goodness of fit index" of 0.969, indicating that almost all (96.9%) of the
variances and co-variances in the data are accounted for by the model.
The path coefficients may be interpreted in this manner. The direct effect of
Personnel and professional benefits on Curriculum and learning benefits is indicated by a
path coefficient of 0.299. This indicates that an increase in the measure of Personnel
and professional benefits of 1 standard deviation, as reflected in ratings of principals,
produces an increase in the measure of Curriculum and learning benefits of 0.299 of a
standard deviation.
The model shows that three variables have a direct effect on Curriculum and
learning benefits, which includes improved learning outcomes for pupils. These are
Personnel and professional benefits (which reflects ratings for realization of the expected
benefits of better personnel management, enhanced professional development, shared
decision-making, improved staff performance, more effective organization following
restructure, increased staff satisfaction and an enhanced capacity to attract staff);
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Brian J. Caldwell
Curriculum improvement due to CSF (which reflects ratings for improved capacity
for curricular planning, establishing levels and standards for pupils, moving to a
curriculum based on learning outcomes and meeting the needs of pupils); and
Confidence in attainment of SOF objectives.
School &
Community
Benefits
.343
Personnel &
Professional
Benefits
.271
.299
Planning &
Resource
Allocation
Benefits
.359
.230
Confidence in
Attainment of
SOF Objectives
.420
.173
CSF Curriculum
Support
.364
.388
.309
Curriculum &
Learning Benefits
.226
Curriculum
Improvement
due to CSF
Note: SOF = Schools of the future (the reform initiative that included a higher level of
self-management).
CSF = Curriculum and standards framework
Figure 1. Explanatory regression model showing interdependent effects among factors

influencing percieved curriculum and learning benefits (Cooperative Research
Project, 1998).
Noteworthy are the pathways of indirect effects, illustrated for Planning and resource
allocation benefits, which is mediated in respect to its effect on Curriculum and learning
benefits through Personnel and professional benefits and Confidence in attainment of
SOF objectives. To put it another way, realizing the expected benefits of better resource
management, clearer sense of direction, increased accountability and responsibility,
greater financial and administrative flexibility, and improved long-term planning, will
have no direct effect on Curriculum and learning benefits but will have an indirect
effect to the extent they impact on Personnel and professional benefits which, in turn,
have a direct effect on Curriculum and learning benefits.
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Also noteworthy are the constructs that have direct effects on Confidence in
attainment of SOF objectives. High ratings of confidence were associated with high
ratings for the achievement of Planning and resource allocation benefits, School and
community benefits and CSF curriculum support. The likely explanation is that unless
principals experience benefits in these last three domains, they are unlikely to have
confidence in the reform.
The findings in these surveys are limited to the extent that they are based on the
perceptions of principals rather than measures of pupil achievement. This has been a
concern in most efforts to determine the impact of reform in recent years. In the case
of the Cooperative Research Project, there was no systemwide base-line data on pupil
achievement when the reform was implemented, and efforts to compare achievement
in schools in the pilot phase with that in schools that had not entered at the outset
were thwarted by a union ban on the collection of data.
Principals were asked to indicate the basis for their rating of the extent to which
the expected benefit of improved pupil learning had been realized. They rated the
importance of certain achievement measures and indicators of attendance, time
allocations in curriculum, participation rates, exit/destination data, parent opinion,
staff opinion and level of professional development (23 indicators were provided).
Most principals indicated moderate to high importance for these indicators in arriving
at their ratings. In the absence of direct access to pupil achievement data that would
put the matter beyond doubt, one way or the other, a high level of trustworthiness
ought be attached to these findings, given consistency in ratings, the stability of
the model over three years of surveys, and declarations by principals that they took
account of a range of indicators in forming their judgments.
MAPPING THE LINKS
Two sets of case studies in Victoria (Hillier, 1999; Wee, 1999b) help illuminate the
links illustrated in the model in Figure 1 under conditions where principals report
improved learning outcomes. Are the correlations that were evident in the model
confirmed in extensive on-site investigations in particular schools where improvement
is claimed? The research design in both studies thus started with schools where
principals made such a claim. The first task was to test the validity of these claims,
drawing on evidence in the particular schools selected for study. The second task was
to seek explanations for how such improvement occurred and then to match it against
the correlations or pathways that are shown in the model in Figure 1.
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Brian J. Caldwell
A case study approach was adopted. The studies differed in one important respect.
Hilliers was conducted in two stages, with one round of data collected in 1996, soon
after each element of the reform was in place and the pool of indicators was in the early
stages of implementation. The second stage took place in 1998, when Hillier returned
to the three schools to assess progress since 1996.
Wees study, as reported in detail here, was conducted in late 1997 when the pool
of indicators was well developed and a substantial body of evidence was available
to test claims of improved learning outcomes. A feature of her study was the
relentless probing for evidence and an extended pursuit of explanations to account
for improvement where this was found. The research was carried out in four primary
schools in the Western Metropolitan Region in Melbourne. Eight primary schools
that had expressed a willingness to participate in case studies following the survey of
principals in 1996 were invited to name up to three areas of the curriculum where
improvement in pupil learning had occurred and where they believed evidence was
available to substantiate their claim. Four schools were selected, reflecting diversity in
size, setting and curriculum area where evidence of improvement was claimed. A wide
range of curriculum areas was covered.
Findings revealed that schools could cite evidence that their efforts have led to
improved outcomes for pupils. They drew on many sources of data in recognizing
improved pupil learning in their schools. This illustrated the capacity being developed
in the system to gather information about the performance of schools. It was noted
above, in connection with the findings in the final survey of principals in the
Cooperative Research Project, that most respondents had been able to draw on up
to 23 indicators in making their judgment of the extent to which there had been
improvement in learning outcomes for pupils.
Maps of direct and indirect links were prepared by Wee for each school using the
rigorous approach to data collection, data display and data reduction for qualitative
research proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994). These maps show how school
capacity associated with being a "school of the future" had led to improved outcomes
for pupils. A synthesis of maps from the four schools is found in Figure 2.
Actions at the school level that have had a direct impact on pupil learning are in the
spheres of professional development, implementation of the curriculum and standards
framework and monitoring. The impact of resource allocation is indirect, mediated
through curriculum, professional development, monitoring and staffing.
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CURRICULUM-CSF
STAFFING
IMPLEMENTATION
Leading teachers appointed for

leadership of nominated curriculum
areas and CSF implementation.
Teacher incentives used.
Structural changes made.
Educational consultants, expert and
specialist teachers employed.
CSF outcomes used in planning,

linked to programs.
Programs implemented.
Structural changes made.
Nominated areas linked to CSF.
Computers used across KLAs.
CSF as a Charter priority.
PD plans developed.
PD targeted at needs
including CSF, staff,
curriculum, Charter,
assessment and
reporting, teaching and
learning.
Educational consultant
used.
Timetable changes for
PD.
Improved
student
learning
MONITORING
ASSESSMENT
REPORTING
PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Reports and programs

reflect CSF.
Detailed assessment and
reporting processes in
nominated areas.
Forward planning and/or
positive action for A&R.
LAP results form basis for
testing program.
KIDMAP implemented.
Moderation begun.
RESOURCES
4
Global budget flexibility to allocate

resources for staffing, curriculum and
professional development needs.
Resources targeted to Charter,
curriculum, staffing, professional
development and monitoring needs.
Legend:
Direct links
Reciprocal links
Note:
represents the number

of schools at which
pathways were
established.
PD = Professional development
CSF = Curriculum and standards framework
LAP = Learning assessment project (system-wide testing of pupil achievement in
selected key learning areas)
KIDMAP = Computer-based management information system to support learning
Figure 2. Synthesis of maps from four schools showing direct and indirect
links between elements of self-managing schools and learning outcomes for pupils
(Wee, 1999b).
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Brian J. Caldwell
These maps are consistent with the explanatory model based on survey findings
(Figure 1). Each of the direct and indirect links illustrated in Figure 2 is a manifestation
of the links depicted in Figure 1, with the exception of the impact of monitoring,
including assessment and reporting, which is not contained in the explanatory model.
Developing a capacity at the school level for gathering and utilizing a wide range of
techniques for monitoring pupil progress has had a direct impact on improvement in
pupil learning and on the way staff have implemented the curriculum and standards
framework.
Evidence from the four schools suggests that there have been important changes in
the "core technology of teaching and learning" which was not apparent in the case
study research of Levai in the earlier days of local management in Britain (Levai,
1995, p. 105).
The pool of indicators in schools in Victoria has now become quite extensive.
Principals and their colleagues have an unprecedented amount of data to monitor
developments in their schools, including levels of pupil achievement and other learning
outcomes. Clearly, the next stage in this third generation of studies is to undertake
more broadly-based research across a representative sample of schools that draws on
these findings.
SELF-MANAGING SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS
The worldwide trend towards self-management is further illustrated by initiatives

in developing nations, supported by international aid agencies, including the World
Bank, UNESCO and UNICEF. UNESCO hosted a forum in Paris in February 2001
that provided an opportunity for the sharing of experiences in recent years.
It is likely that some of the best evidence regarding the impact of self-management
on learning outcomes may come from these settings. An explanation lies in the
manner in which self-management has been linked to learning. A published account
is expected soon of experience in Indonesia where the author was invited to serve
as international evaluator of a project supported by UNESCO and UNICEF under
the title, "Creating Learning Communities for Children." Four initiatives were
combined in a pilot project conducted in 79 schools in three provinces (Central
Java, East Java and South Sulawesi), including the introduction of a limited form
of self-management, with a small budget for each school; professional development
for teachers; encouragement of parents and other members of the community to
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support their schools; and most important, changes to learning and teaching under
the theme "active, joyful, effective learning." Improvement on key indicators such as
pupil attendance and learning outcomes was documented for most schools.
IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY-MAKERS AND PRACTITIONERS
The research suggests that structural rearrangements are but a precondition if there
is to be any impact on learning outcomes. Whether there is impact depends on
making links across several levels to reach the classroom and the pupil, so that "the
changes characterized by decentralization have washed over and around children in
classrooms" (Bullock & Thomas, 1997, p. 219).
The implications for policy-makers and practitioners are relatively clear. These
may be expressed in the form of strategic intentions, along the lines proposed by
Caldwell and Spinks (1998), who derived a set of 100 strategies from their review of
developments on the three tracks for change around the world. The following reflect
the findings reported in this paper. Each may be prefaced by an action statement for
the system or school. For 1, this may be "In the metropolitan education authority,
it is recognized that the primary purpose of self-management is ..." or "In the local
secondary college, it is recognized that the primary purpose of self-management is
..." with the appropriate amendment in the subsequent text. Each such intention can
form the basis of more detailed planning or the design and delivery of professional
development programs.
1. The primary purpose of self-management is to make a contribution towards
learning, so schools that aspire to succeed in this sphere will make an unrelenting
effort to utilize all of the capacities that accrue with self-management to achieve
that end.
2. There will be clear, explicit and planned links, either direct or indirect, between
each of the capacities that come with self-management and activities in the school
that relate to learning and teaching and the support of learning and teaching.
3. There is a strong association between the mix and capacities of staff and success
in addressing needs and priorities in learning, so schools will develop a capacity
to optimally select staff, taking account of these needs and priorities.
4. There is a strong association between the knowledge and skills of staff
and learning outcomes for pupils, so schools will employ their capacity for
self-management to design, select, implement or utilize professional development
programs to help ensure these outcomes.
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Brian J. Caldwell
5.
A feature of staff selection and professional development will be establishment of

high performing teams whose work is needs-based and data-driven, supported by
a culture that values quality, effectiveness, equity and efficiency.
6. Schools will have a capacity for backward mapping in the design and
implementation of programs for learning, starting with goals, objectives, needs
and desired outcomes, and working backwards to determine courses of action
that will achieve success, utilizing where possible and appropriate, the capacities
that accrue with self-management.
7. A key task for principals and other school leaders is to help make effective
the links between capacities for self-management and learning outcomes, and
to ensure that support is available when these links break down or prove
ineffective.
While there is much that is still uncertain about the nature and impact of school
reform, it is evident that the means are at hand to create a system of public schools that
will provide a high quality of education for all pupils and that will be professionally
rewarding for teachers and other professionals. The challenge is how to put the
pieces together. Ensuring an effective linkage between self-management and learning
outcomes is a promising start. We are very close to a theory of learning in the
self-managing school.
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School-Based Management

New Vision of School-Based Management: Globalization, Localization,

The Self-Managed School as an Intelligent Organization

Innovative Concepts for Effective School Cultures: Earned Leadership

Organizational Vision in Self-Managing Schools: Walking on

PART III THE DYNAMICS OF SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT

The Development of Self-Managed Schools in England: Combining

School-Based Management: The United States Experience

From Experiment to Educational Policy: The Transition to School-Based

The Theory and Practice of School-Based Management for

Michael W. Kirst is a professor of Education at Stanford University. He was president

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

them in such a way as to guarantee both uniform administrative procedures and

rapid implementation of programs, recommendations by the professional and public

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

redistribution of responsibilities and accountabilities. While the government focused

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

defining budgetary criteria, inter alia, to reduce educational gaps;

defining standards and assessing achievement.

control; and undertaking widespread decentralization that leaves the organizations

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

organizational conditions schools were found to be "effective," "excellent" and

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

to learning, performance and curriculum. Caldwells explanation for the development

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

the theory of congruence in school, the knowledge of total home-school cooperation

Argyris, C. (1982). Reasoning, learning and action - Individual and organizational.

Gamble, A. (1985). Britain in decline. London: Macmillan.

Ami Volansky and Isaac A. Friedman

Volansky, A. (2003). The "Pendulum Syndrome" of centralization and decentralization

NEW VISION OF SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT:

Yin Cheong Cheng

International Trends Towards School-based Management

Yin Cheong Cheng

School-based management and improvement of internal process

Knowledge of strategic management

Knowledge of multi-level self management in school

Knowledge of dynamic process

6. Knowledge of layer management

Knowledge of congruence in school

Knowledge of total home-school collaboration and community support

Knowledge of transformational leadership

New Vision of School-based Management

A Positive profile on:

Healthy and smooth

Including critical components:

Awareness of unbalanced situation

Matrix of school process

Yin Cheong Cheng

The new knowledge framework

Congruence in school process:

Total parental involvement in school

Shift to transformational leadership

Shift to multi-dimensions of leadership:

Driving force for

Challenges to SBM in a new era