3D printing

An overview

Contents
1

Overview

1.1

3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

General principles

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.3

Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.4

Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.5

Manufacturing applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.6

Industrial applications

1.1.7

Sociocultural applications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.1.8

Legal aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.1.9

Impact

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

1.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

3D bioprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

1.2.1

Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

1.2.2

Bioprinting approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

1.2.3

Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

1.2.4

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

1.2.5

Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1.2.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1.2.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

1.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

3D tools and techniques

29

2.1

3D modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.1.1

Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.1.2

Modeling process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.1.3

Compared to 2D methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.1.4

3D model market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.1.5

3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.1.6

Human models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.1.7

3D Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

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CONTENTS

2.2

2.3

2.1.8

Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.1.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

2.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

3D scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

2.2.1

Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

2.2.2

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

2.2.3

Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

2.2.4

Applications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

2.2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

List of common 3D test models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3.1

Models by year of creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3.2

Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.3.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

Manufacturing processes

44

3.1

Contour crafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

3.1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

3.1.2

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

3.1.3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

3.1.4

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

Direct metal laser sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.2.1

Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.2.2

Applications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.2.3

Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.2.4

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

3.2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

3.2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

3.2.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

D-Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.3.1

Technical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.3.2

How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.3.3

The end product

47

3.3.4

Awards and achievements

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.3.5

Future of D-Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

3.3.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

3.3.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

Electron beam freeform fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

3.4.1

49

3.2

3.3

3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

iii

3.4.2

Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

3.4.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

3.4.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

3.4.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

Fused deposition modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

3.5.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

3.5.2

Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

3.5.3

Commercial applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

3.5.4

Free applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

3.5.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

3.5.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

3.5.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

Laminated object manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

3.6.1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

Laser engineered net shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

3.7.1

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

3.7.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

Magnetic 3D bioprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

3.8.1

General principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

3.8.2

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.8.3

Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.8.4

Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.8.5

Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.8.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.8.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.9.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

3.9.2

Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.9.3

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.9.4

Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.9.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.9.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.10 Stereolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

3.10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

3.10.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

3.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

3.10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

3.10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

3.10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

3.10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

3.11 Selective heat sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

3.5

3.6
3.7

3.8

3.9

iv

CONTENTS
3.11.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

3.12 Selective laser sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

3.12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

3.12.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

3.12.3 Materials and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

3.12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.13 Selective laser melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.13.2 Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.13.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.13.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.13.5 Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.13.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.13.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

3.13.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

3.14 Volumetric printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

3.14.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

Applications

64

4.1

3D printed rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

4.1.1

Eect on gun control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

4.1.2

Legal status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

4.1.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

4.1.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

4.1.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

3D-printed spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

4.2.1

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

4.2.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

Building printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

4.3.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

4.3.2

Current technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

4.3.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

4.3.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

4.3.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

Critical making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

4.4.1

Matt Ratto and Critical Making

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

4.4.2

Garnet Hertz and Critical Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

4.4.3

John Maeda and Critical Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

4.4.4

Other Uses of Critical Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

4.4.5

Concepts Related to Critical Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

4.2

4.3

4.4

CONTENTS

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.4.6

Matt Rattos Publications on Critical Making

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

4.4.7

Students Publications on Critical Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

4.4.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

4.4.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

4.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

Injection molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

4.5.1

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

4.5.2

Process characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

4.5.3

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

4.5.4

Examples of polymers best suited for the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

4.5.5

Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

4.5.6

Injection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

4.5.7

Process troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

4.5.8

Power requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

4.5.9

Robotic moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

4.5.10 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

4.5.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

4.5.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

4.5.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

Rapid prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

4.6.1

Rapid prototyping and production automotive spareparts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

4.6.2

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

4.6.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

4.6.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

4.6.5

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

4.6.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

4.7.1

Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

4.7.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

4.7.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

Organ-on-a-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

4.8.1

Lab-on-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

4.8.2

Transitioning from 3D cell-culture models to organs-on-chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

4.8.3

Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

4.8.4

Human-on-a-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

4.8.5

Replacing animal testing with organs-on-chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

4.8.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

4.8.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

Tissue engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

4.9.1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

4.9.2

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

vi

CONTENTS
4.9.3

Cells as building blocks

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

4.9.4

Scaolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

4.9.5

Assembly methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4.9.6

Tissue culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.9.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4.9.8

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4.9.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.9.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5

Related
5.1

105

Molecular assembler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1.1

Nanofactories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1.2

Self-replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.1.3

Drexler and Smalley debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.1.4

Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.1.5

Formal scientic review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.1.6

Grey goo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.1.7

In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.1.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.1.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

6

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

109

6.1

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.3

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Chapter 1

Overview
1.1 3D printing

Futurologist Jeremy Rifkin[3] claimed that 3D printing

or AM signals the beginning of a third industrial rev[4]
For methods of applying a 2D image onto a 3D surface, olution, succeeding the production line assembly that
see pad printing. For methods of copying 2D parallax dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th censtereograms that seem 3D to the eye, see lenticular print- tury.
ing and holography.
The term 3D printing has its origin sense, 3D printing
3D printing, a popular term for what is now known in reference to a process that deposits a binder material
onto a powder bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer.
More recently, the term is being used in popular vernacular to encompass a wider variety of additive manufacturing techniques. United States and global Technical
standards use the ocial term additive manufacturing for
this broader sense. ISO/ASTM52900-15 denes seven
categories of AM processes within its meaning: Binder
Jetting, Directed Energy Deposition, Material Extrusion,
Material Jetting, Powder Bed Fusion, Sheet Lamination
and Vat Photopolymerization.[5]

1.1.1 History
Terminology and methods
Early Additive Manufacturing (or AM) equipment and
materials were developed in the 1980s.[6] In 1981, Hideo
Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two AM fabricating methods of a threedimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask
pattern or the scanning ber transmitter.[7][8] But on July
16, 1984 Alain Le Mhaut, Olivier de Witte and Jean
Claude Andr led their patent for the stereolithography process.[9] It was three weeks before Chuck Hull
led his own patent for stereolithography. The application of French inventors were abandoned by the French
General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and
CILAS (The Laser Consortium).[10] The claimed reason was for lack of business perspective.[11] Then in
1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation[12] developed a prototype system based on a process known as
stereolithography, in which layers are added by curing
photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull dened
the process as a system for generating three-dimensional
objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,[13][14] but this had been already in-

A MakerBot 3D printer

as additive manufacturing (AM), refers to various processes used to synthesize a three-dimensional object.[1]
In additive manufacturing processing, successive layers
of material are formed under computer control to create
the object.[2] These objects can be of almost any shape or
geometry and are produced from digital model data 3D
model or other electronic data source such as an Additive
Manufacturing File (AMF) le.
1

2
vented by Kodama. Hulls contribution is the design of
the STL (STereoLithography) le format widely accepted
by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing and
inll strategies common to many processes today. The
term 3D printing originally referred to a process employing standard and custom inkjet print heads. The technology used by most 3D printers to dateespecially hobbyist and consumer-oriented modelsis fused deposition
modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion.

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
automated control.

(Other terms that had been used as AM synonyms

(although sometimes as hypernyms), included desktop manufacturing, rapid manufacturing [as the logical
production-level successor to rapid prototyping], and ondemand manufacturing [which echoes on-demand printing in the 2D sense of printing].) The 2010s were the
rst decade in which metal end use parts such as engine
brackets[19] and large nuts[20] would be grown (either beAM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as fore or instead of machining) in job production rather
selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, and than obligately being machined from bar stock or plate.
selective laser melting) usually went by their own indi- As technology matured, several authors had begun to
vidual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time, nearly speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable develall metal working was produced by casting, fabrication, opment in the developing world.[21][22][23]
stamping, and machining; although plenty of automation
was applied to those technologies (such as by robot welding and CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through 1.1.2 General principles
a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer was associated Modeling
by most people only with processes that removed metal
(rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM, Main article: 3D modeling
and many others. But AM-type sintering was beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid 1990s,
new techniques for material deposition were developed 3D printable models may be created with a computer
at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including aided design (CAD) package, via a 3D scanner or by a
microcasting[15] and sprayed materials.[16] Sacricial and plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D
support materials had also become more common, en- printed models created with CAD results in reduced errors and can be corrected before printing, allowing veriabling new object geometries.[17]
cation in the design of the object before it is printed.[24]
The umbrella term additive manufacturing gained wider
currency in the decade of the 2000s.[18] As the various additive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal
removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done under that type of control (a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass
of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer). It
was during this decade that the term subtractive manufacturing appeared as a retronym for the large family of
machining processes with metal removal as their common theme. At this time, the term 3D printing still referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds,
and the term AM was likelier to be used in metalworking and end use part production contexts than among
polymer/inkjet/stereolithography enthusiasts. The term CAD model used for 3D printing
subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead
complementing it when a term that covers any removal The manual modeling process of preparing geometric
data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts
method is needed.
such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting
By the early 2010s, the terms 3D printing and additive
digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object,
manufacturing evolved senses in which they were altercreating a digital model based on it.
nate umbrella terms for AM technologies, one being used
in popular vernacular by consumer - maker communities
and the media, and the other used ocially by industrial Printing
AM end use part producers, AM machine manufacturers,
and global technical standards organizations.
Before printing a 3D model from an STL le, it must
Both terms reect the simple fact that the technologies rst be examined for errors. Most CAD applications pro[25]
holes, faces normals,
all share the common theme of sequential-layer material duce errors in output STL les:
[26]
A
addition/joining throughout a 3D work envelope under self-intersections, noise shells or manifold errors.
step in the STL generation known as repair xes such

1.1. 3D PRINTING

3
moving material[34] with a higher-resolution subtractive
process can achieve greater precision.
Some printable polymers such as ABS, allow the surface
nish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor
processes[35] based on acetone or similar solvents.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of
using multiple materials in the course of constructing
parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not
necessarily require painting.

Timelapse video of a hyperboloid object (designed by George W.

Hart) made of PLA using a RepRap Prusa Mendel 3 printer for
molten polymer deposition

problems in the original model.[27][28] Generally STLs

that have been produced from a model obtained through
3D scanning often have more of these errors.[29] This is
due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point
to point acquisition, reconstruction will include errors in
most cases.[30]
Once completed, the STL le needs to be processed by
a piece of software called a slicer, which converts the
model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code
le containing instructions tailored to a specic type of
3D printer (FDM printers). This G-code le can then be
printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the
G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the
3D printing process).[31]
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (m). Typical layer thickness is around 100 m (250 DPI), although
some machines can print layers as thin as 16 m (1,600
DPI).[32] X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser
printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100
m (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.
Construction of a model with contemporary methods can
take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity
of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this
time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending
on the type of machine used and the size and number of
models being produced simultaneously.

Some printing techniques require internal supports to

be built for overhanging features during construction.
These supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.
All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cutting the metal component o the metal substrate after
deposition. A new process for the GMAW 3D printing allows for substrate surface modications to remove
aluminum[36] or steel.[37]

1.1.3 Processes
Several 3D printing processes have been invented since
the late 1970s.[38] The printers were originally large, expensive, and highly limited in what they could produce.[6]
A large number of additive processes are now available.
The main dierences between processes are in the way
layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials
that are used. Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers, for example. selective laser
melting (SLM) or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS),
selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM),[39] or fused lament fabrication (FFF),
while others cure liquid materials using dierent sophisticated technologies, such as stereolithography (SLA).
With laminated object manufacturing (LOM), thin layers
are cut to shape and joined together (e.g., paper, polymer,
metal). Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies oer a choice of
powder and polymer for the material used to build the
object.[40] Others sometimes use standard, o-the-shelf
business paper as the build material to produce a durable
prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the
printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and
color capabilities.[41]

Traditional techniques like injection moulding can be

less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in
high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster,
more exible and less expensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams the ability to produce Printers that work directly with metals are generally exto
parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.[33] pensive. However less expensive printers can be used[42]
make a mold, which is then used to make metal parts.
Finishing

Extrusion deposition
Though the printer-produced resolution is sucient for
many applications, printing a slightly oversized version Main article: Fused deposition modeling
of the desired object in standard resolution and then re- Fused deposition modeling (FDM), derives from auto-

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
tadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), polylactic
acid (PLA), high density polyethylene (HDPE), PC/ABS,
polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) and high impact polystyrene
(HIPS). In general, the polymer is in the form of a lament fabricated from virgin resins. There are multiple
projects in the open-sourced community aimed at processing post-consumer plastic waste into lament. These
involve machines used to shred and extrude the plastic
material into lament. Additionally, uoropolymers such
as PTFE tubing are used in the process due to the materials ability to withstand high temperatures. This ability
is especially useful in transferring laments.[45]

Fused deposition modeling: 1 nozzle ejecting molten material,

2 deposited material (modeled part), 3 controlled movable
table

FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes

that may be fabricated. For example, FDM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since they would be
unsupported during the build. Otherwise, a thin support
must be designed into the structure, which can be broken
away during nishing. Fused deposition modeling is also
referred to as fused lament fabrication (FFF) by companies who do not hold the original patents like Stratasys
does.

Binding of granular materials

A timelapse video of a robot model (logo of Make magazine)

being printed using FDM on a RepRapPro Fisher printer.

Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of

materials in a granular bed. The technique fuses parts
of the layer and then moves upward in the working area,
adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the
unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the
part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece. A laser is typically
used to sinter the media into a solid. Examples include
selective laser sintering (SLS), with both metals and polymers (e.g., PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS, Alumide,
Carbonmide, elastomers), and direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS).[46]

matic polymeric foil hot air welding system, hot-melt

glueing and automatic gasket deposition. Such principle has been further developed by S. Scott Crump
in the late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990 by
Stratasys.[44] After the patent on this technology expired,
a large open-source development community developed
and both commercial and DIY variants utilizing this type
of 3D printer appeared. As a result, the price of this tech- Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed and
nology has dropped by two orders of magnitude since its patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph Beaman
creation.
at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s,[47]
In fused deposition modeling the model or part is pro- under sponsorship of DARPA.[48] A similar process was
duced by extruding small beads of material which harden patented without being commercialized by R. F. Houshimmediately to form layers. A thermoplastic lament or older in 1979.[49]
metal wire that is wound on a coil is unreeled to sup- Selective laser melting (SLM) does not use sintering for
ply material to an extrusion nozzle head (3D printer ex- the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the
truder). The nozzle head heats the material and turns powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense mathe ow on and o. Typically stepper motors or servo terials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical propermotors are employed to move the extrusion head and ties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals.
adjust the ow. The printer usually has 3 axes of motion. A computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software Electron beam melting (EBM) is a similar type of adpackage is used to generate the G-Code that is sent to a ditive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g.
titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by meltmicrocontroller which controls the motors.
ing metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam
Extrusion in 3D printing using material extrusion involves in a high vacuum. Unlike metal sintering techniques
a cold end and a hot end.
that operate below melting point, EBM parts are voidVarious polymers are used, including acrylonitrile bu- free.[50][51]

1.1. 3D PRINTING
Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer at a time
by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and
printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an
inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has
been printed. This technology allows the printing of full
color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The
strength of bonded powder prints can be enhanced with
wax or thermoset polymer impregnation.
Lamination
Main article: Laminated object manufacturing
In some printers, paper can be used as the build material,
resulting in a lower cost to print. During the 1990s some
companies marketed printers that cut cross sections out
of special adhesive coated paper using a carbon dioxide
laser and then laminated them together.

5
1905) developed in 1860 and the photopolymerization of
Mitsubishis Matsubara in 1974.[54]
The photosculpture method consisted of photographing
a subject from a variety of equidistant angles and projecting each photograph onto a screen, where a pantograph
was used to trace the outline onto modeling clay.[55][56][57]
In photo-polymerization, a vat of liquid polymer is exposed to controlled lighting under safelight conditions.
The exposed liquid polymer hardens. Polymerization occurs when photopolymers are exposed to light when photopolymers contain chromophores, otherwise, the addition of molecules that are photosensitive are utilized to
react with the solution to begin polymerization. Polymerization of monomers lead to cross-linking, which creates
a polymer. Through these covalent bonds, the property
of the solution is changed.[24] The build plate then moves
down in small increments and the liquid polymer is again
exposed to light. The process repeats until the model has
been built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the
vat, leaving the solid model. The EnvisionTEC Perfactory[58] is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.

In 2005 Mcor Technologies Ltd developed a dierent

process using ordinary sheets of oce paper, a tungsten Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray
carbide blade to cut the shape, and selective deposition of photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layadhesive and pressure to bond the prototype.[52]
ers (between 16 and 30 m) until the part is completed.
There are also a number of companies selling printers Each photopolymer layer is cured with UV light after it is
that print laminated objects using thin plastic and metal jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled
and used immediately, without post-curing. The gel-like
sheets.
support material, which is designed to support complicated geometries, is removed by hand and water jetting.
It is also suitable for elastomers.
Photopolymerization
Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D microfabrication technique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. This approach uses a focused laser to trace
the desired 3D object into a block of gel. Due to the
nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a
solid only in the places where the laser was focused while
the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of
under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex
structures with moving and interlocked parts.[59]
Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidied using LEDs.[60]

In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography a 3D
digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each
slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image.
The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable
liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin
to cure it in the shape of the layer.[61] The technique has
Stereolithography apparatus
been used to create objects composed of multiple materials that cure at dierent rates.[61] In research systems,
the light is projected from below, allowing the resin to be
Main article: Stereolithography
quickly spread into uniform thin layers, reducing production time from hours to minutes.[61] Commercially availStereolithography was patented in 1986 by Chuck
able devices such as Objet Connex apply the resin via
Hull.[53] Photopolymerization is primarily used in steresmall nozzles.[61]
olithography (SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid. This process was a dramatic departure from the
"photosculpture" method of Franois Willme (1830

6
Powder Fed Directed Energy Deposition
In Powder Fed Directed Energy Deposition a high power
laser is used to melt metal powder supplied to the focus of
the laser beam. The laser beam typically travels through
the center of the deposition head and is focused to a small
spot by one or more lenses. The build occurs on a X-Y
table which is driven by a tool path created from a digital
model to fabricate an object layer by layer. The deposition head is moved up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powder is delivered and distributed around
the circumference of the head or can be split by an internal manifold and delivered through nozzles arranged
in various congurations around the deposition head. A
hermetically sealed chamber lled with inert gas or a local
inert shroud gas is often used to shield the melt pool from
atmospheric oxygen for better control of material properties. The Powder Fed Directed Energy process is similar
to Selective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the part at that
moment. The process supports a wide range of materials
including titanium, stainless steel, aluminum, and other
specialty materials as well as composites and functionally graded material. The process can not only fully build
new metal parts but can also add material to existing parts
for example for coatings, repair, and hybrid manufacturing applications. LENS (Laser Engineered Net Shaping),
which was developed by Sandia National Labs, is one example of the Powder Fed - Directed Energy Deposition
process for 3D printing or restoring metal parts.[62][63]

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
resin to ow under and maintain contact with the bottom of the object.[66] An oxygen-permeable membrane
lies below the resin, which creates a dead zone (persistent liquid interface) preventing the resin from attaching
to the window (photopolymerization is inhibited between
the window and the polymerizer).[67]
Unlike stereolithography, the printing process is continuous. The inventors claim that it can create objects
up to 100 times faster than commercial 3D printing
methods.[66][67][68]

1.1.4 Printers
Industry use

As of October 2012, additive manufacturing systems

were on the market that ranged from $2,000 to $500,000
in price and were employed in industries including
aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example,
General Electric uses the high-end model to build parts
for turbines.[69] Many of these systems are used for rapid
prototyping, before mass production methods are employed.
Higher education has proven to be a major buyer of
desktop and professional 3D printers which industry experts generally view as a positive indicator.[70] Signicant
desktop 3D printer purchases by both K-12 and universities help sustain a desktop 3D printer market that has had
problems in 2015-2016,[71] while universities are lling a
Metal wire processes
current talent gap that is expected to bolster the industry
in years ahead.[72] Libraries around the world have also
Laser-based wirefeed systems, such as Laser Metal become locations to house smaller 3D printers for educaDeposition-wire (LMD-w), feed wire through a nozzle tional and community access.[73]
that is melted by a laser using inert gas shielding in either
an open environment (gas surrounding the laser), or in a
sealed chamber. Electron beam freeform fabrication uses Consumer use
an electron beam heat source inside a vacuum chamber.
It is also possible to use conventional gas metal arc welding attached to a 3D stage to 3-D print metals such as
steel and aluminum.[64] Low-cost open source RepRapstyle 3-D printers have been outtted with Arduino-based
sensors and demonstrated reasonable metallurgical properties from conventional welding wire as feedstock.[65]
Continuous Liquid Interface Production
Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP) is a form
of additive manufacturing that uses photo polymerization
to create smooth-sided solid objects of a wide variety of
shapes. The continuous process begins with a pool of liquid photopolymer resin. Part of the pool bottom is transparent to ultraviolet light (the window). An ultraviolet RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel)
light beam shines through the window, illuminating the
precise cross-section of the object. The light causes the Several projects and companies are making eorts
resin to solidify. The object rises slowly enough to allow to develop aordable 3D printers for home desktop

1.1. 3D PRINTING

7
several other new 3D printers are aimed at the small,
inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold. Rapide 3D has designed a professional grade crowdsourced 3D-printer costing $1499 which has no fumes
nor constant rattle during use.[86] The 3Doodler, 3D
printing pen, raised $2.3 million on Kickstarter with the
pens selling at $99,[87] though the 3D Doodler has been
criticized for being more of a crafting pen than a 3D
printer.[88]

All of the plastic parts for the machine on the right were produced
by the machine on the left. Adrian Bowyer (left) and Vik Olliver
(right) are members of the RepRap project.

As the costs of 3D printers have come down they are

becoming more appealing nancially to use for selfmanufacturing of personal products.[89] In addition, 3D
printing products at home may reduce the environmental
impacts of manufacturing by reducing material use and
use. Much of this work has been driven by and tar- distribution impacts.[90]
geted at DIY/Maker/enthusiast/early adopter communiIn addition, several RecycleBots such as the commerties, with additional ties to the academic and hacker
cialized
Filastruder have been designed and fabricated to
communities.[74]
convert waste plastic, such as shampoo containers and
RepRap Project is one of the longest running projects milk jugs, into inexpensive RepRap lament.[91] There
in the desktop category. The RepRap project aims to is some evidence that using this approach of distributed
produce a free and open source hardware (FOSH) 3D recycling is better for the environment.[92]
printer, whose full specications are released under the
The development and hyper-customization of the
GNU General Public License, which is capable of repliRepRap-based 3D printers has produced a new category
cating itself by printing many of its own (plastic) parts
of
printers suitable for small business and consumer
to create more machines.[75][76] RepRaps have already
use.
Manufacturers such as Solidoodle,[69] Robo 3D,
been shown to be able to print circuit boards[77] and metal
RepRapPro
and Pirx 3D have introduced models and
parts.[78][79] The most popular 3D printer in the world is
kits
priced
at
less than $1,000, thousands less than
the Prusa i3, a RepRap printer.[80] [81]
they were in September 2012.[69] Depending on the
Because of the FOSH aims of RepRap, many related application, the print resolution and speed of manufacprojects have used their design for inspiration, creat- turing lies somewhere between a personal printer and
ing an ecosystem of related or derivative 3D printers, an industrial printer. A list of printers with pricing and
most of which are also open source designs. The avail- other information is maintained.[83] Most recently delta
ability of these open source designs means that vari- robots, like the TripodMaker, have been utilized for 3D
ants of 3D printers are easy to invent. The quality and printing to increase fabrication speed further.[93] For
complexity of printer designs, however, as well as the delta 3D printers, due to its geometry and dierentiation
quality of kit or nished products, varies greatly from movements, the accuracy of the print depends on the
project to project. This rapid development of open source position of the printer head.[94]
3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres as it
Some companies are also oering software for 3D printenables hyper-customization and the use of public doing, as a support for hardware manufactured by other
main designs to fabricate open source appropriate techcompanies.[95]
nology. This technology can also assist initiatives in
sustainable development since technologies are easily
and economically made from resources available to local
Large 3D printers
communities.[21][22]
The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since
about 2010, with machines that used to cost $20,000 now
costing less than $1,000.[82] For instance, as of 2013,
several companies and individuals are selling parts to
build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at
about 400 / US$500.[83] The open source Fab@Home
project[84] has developed printers for general use with
anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from
chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants.
Printers following the projects designs have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since
2012 at prices in the US$2000 range.[83] The Kickstarter
funded Peachy Printer is designed to cost $100[85] and

Large 3D printers have been developed for industrial, education, and demonstrative uses. A large delta-style 3D
printer was built in 2014 by SeeMeCNC. The printer is
capable of making an object with diameter of up to 4 feet
(1.2 m) and up to 10 feet (3.0 m) in height. It also uses
plastic pellets as the raw material instead of the typical
plastic laments used in other 3D printers.[96]
Another type of large printer is Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM). The goal is to develop printers that
can produce a large object in high speed. A BAAM machine of Cincinnati Incorporated can produce an object
at the speeds 200-500 times faster than typical 3D print-

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
The Economist, in a February 10, 2011
leader[100]

The BigRep One.1 with its 1 m volume.

ers available in 2014. Another BAAM machine is being

developed by Lockheed Martin with an aim to print long
objects of up to 100 feet (30 m) to be used in aerospace
industries.[97]
Microscale and nanoscale 3D printing

AM technologies found applications starting in the 1980s

in product development, data visualization, rapid prototyping, and specialized manufacturing. Their expansion into production (job production, mass production,
and distributed manufacturing) has been under development in the decades since. Industrial production roles
within the metalworking industries[101] achieved significant scale for the rst time in the early 2010s. Since the
start of the 21st century there has been a large growth in
the sales of AM machines, and their price has dropped
substantially.[102] According to Wohlers Associates, a
consultancy, the market for 3D printers and services was
worth $2.2 billion worldwide in 2012, up 29% from
2011.[103] McKinsey predicts that additive manufacturing
could have an economic impact of $550 billion annually
by 2025.[104] There are many applications for AM technologies, including architecture, construction (AEC),
industrial design, automotive, aerospace,[105] military,
engineering, dental and medical industries, biotech (human tissue replacement), fashion, footwear, jewelry, eyewear, education, geographic information systems, food,
and many other elds.

Microelectronic device fabrication methods can be employed to perform the 3D printing of nanoscale-size objects. Such printed objects are typically grown on a solid
substrate, e.g. silicon wafer, to which they adhere after Additive manufacturings earliest applications have been
printing as they're too small and fragile to be manipulated on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For
post-construction.
example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest addiIn one technique, 3D nanostructures can be printed tive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time
by physically moving a dynamic stencil mask during and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and dethe material deposition process, somewhat analogous vices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolto the extrusion method of traditional 3D printers. room methods such as cnc milling and turning, and preciProgrammable-height nanostructures with resolutions as sion grinding, far more accurate than 3d printing with acsmall as 10 nm have been produced in this fashion, curacy down to 0.00005 and creating better quality parts
by metallic physical vapor deposition through a piezo- faster, but sometimes too expensive for low accuracy proactuator controlled stencil mask having a milled nanopore totype parts.[106] With technological advances in additive
manufacturing, however, and the dissemination of those
in a silicon nitride membrane.[98]
advances into the business world, additive methods are
Another method enhances the photopolymerization promoving ever further into the production end of manufaccess on a much smaller scale, using nely-focused lasers
turing in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.[106]
controlled by adjustable mirrors. This method has proParts that were formerly the sole province of subtracduced objects with feature resolutions of 100 nm.[99]
tive methods can now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones. In addition, new developments
in RepRap technology allow the same device to perform
1.1.5 Manufacturing applications
both additive and subtractive manufacturing by swapping
magnetic-mounted tool heads.[107]
Three-dimensional printing makes it as
cheap to create single items as it is to produce
thousands and thus undermines economies
Cloud-based additive manufacturing
of scale. It may have as profound an impact
on the world as the coming of the factory
Main article: 3D printing marketplace
did....Just as nobody could have predicted
the impact of the steam engine in 1750or
the printing press in 1450, or the transistor
Additive manufacturing in combination with cloud comin 1950it is impossible to foresee the
puting technologies allows decentralized and geographlong-term impact of 3D printing. But the
ically independent distributed production.[108] Cloudtechnology is coming, and it is likely to disrupt
based additive manufacturing refers to a serviceevery eld it touches.
oriented networked manufacturing model in which

1.1. 3D PRINTING

service consumers are able to build parts through

Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-Service
(PaaS), Hardware-as-a-Service (HaaS), and Software-asa-Service (SaaS).[109][110][111] Distributed manufacturing
as such is carried out by some enterprises; there is also a
services like 3D Hubs that put people needing 3D printing in contact with owners of printers.[112]

is now entering the eld of rapid manufacturing and was

identied as a next level technology by many experts
in a 2009 report.[119] One of the most promising processes looks to be the adaptation of selective laser sintering (SLS), or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) some
of the better-established rapid prototyping methods. As
of 2006, however, these techniques were still very much
Some companies oer on-line 3D printing services to in their infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be considered a realistic manufacturing
both commercial and private customers,[113] working
[120]
from 3D designs uploaded to the company website. 3D- method.
printed designs are either shipped to the customer or
picked up from the service provider.[114]
Rapid prototyping
Mass customization

Main article: Rapid prototyping

Main article: Mass customization

Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s
Companies have created services where consumers can and have been used extensively for rapid prototyping and
research purposes. These are generally larger machines
that use proprietary powdered metals, casting media (e.g.
sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for rapid
prototyping by universities and commercial companies.
Research
3D printing can be particularly useful in research labs
due to its ability to make specialized, bespoke geometries.
In 2012 a proof of principle project at the University of
Glasgow, UK, showed that it is possible to use 3D printing
techniques to assist in the production of chemical compounds. They rst printed chemical reaction vessels, then
used the printer to deposit reactants into them.[121] They
have produced new compounds to verify the validity of
the process, but have not pursued anything with a particular application.[121]
Miniature face models (from FaceGen) produced using several
colored plastics on a 3D Printer

Food

Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by

squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional
objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and at foods such as
crackers, pasta,[122] and pizza.[123][124] NASA has considered the versatility of the concept, awarding a contract to
the Systems and Materials Research Consultancy to study
the feasibility of printing food in space.[125] One of the
problems with food printing is the nature of the texture
Rapid manufacturing
of a food. For example, foods that are not strong enough
Advances in RP technology have introduced materials to be led are not appropriate for 3D printing.
that are appropriate for nal manufacture, which has in
turn introduced the possibility of directly manufacturing Medical applications
nished components. One advantage of 3D printing for
rapid manufacturing lies in the relatively inexpensive pro- Professor Leroy Cronin of Glasgow University proposed
duction of small numbers of parts.
in a 2012 TED Talk that it was possible to use chemicustomize objects using simplied web based customisation software, and order the resulting items as 3D printed
unique objects.[115][116] This now allows consumers to
create custom cases for their mobile phones.[117] Nokia
has released the 3D designs for its case so that owners
can customize their own case and have it 3D printed.[118]

Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing cal inks to print medicine.[126] Similarly, 3D printing has
and many of its processes remain unproven. 3D printing been considered as a method of implanting stem cells

10

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

capable of generating new tissues and organs in living printers Stratasys 3D), it is a hybrid vehicle with futurhumans.[127]
istic look.[133][134][135]

1.1.6

Industrial applications

Apparel

In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new Airbus A350

XWB included over 1000 components manufactured by
3D printing.[136]
3D printing is also being utilized by air forces to print
spare parts for planes. In 2015, a Royal Air Force
Euroghter Typhoon ghter jet ew with printed parts.
The United States Air Force has begun to work with 3D
printers, and the Israeli Air Force has also purchased a
3D printer to print spare parts.[137]

3D printing has entered the world of clothing with fashion

designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis, shoes,
and dresses.[128] In commercial production Nike is using
3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American
football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing customt shoes for athletes.[128][129]
Construction
3D printing has come to the point where companies are
printing consumer grade eyewear with on-demand cus- Main article: Building printing
tom t and styling (although they cannot print the lenses).
On-demand customization of glasses is possible with Until recent years models were built by hand, often takrapid prototyping.[130]
ing a long time. Thus, architects are often forced to show
However, comment has been made in academic circles
as to the potential limitation of the human acceptance of
such mass customised apparel items due to the potential
reduction of brand value communication.[131]
Vehicle

their clients drawings of their projects. According to Erik

Kinipper, clients usually need to see the product from
all possible viewpoints in space to get a clearer picture
of the design and make an informed decision. In order
to get these scale models to clients in a small amount of
time, architects and architecture rms tend to rely on 3D
printing.[138] Using 3D printing, these rms can reduce
lead times of production by 50 to 80 percent, producing scale models up to 60 percent lighter than the machined part while being sturdy.[139] Thus, the designs and
the models are only limited by a persons imagination.
The use of 3D printing in architecture is still small as
logistics are being ironed out, but a new proof of concept has just been unveiled. The 250-square-metre space
(2,700 square foot) is what Dubais Museum of the Future project is calling the worlds rst 3D-printed oce
building. China unveiled the worlds rst 3D printed ofce building and mansion in early 2015.

The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA
robots

In early 2014, the Swedish supercar manufacturer,

Koenigsegg, announced the One:1, a supercar that utilizes many components that were 3D printed. In the limited run of vehicles Koenigsegg produces, the One:1 has
side-mirror internals, air ducts, titanium exhaust components, and complete turbocharger assemblies that were
3D printed as part of the manufacturing process.[132]
Urbee is the name of the rst car in the world car mounted
using the technology 3D printing (his bodywork and his
car windows were printed). Created in 2010 through
the partnership between the US engineering group Kor
Ecologic and the company Stratasys (manufacturer of

The improvements on accuracy, speed and quality of materials in 3D printing technology have opened new doors
for it to move beyond the use of 3D printing in the modeling process and actually move it to manufacturing strategy. A good example is Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis research at the University of Southern California which resulted in a 3D printer that can build a house in 24 hours
.The process is called Contour Crafting. Khoshnevis,
Russell, Kwon, & Bukkapatnam, dene contour crafting
as an additive manufacturing process which uses computer controlled systems to repeatedly lay down layers of
materials such as concrete. Bushey also discussed Khoshneviss robot which comes equipped with a nozzle that
spews out concrete and can build a home based on a set
computer pattern. Contour Crafting technology has great
potential for automating the construction of whole structures as well as sub-components. Using this process, a
single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a
dierent design, may be automatically constructed in a

1.1. 3D PRINTING

11

single run, embedded in each house all the conduits for

electrical, plumbing and air-conditioning.[140]
Firearms
Main article: 3D printed rearms
In 2012, the US-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic gun that could
be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D
printer.[141][142] Defense Distributed has also designed
a 3D printable AR-15 type rie lower receiver (capable of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a 30 round
M16 magazine The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both
an upper and lower receiver), but the legally controlled
part is the one that is serialized (the lower, in the AR15s case). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded
in designing the rst working blueprint to produce a
plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the United
States Department of State demanded that they remove
the instructions from their website.[143] After Defense
Distributed released their plans, questions were raised
regarding the eects that 3D printing and widespread
consumer-level CNC machining[144][145] may have on gun
3D printed human skull from computed computer tomography
control eectiveness.[146][147][148][149]
data.

In 2014, a man from Japan became the rst person in the world to be imprisoned for making 3D
printed rearms.[150] Yoshitomo Imura posted videos and
blueprints of the gun online and was sentenced to jail for
two years. Police found at least two guns in his household
that were capable of ring bullets.[150]

came the rst child in the UK to have a prosthetic hand

made with 3D printing technology. Her hand was designed by US-based E-nable, an open source design organisation which uses a network of volunteers to design
and make prosthetics mainly for children. The prosthetic
hand was based on a plaster cast made by her parents.[155]
Medical
A boy named Alex was also born with a missing arm
from just above the elbow. The team was able to use
See also: Biomolecular printing
3D printing to upload an e-NABLE Myoelectric arm that
3D printing has been used to print patient specic im- runs o of servos and batteries that are actuated by the
plant and device for medical use. Successful operations electromyography muscle. With the use of 3D printers,
include a titanium pelvis implanted into a British patient, E-NABLE has so far distributed more than 400 plastic
titanium lower jaw transplanted to a Belgian patient,[151] hands to children.
and a plastic tracheal splint for an American infant.[152]
The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be Printed prosthetics have been used in rehabilitation of
the biggest area of future development using the custom crippled animals. In 2013, a 3D printed foot let a crippled
[156]
In 2014 a chihuahua born with3D printing technology.[153] In March 2014, surgeons in duckling walk again.
out
front
legs
was
tted
with
a harness and wheels created
Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a
[157]
3D
printed
hermit crab shells let
with
a
3D
printer.
motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road
[158]
[154]
hermit
crabs
inhabit
a
new
style
home.
A prosthetic
accident.
Research is also being conducted on methbeak
was
another
tool
developed
by
the
use
of
3D printing
ods to bio-print replacements for lost tissue due to arthrito
help
aid
a
bald
eagle
named
Beauty,
whose
beak was
tis and cancer .
severely mutilated from a shot in the face. Since 2014,
3D printing technology can now be used to make exact commercially available titanium knee implants made with
replicas of organs. The printer uses images from patients 3D printer for dogs have been used to restore the animal
MRI or CT scan images as a template and lays down lay- mobility. Over 10,000 dogs in Europe and United States
ers of rubber or plastic.
have been treated after only one year.[159]
In February 2015, FDA approved the marketing of a surMedical devices In October 24, 2014, a ve-year-old gical bolt which facilitates less-invasive foot surgery and
girl born without fully formed ngers on her left hand be- eliminates the need to drill through bone. The 3D printed

12
titanium device, 'FastForward Bone Tether Plate' is approved to use in correction surgery to treat bunion.[160] In
October 2015, the group of Professor Andreas Herrmann
at the University of Groningen has developed the rst 3D
printable resins with antimicrobial properties. Employing stereolithography, quaternary ammonium groups are
incorporated into dental appliances that kill bacteria on
contact. This type of material can be further applied in
medical devices and implants.[161]
Bio-printing As of 2012, 3D bio-printing technology
has been studied by biotechnology rms and academia
for possible use in tissue engineering applications in
which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited
onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up
to form three-dimensional structures including vascular
systems.[162] The rst production system for 3D tissue
printing was delivered in 2009, based on NovoGen bioprinting technology.[163] Several terms have been used to
refer to this eld of research: organ printing, bio-printing,
body part printing,[164] and computer-aided tissue engineering, among others.[165] The possibility of using 3D
tissue printing to create soft tissue architectures for reconstructive surgery is also being explored.[166]
In 2013, Chinese scientists began printing ears, livers
and kidneys, with living tissue. Researchers in China
have been able to successfully print human organs using
specialized 3D bio printers that use living cells instead
of plastic . Researchers at Hangzhou Dianzi University
designed the 3D bio printer dubbed the Regenovo.
Xu Mingen, Regenovos developer, said that it takes the
printer under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or a four to ve inch ear cartilage sample. Xu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may be possible
within the next ten to twenty years.[167][168] In the same
year, researchers at the University of Hasselt, in Belgium
had successfully printed a new jawbone for an 83-yearold Belgian woman.[169]
Pills The rst pill manufactured by 3D printing was
approved by the FDA in August 2015. Binder-jetting into
a powder bed of the drug allows very porous pills to be
produced, which enables high drug doses in a single pill
which dissolves quickly and can be ingested easily.[170]
This has been demonstrated for Spritam, a reformulation
of levetiracetam for the treatment of epilepsy.[171]

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
board can be bought and be used in a printed VIA OpenBook case.[172]
Open-source robots are built using 3D printers. Double
Robotics grant access to their technology (an open
SDK).[173][174][175] On the other hand, 3&DBot is an
Arduino 3D printer-robot with wheels[176] and ODOI is
a 3D printed humanoid robot.[177]

Space
See also: 3D-printed spacecraft and 3D printing
Construction
The Zero-G Printer, the rst 3D printer designed to operate in zero gravity, was built under a joint partnership
between NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)
and Made In Space, Inc.[178] In September 2014, SpaceX
delivered the zero-gravity 3D printer to the International
Space Station (ISS). On December 19, 2014, NASA
emailed CAD drawings for a socket wrench to astronauts
aboard the ISS, who then printed the tool using its 3D
printer. Applications for space oer the ability to print
parts or tools on-site, as opposed to using rockets to bring
along pre-manufactured items for space missions to human colonies on the moon, Mars, or elsewhere.[179] The
European Space Agency plans to deliver its new Portable
On-Board 3D Printer (POP3D for short) to the International Space Station by June 2015, making it the second
3D printer in space.[180][181]
Furthermore, the Sinterhab project is researching a lunar
base constructed by 3D printing using lunar regolith as a
base material. Instead of adding a binding agent to the
regolith, researchers are experimenting with microwave
sintering to create solid blocks from the raw material.[182]
Similar researches and projects like these could allow
faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of o-Earth habitats.[183][184]

1.1.7 Sociocultural applications

In 2005, a rapidly expanding hobbyist and home-use market was established with the inauguration of the opensource RepRap and Fab@Home projects. Virtually all
home-use 3D printers released to-date have their technical roots in the ongoing RepRap Project and associated
open-source software initiatives.[185] In distributed manuComputers and robots
facturing, one study has found[186] that 3D printing could
become a mass market product enabling consumers to
See also: Modular design and Open-source robotics
save money associated with purchasing common household objects.[89] For example, instead of going to a store
3D printing can also be used to make laptops and other to buy an object made in a factory by injection molding
computers and cases. For example, Novena and VIA (such as a measuring cup or a funnel), a person might inOpenBook standard laptop cases. I.e. a Novena mother- stead print it at home from a downloaded 3D model.

1.1. 3D PRINTING

13
(the V&A). The installation was called Industrial Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will Newly Materialize.[190]

An example of 3D printed limited edition jewellery. This necklace is made of glassber-lled dyed nylon. It has rotating linkages that were produced in the same manufacturing step as the
other parts

Some of the recent developments in 3D printing were revealed at the 3DPrintshow in London, which took place in
November 2013 and 2014. The art section had in exposition artworks made with 3D printed plastic and metal.
Several artists such as Joshua Harker, Davide Prete, Sophie Kahn, Helena Lukasova, Foteini Setaki showed how
3D printing can modify aesthetic and art processes. One
part of the show focused on ways in which 3D printing
can advance the medical eld. The underlying theme of
these advances was that these printers can be used to create parts that are printed with specications to meet each
individual. This makes the process safer and more ecient. One of these advances is the use of 3D printers
to produce casts that are created to mimic the bones that
they are supporting. These custom-tted casts are open,
which allow the wearer to scratch any itches and also wash
the damaged area. Being open also allows for open ventilation. One of the best features is that they can be recycled to create more casts.[191]
3D printing is becoming more popular in the customisable gifts industry, with products such as personalized
mobile phone cases and dolls,[192] as well as 3D printed
chocolate.[193]
The use of 3D scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of moulding techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more
dicult, or too invasive to be performed, particularly for
precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts[194] where
direct contact with the moulding substances could harm
the original objects surface.

Critical making refers to the hands on productive activities that link digital technologies to society. It is invented
to bridge the gap between creative physical and conceptual exploration.[195] The term was popularized by Matt
Ratto, an Assistant Professor and director of the Critical
Making lab in the Faculty of Information at the University
of Toronto. Ratto describes one of the main goals of critical as to use material forms of engagement with techGuardians of Time by Manfred Kielnhofer, 3D printing polished nologies to supplement and extend critical reection and,
nickel steel by Shapeways in 2014
in doing so, to reconnect our lived experiences with technologies to social and conceptual critique.[196] The main
focus of critical making is open design,[197] which inArt
cludes, in addition to 3D printing technologies, also other
digital software and hardware. People usually reference
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report spectacular design when explaining critical making.[198]
on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing
technology,[187] being used by artists such as Martin John
Callanan at The Bartlett school of architecture. By 2007 Communication
the mass media followed with an article in the Wall Street
Journal[188] and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed Employing additive layer technology oered by 3D printdesign among their 100 most inuential designs of the ing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides, couplers
year.[189] During the 2011 London Design Festival, an in- and bends have been created. The complex shape of these
stallation, curated by Murray Moss and focused on 3D devices could not be achieved using conventional fabriPrinting, was held in the Victoria and Albert Museum cation techniques. Commercially available professional

14

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

source labs.[215] Engineering and design principles are explored as well as architectural planning. Students recreate
duplicates of museum items such as fossils and historical artifacts for study in the classroom without possibly
damaging sensitive collections. Other students interested
in graphic designing can construct models with complex
Domestic use
working parts easily. 3D printing gives students a new
perspective with topographic maps. Science students can
Some early consumer examples of 3d printing include study cross-sections of internal organs of the human body
the 64DD released in 1999 in Japan.[200][201] As of 2012, and other biological specimens. And chemistry students
domestic 3D printing was mainly practiced by hobbyists can explore 3D models of molecules and the relationship
and enthusiasts. However, little was used for practical within chemical compounds.[216]
household applications, for example, ornamental objects.
According to a recent paper by Kostakis et al.,[217] 3D
Some practical examples include a working clock[202] and
printing and design can electrify various literacies and
gears printed for home woodworking machines among
creative capacities of children in accordance with the
other purposes.[203] Web sites associated with home 3D
spirit of the interconnected, information-based world.
printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks,
Future applications for 3D printing might include creating
door knobs, etc.[204]
open-source scientic equipment.[215][218]
The open source Fab@Home project[84] has developed
printers for general use. They have been used in research
environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D Environmental use
printing technology, including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of principle.[121] The In Bahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstoneprinter can print with anything that can be dispensed from like material has been used to create unique coral-shaped
a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemi- structures, which encourage coral polyps to colonize and
cal application envisage both industrial and domestic use regenerate damaged reefs. These structures have a much
for this technology, including enabling users in remote lo- more natural shape than other structures used to create
cations to be able to produce their own medicine or house- articial reefs, and, unlike concrete, are neither acid nor
hold chemicals.[205][206]
alkaline with neutral pH.[219]
3D printing is now working its way into households, and
more and more children are being introduced to the concept of 3D printing at earlier ages. The prospects of Cultural Heritage
3D printing are growing, and as more people have access to this new innovation, new uses in households will In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively
used by in the cultural heritage eld for preservation,
emerge.[207]
restoration and dissemination purposes.[220] Many EuThe OpenReex SLR lm camera was developed for 3D ropeans and North American Museums have purchased
printing as an open-source student project.[208]
3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their
relics.[221]
grade printer EDEN 260V was used to create structures
with minimum feature size of 100 m. The printed structures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other
metal) to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device.[199]

Education and research

The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the British Museum have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.[222] Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum,
have gone further and sell through the online platform
Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using
Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly le format,
which everyone can 3D print at home.[223]

3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the
classroom.[209][210][211] 3D printing allows students to create prototypes of items without the use of expensive tooling required in subtractive methods. Students design and
produce actual models they can hold. The classroom environment allows students to learn and employ new applications for 3D printing.[212] RepRaps, for example,
have already been used for an educational mobile robotics Specialty materials
platform.[213]
Some authors have claimed that 3D printers oer an unprecedented revolution in STEM education.[214] The
evidence for such claims comes from both the low cost
ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students,
but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientic
equipment from open hardware designs forming open-

Consumer grade 3D printing has resulted in new materials that have been developed specically for 3D printers. For example, lament materials have been developed
to imitate wood in its appearance as well as its texture.
Furthermore, new technologies, such as infusing carbon
ber[224] into printable plastics, allowing for a stronger,

1.1. 3D PRINTING

15

lighter material. In addition to new structural materials law whereas any technical features could only be claimed
that have been developed due to 3D printing, new tech- if covered by a valid patent.
nologies have allowed for patterns to be applied directly to
3D printed parts. Iron oxide-free Portland cement powder has been used to create architectural structures up to Gun legislation and administration
9 feet in height.[225][226][227]
The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint
Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that
signicant advances in three-dimensional (3D) print1.1.8 Legal aspects
ing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable
les for rearms components, and diculty regulating
Intellectual property
le sharing may present public safety risks from unqualied gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed
See also: Free hardware
guns, and that proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manu- their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by
facturing industries where many legal regimes, including new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable
patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark les will be as dicult to control as any other illegally
may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to traded music, movie or software les.[231]
say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become main- Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter
stream and individuals and hobbyist communities begin than in the United States, some commentators have said
manufacturing items for personal use, for non-prot dis- the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative
tribution, or for sale.
rearms are not as easily obtainable.[232] Ocials in the
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to
do these things, where an active intellectual property was
involved, a person would have to contact the owner and
ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a
price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws
contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private',
'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of
art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, noncommercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
Patents cover inventions including processes, machines,
manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a nite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a
type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such
a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.[228]

United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed

gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.[233]
Europol stated that criminals have access to other sources
of weapons, but noted that as the technology improved
the risks of an eect would increase.[234][235] Downloads
of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil
were heavy.[236][237]
Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet
of gun plans has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS which enabled
DVD ripping.[238][239][240][241] After the US government
had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were
still widely available via The Pirate Bay and other le
sharing sites.[242] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers, to prevent them being used for
printing guns.[243][244] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free
speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor Hod Lipson suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.[245][246][247][248][249][250][251]

Copyright covers an expression[229] in a tangible, xed

medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus
70 years thereafter.[230] If someone makes a statue, they
may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs 1.1.9
to print an identical or similar statue.
When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from
the functional aspects of the item.[230] In other countries
the law and the courts may apply a dierent approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be
registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case of unauthorized copying, only
the non-functional features may be claimed under design

Impact

Additive manufacturing, starting with todays infancy period, requires manufacturing rms to be exible, everimproving users of all available technologies to remain
competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also
predict that this arc of technological development will
counter globalization, as end users will do much of their
own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy
products from other people and corporations.[6] The real
integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of comple-

16

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

menting traditional subtractive methods rather than dis- ing could develop economies of scope. While the adplacing them entirely.[252]
vantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the
economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible
and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of
Social change
the capabilities of the fabrication tools.[260] And following Neil Gershenfeld [265] in that some of the least develSince the 1950s, a number of writers and social com- oped parts of the world need some of the most advanced
mentators have speculated in some depth about the so- technologies, Commons-based peer production and 3D
cial and cultural changes that might result from the ad- printing may oer the necessary tools for thinking globvent of commercially aordable additive manufacturing ally but act locally in response to certain problems and
technology.[253] Amongst the more notable ideas to have needs.
emerged from these inquiries has been the suggestion
that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter peo- Larry Summers wrote about the devastating conseples homes, so the conventional relationship between the quences of 3D printing and other technologies (robots,
home and the workplace might get further eroded.[254] articial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform rouLikewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes tine tasks. In his view, already there are more Amereasier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects ican men on disability insurance than doing production
around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight ser- work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the
vices might also become less.[255] Finally, given the ease wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the
with which certain objects can now be replicated, it re- capacity of capital embodying articial intelligence to
mains to be seen whether changes will be made to current replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will incopyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property crease rapidly in the years ahead. Summers recommends
more vigorous cooperative eorts to address the myrrights with the new technology widely available.
iad devices (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money launAs 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, dering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of
online social platforms have developed to support the great wealth to avoid paying income and estate taxes,
community.[256] This includes websites that allow users and to make it more dicult to accumulate great fortunes
to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, without requiring great social contributions in return,
as well as social forums that discuss how to improve including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly
3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well laws, reductions in excessive protection for intellecas social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D tual property, greater encouragement of prot-sharing
models.[257][258][259] RepRap is a wiki based website that schemes that may benet workers and give them a stake
was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bardeveloped into a community that aims to bring 3D print- gaining arrangements, improvements in corporate govering to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such nance, strengthening of nancial regulation to eliminate
as Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which was subsidies to nancial activity, easing of land-use restriccreated initially to allow users to post 3D les for anyone tions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep
to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of shar- rising in value, better training for young people and reing 3D les. These websites have allowed for greater so- training for displaced workers, and increased public and
cial interaction between users, creating communities ded- private investment in infrastructure developmente.g.,
icated around 3D printing.
in energy production and transportation.[266]
[260][261][262]
Some
call attention to the conjunction of Michael Spence wrote that Now comes a powerful,
Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in inother low-cost manufacturing techniques. The self- creasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitureinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be tion and disintermediation has been underway for some
overcome with the development of economies of scope, time in service sectorsthink of ATMs, online bankand here, the civil society can play an important role con- ing, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship
tributing to the raising of the whole productive structure management, mobile payment systems, and much more.
to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized This revolution is spreading to the production of goods,
productivity.[260] Further, it is true that many issues, prob- where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor. In his
lems and threats rise due to the large democratization view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies
of the means of production, and especially regarding the comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D
physical ones.[260] For instance, the recyclability of ad- printers) and, more important, in creating the software
vanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons man- that enables machines to carry out various tasks. Once
ufacturing could become easier; not to mention the im- this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relplications on counterfeiting [263] and on IP.[264] It might atively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal
be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With
whose competitive dynamics were about economies of a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront
scale, Commons-based peer production and 3D print-

1.1. 3D PRINTING

17

xed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest

Milling center
[in digital technologies] are compelling. Spence believes
Organ-on-a-chip
that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove rms
to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the
Self-replicating machine
world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies is cost reduction via the replacement
Ultimaker
of labor. For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is easy to imagine that production
Volumetric printing
may become extremely local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand,
not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that 1.1.11 References
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Forbes investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative companies that comprise the
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complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.[268]

1.1.10

See also

3D Manufacturing Format
Additive Manufacturing File Format
AstroPrint
Cloud manufacturing
Computer numeric control
Fusion3
Laser cutting
Limbitless Solutions
List of 3D printer manufacturers
List of common 3D test models
List of emerging technologies
List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts
Magnetically assisted slip casting
MakerBot Industries

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[247] Gadgets (2013-01-18). Like It Or Not, 3D Printing Will [265] Gershenfeld, Neil (2007): FAB: The Coming Revolution
on your Desktop: From Personal Computers to Personal
Probably Be Legislated. TechCrunch. Retrieved 2013Fabrication. Cambridge: Basic Books, p. 1314
10-30.
[248] Klimas, Liz (2013-02-19). Engineer: Don't Regulate 3D [266] Larry Summers, The Inequality Puzzle, Democracy: A
Journal of Ideas, Issue #32, Spring 2014
Printed Guns, Regulate Explosive Gun Powder Instead.
The Blaze. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[267] Michael Spence, Labors Digital Displacement (2014-05[249] Beckhusen, Robert (2013-02-15). 3-D Printing Pioneer
22), Project Syndicate
Wants Government to Restrict Gunpowder, Not Printable
[268] Sharma, Rakesh. Can 3D Printing Reshape ManufacturGuns. Wired. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
ing In America?". Forbes.com.
[250] Bump, Philip (2013-05-10). How Defense Distributed
Already Upended the World.
The Atlantic Wire.
Archived from the original on 2013-05-19. Retrieved
1.1.12 Further reading
2013-10-30.
[251] News. European Plastics News. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[252] Albert 2011
[253] Confronting a New 'Era of Duplication'? 3D Printing,
Replicating Technology and the Search for Authenticity
in George O. Smiths Venus Equilateral Series. Durham
University. Retrieved July 21, 2013.
[254] Materializing information: 3D printing and social
change. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
[255] Additive Manufacturing: A supply chain wide response
to economic uncertainty and environmental sustainability
(PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-11.

Dickel, Sascha/Schrape, Jan-Felix (2016): Materializing Digital Futures. In: Ferdinand, Jan-Peter et
al. (Hg.): The Decentralized and Networked Future
of Value Creation. Dordrecht: Springer, S. 163
178. Springerlink
Tran, Jasper (2016). Press Clause and 3D Printing. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property 14: 7580.
Tran, Jasper (2016). 3D-Printed Food. Minnesota
Journal of Law, Science and Technology 17: 855
80.

1.2. 3D BIOPRINTING

25

Tran, Jasper (2015). To Bioprint or Not to Bio- 1.2.1 Process

print. North Carolina Journal of Law and Technol3D bioprinting generally follows three steps, preogy 17: 12378.
bioprinting, bioprinting, and post-bioprinting.[6][7]
Tran, Jasper (2015). The Law and 3D Printing.
John Marshall Journal of Information Technology
and Privacy Law 31: 505.
Pre-bioprinting
Results of Make Magazines 2015 3D Printer
Shootout. docs.google.com. Retrieved 1 June Pre-bioprinting is the process of creating a model that the
printer will later create and choosing the materials that
2015.
will be used. One of the rst steps is to obtain a biopsy of
Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazines 2015 3D the organ. The common technologies used for bioprinting
Printer Shootout. makezine.com. Retrieved 1 June are computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance
2015.
imaging (MRI). In order to print with a layer-by-layer ap Vincent; Earls, Alan R. (February 2011). Origins: proach, tomographic reconstruction is done on the imA 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc.. Todays Ma- ages. The now-2D images are then sent to the printer to
is created, certain cells are isochining World (Oak Forest, Illinois, USA: Screw be made. Once the image
[6]
lated
and
multiplied.
These
cells are then mixed with a
Machine World Inc.) 7 (1): 2425.
special liqueed material that provides oxygen and other
Heat Beds in 3D Printing Advantages and Equip- nutrients to keep them alive. In some processes, the cells
ment. Boots Industries. Retrieved 7 September are encapsulated in cellular spheroids 500m in diameter.
2015.
This aggregation of cells does not require a scaold, and
tubular-like tissue fusion
Albert, Mark (17 January 2011). Subtractive plus are required for placing in the [1]:165
for
processes
such
as
extrusion.
additive equals more than ( - + + = > )". Modern Machine Shop (Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Gardner Publications Inc.) 83 (9): 14.
Bioprinting
Stephens, B.; Azimi, P.; El Orch, Z.; Ramos, T.
(2013). Ultrane particle emissions from desktop In the second step, the liquid mixture of cells and nutri3D printers. Atmospheric Environment 79: 334. ents are placed in a printer cartridge and structured using the patients medical scans.[8] When a bioprinted predoi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
tissue is transferred to an incubator, this cell-based pre Easton, Thomas A. (November 2008). The 3D tissue matures into a tissue.
Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will Shake Up Man3D bioprinting for fabricating biological constructs typiufacturing. Analog 128 (11): 5063.
cally involves dispensing cells onto a biocompatible scaf Wright, Paul K. (2001). 21st Century Manufactur- fold using a successive layer-by-layer approach to genering. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
ate tissue-like three-dimensional structures.*[9] Articial
organs such as livers and kidneys made by 3D bioprinting
have been shown to lack crucial elements that aect the
1.1.13 External links
body such as working blood vessels, tubules for collecting urine, and the growth of billions of cells required for
Rapid prototyping websites at DMOZ
these organs. Without these components the body has no
way to get the essential nutrients and oxygen deep within
their interiors.[9] Given that every tissue in the body is nat1.2 3D bioprinting
urally compartmentalized of dierent cell types, many
technologies for printing these cells vary in their ability
3D bioprinting is the process of creating cell patterns in to ensure stability and viability of the cells during the
a conned space using 3D printing technologies, where manufacturing process. Some of the methods that are
cell function and viability are preserved within the printed used for 3D bioprinting of cells are photolithography,
construct.[1][2]:1 Generally, 3D bioprinting utilizes the magnetic bioprinting, stereolithography, and direct cell
layer-by-layer method to create tissue-like structures that extrusion.[1]:196
are later used in medical and tissue engineering elds.[3]
Bioprinting covers a broad range of materials. Currently,
bioprinting can be used to print tissues and organs to help Post-bioprinting
research drugs and pills.[4] In addition, 3D bioprinting
has begun to incorporate the printing of scaolds. These The post-bioprinting process is necessary to create a stascaolds can be used to regenerate joints and ligaments. ble structure from the biological material. If this proThe rst patent related to this technology was led in the cess is not well-maintained, the mechanical integrity and
United States in 2003 and granted in 2006.[2]:1[5]
function of the 3D printed object is at risk.[6] In order to

26

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

maintain the object,both mechanical and chemical stimulations are needed. These stimulations send signals to the
cells to control the remodeling and growth of tissues. In
addition, in recent development, bioreactor technologies
have allowed the rapid maturation of tissues, vascularization of tissues and the ability to survive transplants.[7]

and cell arrangement to resemble evolving tissues. Autonomous self-assembly depends on the cell as the fundamental driver of histogenesis, guiding the building blocks,
structural and functional properties of these tissues. It demands a deeper understanding of the of how embryonic
tissues mechanisms develop as well as the microenviron[10]
Bioreactors work in either providing convective nutrient ment surrounded to create the bioprinted tissues.
transport, creating microgravity environments, changing
the pressure causing solution to ow through the cells, Mini-tissue
or add compression for dynamic or static loading. Each
type of bioreactor is ideal for dierent types of tissue, The third approach of bioprinting is a combination
for example compression bioreactors are ideal for carti- of both the biomimicry and self-assembly approaches,
lage tissue.[1]:198
which is called mini tissues. Organs and tissues are built
from very small functional components. Mini-tissue approach takes these small pieces and manufacture and ar1.2.2 Bioprinting approach
range them into larger framework.[11] This approach uses
two dierent strategies. The rst strategy is when selfResearchers in the eld have developed approaches assembling cell spheres are arranged into large scaled tisto produce living organs that are constructed with sues by using natural designs as a guide. The second stratthe appropriate biological and mechanical properties. egy is when designing precise, high quality, reproductions
3D bioprinting is based on three main approaches: of a tissue and allowing them to self-assemble into large
Biomimicry, autonomous self-assembly and mini-tissue scaled functional tissue. The mixture of these strategies is
building blocks.[10]
required to print a complex three dimensional biological
structure.[10]
Biomimicry
The rst approach of bioprinting is called biomimicry.
The main goal of this approach is to create fabricated
structures that are identical to the natural structure that
are found in the tissues and organs in the human body.
Biomimicry requires duplication of the shape, framework, and the microenvironment of the organs and
tissues.[11] The application of biomimicry in bioprinting
involves creating both identical cellular and extracellular parts of organs. In order for this approach to be successful, replicating the tissues on a micro scale is substantial. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the microenvironment, the nature of the biological forces in this
microenvironment, the precise organization of functional
and supporting cell types, solubility factors, and the composition of extracellular matrix.[10]

1.2.3 Printers
Akin to ordinary ink printers, bioprinters have three major components to them. These are the hardware used,
the type of bio-ink, and the material it is printed on
(biomaterials).[6] In bioprinting, there are three major
types of printers that have been used. These are inkjet,
laser-assisted, and extrusion printers.
Inkjet printers are mainly used in bioprinting for fast and
large-scale products. One type of inkjet printer, called
drop-on-demand inkjet printer, prints materials in exact
amounts, minimizing cost and waste. Printers that utilize
lasers provide high-resolution printing; however, these
printers are often expensive. Extrusion printers print cells
layer-by-layer, just like 3D printing to create 3D constructs. In addition to just cells, extrusion printers may
also use hydrogels infused with cells.[6]

Autonomous self-assembly

1.2.4 Applications
The second approach of bioprinting is autonomous selfassembly. This approach relies on the physical process
of embryonic organ development then replicates the tissues by using this process as a model.[11] When cells are
in their early development, they create their own extracellular matrix building block, the proper cell signaling, and
independent arrangement and patterning to provide the
required biological functions and micro-architecture.[10]
Autonomous self-assembly demands specic information
about the developmental techniques of the tissues and organs of the embryo.[11] There is a scaold-free model
that uses self-assembling spheroids that subjects to fusion

San Diego-based Organovo, an early-stage regenerative

medicine company, was the rst company to commercialize 3D bioprinting technology.[2]:1 The company utilizes its NovoGen MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting.
The printer is optimized to be able to print skin tissue, heart tissue, and blood vessels among other basic
tissues that could be suitable for surgical therapy and
transplantation. Similarly, a research team at Swansea
University in the UK is using bioprinting technology to
produce soft tissues and articial bones for eventual use
in reconstructive surgery.[12] Bioprinting technology will

1.2. 3D BIOPRINTING
eventually be used to create fully functional human organs for transplants and drug research, which will allow
for more eective organ transplants and safer more effective drugs.[13]

Further advancements

27
mined to be a suitable biomaterial.[21] Engineers are also
exploring other options such as printing micro-channels
that can maximize the diusion of nutrients and oxygen from neighboring tissues [8] In addition, The Defense
Threat Reduction Agency aims to print mini organs such
as hearts, livers, and lungs as the potential to test new
drugs more accurately and perhaps eliminate the need for
testing in animals.[8]

As well as being used for growing organs, this newer

biotechnology is also being used to create skin for prosthetic limbs and for skin grafts.[14][15] By taking a few live 1.2.6 See also
skin cells and applying bioengineering, limbs can be de 3D printing Bio-printing
signed on a computer. The object, such as a prosthetic
limb organs, can be customized to t an amputees needs
Cultured meat
or a patient in need of a transplant. The 3D printer will
print out these objects using nanotechnology, layer by
Magnetic 3D bioprinting
layer, in less than an hour.[16]
In early 2015, 3-D printing techniques expanded to in1.2.7 References
clude materials such as graphene, a material possessing
unique properties such as high levels of strength, rather [1] Chua, C.K.; Yeong, W.Y. (2015). Bioprinting: Principles
than only plastics.[17] Researchers have since proved that
and Applications. Singapore: World Scientic Publishing
printing graphene using a micropipette technique to creCo. p. 296. ISBN 9789814612104. Retrieved 17 Februate nanostructures is possible.[18] The nanostructures and
ary 2016.
graphene structures that are printed can create various objects, including architectures and woven structures. Us- [2] Doyle, Ken (15 May 2014). Bioprinting: From patches
to parts. Gen. Eng. Biotechnol. News 34 (10): 1, 345.
ing a computer, science and healthcare professionals can
doi:10.1089/gen.34.10.02.
take X-rays and molds from a patient to recreate a specialized prosthetic that is customized to t the patient. [3] Advancing Tissue Engineering: The State of 3D Bioprinting. 3DPrint.com. Retrieved 2016-04-09.
This allows the prosthetics to be more comfortable and
function more naturally. In the future, this technology
[4] ExplainingTheFuture.com : Bioprinting.
www.
will change the face on medicine and manufacturing.
explainingthefuture.com. Retrieved 2016-04-09.
This technology has great potential for the NBIC (nano-,
bio-, info-, and cognitive-based technologies) to strate- [5] US patent 7051654, Boland, Thomas; Wilson, Jr.,
William Crisp; Xu, Tao, Ink-jet printing of viable cells,
gically make advancements in medicine and in surgical
issued 2006-05-30
procedures that will greatly save time, costs, and create
more convenient opportunities for patients and healthcare
[6] Shaee, Ashkan; Atala, Anthony (2016-03-01).
professionals.[15][19]
Printing Technologies for Medical Applications.

1.2.5

Impact

Trends in Molecular Medicine 22 (3):

doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2016.01.003.

254265.

[7] Ozbolat, Ibrahim T. (2015-07-01).

Bioprinting
scale-up tissue and organ constructs for transplantation. Trends in Biotechnology 33 (7): 395400.
doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.04.005.

3D bioprinting contributes to signicant advances in

the medical eld of tissue engineering by allowing
for research to be done on innovative materials called
biomaterials. Biomaterials are the materials adapted and [8] Cooper-White, M. (1 March 2015). How 3D Printing Could End The Deadly Shortage Of Donor Organs.
used for printing three-dimensional objects. Some of
Hupost Science. TheHungtonPost.com, Inc. Rethe most notable bioengineered substances are usually
trieved 17 February 2016.
stronger than the average bodily materials, including soft
tissue and bone. These constituents can act as future sub- [9] Harmon, K. (2013). A sweet solution for replacstitutes, even improvements, for the original body maing organs (PDF). Scientic American 308 (4): 54
terials. Alginate, for example, is an anionic polymer
55. doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0413-54. Retrieved
with many biomedical implications including feasibility,
17 February 2016.
strong biocompatibility, low toxicity, and stronger structural ability in comparison to some of the bodys struc- [10] Murphy, Sean; Atala, Anthony (August 5, 2014). 3D
bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nature Biotechnology.
tural material.[20] Synthetic hydrogels are also commondoi:10.1038/nbt.2958.
place, including PV-based gels. The combination of acid
with a UV initiated PV based cross-linker has been evalu- [11] Yoo, James; Atala, Anthony (2015). Bioprinting: 3D
printing comes to life. Manufacturing Engineering.
ated by the Wake Forest Institute of Medicine and deter-

28

[12] Thomas D.J. Using 3D-Bioprinting for Articial Bones

> ENGINEERING.com. www.engineering.com. Retrieved 2016-07-01.
[13] Thomas, D. (25 March 2014). Engineering Ourselves
The Future Potential Power of 3D-Bioprinting?". Engineering.com.
[14] Dorminey, B. (February 26, 2013). Nanotechnologys
Revolutionary Next Phase. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved
October 24, 2015.
[15] Berger, M. (September 26, 2014). Nanotechnology and
3D-printing. Retrieved October 24, 2015.
[16] Campbell, T.; Garrett, B.; Ivanova, O.; Williams, C.
(October 1, 2011). Could 3D Printing Change the
World? Technologies, Potential, and Implications of Additive Manufacturing (PDF). Atlantic Council. Retrieved
October 24, 2015.
[17] Tampi, Tarun (19 March 2015). Graphene Filament
Could Breathe Life into 3D Printing. 3D Printing Industry. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[18] Krouse, C. Nanotechnology Skin for Prosthetic Arms.
Nanowerk.com. Retrieved October 24, 2015.
[19] Krassenstien, B. (27 November 2014). Breakthrough
Research Leads to the 3D Printing of Pure Graphene
Nanostructures. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
[20] Crawford, M. (May 2013). Creating Valve Tissue Using
3-D Bioprinting. ASME.org. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[21] Murphy, S.V.; Skardal, A.; Atala, A. (2013). Evaluation of hydrogels for bio-printing applications. Journal
of Biomedical Materials Research Part A 101A (1): 272
84. doi:10.1002/jbm.a.34326. PMID 22941807.

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

Chapter 2

3D tools and techniques

2.1 3D modeling

of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc.
This article is about computer modeling within an artistic Being a collection of data (points and other informamedium. For scientic usage, see Computer simulation. tion), 3D models can be created by hand, algorithmically
(procedural modeling), or scanned. Their surfaces may
be further dened with texture mapping.
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling (or modelling)
is the process of developing a mathematical representa- 3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics and
tion of any three-dimensional surface of an object (either CAD. Actually, their use predates the widespread use
inanimate or living) via specialized software. The prod- of 3D graphics on personal computers. Many computer
uct is called a 3D model. It can be displayed as a two- games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites
dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering before computers could render them in real-time.
or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of elds.
The model can also be physically created using 3D print- The medical industry uses detailed models of organs;
ing devices.[1]
these may be created with multiple 2-D image slices from
Models may be created automatically or manually. The an MRI or CT scan. The movie industry uses them as
manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for characters and objects for animated and real-life motion
3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as pictures. The video game industry uses them as assets for
computer and video games. The science sector uses them
sculpting.
as highly detailed models of chemical compounds.[3] The
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graph- architecture industry uses them to demonstrate proposed
ics software used to produce 3D models. Individual pro- buildings and landscapes in lieu of traditional, physical
grams of this class are called modeling applications or architectural models. The engineering community uses
modelers.
them as designs of new devices, vehicles and structures
as well as a host of other uses. In recent decades the earth
science community has started to construct 3D geological
2.1.1 Models
models as a standard practice. 3D models can also be the
basis for physical devices that are built with 3D printers
or CNC machines.

Representation
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.
Solid - These models dene the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). These are more realistic, but more dicult to build. Solid models are
mostly used for nonvisual simulations such as medical and engineering simulations, for CAD and specialized visual applications such as ray tracing and
constructive solid geometry
3D model of a spectrograph[2]

3D models represent a physical body using a collection

29

Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the boundary of the object, not its volume

30

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

A modern render of the iconic Utah teapot model developed by

Martin Newell (1975). The Utah teapot is one of the most common models used in 3D graphics education.
3D polygonal modelling of a human face.

(like an innitesimally thin eggshell). These are easier to work with than solid models. Almost all visual
models used in games and lm are shell models.
Because the appearance of an object depends largely
on the exterior of the object, boundary representations
are common in computer graphics. Two dimensional
surfaces are a good analogy for the objects used in graphics, though quite often these objects are non-manifold.
Since surfaces are not nite, a discrete digital approximation is required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser
extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations
have been gaining some popularity in recent years. Level
sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces
which undergo many topological changes such as uids.
The process of transforming representations of objects,
such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a
point on its circumference into a polygon representation of a sphere, is called tessellation. This step is used
in polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken
down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as
spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are nets of
interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of
e.g. squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to
rasterise (the surface described by each triangle is planar,
so the projection is always convex); .[4] Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and
in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the
transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.

2.1.2

Modeling process

There are three popular ways to represent a model:

them so quickly. However, polygons are planar and

can only approximate curved surfaces using many
polygons.
2. Curve modeling - Surfaces are dened by curves,
which are inuenced by weighted control points.
The curve follows (but does not necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for
a point will pull the curve closer to that point.
Curve types include nonuniform rational B-spline
(NURBS), splines, patches, and geometric primitives
3. Digital sculpting - Still a fairly new method of
modeling, 3D sculpting has become very popular in
the few years it has been around. There are currently three types of digital sculpting: Displacement,
which is the most widely used among applications
at this moment, uses a dense model (often generated by subdivision surfaces of a polygon control
mesh) and stores new locations for the vertex positions through use of a 32bit image map that stores
the adjusted locations. Volumetric, loosely based
on voxels, has similar capabilities as displacement
but does not suer from polygon stretching when
there are not enough polygons in a region to achieve
a deformation. Dynamic tessellation is similar to
voxel but divides the surface using triangulation to
maintain a smooth surface and allow ner details.
These methods allow for very artistic exploration as
the model will have a new topology created over it
once the models form and possibly details have been
sculpted. The new mesh will usually have the original high resolution mesh information transferred
into displacement data or normal map data if for a
game engine.

1. Polygonal modeling - Points in 3D space, called

vertices, are connected by line segments to form a
polygon mesh. The vast majority of 3D models to- The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects
day are built as textured polygonal models, because that are later used in the scene. There are a number of
they are exible and because computers can render modeling techniques, including:

2.1. 3D MODELING

31

Constructive solid geometry

Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering

may include a software learning curve and diculty
Implicit surfaces
achieving certain photorealistic eects. Some photorealistic eects may be achieved with special rendering l Subdivision surfaces
ters included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of
both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modelModeling can be performed by means of a dedicated ing followed by editing the 2D computer-rendered images
program (e.g., Cinema 4D, Maya, 3ds Max, Blender, from the 3D model.
LightWave, Modo) or an application component (Shaper,
Lofter in 3ds Max) or some scene description language
(as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict dis- 2.1.4 3D model market
tinction between these phases; in such cases modeling is
just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related
example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D).
content, such as textures, scripts, etc.) still exists Complex materials such as blowing sand, clouds, and either for individual models or large collections. Onliquid sprays are modeled with particle systems, and line marketplaces for 3D content, such as TurboSquid,
are a mass of 3D coordinates which have either points, The3DStudio, 3DExport, CreativeCrash, CGTrader,
polygons, texture splats, or sprites assigned to them.
FlatPyramid, NoneCG, CGPeopleNetwork, Design Connected and DAZ 3D, allow individual artists to sell content that they have created. Often, the artists goal is to get
2.1.3 Compared to 2D methods
additional value out of assets they have previously created
for projects. By doing so, artists can earn more money out
of their old content, and companies can save money by
buying pre-made models instead of paying an employee
to create one from scratch. These marketplaces typically
split the sale between themselves and the artist that created the asset, artists get 40% to 95% of the sales according to the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains
ownership of the 3d model; the customer only buys the
right to use and present the model. Some artists sell their
products directly in its own stores oering their products
at a lower price by not using intermediaries.
Over the last several years numerous marketplaces specialized in 3D printing models have emerged. Some
of the 3D printing marketplaces are combination of
models sharing sites, with or without a built in ecom capability. Some of those platforms also offer 3D printing services on demand, software for
A fully textured and lit rendering of a 3D model.
model rendering and dynamic viewing of items, etc.
Among the most popular 3D printing le sharing plat3D photorealistic eects are often achieved without wire- forms are Shapeways, Pinshape, Thingiverse, 3DExport,
frame modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in CGTrader, Treatstock, Threeding, MyMiniFactory and
the nal form. Some graphic art software includes lters GrabCAD.
that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster
graphics on transparent layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2.1.5 3D printing
2D methods include:
Main articles: 3D printing and Rapid prototyping
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate im3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing technolages with quicker rendering of the changes;
ogy where a three dimensional object is created by laying
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and render- down successive layers of material.
ing photorealistic eects rather than mentally visuIn recent years, there has been an upsurge in the numalizing or estimating;
ber of companies oering personalised 3D printed mod Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error els of objects that have been scanned, rendered in
in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a three dimensions in computer software, and then printed
visual eect.
to the customers requirements. As previously men-

32

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

tioned, 3D models can be purchased from online marketplaces and printed by individuals or companies using
commercially available 3D printers, enabling the homeproduction of objects such as spare parts,[5] and even
medical equipment.[6]

2.1.6

Human models

Main article: virtual actor

The rst widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands End
web site. The human virtual models were created by the
company My Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a model of themselves and try on 3D clothing.[7] There
are several modern programs that allow for the creation
of virtual human models (Poser being one example).

2.1.7

3D Clothing

Steps of forensic facial reconstruction of a mummy made in

Blender by the Brazilian 3D designer Ccero Moraes.

software are also used in constructing digital representation of mechanical models or parts before they are actually manufactured. CAD/CAM related software are used
in such elds, and with these software, not only can you
construct the parts, but also assemble them, and observe
their functionality.
3D modelling is also used in the eld of Industrial Design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing them to the clients. In Media and Event industries,
3D modelling is used in Stage/Set Design.

2.1.9 See also

3CT
List of 3D modeling software
List of common 3D test models
Dynamic 3D Clothing Model made in Marvelous Designer

The development of cloth simulation software such as

Marvelous Designer, CLO3D and Optitex, has enabled
artists and fashion designers to model dynamic 3D clothing on the computer. [8] Dynamic 3D clothing is used for
virtual fashion catalogs, as well as for dressing 3D characters for video games, 3D animation movies, for digital doubles in movies[9] as well as for making clothes for
avatars in virtual worlds such as SecondLife.

2.1.8

Uses

3D modeling is used in various industries like lms, animation and gaming, interior designing and architecture.
They are also used in the medical industry for the interactive representations of anatomy. A wide number of 3D

3D computer graphics software

3D printing
3D scanner
Additive Manufacturing File Format
Building information modeling
Cloth modeling
Computer facial animation
Digimation's Library example
Digital geometry
Edge loop

2.2. 3D SCANNER

33

Evolver is a portal, 3D modeler and market place for 2.1.11 External links
3D characters
How 3D Works - Explains 3D modeling for an illuminated manuscript
Geological modeling
Industrial CT scanning
Marching cubes
Open CASCADE
Polygon mesh
Polygonal modeling
Scaling (geometry)

How to Build Your First 3D Object - Tutorial which

explains how to model your objects for print
Manuscripts of Licheld Cathedral - Includes interactive 3D renderings of 16 pages of the St Chad
Gospels (high resolution)
Stark, John (1984), Experience with the development and use of a CAD/CAM system, Elsevier,
doi:10.1016/0166-3615(84)90036-8

2.2 3D scanner

SIGGRAPH
Stanford Bunny
Triangle mesh
Utah teapot
Voxel
B-rep

2.1.10

References

3D scanner used to create 3D animation and special eects

[1] http://www.fractal.ae/3d-modelling-services/
[2] ERIS Project Starts. ESO Announcement. Retrieved 14
June 2013.
[3] 3D Scanning Advancements in Medical Science. Konica Minolta. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
[4] Jon Rado, Anatomy of an MMORPG, August 22, 2008
[5] 3D Printing Toys. Business Insider. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
3D scanned interior of St Josephs Church, Subiaco
[6] New Trends in 3D Printing Customized Medical Devices. Envisiontec. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
[7] Lands End First With New 'My Virtual Model' Technology: Takes Guesswork Out of Web Shopping for Clothes
That Fit. PRNewswire. Lands End. February 12, 2004.
Retrieved 2013-11-24.
[8] All About Virtual Fashion and the Creation of 3D Clothing. CGElves. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
[9] 3D Clothes made for The Hobbit using Marvelous Designer. 3DArtist. Retrieved 9 May 2013.

A 3D scanner is a device that analyses a real-world object

or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly
its appearance (e.g. colour). The collected data can then
be used to construct digital three-dimensional models.
Many dierent technologies can be used to build these
3D-scanning devices; each technology comes with its
own limitations, advantages and costs. Many limitations
in the kind of objects that can be digitised are still present,
for example, optical technologies encounter many diculties with shiny, mirroring or transparent objects. For
example, industrial computed tomography scanning can

34

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

be used to construct digital 3D models, applying non- 2.2.2 Technology

destructive testing.
Collected 3D data is useful for a wide variety of appli- There are a variety of technologies for digitally acof a 3D object. A well established
cations. These devices are used extensively by the enter- quiring the shape
[2]
classication
divides
them into two types: contact and
tainment industry in the production of movies and video
non-contact.
Non-contact
solutions can be further digames. Other common applications of this technology invided
into
two
main
categories,
active and passive. There
clude industrial design, orthotics and prosthetics, reverse
are
a
variety
of
technologies
that
fall under each of these
engineering and prototyping, quality control/inspection
categories.
and documentation of cultural artifacts.
Contact

2.2.1

Functionality

3D scanning of a n whale skeleton in the Natural History Museum of Slovenia (August 2013)

The purpose of a 3D scanner is usually to create a point

cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the subject.
These points can then be used to extrapolate the shape
of the subject (a process called reconstruction). If colour
information is collected at each point, then the colours on
the surface of the subject can also be determined.
3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Like most
cameras, they have a cone-like eld of view, and like cameras, they can only collect information about surfaces that
are not obscured. While a camera collects colour information about surfaces within its eld of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information about surfaces within its
eld of view. The picture produced by a 3D scanner describes the distance to a surface at each point in the picture. This allows the three dimensional position of each
point in the picture to be identied.
For most situations, a single scan will not produce a complete model of the subject. Multiple scans, even hundreds, from many dierent directions are usually required
to obtain information about all sides of the subject. These
scans have to be brought into a common reference system,
a process that is usually called alignment or registration,
and then merged to create a complete model. This whole
process, going from the single range map to the whole
model, is usually known as the 3D scanning pipeline.[1]

A coordinate measuring machine with rigid perpendicular arms.

Contact 3D scanners probe the subject through physical

touch, while the object is in contact with or resting on a
precision at surface plate, ground and polished to a specic maximum of surface roughness. Where the object
to be scanned is not at or can not rest stably on a at surface, it is supported and held rmly in place by a xture.
The scanner mechanism may have three dierent forms:
A carriage system with rigid arms held tightly in perpendicular relationship and each axis gliding along
a track. Such systems work best with at prole
shapes or simple convex curved surfaces.
An articulated arm with rigid bones and high precision angular sensors. The location of the end of
the arm involves complex math calculating the wrist
rotation angle and hinge angle of each joint. This is

2.2. 3D SCANNER

35

ideal for probing into crevasses and interior spaces

with a small mouth opening.
A combination of both methods may be used, such
as an articulated arm suspended from a traveling carriage, for mapping large objects with interior cavities or overlapping surfaces.
A CMM (coordinate measuring machine) is an example
of a contact 3D scanner. It is used mostly in manufacturing and can be very precise. The disadvantage of CMMs
though, is that it requires contact with the object being
scanned. Thus, the act of scanning the object might modify or damage it. This fact is very signicant when scanning delicate or valuable objects such as historical artifacts. The other disadvantage of CMMs is that they are
relatively slow compared to the other scanning methods.
Physically moving the arm that the probe is mounted on
can be very slow and the fastest CMMs can only operate
on a few hundred hertz. In contrast, an optical system like
a laser scanner can operate from 10 to 500 kHz.
Other examples are the hand driven touch probes used to
digitise clay models in computer animation industry.
Non-contact active
Active scanners emit some kind of radiation or light and
detect its reection or radiation passing through object in
order to probe an object or environment. Possible types
of emissions used include light, ultrasound or x-ray.

This lidar scanner may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar can aim its laser
beam in a wide range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror
ips vertically. The laser beam is used to measure the distance to
the rst object on its path.

Time-of-ight devices are also available in a 2D conguTime-of-ight The time-of-ight 3D laser scanner is ration. This is referred to as a time-of-ight camera.
an active scanner that uses laser light to probe the subject.
At the heart of this type of scanner is a time-of-ight laser
range nder. The laser range nder nds the distance of a
Laser
surface by timing the round-trip time of a pulse of light.
A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the amount
of time before the reected light is seen by a detector is
measured. Since the speed of light c is known, the roundCCD/PSD - Sensor
trip time determines the travel distance of the light, which
is twice the distance between the scanner and the surface.
Dz
If t is the round-trip time, then distance is equal to c
t/2 . The accuracy of a time-of-ight 3D laser scanner
depends on how precisely we can measure the t time: 3.3
picoseconds (approx.) is the time taken for light to travel
1 millimetre.
The laser range nder only detects the distance of one
Lense
point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans
its entire eld of view one point at a time by changing the range nders direction of view to scan dierent
points. The view direction of the laser range nder can
be changed either by rotating the range nder itself, or
DZ
Object
by using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method
is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and
can thus be rotated much faster and with greater accuracy.
Typical time-of-ight 3D laser scanners can measure the Principle of a laser triangulation sensor. Two object positions
are shown.
distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.

36
Triangulation Triangulation based 3D laser scanners
are also active scanners that use laser light to probe the environment. With respect to time-of-ight 3D laser scanner the triangulation laser shines a laser on the subject and
exploits a camera to look for the location of the laser dot.
Depending on how far away the laser strikes a surface,
the laser dot appears at dierent places in the cameras
eld of view. This technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, the camera and the laser emitter form
a triangle. The length of one side of the triangle, the distance between the camera and the laser emitter is known.
The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The
angle of the camera corner can be determined by looking at the location of the laser dot in the cameras eld of
view. These three pieces of information fully determine
the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of
the laser dot corner of the triangle. In most cases a laser
stripe, instead of a single laser dot, is swept across the object to speed up the acquisition process. The National Research Council of Canada was among the rst institutes to
develop the triangulation based laser scanning technology
in 1978.[3]

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

scans, requiring millions of samples, can take minutes for
some time-of-ight scanners. The problem this creates is
distortion from motion. Since each point is sampled at a
dierent time, any motion in the subject or the scanner
will distort the collected data. Thus, it is usually necessary to mount both the subject and the scanner on stable
platforms and minimise vibration. Using these scanners
to scan objects in motion is very dicult.
Recently, there has been research on compensating for
distortion from small amounts of vibration[4] and distortions due to motion and/or rotation.[5]
When scanning in one position for any length of time
slight movement can occur in the scanner position due to
changes in temperature. If the scanner is set on a tripod
and there is strong sunlight on one side of the scanner then
that side of the tripod will expand and slowly distort the
scan data from one side to another. Some laser scanners
have level compensators built into them to counteract any
movement of the scanner during the scan process.
Conoscopic holography In a conoscopic system, a
laser beam is projected onto the surface and then the
immediate reection along the same ray-path are put
through a conoscopic crystal and projected onto a CCD.
The result is a diraction pattern, that can be frequency
analyzed to determine the distance to the measured surface. The main advantage with conoscopic holography is
that only a single ray-path is needed for measuring, thus
giving an opportunity to measure for instance the depth
of a nely drilled hole.

Strengths and weaknesses Time-of-ight and triangulation range nders each have strengths and weaknesses
that make them suitable for dierent situations. The advantage of time-of-ight range nders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the order of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for
scanning large structures like buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-ight range nders is
their accuracy. Due to the high speed of light, timing
the round-trip time is dicult and the accuracy of the Hand-held laser scanners
distance measurement is relatively low, on the order of
Hand-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the
millimetres.
triangulation mechanism described above: a laser dot or
Triangulation range nders are exactly the opposite. They
line is projected onto an object from a hand-held dehave a limited range of some meters, but their accuracy is vice and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or
relatively high. The accuracy of triangulation range ndposition sensitive device) measures the distance to the
ers is on the order of tens of micrometers.
surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordiTime-of-ight scanners accuracy can be lost when the nate system and therefore to collect data where the scanlaser hits the edge of an object because the information ner is in motion the position of the scanner must be deterthat is sent back to the scanner is from two dierent lo- mined. The position can be determined by the scanner uscations for one laser pulse. The coordinate relative to the ing reference features on the surface being scanned (typscanners position for a point that has hit the edge of an ically adhesive reective tabs, but natural features have
object will be calculated based on an average and there- been also used in research work [6][7] ) or by using an exfore will put the point in the wrong place. When using a ternal tracking method. External tracking often takes the
high resolution scan on an object the chances of the beam form of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position)
hitting an edge are increased and the resulting data will with integrated camera (to determine the orientation of
show noise just behind the edges of the object. Scanners the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using 3 or
with a smaller beam width will help to solve this prob- more cameras providing the complete Six degrees of freelem but will be limited by range as the beam width will dom of the scanner. Both techniques tend to use infra red
increase over distance. Software can also help by deter- Light-emitting diodes attached to the scanner which are
mining that the rst object to be hit by the laser beam seen by the camera(s) through lters providing resilience
to ambient lighting.
should cancel out the second.
At a rate of 10,000 sample points per second, low resolu- Data is collected by a computer and recorded as data
tion scans can take less than a second, but high resolution points within Three-dimensional space, with processing

2.2. 3D SCANNER

37
eld of view at once. Scanning an entire eld of view in a
fraction of a second reduces or eliminates the problem of
distortion from motion. Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in real-time. VisionMaster creates a 3D scanning system with a 5-megapixel camera 5 million data points are acquired in every frame.
A real-time scanner using digital fringe projection and
phase-shifting technique (certain kinds of structured light
methods) was developed, to capture, reconstruct, and
render high-density details of dynamically deformable
objects (such as facial expressions) at 40 frames per
second.[8] Recently, another scanner has been developed.
Dierent patterns can be applied to this system, and the
frame rate for capturing and data processing achieves 120
frames per second. It can also scan isolated surfaces, for
example two moving hands.[9] By utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs have been made
that could reach hundreds of [10] to thousands of frames
per second.[11]

Modulated light
Using a periscope allows to into small diameter holes and measure bottom and side walls.

this can be converted into a triangulated mesh and then

a Computer-aided design model, often as Non-uniform
rational B-spline surfaces. Hand-held laser scanners can
combine this data with passive, visible-light sensors
which capture surface textures and colours to build
(or "reverse engineer") a full 3D model.

Modulated light 3D scanners shine a continually changing

light at the subject. Usually the light source simply cycles
its amplitude in a sinusoidal pattern. A camera detects
the reected light and the amount the pattern is shifted
by determines the distance the light travelled. Modulated
light also allows the scanner to ignore light from sources
other than a laser, so there is no interference.

Volumetric techniques
Structured light
Main article: Structured-light 3D scanner
Structured-light 3D scanners project a pattern of light on
the subject and look at the deformation of the pattern on
the subject. The pattern is projected onto the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source.
A camera, oset slightly from the pattern projector, looks
at the shape of the pattern and calculates the distance of
every point in the eld of view.

Medical Computed tomography (CT) is a medical

imaging method which generates a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of
two-dimensional X-ray images, similarly Magnetic resonance imaging is another medical imaging technique
that provides much greater contrast between the dierent
soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT)
does, making it especially useful in neurological (brain),
musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. These techniques produce a discrete 3D
volumetric representation that can be directly visualised,
manipulated or converted to traditional 3D surface by
mean of isosurface extraction algorithms.

Structured-light scanning is still a very active area of research with many research papers published each year.
Perfect maps have also been proven useful as structured
light patterns that solve the correspondence problem and
allow for error detection and error correction.[24] [See
Morano, R., et al. Structured Light Using Pseudoran- Industrial
Although most common in medicine,
dom Codes, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Industrial computed tomography, Microtomography and
Machine Intelligence.
MRI are also used in other elds for acquiring a digiThe advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed tal representation of an object and its interior, such as
and precision. Instead of scanning one point at a time, non destructive materials testing, reverse engineering, or
structured light scanners scan multiple points or the entire studying biological and paleontological specimens.

38
Non-contact passive

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

From models

Passive 3D imaging solutions do not emit any kind of ra- Most applications, however, use instead polygonal 3D
diation themselves, but instead rely on detecting reected models, NURBS surface models, or editable featureambient radiation. Most solutions of this type detect vis- based CAD models (aka Solid models).
ible light because it is a readily available ambient radiation. Other types of radiation, such as infra red could also
Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation
be used. Passive methods can be very cheap, because in
of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many
most cases they do not need particular hardware but simsmall faceted at surfaces (think of a sphere modple digital cameras.
eled as a disco ball). Polygon modelsalso called
Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some
CAM (i.e., machining), but are generally heavy
Stereoscopic systems usually employ two video cam( i.e., very large data sets), and are relatively uneras, slightly apart, looking at the same scene. By
editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygoanalysing the slight dierences between the images
nal model involves nding and connecting adjacent
seen by each camera, it is possible to determine
points with straight lines in order to create a continthe distance at each point in the images. This
uous surface. Many applications, both free and nonmethod is based on the same principles driving hufree, are available for this purpose (e.g. MeshLab,
man stereoscopic vision.
PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, JRC
Photometric systems usually use a single camera, but
3D Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidtake multiple images under varying lighting condiform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D etc.).
tions. These techniques attempt to invert the image
Surface models: The next level of sophistication
formation model in order to recover the surface oriin modeling involves using a quilt of curved surentation at each pixel.
face patches to model our shape. These might be
Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a seNURBS, TSplines or other curved representations
quence of photographs around a three-dimensional
of curved topology. Using NURBS, our sphere is
object against a well contrasted background. These
a true mathematical sphere. Some applications ofsilhouettes are extruded and intersected to form the
fer patch layout by hand but the best in class ofvisual hull approximation of the object. With these
fer both automated patch layout and manual layout.
approaches some concavities of an object (like the
These patches have the advantage of being lighter
interior of a bowl) cannot be detected.
and more manipulable when exported to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, but only in a
sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform
User assisted (image-based modelling) There are
the surface. This representation lends itself well
other methods that, based on the user assisted detection
to modelling organic and artistic shapes. Providers
and identication of some features and shapes on a set
of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic,
of dierent pictures of an object are able to build an
Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
approximation of the object itself. This kind of techniques are useful to build fast approximation of simple
Solid CAD models:
From an engineershaped objects like buildings. Various commercial packing/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate
ages are available like D-Sculptor, iModeller, Autodesk
representation of a digitised shape is the editable,
ImageModeler, 123DCatch or PhotoModeler.
parametric CAD model. After all, CAD is the
common language of industry to describe, edit
This sort of 3D imaging solution is based on the prinand maintain the shape of the enterprises assets.
ciples of photogrammetry. It is also somewhat similar
In CAD, our sphere is described by parametric
in methodology to panoramic photography, except that
features which are easily edited by changing a value
the photos are taken of one object on a three-dimensional
(e.g., centre point and radius).
space in order to replicate it instead of taking a series of
photos from one point in a three-dimensional space in orThese CAD models describe not simply the envelope or
der to replicate the surrounding environment.
shape of the object, but CAD models also embody the
design intent (i.e., critical features and their relationship to other features). An example of design intent not
2.2.3 Reconstruction
evident in the shape alone might be a brake drums lug
bolts, which must be concentric with the hole in the centre
From point clouds
of the drum. This knowledge would drive the sequence
The point clouds produced by 3D scanners and 3D imag- and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with
ing can be used directly for measurement and visualisa- an awareness of this relationship would not design the lug
tion in the architecture and construction world.
bolts referenced to the outside diameter, but instead, to

2.2. 3D SCANNER
the center. A modeler creating a CAD model will want
to include both Shape and design intent in the complete
CAD model.
Vendors oer dierent approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces
and leave it to the CAD designer to complete the model
in CAD (e.g., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others
use the scan data to create an editable and veriable feature based model that is imported into CAD with full feature tree intact, yielding a complete, native CAD model,
capturing both shape and design intent (e.g. Geomagic,
Rapidform). Still other CAD applications are robust
enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models
within the CAD environment (e.g., CATIA, AutoCAD,
Revit).
From a set of 2D slices

39
of the object. Volume rendering is usually only used
for visualisation of the scanned object.
Image segmentation: Where dierent structures
have similar threshold/greyscale values, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is
called segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from
the image. Image segmentation software usually allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or
STL format for further manipulation.
Image-based meshing: When using 3D image data
for computational analysis (e.g. CFD and FEA),
simply segmenting the data and meshing from CAD
can become time consuming, and virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of image
data. The solution is called image-based meshing,
an automated process of generating an accurate and
realistic geometrical description of the scan data.
From laser scans
Laser scanning describes the general method to sample or
scan a surface using laser technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly dier in the power of the lasers
that are used, and in the results of the scanning process.
Low laser power is used when the scanned surface doesn't
have to be inuenced, e.g. when it only has to be digitised.
Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get information about the scanned surface. Another low-power
application uses structured light projection systems for
solar cell atness metrology, enabling stress calculation
throughout in excess of 2000 wafers per hour.[12]

3D reconstruction of the brain and eyeballs from CT scanned

DICOM images. In this image, areas with the density of bone
or air were made transparent, and the slices stacked up in an
approximate free-space alignment. The outer ring of material
around the brain are the soft tissues of skin and muscle on the
outside of the skull. A black box encloses the slices to provide
the black background. Since these are simply 2D images stacked
up, when viewed on edge the slices disappear since they have
eectively zero thickness. Each DICOM scan represents about
5mm of material averaged into a thin slice.

CT, industrial CT, MRI, or Micro-CT scanners do not

produce point clouds but a set of 2D slices (each termed a
tomogram) which are then 'stacked together' to produce
a 3D representation. There are several ways to do this
depending on the output required:
Volume rendering: Dierent parts of an object usually have dierent threshold values or greyscale densities. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models
can be constructed from various thresholds, allowing dierent colours to represent each component

The laser power used for laser scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power
level is usually on the order of 200 mW or less but sometime more.

2.2.4 Applications
Construction industry and civil engineering
Robotic control: e.g. a laser scanner may function
as the eye of a robot.[13][14]
As-built drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and
monuments
Documentation of historical sites
Site modelling and lay outing
Quality control
Quantity surveys
Freeway redesign

40

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Establishing a bench mark of pre-existing Reverse engineering

shape/state in order to detect structural changes
resulting from exposure to extreme loadings such as Reverse engineering of a mechanical component requires
a precise digital model of the objects to be reproduced.
earthquake, vessel/truck impact or re.
Rather than a set of points a precise digital model can
Create GIS (geographic information system) maps be represented by a polygon mesh, a set of at or curved
and geomatics.
NURBS surfaces, or ideally for mechanical components,
Subsurface laser scanning in mines and Karst a CAD solid model. A 3D scanner can be used to digitise
free-form or gradually changing shaped components as
voids.[15]
well as prismatic geometries whereas a coordinate mea Forensic documentation [16]
suring machine is usually used only to determine simple dimensions of a highly prismatic model. These data
points are then processed to create a usable digital model,
Design process
usually using specialized reverse engineering software.
Increasing accuracy working with complex parts and
shapes,
Cultural heritage
Coordinating product design using parts from mulThere have been many research projects undertaken via
tiple sources,
the scanning of historical sites and artifacts both for doc[18]
Updating old CD scans with those from more cur- umentation and analysis purposes.
rent technology,
The combined use of 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies allows the replication of real objects without the
use of traditional plaster casting techniques, that in many
Creating cost savings by allowing as-built design cases can be too invasive for being performed on precious
services, for example in automotive manufacturing or delicate cultural heritage artifacts.[19] In an example of
a typical application scenario, a gargoyle model was digplants,
itally acquired using a 3D scanner and the produced 3D
Bringing the plant to the engineers with web data was processed using MeshLab. The resulting digishared scans, and
tal 3D model was fed to a rapid prototyping machine to
create a real resin replica of the original object.
Saving travel costs.
Replacing missing or older parts,

Entertainment
3D scanners are used by the entertainment industry to
create digital 3D models for movies, video games and
leisure purposes. They are heavily utilised in virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-world equivalent of
a model exists, it is much faster to scan the real-world
object than to manually create a model using 3D modeling software. Frequently, artists sculpt physical models
of what they want and scan them into digital form rather
than directly creating digital models on a computer.
Law Enforcment
3D laser scanning is used by the FBI. 3D Models are used
for on-site documentation of:[17]
Crime scenes
Bullet trajectory
Accident reconstruction
Bombings
Plane crashes, and more

Michelangelo In 1999, two dierent research groups

started scanning Michelangelos statues. Stanford University with a group led by Marc Levoy[20] used a custom
laser triangulation scanner built by Cyberware to scan
Michelangelos statues in Florence, notably the David, the
Prigioni and the four statues in The Medici Chapel. The
scans produced a data point density of one sample per
0.25 mm, detailed enough to see Michelangelos chisel
marks. These detailed scans produced a large amount of
data (up to 32 gigabytes) and processing the data from his
scans took 5 months. Approximately in the same period
a research group from IBM, led by H. Rushmeier and F.
Bernardini scanned the Piet of Florence acquiring both
geometric and colour details. The digital model, result of
the Stanford scanning campaign, was thoroughly used in
the 2004 subsequent restoration of the statue.[21]
Monticello In 2002, David Luebke, et al. scanned
Thomas Jeersons Monticello.[22] A commercial time of
ight laser scanner, the DeltaSphere 3000, was used. The
scanner data was later combined with colour data from
digital photographs to create the Virtual Monticello, and
the Jeersons Cabinet exhibits in the New Orleans Museum of Art in 2003. The Virtual Monticello exhibit simulated a window looking into Jeersons Library. The

2.2. 3D SCANNER
exhibit consisted of a rear projection display on a wall
and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The glasses,
combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D effect. Position tracking hardware on the glasses allowed
the display to adapt as the viewer moves around, creating
the illusion that the display is actually a hole in the wall
looking into Jeersons Library. The Jeersons Cabinet
exhibit was a barrier stereogram (essentially a non-active
hologram that appears dierent from dierent angles) of
Jeersons Cabinet.

41
is being made available to the public for free and downloadable in several data formats.
Medical CAD/CAM
3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. It gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM software are then used to
design and manufacture the orthosis, prosthesis or dental
implants.

Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental

Laboratory CAD/CAM systems use 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a dental preparation
(either in vivo or in vitro), in order to produce a restoration
digitally using CAD software and ultimately produce the
nal restoration using a CAM technology (such as a CNC
milling machine, or 3D printer). The chairside systems
Kasubi Tombs A 2009 CyArk 3D scanning project at are designed to facilitate the 3D scanning of a preparaUgandas historic Kasubi Tombs, a UNESCO World Her- tion in vivo and produce the restoration (such as a Crown,
itage Site, using a Leica HDS 4500, produced detailed ar- Onlay, Inlay or Veneer).
chitectural models of Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the main
building at the complex and tomb of the Kabakas (Kings)
Quality assurance and industrial metrology
of Uganda. A re on March 16, 2010, burned down much
of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga structure, and reconstrucThe digitalisation of real-world objects is of vital importion work is likely to lean heavily upon the dataset protance in various application domains. This method is esduced by the 3D scan mission.[24]
pecially applied in industrial quality assurance to measure the geometric dimension accuracy. Industrial proPlastico di Roma antica In 2005, Gabriele Guidi, cesses such as assembly are complex, highly automated
et al. scanned the Plastico di Roma antica,[25] a model and typically based on CAD (Computer Aided Design)
of Rome created in the last century. Neither the trian- data. The problem is that the same degree of automation
gulation method, nor the time of ight method satised is also required for quality assurance. It is, for example, a
the requirements of this project because the item to be very complex task to assemble a modern car, since it conscanned was both large and contained small details. They sists of many parts that must t together at the very end
found though, that a modulated light scanner was able to of the production line. The optimal performance of this
provide both the ability to scan an object the size of the process is guaranteed by quality assurance systems. Esmodel and the accuracy that was needed. The modulated pecially the geometry of the metal parts must be checked
light scanner was supplemented by a triangulation scan- in order to assure that they have the correct dimensions,
t together and nally work reliably.
ner which was used to scan some parts of the model.
Cuneiform tablets In 2003, Subodh Kumar, et al. undertook the 3D scanning of ancient cuneiform tablets.[23]
Again, a laser triangulation scanner was used. The tablets
were scanned on a regular grid pattern at a resolution of
0.025 mm (0.00098 in).

Other projects The 3D Encounters Project at the

Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology aims to use 3D
laser scanning to create a high quality 3D image library of
artefacts and enable digital travelling exhibitions of fragile Egyptian artefacts, English Heritage has investigated
the use of 3D laser scanning for a wide range of applications to gain archaeological and condition data, and the
National Conservation Centre in Liverpool has also produced 3D laser scans on commission, including portable
object and in situ scans of archaeological sites.[26] The
Smithsonian Institution has a project called Smithsonian
X 3D notable for the breadth of types of 3D objects they
are attempting to scan. These include small objects such
as insects and owers, to human sized objects such as
Amelia Earhart's Flight Suit to room sized objects such as
the Gunboat Philadelphia to historic sites such as Liang
Bua in Indonesia. Also of note the data from these scans

Within highly automated processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that manufacture the desired objects. Due to mechanical uncertainties and abrasions, the result may dier from its digital
nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate
these deviations, the manufactured part must be digitised
as well. For this purpose, 3D scanners are applied to generate point samples from the objects surface which are
nally compared against the nominal data.[27]
The process of comparing 3D data against a CAD model
is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can be a useful
technique for applications such as determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accuracy of nal build, analysing gap and ush, or analysing highly
complex sculpted surfaces. At present, laser triangulation
scanners, structured light and contact scanning are the
predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, but

42

CHAPTER 2. 3D TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

overall most accurate option.

2.2.5

See also

3D printing
3D reconstruction
3D computer graphics software
Angle-sensitive pixel
Depth map
Epipolar geometry
Light-eld camera
Photogrammetry
Range imaging
Structured-light 3D scanner

2.2.6

References

[1] Fausto Bernardini, Holly E. Rushmeier (2002). The 3D

Model Acquisition Pipeline (pdf). Comput. Graph. Forum 21 (2): 149172. doi:10.1111/1467-8659.00574.
[2] Brian Curless (November 2000). From Range Scans to
3D Models. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics 33 (4):
3841. doi:10.1145/345370.345399.
[3] Roy Mayer (1999). Scientic Canadian: Invention and Innovation From Canadas National Research Council. Vancouver: Raincoast Books. ISBN 1-55192-266-5. OCLC
41347212.
[4] Franois Blais; Michel Picard; Guy Godin (69 September 2004). Accurate 3D acquisition of freely moving objects. 2nd International Symposium on 3D Data Processing, Visualisation, and Transmission, 3DPVT 2004, Thessaloniki, Greece. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. pp. 4229. ISBN 0-7695-2223-8.
[5] Salil Goel; Bharat Lohani (2014). A Motion Correction
Technique for Laser Scanning of Moving Objects. IEEE
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters: 225228.
[6] K. H. Strobl; E. Mair; T. Bodenmller; S. Kielhfer; W.
Sepp; M. Suppa; D. Burschka; G. Hirzinger (2009). The
Self-Referenced DLR 3D-Modeler (PDF). Proceedings
of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent
Robots and Systems (IROS 2009), St. Louis, MO, USA. pp.
2128.
[7] K. H. Strobl; E. Mair; G. Hirzinger (2011). Image-Based
Pose Estimation for 3-D Modeling in Rapid, Hand-Held
Motion (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA 2011),
Shanghai, China. pp. 25932600.
[8] Song Zhang; Peisen Huang (2006). High-resolution,
real-time 3-D shape measurement. Optical Engineering:
123601.

[9] Kai Liu; Yongchang Wang; Daniel L. Lau; Qi Hao;

Laurence G. Hassebrook (2010).
Dual-frequency
pattern scheme for high-speed 3-D shape measurement (PDF). Optics Express 18 (5): 52295244.
doi:10.1364/OE.18.005229. PMID 20389536.
[10] Song Zhang; Daniel van der Weide; James H. Oliver
(2010).
Superfast phase-shifting method for 3-D
shape measurement. Optics Express 18: 96849689.
doi:10.1364/OE.18.009684.
[11] Yajun Wang; Song Zhang (2011). Superfast multifrequency phase-shifting technique with optimal pulse
width modulation. Optics Express 19: 96849689.
doi:10.1364/OE.19.005149.
[12] W. J. Walecki; F. Szondy; M. M. Hilali (2008). Fast
in-line surface topography metrology enabling stress calculation for solar cell manufacturing allowing throughput
in excess of 2000 wafers per hour. Meas. Sci. Technol.
19 (2): 025302. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/19/2/025302.
[13] Larsson, Sren; Kjellander, J.A.P. (2006). Motion control and data capturing for laser scanning with an industrial
robot. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 54 (6): 453
460. doi:10.1016/j.robot.2006.02.002.
[14] Landmark detection by a rotary laser scanner for autonomous robot navigation in sewer pipes, Matthias Dorn
et al., Proceedings of the ICMIT 2003, the second International Conference on Mechatronics and Information
Technology, pp. 600- 604, Jecheon, Korea, Dec. 2003
[15] Murphy, Liam. Case Study: Old Mine Workings. Subsurface Laser Scanning Case Studies. Liam Murphy. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
[16] http://www.leica-geosystems.us/forensic/
[17] https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-response/
crime-scene-documentation
[18] Paolo Cignoni; Roberto Scopigno (June 2008). Sampled
3D models for CH applications: A viable and enabling
new medium or just a technological exercise?" (PDF).
ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 1 (1):
123. doi:10.1145/1367080.1367082.
[19] Scopigno, R.; Cignoni, P.; Pietroni, N.; Callieri, M.;
Dellepiane, M. (November 2015). Digital Fabrication
Techniques for Cultural Heritage: A Survey. Computer
Graphics Forum. doi:10.1111/cgf.12781.
[20] Marc Levoy; Kari Pulli; Brian Curless; Szymon
Rusinkiewicz; David Koller; Lucas Pereira; Matt Ginzton;
Sean Anderson; James Davis; Jeremy Ginsberg; Jonathan
Shade; Duane Fulk (2000). The Digital Michelangelo
Project: 3D Scanning of Large Statues (PDF). Proceedings of the 27th annual conference on Computer graphics
and interactive techniques. pp. 131144.
[21] Roberto Scopigno; Susanna Bracci; Falletti, Franca;
Mauro Matteini (2004). Exploring David. Diagnostic
Tests and State of Conservation. Gruppo Editoriale Giunti.
ISBN 88-09-03325-6.
[22] David Luebke; Christopher Lutz; Rui Wang; Cli Woolley (2002). Scanning Monticello.

2.3. LIST OF COMMON 3D TEST MODELS

[23] Subodh Kumar; Dean Snyder; Donald Duncan; Jonathan

Cohen; Jerry Cooper (610 October 2003). Digital
Preservation of Ancient Cuneiform Tablets Using 3DScanning. 4th International Conference on 3-D Digital Imaging and Modeling : 3DIM 2003, Ban, Alberta,
Canada. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. pp.
326333.
[24] Scott Cedarleaf (2010). Royal Kasubi Tombs Destroyed
in Fire. CyArk Blog.
[25] Gabriele Guidi; Laura Micoli; Michele Russo; Bernard
Frischer; Monica De Simone; Alessandro Spinetti; Luca
Carosso (1316 June 2005). 3D digitisation of a large
model of imperial Rome. 5th international conference on
3-D digital imaging and modeling : 3DIM 2005, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. pp. 565572. ISBN 0-7695-2327-7.
[26] Payne, Emma Marie (2012).
Imaging Techniques in Conservation.
Journal of Conservation
and Museum Studies (Ubiquity Press) 10: 1729.
doi:10.5334/jcms.1021201.
[27] Christian Teutsch (2007). Model-based Analysis and
Evaluation of Point Sets from Optical 3D Laser Scanners
(PhD thesis).

2.3 List of common 3D test models

43

[5] Brian Curless and Marc Levoy (February 10, 1997).

Computer model and 3D fax of Happy Buddha.
Stanford University. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
[6] EG 2007 Phlegmatic Dragon. Eurographics 2007. 12
May 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
[7] Levoy, Marc (November 27, 1998). The Stanford Large
Statue Scanner. Stanford University. Retrieved 22
September 2014.
[8] Levoy, Marc (August 11, 2009). The Digital Michelangelo Project. Stanford University. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
[9] Levoy, Marc (August 19, 2014). The Digital Michelangelo Project Archive of 3D Models. Stanford University.
Retrieved 22 September 2014.

2.3.5 External links

Standard test models
The Stanford 3D Scanning Repository hosted by the
Stanford University
Large Geometric Models Archive hosted by the
Georgia Institute of Technology
Other repositories

This is a list of models and meshes commonly used

in 3D computer graphics for testing and demonstrating rendering algorithms and visual eects. Their use
is important for comparing results, similarly to the way
standard test images are used in image processing.

2.3.1

Models by year of creation

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

The Utah 3D Animation Repository, a small collection of animated 3D models

scene collection, by Physically Based Rendering
Toolkit: a number of interesting scenes to render
with global illumination
MGF Example Scenes, a small collection of some
indoor 3D scenes
archive3D, a collection of 3D models

2.3.2

Gallery

2.3.3

See also

Standard test image

2.3.4

References

[1] Robert McDermot (2003). Robert Remembers: the VW

Bug (PDF). Retrieved 17 Dec 2015.
[2] The Stanford 3D Scanning Repository. Stanford University. 22 Dec 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
[3] Greg Turk (2000). The Stanford Bunny. Retrieved 18
July 2011.
[4] Happy Buddha. Stanford University. Retrieved 17 July
2011.

3DBar, a collection of free 3D models

NASA 3D Models, NASA 3D models to use for educational or informational purposes
VRML Models from ORC Incorporated, 3D models
in VRML format
3dRender.com: Lighting Challenges, regularly held
lighting challenges, complete with scene and models
for each challenge
MPI Informatics Building Model, a virtual reconstruction of the Max Planck Institute for Informatics
building in Saarbrcken
Princeton shape-based 3D model search engine
Keenans 3D Model Repository hosted by the
Carnegie Mellon University

Chapter 3

Manufacturing processes
3.1 Contour crafting

terial that could be built of 90-percent lunar material with

only ten percent of the material transported from Earth.[8]

Contour crafting is a building printing technology being

researched by Behrokh Khoshnevis of the University of
Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (in 3.1.2 See also
the Viterbi School of Engineering) that uses a computer D-Shape
controlled crane or gantry to build edices rapidly and
eciently with substantially less manual labor. It was
3D Printing
originally conceived as a method to construct molds for
industrial parts. Khoshnevis decided to adapt the technology for rapid home construction as a way to rebuild
after natural disasters, like the devastating earthquakes 3.1.3 References
that have plagued his native Iran.[1]
Using a quick-setting, concrete-like material, contour
crafting forms the houses walls layer by layer until topped
o by oors and ceilings set in place by the crane. The
notional concept calls for the insertion of structural components, plumbing, wiring, utilities, and even consumer
devices like audiovisual systems as the layers are built.[2]

3.1.1

[1] Annenberg Foundation Puts Robotic Disaster Rebuilding Technology on Fast Track. University of Souther
California School of Engineering. November 14, 2005.
Retrieved May 8, 2012.
[2] Automated Construction using Contour Crafting Applications on Earth and Beyond PDF
[3] Caterpillar Inc. Funds Viterbi 'Print-a-House' Construction Technology. USC Viterbi School of Engineering.
August 28, 2008. Retrieved January 13, 2010.

History

Caterpillar Inc. provided funding to help support Viterbi

project research in the summer of 2008.[3]
In 2009, Singularity University graduate students established the ACASA project with Khoshnevis as the CTO
to commercialize Contour Crafting.[4]
In 2010, Khoshnevis claimed that his system could build a
complete home in a single day,[5] and its electrically powered crane would produce very little construction material waste. The Science Channel's Discoveries This Week
program in 2005 reported that, given 37 tons of material waste and the exhaust fumes from construction vehicles during standard home construction, contour crafting
could signicantly reduce environmental impact.[6]

[4] Singularity University Semester Completion and

Projects. NextBigFuture. August 28, 2009. Retrieved
October 21, 2014.
[5] Home, Sweet Home. University of Southern California.
March 24, 2004. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
[6] House-Bot. The Science Channel. December 30, 2005.
[7] Colloquium with Behrokh Khoshnevis. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
[8] NASAs plan to build homes on the Moon: Space agency
backs 3D print technology which could build base. TechFlesh. 2014-01-15. Retrieved 2014-01-16.

Khoshnevis stated in 2010 that NASA was evaluating

Contour Crafting for its application in the construction
of bases on Mars and the Moon.[7] After three years, in 3.1.4 External links
2013, NASA funded a small study at the University of
Southern California to further develop the Contour Craft Contour Crafting website
ing 3D printing technique. Potential applications of this
ACASA website
technology include constructing lunar structures of a ma44

3.2. DIRECT METAL LASER SINTERING

3.2 Direct metal laser sintering

Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is an additive
manufacturing technique that uses a Yb (Ytterbium) bre
laser red into a bed of powdered metal, aiming the laser
automatically at points in space dened by a 3D model,
melting or rather, welding the material together to create
a solid structure. DMLS was developed by the EOS rm
of Munich, Germany.
The DMLS process involves use of a 3D CAD model
whereby a .stl le is created and sent to the machines
software. A technician works with this 3D model to properly orient the geometry for part building and adds supports structure as appropriate. Once this build le has
been completed, it is sliced into the layer thickness the
machine will build in and downloaded to the DMLS machine allowing the build to begin. The DMLS machine
uses a high-powered 200 watt Yb-ber optic laser. Inside the build chamber area, there is a material dispensing
platform and a build platform along with a recoater blade
used to move new powder over the build platform. The
technology fuses metal powder into a solid part by melting it locally using the focused laser beam. Parts are built
up additively layer by layer, typically using layers 20 micrometers thick. This process allows for highly complex
geometries to be created directly from the 3D CAD data,
fully automatically, in a relatively short time and without any tooling. DMLS is a net-shape process, producing
parts with high accuracy and detail resolution, good surface quality and excellent mechanical properties.

3.2.1

Benets

DMLS has many benets over traditional manufacturing

techniques. The ability to quickly produce a unique part
is the most obvious because no special tooling is required
and parts can be built in a matter of hours. Additionally, DMLS allows for more rigorous testing of prototypes. Since DMLS can use most alloys, prototypes can
now be functional hardware made out of the same material as production components.
DMLS is also one of the few additive manufacturing technologies being used in production. Since the components
are built layer by layer, it is possible to design internal features and passages that could not be cast or otherwise machined. Complex geometries and assemblies with multiple components can be simplied to fewer parts with a
more cost eective assembly. DMLS does not require
special tooling like castings, so it is convenient for short
production runs.

3.2.2

Applications

45
highly complex parts and the tooling industry to make direct tooling inserts. With a typical build envelope (e.g.
for EOSs EOSINT M280[1] ) of 250 x 250 x 325 mm,
and the ability to grow multiple parts at one time, DMLS
is a very cost and time eective technology. The technology is used both for rapid prototyping, as it decreases
development time for new products, and production manufacturing as a cost saving method to simplify assemblies
and complex geometries.[2]
The Northwestern Polytechnical University of China is
using a similar system to build structural titanium parts
for aircraft.[3] An EADS study shows that use of the
process would reduce materials and waste in aerospace
applications.[4]
On September 5, 2013 Elon Musk tweeted an image of
SpaceX's regeneratively-cooled SuperDraco rocket engine chamber emerging from an EOS 3D metal printer,
noting that it was composed of the Inconel superalloy.[5]
In a surprise move, SpaceX announced in May 2014 that
the ight-qualied version of the SuperDraco engine is
fully printed, and is the rst fully printed rocket engine.
Using Inconel, an alloy of nickel and iron, additivelymanufactured by direct metal laser sintering, the engine operates at a chamber pressure of 6,900 kilopascals (1,000 psi) at a very high temperature. The engines are contained in a printed protective nacelle, also
DMLS-printed, to prevent fault propagation in the event
of an engine failure.[6][7][8] The engine completed a full
qualication test in May 2014, and is slated to make its
rst orbital spaceight in 2015 or 2016.[8]
The ability to 3D print the complex parts was key to
achieving the low-mass objective of the engine. According to Elon Musk, Its a very complex engine, and it was
very dicult to form all the cooling channels, the injector
head, and the throttling mechanism. Being able to print
very high strength advanced alloys ... was crucial to being able to create the SuperDraco engine as it is.[9] The
3D printing process for the SuperDraco engine dramatically reduces lead-time compared to the traditional cast
parts, and has superior strength, ductility, and fracture
resistance, with a lower variability in materials properties.[10]

3.2.3 Constraints
The aspects of size, feature details and surface nish, as
well as print through error in the Z axis may be factors
that should be considered prior to the use of the technology. However, by planning the build in the machine
where most features are built in the x and y axis as the
material is laid down, the feature tolerances can be managed well. Surfaces usually have to be polished to achieve
mirror or extremely smooth nishes.

This technology is used to manufacture direct parts for For production tooling, material density of a nished part
a variety of industries including aerospace, dental, med- or insert should be addressed prior to use. For example, in
ical and other industries that have small to medium size, injection molding inserts, any surface imperfections will

46

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

cause imperfections in the plastic part, and the inserts will

have to mate with the base of the mold with temperature
and surfaces to prevent problems.
Independent of the material system used, the DMLS process leaves a grainy surface nish due to powder particle
size, layer-wise building sequence and [the spreading of
the metal powder prior to sintering by the powder distribution mechanism].[11]

RepRap Project
Solid freeform fabrication
Stereolithography
Laser engineered net shaping
Laser sintering of gold

Metallic support structure removal and post processing 3.2.6 References

of the part generated may be a time consuming process
and require the use of machining, EDM and/or grinding [1] http://ip-saas-eos-cms.s3.amazonaws.
com/public/e1dc925774b24d9f/
machines having the same level of accuracy provided by
55e7f647441dc9e8fdaf944d18416bdb/
the RP machine.
systemdatasheet_M280_n.pdf

Laser polishing by means of shallow surface melting of

DMLS-produced parts is able to reduce surface roughness by use of a fast-moving laser beam providing just
enough heat energy to cause melting of the surface peaks.
The molten mass then ows into the surface valleys by
surface tension, gravity and laser pressure, thus diminishing the roughness.[11]
When using rapid prototyping machines, .stl les, which
do not include anything but raw mesh data in binary (generated from Solid Works, CATIA, or other major CAD
programs) need further conversion to .cli & .sli les (the
format required for non stereolithography machines).[12]
Software converts .stl le to .sli les, as with the rest of
the process, there can be costs associated with this step.

3.2.4

Materials

Currently available alloys used in the process include 17-4

and 15-5 stainless steel, maraging steel, cobalt chromium,
inconel 625 and 718, aluminum AlSi10Mg, and titanium
Ti6Al4V.[13]

3.2.5

See also

List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts

3D printing
Additive manufacturing
Desktop manufacturing
Digital fabricator
Direct digital manufacturing
Fab lab
Fused deposition modeling
Instant manufacturing, also known as direct manufacturing or on-demand manufacturing

[2] Additive Companies Run Production Parts

[3] China commercializes 3D printing in aviation.
[4] EADS Innovation Works Finds 3D Printing Reduces
CO2 by 40%". 3dprintinginsider.com. Mediabistro Inc.
Retrieved 7 November 2013.
[5] Twitter. Mobile.twitter.com. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
[6] Norris, Guy (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Step
Change Dragon V2". Aviation Week. Retrieved 201405-30.
[7] Kramer, Miriam (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Dragon
V2 Spaceship, a Manned Space Taxi for Astronauts
Meet Dragon V2: SpaceXs Manned Space Taxi for Astronaut Trips. space.com. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
[8] Bergin, Chris (2014-05-30). SpaceX lifts the lid on the
Dragon V2 crew spacecraft. NASAspaceight.com. Retrieved 2015-03-06.
[9] Foust, Je (2014-05-30). SpaceX unveils its 21st century spaceship"". NewSpace Journal. Retrieved 2015-0306.
[10] SpaceX Launches 3D-Printed Part to Space, Creates Printed Engine Chamber for Crewed Spaceight.
SpaceX. Retrieved 2015-03-06. Compared with a traditionally cast part, a printed [part] has superior strength,
ductility, and fracture resistance, with a lower variability
in materials properties. ... The chamber is regeneratively
cooled and printed in Inconel, a high performance superalloy. Printing the chamber resulted in an order of magnitude
reduction in lead-time compared with traditional machining the path from the initial concept to the rst hotre was
just over three months. During the hotre test, ... the SuperDraco engine was red in both a launch escape prole
and a landing burn prole, successfully throttling between
20% and 100% thrust levels. To date the chamber has been
red more than 80 times, with more than 300 seconds of
hot re.
[11] Surface Roughness Enhancement of Indirect-SLS Metal
Parts by Laser Surface Polishing (PDF). University of
Texas at Austin. 2001. Retrieved 2015-10-12.

Rapid manufacturing

[12] http://knowledge.stereolithography.com/activekb/
questions/74/STL+File+Conversion

Rapid prototyping

[13] http://www.eos.info/material-m

3.3. D-SHAPE

3.2.7

External links

Rapid Manufacturings Role in the Factory of the

Future
Direct metal laser sintering, video (2:34).
Thu, 02/06/2014 - 10:41am (2014-02-06). The
Laser-Sintering Eect. Rdmag.com. Retrieved
2014-08-21.

3.3 D-Shape
D-Shape is a large 3-dimensional printer that uses
binder-jetting, a layer by layer printing process, to bind
sand with an inorganic seawater[1] and magnesium-based
binder[2] in order to create stone-like objects. Invented by
Enrico Dini, founder of Monolite UK Ltd, the rst model
of the D-Shape printer used epoxy resin, commonly used
as an adhesive in the construction of skis, cars, and
airplanes, as the binder. Dini patented this model in
2006.[3] After experiencing problems with the epoxy,
Dini changed the binder to the current magnesium-based
one and patented his printer again in September 2008.[4]
In the future, Dini aims to use the printer to create fullscale buildings.

3.3.1

Technical description

The current version of the D-Shape 3-D printer sits in

a 6m by 6m aluminum frame. The frame consists of a
square base that moves upwards along four vertical beams
during the printing process via stepper motors, which are
used to repeatedly move a specied length and then hold
in place, on each beam. Spanning the entire horizontal
6m of the base is a printer head with 300 nozzles, each
spaced 20mm apart. The printer head is connected to the
base by an aluminum beam that runs perpendicular to the
printer head.[5]

3.3.2

How it works

Before the actual printing process can begin, a 3-D model

of the object to be printed must be created on CAD, a
software that allows a designer to create 3-D models on
a computer. Once the model is nished, the CAD le
is sent to the printer head. The printing process begins
when a layer of sand from 5 to 10 mm thick, mixed with
solid magnesium oxide (MgO),[6] is evenly distributed by
the printer head in the area enclosed by the frame. The
printer head breaks the 3-D model into 2-D slices. Then,
starting with the bottom slice, the head moves across the
base and deposits an inorganic binding liquid made up
of a solution that includes magnesium hexahydrate, at a
resolution of 25 DPI (1.0 mm).[7] The binder and sand
chemically react to form a sandstone material. It takes

47
about 24 hours for the material to completely solidify.
Because the nozzles are 20mm apart there are gaps that
may need to be lled up. To ll in these gaps and ensure the sand is uniformly exposed to the binder, an electric piston on the beam that holds the printer head forces
the printer head to shift in the direction perpendicular to
the printers direction of motion. It takes D-Shape four
forward and backward strokes to nish printing a layer.
After a layer is nished, the stepper motors on the vertical beams move the base upwards. From the hollow
framework just above the printer head, new sand, which is
cyclically relled, is distributed into the area of the frame
to create the next layer.[8] During printing, excess sand
acts as a support for the solidifying sand and can also be
reused in later printings. The printing process is continuous and stops only when the desired structure is completely printed.

3.3.3 The end product

After the printer nishes its work, the nal structure must
be extruded from the sand. Workers use shovels to take
out the excess sand and reveal the nal product. The magnesium oxide mixed in with the sand causes the sand to
become an active participant rather than inert during the
reaction with the binder. If the sand was inert, the resulting material would be more like concrete in that the sand
would be only slightly bound together, but because of the
MgO, the nal product is a mineral-like material with a
microcrystalline structure. Compared to concrete, which
has low resistance to tension and as a result needs iron
reinforcement, D-Shapes structures have relatively high
tension resistance and require no iron reinforcement.[9]
The entire building process is reported to take a quarter
of the time and a third to a half of the cost[10] it would take
to build the same structure with traditional means using
portland cement, the material currently used in building
construction.[11]

3.3.4 Awards and achievements

NYC Waterfront Construction Competition
In the fall of 2012, D-Shape entered into the NYC Waterfront Construction Competition hosted by the New York
City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC) in
which competitors had to create an innovative solution
to help strengthen New York Citys deteriorating piers
and coastline structures. D-Shapes idea, called, Digital Concrete, was to take 3-D scans of each piece of pier
or infrastructure, and then print a support jacket for each
specic piece. D-Shape was the First Place Winner and
received $50,000 for the idea, which is estimated to save
New York City $2.9 billion.[12][13]

48

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Radiolaria
D-Shape successfully created the tallest printed sculpture, Radiolaria, in 2009.[14] Radiolaria, a sculpture created by Italian architect Andrea Morgante and inspired
by radiolarians, unicellular organisms with intricate mineral skeletons, shows o D-Shapes ability to print large
freeform structures. The current version of the sculpture
is only a 3 x 3 x 3m scale model of the full-size Radiolaria
that is planned to be put in a roundabout in Pontedera,
Italy.[15]

3.3.5

Future of D-Shape

Currently, Jake Wake-Walker and Marc Webb are working on a documentary, titled The Man Who Prints Houses,
about Enrico Dini and his invention.[16] Although DShape has garnered attention for its printing abilities, it is
still a work in progress. While it has gotten close to printing an actual house by printing a trullo, which is a small,
stone hut,[17] the printer still needs to be modied in order to make Dinis dreams of printing larger and more
complex buildings a reality.

Lunar bases
Because of D-Shapes capabilities, the European Space
Agency (ESA) has taken interest in using the printer to
build moon bases.[18] The ESA is interested in using DShape to build moon bases out of lunar regolith, otherwise known as moon dust, because the 3-D printer can
build the base onsite without human intervention. This
is advantageous because only the machine would have to
be taken to the moon, thus reducing the cost of bringing
building materials to the lunar surface to create the bases.
D-Shape has been successful in printing components for
the lunar bases with a simulated moon dust, and has also
been subject to tests that aim to see how the printer will
work in the environment on the moon.[19]

3.3.6

References

[1] Discovery Channel Covers DShape 3D Printing.

Youtube, DShape3DPrinting. Retrieved 21 October
2013.
[2] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[3] Dini, Enrico. Method and device for building automatically conglomerate structures CA 2602071 A1. US
Patents. Retrieved 11 November 2013.

[4] Dini, Enrico. Method for automatically producing a conglomerate structure and apparatus therefor US 8337736
B2. US Patents. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
[5] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[6] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[7] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[8] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[9] Dini, Enrico. Method for automatically producing a conglomerate structure and apparatus therefor US 8337736
B2. US Patents. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
[10] Parsons, Sarah (17 March 2010). 3-D Printer Creates
Entire Buildings From Solid Rock. Habitat. Retrieved
22 October 2013.
[11] Belezina, Jan (24 February 2012). D-Shape 3D printer
can print full-sized houses. Gizmag. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[12] D-Shape Promises To Modernize New Yorks Shoreline
Using 3D-Printing Technology. The Hungton Post. 3
June 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[13] D-Shape wins top prize in NYC Waterfront Construction
Competition. 3ders.org. 12 April 2013. Retrieved 20
October 2013.
[14] Quirk, Vanessa. How 3D Printing Will Change Our
World. Arch Daily. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
[15] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[16] Blagdon, Je (21 February 2012). British company uses
3D printing to make stone buildings out of sand. The
Verge. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[17] Quirk, Vanessa. How 3D Printing Will Change Our
World. Arch Daily. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
[18] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[19] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.

3.4. ELECTRON BEAM FREEFORM FABRICATION

3.3.7

External links

49

D-Shapes ocial Website

growth of rapid prototyping techniques such as stereolithography, rst developed for non-structural plastic
parts over thirty years ago.[1]

Discovery Channel Covering D-Shape http://www.

youtube.com/watch?v=RYaRUVTwIVc

3.4.2 Process

3.4 Electron beam freeform fabrication

NASA engineers test the EBF3 system during a parabolic ight in

2007.

The operational concept of EBF3 is to build a near-netshape metal part directly from a Computer Aided Design
(CAD) le. Current computer-aided machining practices
start with a CAD model and use a post-processor to write
the machining instructions (G-code) dening the cutting
tool paths needed to make the part. EBF3 uses a similar process, starting with a CAD model, numerically slicing it into layers, then using a post-processor to write the
G-code dening the deposition path and process parameters for the EBF3 equipment.[2] It uses a focused electron
beam in a vacuum environment to create a molten pool on
a metallic substrate. The beam is translated with respect
to the surface of the substrate while metal wire is fed into
the molten pool. The deposit solidies immediately after the electron beam has passed, having sucient structural strength to support itself. The sequence is repeated
in a layer-additive manner to produce a near-net-shape
part needing only nish machining. The EBF3 process is
scalable for components from fractions of an inch to tens
of feet in size, limited mainly by the size of the vacuum
chamber and amount of wire feedstock available.[3]

Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3 ) is an additive manufacturing process that builds near-net-shape
parts requiring less raw material and nish machining 3.4.3 See also
than traditional manufacturing methods. It uses a fo Electron beam additive manufacturing
cused electron beam in a vacuum environment to create
a molten pool on a metallic substrate.

3.4.4 References
3.4.1

History

[1] http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
20080013538_2008013396.pdf
Electron
Beam
Freeform Fabrication for Cost Eective Near-Net
Shape

NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) originated

(EBF3 ) technology development. The Additive Manufacturing Process was primarily developed and engineered by Karen Taminger, material research engineer [2] http://www.nasa.gov/topics/aeronautics/features/
electron_beam.html From Nothing, Something: One
for NASA LaRC. EBF3 is a NASA-patented additive
Layer at a Time
manufacturing process designed to build near-net-shape
parts requiring less raw material and nish machining [3] http://www.techbriefs.com/content/view/478/34/
Portable Electron-Beam Free-Form Fabrication System
than traditional manufacturing methods. EBF3 is a process by which NASA plans to build metal parts in zero
gravity environments; this layer-additive process uses an
electron beam, and a solid wire feedstock to fabricate 3.4.5 External links
metallic structures. The process eciencies of the elec Video: EBF3 Electron Beam Free Form Fabricatron beam and the feedstock make the EBF3 process aption
propriate for in-space use. Since 2000, a Team of Researchers at the NASA LaRC have led the fundamen Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication for Cost Eftal research and development of this technique for addifective Near-Net Shape
tive manufacturing; which is for metallic aerospace struc From Nothing, Something: One Layer at a Time
tures. Additive manufacturing encompasses processes
in which parts are built by successively adding mate Electron-Beam Free-Form Fabrication System
rial rather than by cutting or grinding it away as in con Device like Star Trek replicator is in the works
ventional machining. Additive manufacturing is an out-

50

3.5 Fused deposition modeling

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

techniques used for 3D printing.
FDM works on an additive principle by laying down
material in layers; a plastic lament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to produce a part.
The technology was developed by S. Scott Crump in the
late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990.[1] The term
fused deposition modeling and its abbreviation to FDM
are trademarked by Stratasys Inc. The exactly equivalent
term, fused lament fabrication (FFF), was coined by
the members of the RepRap project to give a phrase that
would be legally unconstrained in its use. It is also sometimes called Plastic Jet Printing (PJP).

3.5.1 History
Fused deposition modelling: 1 nozzle ejecting molten material,
2 deposited material (modeled part), 3 controlled movable
table

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by S.

Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was commercialized in
1990 by Stratasys.[2] With the expiration of the patent on
this technology there is now a large open-source development community (called RepRap), as well as commercial
and DIY variants, which utilize this type of 3D printer.
This has led to two orders of magnitude price drop since
this technologys creation.[3]

3.5.2 Process

An ORDbot Quantum 3D printer.

A timelapse video of a robot model (logo of Make magazine)
being printed using FDM on a RepRapPro Fisher printer.

FDM begins with a software process which processes an

STL le (stereolithography le format), mathematically
slicing and orienting the model for the build process. If
required, support structures may be generated. The machine may dispense multiple materials to achieve dierent goals: For example, one may use one material to
build up the model and use another as a soluble support
structure,[4] or one could use multiple colors of the same
type of thermoplastic on the same model.
Timelapse video of a hyperboloid object (designed by George W.
Hart) made of PLA using a RepRap Prusa Mendel 3D printer
for molten polymer deposition.

The model or part is produced by extruding small attened strings of molten material to form layers as the material hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozFused deposition modeling (FDM) is an additive man- zle
ufacturing technology commonly used for modeling, pro- A plastic lament or metal wire is unwound from a coil
totyping, and production applications. It is one of the and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which can

3.5. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING

51

turn the ow on and o. There is typically a worm-drive

that pushes the lament into the nozzle at a controlled
rate.
The nozzle is heated to melt the material. The thermoplastics are heated past their glass transition temperature
and are then deposited by an extrusion head.
The nozzle can be moved in both horizontal and vertical
directions by a numerically controlled mechanism. The
nozzle follows a tool-path controlled by a computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) software package, and the part is
built from the bottom up, one layer at a time. Stepper
motors or servo motors are typically employed to move
the extrusion head. The mechanism used is often an XY-Z rectilinear design, although other mechanical designs RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel)
such as deltabot have been employed.
Although as a printing technology FDM is very exible,
and it is capable of dealing with small overhangs by the
support from lower layers, FDM generally has some restrictions on the slope of the overhang, and cannot produce unsupported stalactites.
Myriad materials are available, such as Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS, Polylactic acid PLA, Polycarbonate PC, Polyamide PA, Polystyrene PS, lignin, rubber,
among many others, with dierent trade-os between
strength and temperature properties. In addition, even
the color of a given thermoplastic material may aect the
strength of the printed object.[5] Recently a German company demonstrated for the rst time the technical possibility of processing granular PEEK into lament form
and 3D printing parts from the lament material using Fab@Home Model 2 (2009)
FDM-technology.[6]

3.5.3

Commercial applications

FDM, a prominent form of rapid prototyping, is used

for prototyping and rapid manufacturing. Rapid prototyping facilitates iterative testing, and for very short
runs, rapid manufacturing can be a relatively inexpensive
alternative.[7]
FDM uses the thermoplastics ABS, ABSi,
polyphenylsulfone (PPSF), polycarbonate (PC), and Printing in progress in a Ultimaker 3D printer during Mozilla
Ultem 9085, among others. These materials are used Maker party, Bangalore
for their heat resistance properties. Ultem 9085 also
exhibits re retardancy making it suitable for aerospace
and aviation applications.
tional ties to the academic and hacker communities.[9]
FDM is also used in prototyping scaolds for medical RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktissue engineering applications.[8]
top category. The RepRap project aims to produce a free
and open source hardware (FOSH) 3D printer, whose full
specications are released under the GNU General Pub3.5.4 Free applications
lic License, and which is capable of replicating itself by
printing many of its own (plastic) parts to create more
Several projects and companies are making eorts to machines.[10][11] RepRaps have already been shown to be
develop aordable 3D printers for home desktop use. able to print circuit boards[12] and metal parts.[13][14]
Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at Fab@Home is the other opensource hardware project for
DIY/enthusiast/early adopter communities, with addi- DIY 3D printers.

52

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Freedom certication from the Free Software Foundation.[20]

3.5.5 See also

3D printing
3D printer extruder
CEL Robox
Direct metal laser sintering
Fab lab
Fab@Home
Fused lament fabrication
G-code
Airwolf 3D AW3D v.4 (Prusa)

Because of the FOSH aims of RepRap, many related

projects have used their design for inspiration, creating an ecosystem of related or derivative 3D printers,
most of which are also open source designs. The availability of these open source designs means that variants of 3D printers are easy to invent. The quality and
complexity of printer designs, however, as well as the
quality of kit or nished products, varies greatly from
project to project. This rapid development of open source
3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres as it
enables hyper-customization and the use of public domain designs to fabricate open source appropriate technology. This technology can also assist initiatives in
sustainable development since technologies are easily
and economically made from resources available to local
communities.[15][16]
The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since
about 2010, with machines that used to cost $20,000 now
costing less than $1,000.[17] For instance, as of 2013,
several companies and individuals are selling parts to
build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at
about 400 / US$500.[18] The open source Fab@Home
project[19] has developed printers for general use with
anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from
chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants.
Printers following the projects designs have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since
2012 at prices in the US$2000 range.
The LulzBot 3D printers manufactured by Aleph Objects are another example of an open-source application
of fused deposition modeling technology. The agship
model in the LulzBot line, the TAZ printer takes inspiration for its design from the RepRap Mendel90 and Prusa
i3 models. The LulzBot 3D printer is currently the only
printer on the market to have received the Respects Your

Hyrel 3D
MakerBot Industries
Printrbot
Rapid prototyping
RepRap Project
Robo 3D
Selective laser sintering
Stereolithography
Ultimaker
Von Neumann universal constructor
SNT 3D Printers

3.5.6 References
[1] http://rpworld.net/cms/index.php/
additive-manufacturing/rp-rapid-prototyping/
fdm-fused-deposition-modeling-.html
[2] Chee Kai Chua; Kah Fai Leong, Chu Sing Lim (2003).
Rapid Prototyping. World Scientic. p. 124. ISBN
9789812381170.
[3] Rundle, Guy (2014). A Revolution in the Making. Arm
Press. ISBN 9781922213303.
[4] http://www.engr.mun.ca/~{}kmay/CleanStation/
MSDSP400SCWaterWorks_US.pdf
[5] Wittbrodt, Ben; Pearce, Joshua M. (2015-10-01). The
eects of PLA color on material properties of 3-D
printed components. Additive Manufacturing 8: 110
116. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2015.09.006.
[6] 3dprint.com, PEEK being 3D-printed. 3dprint.com.
March 21, 2015. Retrieved March 26, 2015.

3.6. LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING

[7] https://books.google.com/books?id=GUhhs3MnQR4C
[8] Ferry Melchels et al 2011 Biofabrication 3 034114
doi:10.1088/1758-5082/3/3/034114
[9] Kalish, Jon. A Space For DIY People To Do Their Business (NPR.org, November 28, 2010)". Retrieved 201201-31.
[10] Jones, R., Haufe, P., Sells, E., Iravani, P., Olliver, V.,
Palmer, C., & Bowyer, A. (2011). Reprap-- the replicating rapid prototyper. Robotica, 29(1), 177-191.
[11] Open source 3D printer copies itself. Computerworld
New Zealand. 2008-04-07. Retrieved 2013-10-30.

53
3D Printing process and How FDM technology
works Video. homeshop3dprinting.com. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
Complete list of G-code used by 3D printers
rmware of RepRap project. RepRap.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.

3.6 Laminated object manufacturing

[12] RepRap blog 2009 visited 2/26/2014

[13] An Inexpensive Way to Print Out Metal Parts - The New
York Times
[14] Gerald C. Anzalone, Chenlong Zhang, Bas Wijnen, Paul
G. Sanders and Joshua M. Pearce, " Low-Cost OpenSource 3-D Metal Printing IEEE Access, 1, pp.803-810,
(2013). doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2293018
[15] Pearce, Joshua M.; et al. 3-D Printing of Open
Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development (Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No. 4, 2010, pp. 1729)". Retrieved 201201-31.
[16] Tech for Trade, 3D4D Challenge
[17] Disruptions: 3-D Printing Is on the Fast Track NYTimes.com
[18] www.3ders.org. 3D printers list with prices. 3ders.org.
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[19] New Scientist magazine: Desktop fabricator may kickstart home revolution, 9 January 2007
[20] Gay, Joshua (29 Apr 2013). Aleph Objects. fsf.org.
Free Software Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2 April 2015.

3.5.7

Further reading

Laminated object manufacturing: 1 Foil supply. 2 Heated roller.

3 Laser beam. 4. Scanning prism. 5 Laser unit. 6 Layers. 7
Moving platform. 8 Waste.

Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a rapid

prototyping system developed by Helisys Inc. (Cubic
Technologies is now the successor organization of Helisys) In it, layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic, or
metal laminates are successively glued together and cut to
shape with a knife or laser cutter. Objects printed with
this technique may be additionally modied by machining or drilling after printing. Typical layer resolution for
this process is dened by the material feedstock and usually ranges in thickness from one to a few sheets of copy
paper.[1]

Results of Make Magazines 2015 3D Printer The process is performed as follows:

Shootout. docs.google.com. Retrieved 1 June
2015.
1. Sheet is adhered to a substrate with a heated roller.
Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazines 2015 3D
2. Laser traces desired dimensions of prototype.
Printer Shootout. makezine.com. Retrieved 1 June
2015.
3. Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste
removal.
Stephens, Brent; Parham Azimia; Zeineb El Orcha;
Tianie Ramos (November 2013).
Ultrane
4. Platform with completed layer moves down out of
Particle Emissions from Desktop 3D Printthe way.
ers. Atmospheric Environment 79: 334339.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
Retrieved
5. Fresh sheet of material is rolled into position.
13 August 2013.
6. Platform downs into new position to receive next
How Fused Deposition Modeling Works.
layer.
THRE3D.com. Archived from the original on
February 21, 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
7. The process is repeated.

54

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Note:
Low cost due to readily available raw material
Paper models have wood like characteristics, and
may be worked and nished accordingly
Dimensional accuracy is slightly less than that of
stereolithography and selective laser sintering but no
milling step is necessary.
Relatively large parts may be made, because no
chemical reaction is necessary.[2][3]

3.6.1

References

[1] How Laminated Object Manufacturing

THRE3D.com. Retrieved 3 February 2014.

Works.

[2] Laminated Object Manufacturing. April 10,

2006.https://web.archive.org/web/20100102182152/
http://home.att.net/~{}castleisland/lom.htm (accessed
April 19, 2008).
[3] Rapid Prototyping: LOM. http://www.efunda.com/
processes/rapid_prototyping/lom.cfm (accessed June 8,
2012).

3.7 Laser engineered net shaping

Laser Powder Forming, also known by the proprietary name Laser engineered net shaping) is an
additive manufacturing technology developed for fabricating metal parts directly from a computer-aided design
(CAD) solid model by using a metal powder injected into
a molten pool created by a focused, high-powered laser
beam. This technique is also equivalent to several trademarked techniques that have the monikers Direct Metal
Deposition (DMD), and Laser consolidation (LC). Compared to processes that use powder beds, such as Selective
Laser Melting (SLM), objects created with this technology can be substantially larger, even up to several feet
long.[1]
A high power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied
coaxially to the focus of the laser beam through a deposition head. The laser beam typically travels through the
center of the head and is focused to a small spot by one
or more lenses. The X-Y table is moved in raster fashion
to fabricate each layer of the object. The head is moved
up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powders
are delivered and distributed around the circumference
of the head either by gravity, or by using a pressurized
carrier gas. An inert shroud gas is often used to shield
the melt pool from atmospheric oxygen for better control
of properties, and to promote layer to layer adhesion by
providing better surface wetting.

by the layer additive method. The LENS process can

go from metal and metal oxide powder to metal parts,
in many cases without any secondary operations. LENS
is similar to selective laser sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the
part at that moment. It can produce parts in a wide range
of alloys, including titanium, stainless steel, aluminum,
and other specialty materials; as well as composite and
functionally graded materials. Primary applications for
LENS technology include repair & overhaul, rapid prototyping, rapid manufacturing, and limited-run manufacturing for aerospace, defense, and medical markets. Microscopy studies show the LENS parts to be fully dense
with no compositional degradation. Mechanical testing
reveals outstanding as-fabricated mechanical properties.
The process can also make near net shape parts when
its not possible to make an item to exact specications.
In these cases post production light machining, surface
nishing, or heat treatment may be applied to achieve end
compliance.

3.7.1 External links

Sandia National Laboratory LENS article.

3.7.2 References
[1] How Laser Powder Forming Works. THRE3D.com.
Retrieved 11 February 2014.

3.8 Magnetic 3D bioprinting

Magnetic 3D bioprinting is a methodology that employs
biocompatible magnetic nanoparticles to print cells into
3D structures or 3D cell cultures. In this process, cells are
tagged with magnetic nanoparticles (nanoshuttle) that are
used to render them magnetic.[1][2] Once magnetic, these
cells can be rapidly printed into specic 3D patterns using
external magnetic forces that mimic tissue structure and
function.

3.8.1 General principle

There are several advantages to using magnetic 3D

bioprinting over other 3D printing modalities such as
extrusion, photolithography, and stereolithography. This
includes the rapid bioprinting process (15 min - 1 h)
compared to the days-long processes of others;[3][4]
the endogenous synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM)
without the need of an articial protein substrate; and ne
spatial control.[5][6][7] Using this system, 3D cell culture
models can be rapidly printed, from simple spheroids and
This process is similar to other 3D fabrication technolo- rings, to more complex organotypic models, like of the
gies in its approach in that it forms a solid component lung,[5] aortic valve,[6] and fat.[7]

3.9. POWDER BED AND INKJET HEAD 3D PRINTING

3.8.2

History

55

3.8.7 References

The rst commercially available 3D bioprinting system is

being commercialized by Nano3D Biosciences, Inc. The
rst application of this system is for high-throughput and
high-content drug screening.[8]

[1] Souza, G. R. et al Three-dimensional tissue culture based

on magnetic cell levitation. Nat. Nanotechnol. 5, 2916
(2010)

3.8.3

[3] Friedrich, J., Seidel, C., Ebner, R. & Kunz-Schughart, L.

A. Spheroid-based drug screen: considerations and practical approach. Nat. Protoc. 4, 30924 (2009)

Process

In this system, cells are magnetically printed into 3D patterns (rings or dots), and after printing, interact with surrounding cells and ECM to migrate and proliferate and
ultimately shrink the structure, typically within 24 h. This
shrinkage varies with drug concentration and is a labelfree metric of cell function that can be easily captured
and measured with brighteld imaging.[8] In this system,
the size of the pattern is captured using an iPod-based
system, which is programmed using a freely available app
(Experimental Assistant) to image whole plates of up to
96 structures at small intervals (as small as 1 s) to efciently capture pharmacodynamics. A 384 version of
this system is currently being developed. Results employing magnetic 3D bioprinting were recently published in
Scientic Reports in October 2013.[8]

3.8.4

Application

[2] Haisler, W. L. et al. Three-dimensional cell culturing by

magnetic levitation. Nat. Protoc. 8, 19409 (2013)

[4] Seiler, A. E. M. & Spielmann, H. The validated embryonic stem cell test to predict embryotoxicity in vitro. Nat.
Protoc. 6, 96178 (2011)
[5] Tseng, H. et al.Assembly of a three-dimensional multitype bronchiole coculture model using magnetic levitation. Tissue Eng. Part C. Methods 19, 66575 (2013)
[6] Tseng, H. et al. A three-dimensional co-culture model of
the aortic valve using magnetic levitation. Acta Biomater.
10, 17382 (2014)
[7] Daquinag, A. C., Souza, G. R. & Kolonin, M. G, Adipose
tissue engineering in three-dimensional levitation tissue
culture system based on magnetic nanoparticles. Tissue
Eng. Part C. Methods 19, 33644 (2013)
[8] Timm, D. M. et al. A high-throughput three-dimensional
cell migration assay for toxicity screening with mobile
device-based macroscopic image analysis. Sci. Rep. 3,
3000 (2013)

Magnetic 3D bioprinting can be used to screen for [9] Gwathmey, J. K., Tsaioun, K. & Hajjar, R. J.
cardiovascular toxicity, which accounts for 30% of drug
Cardionomics: a new integrative approach for screening
withdrawals [9] Vascular smooth muscle cells are magnetcardiotoxicity of drug candidates. Expert Opin. Drug
Metab. Toxicol. 5, 64760 (2009)
ically printed into 3D rings to mimic blood vessels that
can contract and dilate. This system could potentially replace experiments using ex vivo tissue, which are costly
and yield few data per experiment. Furthermore, mag- 3.9 Powder bed and inkjet head 3D
netic 3D bioprinting can use human cells to approximate a
printing
human in vivo response better than with an animal model.
This has been demonstrated by the bioassay which combines the benets of 3D bioprinting in building tissue-like This article is about powder bed and inkjet-based 3D
structures for study with the speed of magnetic printing. printing. For the popular term for all additive manufacturing processes, see additive manufacturing.

3.8.5

Users

The target users for magnetic 3D bioprinting are in the

pharmaceutical and CRO industries, where this system
can be integrated early in the drug discovery process as a
compound screen for toxicity and ecacy. In the future,
magnetic 3D bioprinting could be applied to the eld of
regenerative medicine and organogenesis. Overall, magnetic 3D bioprinting is an eective tool to create faithful
models of native tissue.

Powder bed and inkjet 3D printing, known variously as binder jetting and drop-on-powder or
simply 3D printing (3DP) is a rapid prototyping
and additive manufacturing (or layered manufacturing) technology for making objects described by digital
data. (Other powder-bed manufacturing technologies
include selective laser sintering and selective laser melting.)

3.9.1 History
3.8.6

See also

Bio-printing
Organovo

This technology was rst developed at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology in 1993 and in 1995 Z Corporation obtained an exclusive license. The term ThreeDimensional Printing was trademarked by the same.[1][2]

56

3.9.2

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Description

gies such as fused deposition modeling or drop-on-drop

material jetting which require 100% of build and supAs in many other additive manufacturing processes, (and port material to be deposited at the desired resolution.
as a layered manufacturing technology), the part to be In 3D printing, the bulk of each printed layer, regardless
printed is built up from many thin cross sections of the of complexity, is deposited by the same, rapid spreading
3D model. An inkjet print head moves across a bed of process.[4]
powder, selectively depositing a liquid binding material. As with other powder-bed technologies, support strucA thin layer of powder is spread across the completed sec- tures are generally not required because loose powder
tion and the process is repeated with each layer adhering supports overhanging features and stacked or suspended
to the last.
objects. The elimination of printed support structures
When the model is complete, unbound powder is auto- can reduce build time and material use and simplify both
matically and/or manually removed in a process called equipment and post-processing. However, de-powdering
itself can be a delicate, messy, and time-consuming
de-powdering and may be reused to some extent.[3]
task. Some machines therefore automate de-powdering
The de-powdered part could optionally be subjected to
and powder recycling to what extent feasible. Since
various inltrants or other treatments to produce properthe entire build volume is lled with powder, as with
ties desired in the nal part.
stereolithography, means to evacuate a hollow part must
be accommodated in the design.

3.9.3

Materials

In the original implementations, starch and gypsum plaster ll the powder bed, the liquid binder being mostly
water to activate the plaster. The binder also includes
dyes (for color printing), and additives to adjust viscosity,
surface tension, and boiling point to match print head
specications. The resulting plaster parts typically lack
"green strength" and require inltration by melted wax,
cyanoacrylate glue, epoxy, etc. before regular handling.
While not necessarily employing conventional inkjet
technology, various other powder-binder combinations
may be deployed to form objects by chemical or mechanical means. The resulting parts may then be subjected to
dierent post-processing regimes, such as inltration or
bakeout. This may be done, for example, to eliminate
the mechanical binder (e.g., by burning) and consolidate
the core material (e.g., by melting), or to form a composite material blending the properties of powder and binder.
Depending on the material, full color printing may or may
not be an option. As of 2014, inventors and manufacturers have developed systems for forming objects from
sand and calcium carbonate (forming a synthetic marble),
acrylic powder and cyanoacrylate, ceramic powder and a
liquid binder, sugar and water (for making candies), etc.

Like other powder-bed processes, surface nish and accuracy, object density, anddepending on the material
and processpart strength may be inferior to technologies such as stereolithography (SLA) or selective laser
sintering (SLS). Although stair-stepping and asymmetrical dimensional properties are features of 3D printing as
most other layered manufacturing processes, 3D printing
materials are generally consolidated in such a way that
minimizes the dierence between vertical and in-plane
resolution. The process also lends itself to rasterization
of layers at target resolutions, a fast process that can accommodate intersecting solids and other data artifacts.
Powder bed and inkjet 3D printers are expensive compared to regular 3D printers with prices ranging from
$50.000 to $2 Million for enterprise grade, but recent
$1.300 model introduced by Yvo de Haas and released
as open source project make it more aordable.[5]

3.9.5 See also

3D printing
List of common 3D test models
3D printing marketplace

Volumetric printing
3D printing technology has a limited potential to vary
material properties in a single build, but is generally limited by the use of a common core material. In the original Z Corporation systems, cross-sections are typically 3.9.6 References
printed with solid outlines (forming a solid shell) and a
[1] Printers produce copies in 3D. BBC News. August 6,
lower-density interior pattern to speed printing and en2003. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
sure dimensional stability as the part cures.

3.9.4

Characteristics

In addition to volumetric color by use of multiple print

heads and colored binder, the 3D printing process is generally faster than other additive manufacturing technolo-

[2] Grimm, Todd (2004). Users Guide to Rapid Prototyping.

SME. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-87263-697-2. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
[3] Sclater, Neil; Nicholas P. Chironis (2001). Mechanisms
and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 472. ISBN 978-0-07-136169-9. Retrieved
October 31, 2008.

3.10. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

57

[4] http://www.fusion3design.com/
[5] http://3dprint.com/12560/plan-b-3dp-3d-printer/

3.10 Stereolithography

of additive manufacturing technology used for creating

models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts in a
layer by layer fashion using photopolymerization, a process by which light causes chains of molecules to link
together, forming polymers.[1] Research in the area had
been conducted during the 1970s, but the term was
coined by Charles (Chuck) W. Hull in 1986 when he
patented the process. He then set up 3D Systems Inc to
commercialize his patent.[2][3]

Scanner system

3.10.1 History

Laser
Laser beam
Layers of solidified resin

Liquid resin

Platform and piston

Stereolithography apparatus

An SLA produced part

An example of a complex SLA 3D printed electronic circuit board

PCB with various components to simulate the nal product.

Stereolithography (SLA or SL; also known as Optical Fabrication, Photo-Solidication, Solid FreeForm Fabrication, Solid Imaging, Rapid Prototyping, Resin Printing, and 3D printing) is a form

Stereolithography or SLA printing is an early and

widely used 3D printing technology. Also known as
Rapid Prototyping, 3D printing was invented with the intent of allowing engineers to create prototypes of their
designs in a more time eective manner.[3][4] The technology rst appeared as early as the 1970s. Japanese researcher Dr. Hideo Kodama rst invented the modern
layered approach to stereolithography by using ultraviolet
light to cure photosensitive polymers.[3] On July 16, 1984
Alain Le Mehaute, Olivier de Witte and Jean Claude Andr led their patent for the stereolithography process.[5]
It was three weeks before Chuck Hull led his own patent
for stereolithography. The application of French inventors were abandoned by the French General Electric
Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser
Consortium).[6] The claimed reason was for lack of business perspective.[7] However, the term stereolithography was coined in 1986 by Chuck Hull.[1] Chuck Hull
patented stereolithography as a method of creating 3D
objects by successively printing thin layers of an object using a medium curable by ultraviolet light, starting
from the bottom layer to the top layer. Hulls patent described a concentrated beam of ultraviolet light focused
onto the surface of a vat lled with a liquid photopolymer. The UV light beam is focused onto the surface of
the liquid photopolymer, creating each layer of the desired 3D object by means of crosslinking (or degrading
a polymer). In 1986, Hull founded the worlds rst 3D
printing company, 3D Systems Inc,[2][8][9] which is currently based in Rock Hill, SC. Stereolithographys success in the automotive industry allowed 3D printing to
achieve industry status and the technology continues to
nd innovative uses in countless elds of study.[4][10] Attempts have been made to construct mathematical models
of stereolithography processes and to design algorithms to
determine whether a proposed object may be constructed
using 3D printing.[11]

3.10.2 Technology
Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing process
that works by focusing an ultraviolet (UV) laser on to
a vat of photopolymer resin.[12] With the help of computer aided manufacturing or computer aided design software (CAM/CAD),[13] the UV laser is used to draw a

58

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

pre-programmed design or shape on to the surface of the supports must be removed from the nished product manphotopolymer vat. Because photopolymers are photosen- ually.
sitive under ultraviolet light, the resin is solidied and
forms a single layer of the desired 3D object.[14] This process is repeated for each layer of the design until the 3D 3.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
object is complete.
One of the advantages of stereolithography is its speed;
In models featuring an elevator apparatus, such as mod- functional parts can be manufactured within a day.[4] The
els made by Amtech[15] an elevator platform descends a length of time it takes to produce a single part depends
distance equal to the thickness of a single layer of the de- upon the complexity of the design and the size. Printing
sign (typically 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm) into the photopoly- time can last anywhere from hours to more than a day.[4]
mer vat. Then, a resin-lled blade sweeps across a cross Many 3D printers can produce parts with a maximum size
section of the layer, re-coating it with fresh material.[15] of approximately 505060 cm (202024 in) and some
The subsequent layer is traced, joining the previous layer. printers, such as the Mammoth stereolithography maA complete 3D object can be formed using this process. chine (which has a build platform of 2107080 cm),[17]
Designs are then immersed in a chemical bath in order are capable of producing single parts more than 2 meters
to remove any excess resin and cured in an ultraviolet in length. 3D printed prototypes and designs are strong
oven.[15]
enough to be machined and can also be used to make masIt is also possible to print objects bottom up by us- ter patterns for injection molding, thermoforming, blow
ing a vat with a somewhat exible, transparent bottom, molding, and various metal casting processes.
and focusing the UV or deep-blue polymerization laser Although stereolithography can be used to produce virtuupward through the bottom of the vat.[16] For example, ally any synthetic design,[13] it is often costly; the cost
the Form-1 low-cost stereolithography machine starts a of photopolymer resin can be around $2500 per galprint by lowering the build platform to touch the bot- lon (DSM Somos 11-122) and SLA machines can cost
tom of the resin-lled vat, then withdrawing upward one $250,000.[18] Recently, public interest in stereolithogralayer thickness (which can be as small as 10 microns). phy has inspired the design of several consumer models of
The UV laser then writes the bottom-most layer of the 3D printer which feature drastically reduced prices, such
desired part upward through the transparent vat bottom, as the Titan 1 by Kudo3D, the Ilios HD by GizmoForYou,
and the photopolymer hardens selectively where the laser the Form 2 by Formlabs & CTC Riverside and the Pegastrikes. Then the vat is rocked, exing and peeling the sus Touch by FSL3D, and the Nobel 1.0 by XYZPrinting.
bottom of the vat away from the hardened photopolymer; There has also been a reduction of the cost of photopolythe hardened material detaches from the bottom of the mer resins, with USA based providers such as MakerJuice
vat and stays attached to the rising build platform, and Labs oering consumers photopolymer resins with prices
new liquid photopolymer ows in from the edges of the as low as $55 per Liter, and European based providers
partially built part.. The UV laser then writes the second- such as spot-A Materials oering materials for 68 per
from-bottom layer, the vat rocks again, the newly hard- Liter.
ened material peels again, the build platform is raised
again, more liquid photopolymer ows in, and the process repeats for each layer in the desired part. An advan- 3.10.4 See also
tage of this bottom-up mode is that the build volume can
Stereolithography (medicine)
be much bigger than the vat itself, and only enough photopolymer is needed to keep the bottom of the build vat
Thermoforming
continuously full of photopolymer. Often a depth of only
a centimeter or two of liquid photopolymer is adequate
to print tall, thin structures 10 centimeters tall. Thus, 3.10.5 References
bottom-up printing exposes far less photopolymer resin
to atmospheric oxygen and room light which can degrade [1] U.S. Patent 4,575,330 (Apparatus for Production of
or prematurely harden the photopolymer and so decreases
Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography)
waste of the expensive photopolymer.
[2] Stereolithography/ 3D Printing/ Additive Fabrication

Stereolithography requires the use of supporting structures which attach to the elevator platform to prevent
deection due to gravity and to hold cross sections in
place in order to resist lateral pressure from the resinlled blade or retain newly created sections during the
vat rocking of bottom-up printing. Supports are created
automatically during the preparation of 3D Computer
Aided Design models and can also be made manually.[15]
With more expensive stereolithography models, these

[3] Gibson, Ian, and Jorge Brtolo, Paulo. History of Stereolithography. Stereolithography: Materials, Processes,
and Applications. (2011): 41-43. Web. 7 October 2015.
[4] Hull, Chuck. On Stereolithography. Virtual and Physical Prototyping. Vol 7. (2012): 177. Web. 11 Oct, 2015
[5] Jean-Claude, Andre. Disdpositif pour realiser un modele de piece industrielle. National De La Propriete Industrielle.

3.11. SELECTIVE HEAT SINTERING

[6] Mendoza, Hannah Rose (May 15, 2015). 3dprint.com.

Alain Le Mhaut, The Man Who Submitted Patent For
SLA 3D Printing Before Chuck Hull.
[7] Moussion, Alexandre (2014). Interview dAlain Le
Mhaut, lun des pres de limpression 3D. Primante
3D.
[8] 3D Systems Inc Company Info
[9] What is Stereolithography?
[10] Jacobs, Paul F. Introduction to Rapid Prototyping and
Manufacturing. Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing:
Fundamentals of Stereolithography. 1st Ed. (1992): 4-6.
Web. 7 October 2015.
[11] B. Asberg, G. Blanco, P. Bose, J. Garcia-Lopez, M. Overmars, G. Toussaint, G. Wilfong and B. Zhu, Feasibility
of design in stereolithography, Algorithmica, Special Issue on Computational Geometry in Manufacturing, Vol.
19, No. 1/2, Sept/Oct, 1997, pp. 6183.
[12] Crivello, James V., and Elsa Reichmanis. Photopolymer Materials and Processes for Advanced Technologies.
Chemistry of Materials Chem. Mater. 26.1 (2014): 533.
Print.
[13] Lipson, Hod, Francis C. Moon, Jimmy Hai, and Carlo
Paventi. 3-D Printing the History of Mechanisms. Journal of Mechanical Design J. Mech. Des. (2004): 1029033. Print.
[14] Fouassier, J. P. Photopolymerization Reactions. The
Wiley Database of Polymer Properties 3 (2003): 25.
Print.

59

3.10.7 External links

Full Spectrum Laser rolls out two new innovative 3D
Printers at 3D Printer World
Ilios modular 3d Printer by GizmoForYou with industrial grade motion, fully metallic construction
and highly accurate repeatability rates
Super Precise Kudo3D Titan 1 SLA 3D Printer Hits
Kickstarter on May 27 Starting at $1899
Pegasus Touch by FSL3D Laser SLA 3D Printer:
Low cost, High Quality on Kickstarter
Formlabs Form 1 a low cost Stereolithography
printer being designed and fabricated as a Kickstarter project
How Stereolithography (3-D Layering) Works from
HowStuWorks.com
Rapid Prototyping and Stereolithography animation
Animation demonstrates stereolithography and the
actions of an SL machine
Video of micro-stereolithography for biomedical
applications

3.11 Selective heat sintering

Selective heat sintering (SHS) is a type of additive manufacturing process. It works by using a thermal printhead
to apply heat to layers of powdered thermoplastic. When
[16] Formlabs Form 2 3D Printer review: An excellent 3D a layer is nished, the powder bed moves down, and
printer for a hefty price. CNET. Retrieved 3 February an automated roller adds a new layer of material which
2016. More specically, as the print platform lowers itself is sintered to form the next cross-section of the model.
into the resin glass tank, an ultraviolet laser light, from unSHS is best for manufacturing inexpensive prototypes for
derneath the see-through tank, shines on it. (For this reaconcept evaluation, t/form and functional testing. SHS
son, SLA is sometimes called the laser 3D-printing technology.) Exposed to the laser light, the resin cures, solid- is a Plastics additive manufacturing technique similar to
ies and sticks to the platform. As more resin is exposed selective laser sintering (SLS), the main dierence being
to the laser light, the pattern is created and joins the layer that SHS employs a less intense thermal printhead instead
above. As more and more layers are being created, the of a laser, thereby making it a cheaper solution, and able
build platform slowly -- very slowly -- moves upward, - to be scaled down to desktop sizes.[1]
[15] Stereolithography (SLA)". www.amtech-rp.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-16.

nally pulling the entire object out of the tank as the print
process is nished.
[17] Mammoth stereolithography: Technical specications.
materialise.com
[18] Brain, Marshall. How Stereolithography 3-D Layering
Works. Howstuworks. Infospace LLC. Retrieved 17
December 2015.

3.11.1 References
[1] How Selective Heat Sintering Works. THRE3D.com.
Retrieved 3 February 2014.

3.12 Selective laser sintering

3.10.6

Notes

Kalpakjian, Serope and Steven R. Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 5th edition.
Ch. 20 (pp. 586587 Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper
Saddle River NJ, 2006.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technique that uses a laser as the power
source to sinter powdered material (typically metal), aiming the laser automatically at points in space dened by
a 3D model, binding the material together to create a

60

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

applied on top, and the process is repeated until the part
is completed.
Because nished part density depends on peak laser
power, rather than laser duration, a SLS machine typically uses a pulsed laser. The SLS machine preheats the
bulk powder material in the powder bed somewhat below
its melting point, to make it easier for the laser to raise the
temperature of the selected regions the rest of the way to
the melting point.[6]

An SLS machine being used at the Centro Renato Archer in Brazil.

In contrast with some other additive manufacturing processes, such as stereolithography (SLA) and fused deposition modeling (FDM), which most often require special
support structures to fabricate overhanging designs, SLS
does not need a separate feeder for support material because the part being constructed is surrounded by unsintered powder at all times, this allows for the construction
of previously impossible geometries. Also, since the machines chamber is always lled with powder material the
fabrication of multiple parts has a far lower impact on the
overall diculty and price of the design because through
a technique known as 'Nesting' multiple parts can be positioned to t within the boundaries of the machine. One
design aspect which should be observed however is that
with SLS it is 'impossible' to fabricate a hollow but fully
enclosed element. This is because the unsintered powder
within the element can't be drained.

solid structure. It is similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS); the two are instantiations of the same concept but dier in technical details. Selective laser melting
(SLM) uses a comparable concept, but in SLM the material is fully melted rather than sintered,[1] allowing different properties (crystal structure, porosity, and so on).
SLS (as well as the other mentioned AM techniques) is a
relatively new technology that so far has mainly been used
for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of
component parts. Production roles are expanding as the
commercialization of AM technology improves.
Since patents have started to expire, aordable home
printers have become possible, but the heating process is
still an obstacle, with a power consumption of up to 5 kW
3.12.1 History
and temperatures having to be controlled within 2 C for
the three stages of preheating, melting and storing before
Selective laser sintering (SLS) was developed and removal.
patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and academic adviser, Dr.
Joe Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the
mid-1980s, under sponsorship of DARPA.[2] Deckard
and Beaman were involved in the resulting start up com- 3.12.3 Materials and applications
pany DTM, established to design and build the SLS machines. In 2001, 3D Systems the biggest competitor of Some SLS machines use single-component powder, such
DTM and SLS technology acquired DTM.[3] The most as direct metal laser sintering. Powders are commonly
recent patent regarding Deckards SLS technology was is- produced by ball milling. However, most SLS machines
sued 28 January 1997 and expired 28 Jan 2014.[4]
use two-component powders, typically either coated powA similar process was patented without being commer- der or a powder mixture. In single-component powders,
the laser melts only the outer surface of the particles
cialized by R. F. Housholder in 1979.[5]
(surface melting), fusing the solid non-melted cores to
each other and to the previous layer.[6]

3.12.2

Technology

An additive manufacturing layer technology, SLS involves the use of a high power laser (for example, a carbon
dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal,
ceramic, or glass powders into a mass that has a desired
three-dimensional shape. The laser selectively fuses powdered material by scanning cross-sections generated from
a 3-D digital description of the part (for example from a
CAD le or scan data) on the surface of a powder bed.
After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is
lowered by one layer thickness, a new layer of material is

Compared with other methods of additive manufacturing, SLS can produce parts from a relatively wide range of
commercially available powder materials. These include
polymers such as nylon (neat, glass-lled, or with other
llers) or polystyrene, metals including steel, titanium, alloy mixtures, and composites and green sand. The physical process can be full melting, partial melting, or liquidphase sintering. Depending on the material, up to 100%
density can be achieved with material properties comparable to those from conventional manufacturing methods. In many cases large numbers of parts can be packed
within the powder bed, allowing very high productivity.

3.13. SELECTIVE LASER MELTING

61

SLS technology is in wide use around the world due to its [6] Prasad K. D. V. Yarlagadda; S. Narayanan (February
2005). GCMM 2004: 1st International Conference on
ability to easily make very complex geometries directly
Manufacturing and Management. Alpha Science Int'l. pp.
from digital CAD data. While it began as a way to build
73.
ISBN 978-81-7319-677-5. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
prototype parts early in the design cycle, it is increasingly
being used in limited-run manufacturing to produce enduse parts. One less expected and rapidly growing appli3.12.6 External links
cation of SLS is its use in art.
DMLS DEVELOPMENT HISTORY AND
STATE OF THE ART
Selective Laser Sintering, Birth of an Industry

3.13 Selective laser melting

Selective laser sintering process

3.12.4

See also

3D printing
Desktop manufacturing
Digital fabricator
Direct digital manufacturing
Fab lab
Instant manufacturing, also known as direct manufacturing or on-demand manufacturing
Rapid manufacturing
Rapid prototyping
RepRap Project
Solid freeform fabrication
Von Neumann universal constructor

Selective laser melting is an additive manufacturing process that uses 3D CAD data as a digital information
source and energy in the form of a high-power laser beam,
to create three-dimensional metal parts by fusing ne
metal powders together. Manufacturing applications in
aerospace or medical orthopedics are being pioneered.

3.13.1 History
Selective laser melting started in 1995 at the Fraunhofer
Institute ILT in Aachen, Germany, with a German research project, resulting in the so-called basic ILT SLM
patent DE 19649865. Already during its pioneering
phase Dr. Dieter Schwarze and Dr. Matthias Fockele from F&S Stereolithographietechnik GmbH located
in Paderborn collaborated with the ILT researchers Dr.
Wilhelm Meiners and Dr. Konrad Wissenbach. In the
early 2000s F&S entered into a commercial partnership
with MCP HEK GmbH (later on named MTT Technology GmbH and then SLM Solutions GmbH) located
in Luebeck in northern Germany. Today Dr. Dieter
Schwarze is with SLM Solutions GmbH and Dr. Matthias
Fockele founded Realizer GmbH.

The ASTM International F42 standards committee has

grouped selective laser melting into the category of laser
sintering, although this is an acknowledged misnomer
3.12.5 References
because the process fully melts the metal into a solid ho[1] How Selective Laser Sintering Works. THRE3D.com. mogeneous mass, unlike selective laser sintering (SLS)
Retrieved 7 February 2014.
and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), which are true
sintering processes. A similar process is electron beam
[2] Deckard, C., Method and apparatus for producing parts
melting (EBM), which uses an electron beam as energy
by selective sintering, U.S. Patent 4,863,538, led Octosource.
ber 17, 1986, published September 5, 1989.

[3] Lou, Alex and Grosvenor, Carol "Selective Laser Sintering, Birth of an Industry", The University of Texas, December 07, 2012. Retrieved on March 22, 2013.

3.13.2 Process

The process starts by slicing the 3D CAD le data into

layers, usually from 20 to 100 micrometres thick, creat[5] Housholder, R., Molding Process, U.S. Patent ing a 2D image of each layer; this le format is the indus4,247,508, led December 3, 1979, published January try standard .stl le used on most layer-based 3D printing
27, 1981.
or stereolithography technologies. This le is then loaded
[4] US5597589

62

CHAPTER 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

into a le preparation software package that assigns parameters, values and physical supports that allow the le
to be interpreted and built by dierent types of additive
manufacturing machines.

Tests by NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center, which is

experimenting with the technique to make some dicultto-fabricate parts from nickel alloys for the J-2X and RS25 rocket engines, show that dicult to make parts made
With selective laser melting, selectively melts thin layers with the technique are somewhat weaker than forged and
often avoid the need for welds which are
of atomized ne metal powder are evenly distributed us- milled parts but
[1]
weak
points.
ing a coating mechanism onto a substrate plate, usually
metal, that is fastened to an indexing table that moves in
the vertical (Z) axis. This takes place inside a chamber
containing a tightly controlled atmosphere of inert gas, 3.13.5 Potential
either argon or nitrogen at oxygen levels below 500 parts
per million. Once each layer has been distributed, each Selective laser melting or additive manufacturing, some2D slice of the part geometry is fused by selectively melt- times referred to as rapid manufacturing or rapid protoing the powder. This is accomplished with a high-power typing, is in its infancy with relatively few users in comlaser beam, usually an ytterbium ber laser with hundreds parison to conventional methods such as machining, castof watts. The laser beam is directed in the X and Y direc- ing or forging metals, although those that are using the
tions with two high frequency scanning mirrors. The laser technology have become highly procient. Like any proenergy is intense enough to permit full melting (welding) cess or method selective laser melting must be suited to
of the particles to form solid metal. The process is re- the task at hand. Markets such as aerospace or medical orthopedics have been evaluating the technology as
peated layer after layer until the part is complete.
a manufacturing process. Barriers to acceptance are high
and compliance issues result in long periods of certication and qualication. This is demonstrated by the lack of
3.13.3 Materials
fully formed international standards by which to measure
Most machines operate with a build chamber of 250 mm the performance of competing systems. The standard in
in X & Y and up to 350 mm Z, although larger machines question is ASTM F2792-10 Standard Terminology for
up to 500 mm X,Y,Z and smaller machines do exist. The Additive Manufacturing Technologies.
types of materials that can be processed include stainless
steel, tool steel, cobalt chrome, titanium and aluminium.
All must exist in atomized form and exhibit certain ow 3.13.6 See also
characteristics in order to be process capable.
List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts

3.13.4

Applications

3D printing

Desktop manufacturing
The types of applications most suited to the selective
laser melting process are complex geometries & struc Digital fabricator
tures with thin walls and hidden voids or channels on the
one hand or low lot sizes on the other hand. Advantage
Direct digital manufacturing
can be gained when producing hybrid forms where solid
and partially formed or lattice type geometries can be pro Rapid manufacturing
duced together to create a single object, such as a hip stem
or acetabular cup or other orthopedic implant where os Selective laser sintering
eointegration is enhanced by the surface geometry. Much
of the pioneering work with selective laser melting tech Solid freeform fabrication
nologies is on lightweight parts for aerospace[1] where traditional manufacturing constraints, such as tooling and
Stereolithography
physical access to surfaces for machining, restrict the design of components. SLM allows parts to be built additively to form near net shape components rather than by 3.13.7 References
removing waste material.
Traditional manufacturing techniques have a relatively
high set-up cost (e.g. for creating a mold). While
SLM has a high cost per part (mostly because it is timeintensive), it is advisable if only very few parts are to be
produced. This is the case e.g. for spare parts of old
machines (like vintage cars) or individual products like
implants.

[1] Larry Greenemeier (November 9, 2012). NASA Plans

for 3-D Printing Rocket Engine Parts Could Boost Larger
Manufacturing Trend. Scientic American. Retrieved
November 13, 2012.

ASTM F2792-10 Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies

3.14. VOLUMETRIC PRINTING

Abe, F., Costa Santos, E., Kitamura, Y., Osakada,
K., Shiomi, M. 2003. Inuence of forming conditions on the titanium model in rapid prototyping
with the selective laser melting process. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part
C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 217
(1), pp. 119126.
Gibson, I. Rosen, D.W. and Stucker, B. (2010) Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Rapid Prototypingto Direct Digital Manufacturing. New York,
Hiedelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. ISBN
Wohlers, T. Wohlers Report 2010: Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry: Annual World Wide
Progress Report. Fort Collins: Wohlers Associates.

3.13.8

Further reading

How Selective Laser Melting Works.

THRE3D.com. Retrieved 11 February 2014.

3.14 Volumetric printing

Volumetric printing is a three-dimensional digital-tophysical imaging technology developed in 2013 that uses
ink or other pigments suspended in a volume to form
a full-color volumetric scene in physical space. It is a
static version of volumetric display. Volumetric prints
are auto-stereoscopic, full parallax (in both horizontal
and vertical viewing arrangements) and can be viewed by
multiple viewers in regular room lighting. A volumetric print can be thought of as a reconstructed light eld
based on the scattering of light by distributed pigments
in volume. Any three-dimensional scene can be volumetrically printed, although biological specimens and volumetrically X-rayed objects (i.e., CT scans) are thought to
be particularly well suited to this type of imaging.[1]
There are several methods for producing a volumetric
print, the most common being an index-matched stack
of hundreds of sheets of thin clear material (most often
PMMA, also known as Lucite or acrylic). Each sheet in
the volumetric stack is printed with a color slice of a digital 3D model, placed in a vacuum chamber, and then
injected with a uid matching the index of refraction of
the sheet material.[2]
Volumetric printing has been called Hologram 2.0
by a company marketing the technology. Volumetric
prints however are not produced in the same manner as
holograms, in that there is no interference pattern generated or used in basic volumetric prints.

3.14.1

References

[1] Kickstarter project lets you print eerie 3D x-rays. Wired

UK. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2014.

63

[2] And Now For Something Completely Dierent: Volumetric Printing. 3D Printing Industry. 1 June 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2014.

Chapter 4

Applications
4.1 3D printed rearms
In 2012, the U.S.-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working plastic gun that could
be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D
printer.[1][2] Defense Distributed has also designed a
3D printable AR-15 type rie lower receiver (capable
of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a variety of magazines, including ones for AK-47.[3] Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the rst working blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a 3D printer
in May 2013, the United States Department of State
demanded that they remove the instructions from their
website.[4]

the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative

rearms are not as easily obtainable.[13] European ocials have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would
be illegal under their gun control laws,[14] and that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but noted
that as the technology improved the risks of an eect
would increase.[15][16] Downloads of the plans from the
UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.[17][18]

Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet

of gun plans has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS which enabled
DVD ripping.[19][20][21][22] After the US government had
Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still
widely available via The Pirate Bay and other le sharing
[23]
Some US legislators have proposed regulations
In 2013 a Texas company, Solid Concepts, demonstrated sites.
on
3D
printers,
to prevent them being used for printa 3D printed version of an M1911 pistol made of metal,
[24][25]
[5]
ing
guns.
3D
printing advocates have suggested
using an industrial 3D printer.
that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the
3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech
rights.[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]
4.1.1 Eect on gun control
After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the eects that 3D printing 4.1.2 Legal status
and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[6][7] may
have on gun control eectiveness.[8][9][10][11]
United States
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Joint
In the United States, it is legal for individuals to manuRegional Intelligence Center released a memo stating:
facture rearms for personal use without a license, however this does not extend to some rearms such as Title
"Signicant advances in three-dimensional
II weapons (machine guns, suppressors etc.) or Assault
(3D) printing capabilities, availability of free
Weapons in jurisdictions that still ban them.
digital 3D printer les for rearms components, and diculty regulating le sharing may
Under the Undetectable Firearms Act any rearm that
present public safety risks from unqualied gun
cannot be detected by a metal detector is illegal to manuseekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed
facture, so legal designs for rearms such as the Liberator
guns," and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D
require a metal plate to be inserted into the printed
printing of weapons may deter, but cannot combody. The act had a sunset provision to expire December
pletely prevent their production. Even if the
9, 2013. Senator Charles Schumer proposed renewing
practice is prohibited by new legislation, online
the law, and expanding the type of guns that would be
distribution of these digital les will be as diprohibited.[33] Proposed renewals and expansions of the
cult to control as any other illegally traded mucurrent Undetectable Firearms Act (H.R. 1474, S. 1149)
sic, movie or software les."[12]
include provisions to criminalize individual production
of rearm receivers and magazines that do not include
Internationally, where gun controls are generally tighter arbitrary amounts of metal, measures outside the scope
than in the United States, some commentators have said of the original UFA and not extended to cover commer64

4.1. 3D PRINTED FIREARMS

cial manufacture.[34][35] These modernization proposals have been criticized as disingenuous attempts to suppress adoption of and experimentation with 3D printers
in home gunsmithing.[36]

65

[8] Rosenwald, Michael S. (2013-02-25). Weapons made

with 3-D printers could test gun-control eorts. Washington Post.
[9] Making guns at home:

Ready, print, re.

The

Economist. 2013-02-16. Retrieved 2013-11-10.

On December 3, 2013, the United States House of Representatives passed the bill To extend the Undetectable
Firearms Act of 1988 for 10 years (H.R. 3626; 113th [10] Rayner, Alex (6 May 2013). 3D-printable guns are just
the start, says Cody Wilson. The Guardian (London).
Congress).[37] The bill extended the Act, but did not
[38]
change any of the laws provisions.
[11] Manjoo, Farhad (2013-05-08). 3-D-printed gun: Yes,
it will be possible to make weapons with 3-D printers.
No, that doesnt make gun control futile. Slate.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.

Japan

In Japan, in May 2014, Yoshitomo Imura was the rst [12] Homeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may
be 'impossible' to stop. Fox News. 2013-05-23. Reperson to be arrested for possessing printed guns. Imura
trieved 2013-11-10.
had ve guns, two of which were capable of being red,
but had no ammunition. Imura had previously posted
[13] Cochrane, Peter (2013-05-21). Peter Cochranes Blog:
blueprints and video of his guns to the Internet, which
Beyond 3D Printed Guns. TechRepublic. Retrieved
triggered the investigation.[39]
2013-11-10.

4.1.3

See also

3D printing
Defense Distributed
Gun control
Gun politics in the United States
Improvised rearm
List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts

4.1.4

References

[1] Greenberg, Andy (August 23, 2012). "'Wiki Weapon

Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At
Home. Forbes. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
[2] Poeter, Damon (August 24, 2012). Could a 'Printable
Gun' Change the World?". PC Magazine. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
[3] Farivar, Cyrus (March 1, 2013). ""Download this gun":
3D-printed semi-automatic res over 600 rounds. Ars
Technica. Retrieved February 5, 2015.
[4] Blueprints for 3-D printer gun pulled o website. www.
statesman.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[5] Gross, Doug (2013-11-09). Texas company makes metal
gun with 3-D printer. CNN. Retrieved 9 November
2013.
[6] 3D Printers, Meet Othermill: A CNC machine for your
home oce (VIDEO)". Guns.com. Retrieved 2013-1110.
[7] Clark (6 October 2011). The Third Wave, CNC, Stereolithography, and the end of gun control. PopeHat.com.
External link in |publisher= (help)

[14] Gilani, Nadia (2013-05-06). Gun factory fears as 3D

blueprints put online by Defense Distributed | Metro
News. Metro.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[15] Liberator: First 3D-printed gun sparks gun control controversy. Digitaljournal.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[16] First 3D Printed Gun 'The Liberator' Successfully Fired
- IBTimes UK. Ibtimes.co.uk. 2013-05-07. Retrieved
2013-11-10.
[17] US demands removal of 3D printed gun blueprints. neurope.eu. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[18] Espaa y EE.UU. lideran las descargas de los planos de
la pistola de impresin casera | Economa | EL PAS.
Economia.elpais.com. 2013-05-09. Retrieved 2013-1110.
[19] Controlled by Guns. Quiet Babylon. 2013-05-07. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[20] 3dprinting | Jon Cameld dot com. Joncameld.com.
Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[21] State Dept Censors 3D Gun Plans, Citing National Security - News from Antiwar.com. News.antiwar.com.
2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[22] Wishful Thinking Is Control Freaks Last Defense
Against 3D-Printed Guns - Hit & Run. Reason.com.
2013-05-08. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[23] The Pirate Bay steps in to distribute 3-D gun designs.
Salon.com. 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[24] Sen. Leland Yee Proposes Regulating Guns From 3-D
Printers CBS Sacramento. Sacramento.cbslocal.com.
2013-05-08. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[25] Schumer Announces Support For Measure To
Make 3D Printed Guns Illegal CBS New York.
Newyork.cbslocal.com. 2013-05-05. Retrieved 201311-10.

66

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

[26] "+ Downloads & Extras:". Makezine.com. 2011-06-30.

Retrieved 2013-11-10.

liquid oxygen to the engine in a high-pressure, lowtemperature, high-vibration physical environment.[1]

[27] Ball, James (10 May 2013). US government attempts

to stie 3D-printer gun designs will ultimately fail. The
Guardian (London).

Other 3D-printed spacecraft assemblies have been

ground-tested, but have not yet own to space, including high-temperature, high-pressure rocket engine combustion chambers and the entire mechanical spaceframe
and propellant tanks for a small satellite of a few hundred
kilograms.

[28] Like It Or Not, 3D Printing Will Probably Be Legislated. TechCrunch. 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[29] Liz Klimas (2013-02-19). Engineer: Dont Regulate 3D
Printed Guns, Regulate Explosive Gun Powder Instead |
Video. TheBlaze.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.

The new United Launch Alliance Vulcan launch vehiclewith rst launch no earlier than 2019is evaluating 3d-printing for over 150 parts: 100 polymer and 50+
[2]
[30] Beckhusen, Robert (2013-02-15). 3-D Printing Pioneer metal parts.
Wants Government to Restrict Gunpowder, Not Printable
Guns | Danger Room. Wired.com. Retrieved 2013-1110.
[31] How Defense Distributed Already Upended the World
- Philip Bump. The Atlantic Wire. 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[32] Gayle S Putrich (13 May 2013). Plastic gun draws eyes
to 3-D printing. European Plastics News. External link
in |publisher= (help)
[33] Senator seeks to extend ban on 'undetectable' 3D-printed
guns. the Guardian. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
[34] H.R. 1474
[35] S. 1149
[36] On
Undetectable
Firearms
Act
blog.defdist.org.
Defense Distributed.
18, 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

Renewal.
November

[37] H.R. 3626 - All Actions. United States Congress. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
[38] House votes to renew ban on plastic rearms.
Foxnews.com. 3 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December
2013.
[39] Japanese man arrested for possessing 3-D printer guns.
Retrieved 15 February 2015.

4.1.5

4.2.1 Applications
Rocket engines
The SuperDraco engine that provides launch escape system and propulsive-landing thrust for the Dragon V2
passenger-carrying space capsule is fully printed, and
was the rst fully printed rocket engine. In particular,
the engine combustion chamber is printed of Inconel,
an alloy of nickel and iron, using a process of direct
metal laser sintering, and operates at a chamber pressure
6,900 kilopascals (1,000 psi) at a very high temperature.
The engines are contained in a printed protective nacelle
to prevent fault propagation in the event of an engine
failure.[3][4][5] The SuperDraco engine produces 73 kilonewtons (16,400 lbf) of thrust.[6] The engine completed
a full qualication test in May 2014, and is slated to make
its rst orbital spaceight in 2015 or 2016.[1][5]
The ability to 3D print the complex parts was key to
achieving the low-mass objective of the engine. Its a
very complex engine, and it was very dicult to form all
the cooling channels, the injector head, and the throttling
mechanism. ... [The ability] to print very high strength
advanced alloys ... was crucial to being able to create the
SuperDraco engine.[7]

External links

In June 2014, Aerojet Rocketdyne (AJR) announced that

they had manufactured and successfully tested an en How 3-D Printed Guns Evolved Into Serious gine which had been entirely 3D printed. The Baby BanWeapons in Just One Year, Wired, May 2014.
ton engine is a 22 kN (5,000 lbf) thrust engine that runs
on LOX/kerosene propellant.[8] By March 2015, AJR
Should We Be Afraid of the 3D Printed Gun?, Pop- had completed a series of hot-re tests for additively
ular Mechanics, May 2014.
manufactured components for its full-size AR-1 booster
engine.[9]

4.2 3D-printed spacecraft

3D printing began to be used in production versions of
spaceight hardware in early 2014. In January, SpaceX
rst ew a "Falcon 9 rocket with a 3D-printed Main Oxidizer Valve (MOV) body in one of the nine Merlin 1D
engines. The valve is used to control ow of cryogenic

Spacecraft structure
By 2014, 3D printing had begun to be used to print the
entire mechanical structure and integral propellant tanks
of a small spacecraft.[10]

4.3. BUILDING PRINTING

67

Texas, May 2014 Appendices (PDF), Blue Ridge Research and Consulting, LCC, p. 12, retrieved August 8,
2014
[7] Foust, Je (2014-05-30). SpaceX unveils its 21st century spaceship"". NewSpace Journal. Retrieved 2014-0531.
[8] Aerojet Rocketdyne 3D Prints An Entire Engine in Just
Three Parts. 3dprint.com. 2014-06-26. Retrieved 201408-08.
[9] Aerojet Rocketdyne Hot-Fire Tests Additive Manufactured Components for the AR1 Engine to Maintain 2019
Delivery. Aerojet Rocketdyne. 2015-03-15. Retrieved
5 June 2015.
[10] Diamandis, Peter (2014-06-26). Update from Planetary
Resources. Peter H. Diamandis channel. Planetary Resources. Retrieved 2014-07-30.

3D-printed satellite mechanical structure, Arkyd-300, February

2014. The torus holds the propellant and provides the structural
frame for the satellite.

4.3 Building printing

Building printing refers to various technology that use

3D printing as a way to construct buildings. Potential
4.2.2 References
advantages of this process include quicker construction,
lower labor costs, and less waste produced. 3D print[1] SpaceX Launches 3D-Printed Part to Space, Cre- ing at a large scale may be well suited for construction
ates Printed Engine Chamber for Crewed Spaceight. of extraterrestrial structures on the Moon or other planSpaceX. Retrieved 2014-08-01. Compared with a traets where environmental conditions are less conducive to
ditionally cast part, a printed valve body has superior
human labor-intensive building practices.
strength, ductility, and fracture resistance, with a lower
variability in materials properties. The MOV body was
printed in less than two days, compared with a typical castings cycle measured in months. The valves extensive test
program including a rigorous series of engine rings,
component level qualication testing and materials testing
has since qualied the printed MOV body to y interchangeably with cast parts on all Falcon 9 ights going
forward.
[2] Stone, Je (2015-04-21). Vulcan Rocket: 3D Printing
Launch Plan Includes More Than 100 Components. International Business Times. Retrieved 22 April 2015.

Developments in additive manufacturing technologies

have included attempts to make 3D printers capable of
producing structural buildings.

4.3.1 History
Related technology development began in the 1960s, with
pumped concrete and isocyanate foams.[1]

4.3.2 Current technology

[3] Norris, Guy (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Step
Change Dragon V2". Aviation Week. Retrieved 201405-30.

Modern development and research have been under way

since 2004 to exibly construct buildings for commercial and private habitation. With built-in plumbing and
[4] Kramer, Miriam (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Dragon
V2 Spaceship, a Manned Space Taxi for Astronauts electrical facilities, in one continuous build the process
Meet Dragon V2: SpaceXs Manned Space Taxi for As- uses large 3D printers that would notionally complete the
building in approximately 20 hours of printer time.[2]
tronaut Trips. space.com. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
By January 2013, working versions of 3D-printing build[5] Bergin, Chris (2014-05-30). SpaceX lifts the lid on the ing technology were printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of buildDragon V2 crew spacecraft. NASAspaceight.com. Re- ing material per hour, with a follow-on generation of
trieved 2014-05-30.
printers proposed to be capable of 3.5 metres (11 ft) per
hour, sucient to complete a building in a week.[3]
[6] James, Michael; Salton, Alexandria; Downing, Micah
(November 12, 2013), Draft Environmental Assessment
for Issuing an Experimental Permit to SpaceX for Operation of the Dragon Fly Vehicle at the McGregor Test Site,

Behrokh Khoshnevis founded the Contour Crafting

project which demonstrated the basic capability, based on
two parallel rails, an XY-controlled printing gantry and

68
pressurized concrete tank. Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaarss performative architecture 3D-printed building was planned to be built by a partnership of Dutch
companies.[4] [5] The house was planned to be built in the
end of 2014, but this deadline wasn't met. The companies said that they are still 100% sure the house will be
printed.[6]
Various approaches to building printing are being researched. Two of these are Contour crafting[7] and DShape.[8][9] Other approaches involve direct sintering of
inorganic raw materials to build composite ceramic building structures, similar to the approach used with metals
in direct metal laser sintering.[10]

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
and CO2 emissions are greatly reduced as are dust and
noise levels. And when the building is no longer needed,
it can be shredded and recycled. Another key driver for
developing this technology within the construction industry is the growing need for rapidly produced housing. In
this respect, 3D printing has the potential to reshape the
way in which we build our cities especially as Megacities are on the increase around the globe. The 3D Print
Canal House was the rst full-scale construction project
of its kind to get o the ground. In just a short space of
time, the Kamermaker has been further developed to increase its production speed by 300%. However, progress
has not been swift enough to claim the title of Worlds
First 3D Printed House.[11]

The Chinese company WinSun has built several houses

using large 3D printers sparing a mixture of quick drying
cement and recycled raw materials.[12] Ten demo houses
In the Netherlands, DUS Architects is 3D printing a 3D were built in 24 hours, each costing US$5000.[13][14]
Printed Canal House, together with an international team However, house printing pioneer Dr. Behrokh Khoshof partners. The 3D Print Canal House links science, nevis claims this was faked and that WinSun stole his
design, construction and community at an open building intellectual property.[15]
site in the heart of Amsterdam. Their aim is to demonstrate how 3D printing could revolutionize construction Dutch and Chinese demonstration projects are slowly
by increasing eciency and reducing pollution and waste, constructing 3D-printed buildings, using the eort to edand oer new tailor made housing solutions worldwide. ucate the public to the possibilities of the new plant-based
greater innovation in 3D
3D printing could also play a signicant role in the quick building technology and to spur [16][17]
printing
of
residential
buildings.
build of low-cost housing in impoverished areas and those
aected by disasters. The 3D Print Canal House is currently under construction at a canal-side plot in Amsterdam an open expo-site that it is proving to be a pop- Extraterrestrial printed structures
ular visitor attraction for the public. At the heart of the
site, is the Kamermaker, or Room Builder which is essentially a scaled-up version of a table-top 3D printer. The printing of buildings has been proposed as a particThe Kamermaker prints building blocks from molten bio- ularly useful technology for constructing o-Earth habiplastic. This is currently a mix of 80% plant oil reinforced tats, such as habitats on the Moon or Mars.
with microbers, although this formula is still under de- As of 2013, the European Space Agency was workvelopment with the projects materials partner Henkel. ing with London-based Foster + Partners to examine
For reinforcement, the blocks have an internal honey- the potential of printing lunar bases using regular 3D
combed centre that can be back-lled with Eco concrete. printing technology.[18] The architectural rm proposed
It also provides space for pipes, wiring and data cables to a building-construction 3D-printer technology in January
be installed internally.
2013 that would use lunar regolith raw materials to proThe building blocks are then used to form component duce lunar building structures while using enclosed inatparts that can be slotted together like Lego to create able habitats for housing the human occupants inside the
a 4-storey, 13-room structure modelled on a traditional hardshell printed lunar structures. Overall, these habitats
Dutch canal house. One of the most distinct design fea- would require only ten percent of the structure mass to be
tures of the Canal House is its geometrically faceted plas- transported from Earth, while using local lunar[3]materials
tic faade. 3D Print House Building BlocksThis gives for the other 90 percent of the structure mass.
3D printed residential buildings

a contemporary 3D print twist to the traditional canal

house silhouette. The ability to print ornamental detailing on demand is a key design benet of 3D modelling
and printing in the building industry. With costly labourintensive work reduced, custom-designed homes would
become more accessible. So what are the main benets
of printing a house? Waste materials are a big problem
for the building industry, but with 3D printing only the
necessary raw materials are produced for each project.
An added bonus is that 3D printer ink can be made from
recycled plastic waste. If printing on site, transport costs

The dome-shaped structures would be a weight-bearing

catenary form, with structural support provided by a
closed-cell structure, reminiscent of bird bones.[19] In
this conception, printed lunar soil will provide both
"radiation and temperature insulation for the Lunar
occupants.[3] The building technology mixes lunar material with magnesium oxide which will turn the "moonstu
into a pulp that can be sprayed to form the block when a
binding salt is applied that converts [this] material into
a stone-like solid.[3] A type of sulfur concrete is also
envisioned.[19]

4.3. BUILDING PRINTING

Tests of 3D printing of an architectural structure with
simulated lunar material have been completed, using a
large vacuum chamber in a terrestrial lab.[20] The technique involves injecting the binding liquid under the surface of the regolith with a 3D printer nozzle, which in
tests trapped 2 millimetres (0.079 in)-scale droplets under the surface via capillary forces.[19] The printer used
was the D-shape.
A variety of lunar infrastructure elements have been conceived for 3D structural printing, including landing pads,
blast protection walls, roads, hangars and fuel storage.[19]

69

[7] NASAs plan to build homes on the Moon: Space agency

backs 3D print technology which could build base. TechFlesh. 2014-01-15. Retrieved 2014-01-16.
[8] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[9] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.

In early 2014, NASA funded a small study at the [10] Steadman, Ian. Giant Nasa spider robots could 3D print
University of Southern California to further develop the
lunar base using microwaves (Wired UK)". Wired.co.uk.
Contour Crafting 3D printing technique. Potential apRetrieved 2014-03-13.
plications of this technology include constructing lunar
structures of a material that could consist of up to 90- [11] http://rhinecapital.com/investmentinsights/
3d-print-canal-house/
percent lunar material with only ten percent of the mate[7]
rial requiring transport from Earth.
[12] Chinas Building 3D Printed Houses. Investing.com.
NASA is also looking at a dierent technique that would
involve the sintering of lunar dust using low-power (1500
watt) microwave energy. The lunar material would be
bound by heating to 1,200 to 1,500 C (2,190 to 2,730
F), somewhat below the melting point, in order to fuse
the nanoparticle dust into a solid block that is ceramiclike, and would not require the transport of a binder
material from Earth as required by the Foster+Partners,
Contour Crafting, and D-shape approaches to extraterrestrial building printing. One specic proposed plan
for building a lunar base using this technique would be
called SinterHab, and would utilize the JPL six-legged
ATHLETE robot to autonomously or telerobotically build
lunar structures.[10]

4.3.3

See also

Building construction
Space habitat
Made in Space[21]

4.3.4

References

[1] Papanek (1971). Design for the Real World. ISBN 9780897331531.
[2] 3D printer can build a house in 20 hours. YouTube.
2012-08-13. Retrieved 2014-03-13.
[3] Diaz, Jesus (2013-01-31). This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like. Gizmodo. Retrieved
2013-02-01.
[4] 3D printed Landscape House
[5] The Worlds First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In
2014. TechCrunch. 2012-01-20. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
[6] Video summary of Landscape house forum and workshop
Sept 3rd 2014

Retrieved 2014-08-23.
[13] China: Firm 3D prints 10 full-sized houses in a day.
www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
[14] Giant 3D printer creates 10 full-sized houses in a DAY:
Bungalows built from layers of waste materials cost less
than 3,000 each, Daily Mail, 28 April 2014, accessed 16
May 2014.
[15] https://3dprint.com/57764/winsun-3d-print-fake/
[16] How Dutch team is 3D-printing a full-sized house.
BBC. 2014-05-03. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
[17] The plan to print actual houses shows o the best and
worst of 3D printing (2014-06-26), James Robinson,
PandoDaily
[18] Building a lunar base with 3D printing / Technology /
Our Activities / ESA. Esa.int. 2013-01-31. Retrieved
2014-03-13.
[19] 3D Printing of a lunar base using lunar soil will print
buildings 3.5 meters per hour. Newt Big Future. 201309-19. Retrieved 2013-09-23.
[20] 3D printed moon building designs revealed. BBC News.
2013-02-01. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
[21] NASA - 3D Printing In Zero-G Technology Demonstration. Nasa.gov. 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2014-03-13.

4.3.5 External links

Contour Crafting Project from USC, 2004
Future of Construction Process: 3D Concrete Printing, 2010.
Lunar Base Using 3D Printing, video, 2013.
3D Printing of a lunar base using lunar soil will print
buildings at 3.5 meters per hour, NextBigFuture,
2013

70

4.4 Critical making

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
ters and not the nal solution Through making you get
a better understanding of how various technologies function. Critical Making gives birth to curiosity. While making, you question several aspects of the process, explore
various directions formulating your own opinion on what
works or does not work and why.

Critical making refers to the hands-on productive activities that link digital technologies to society. It is invented to bridge the gap between creative physical and
conceptual exploration.[1] The purpose of critical making lies in the learning extracted from the making rather
than the experience derived from the nished output. The
term "critical making" is popularized by Matt Ratto, an
Associate Professor and director of the Critical Making
lab in the Faculty of Information at the University of
Toronto. Ratto describes one of the main goals of critical
making as: ...to use material forms of engagement with
technologies to supplement and extend critical reection
and, in doing so, to reconnect our lived experiences with
technologies to social and conceptual critique.[2] Critical making as dened by practitioners like Matt Ratto
and Stephen Hockema, is an elision of two typically disconnected modes of engagement in the world critical
thinking, often considered as abstract, explicit, linguistically based, internal and cognitively individualistic; and
making, typically understood as tacit, embodied, external, and community-oriented.
Arduino Software: Processing Demonstration

The main focus of critical making is open design.[3] Open

design develops a critical perspective on the current institutions, practices and norms of society, and reconnects
materiality and morality. Matt Ratto introduces Critical
Making as processes of material and conceptual exploration and creation of novel understandings by the makers themselves. Critical Making includes digital software
and hardware. Software usually refers to the Raspberry Pi
or Arduino, hardware refers to a computer, or any other
device that facilitates an operation.

4.4.1 Matt Ratto and Critical Making

Arduino Hardware

Critical making has been coined as a reaction to digitisation and is moreover a reaction to things that have essentially been done before. It involves engaging with physical
components and materials in
their raw forms and building something from scratch, encouraging maker culture. Critical making is less about
the aesthetics of the end product and more about the process and conceptual exploration.It is the inquiry that mat-

Matt Ratto coined the term in 2008[4] to describe his

workshop activities that linked conceptual reection and
technical making. This concept explores how learning is
inuenced by the learners participation towards creating
and/or making things within the technological context.[5]
Rattos rst publication to use the term was in 2009.
Ratto claims that his goal is to connect the conceptual
understanding of technology in social life to the materialized activities. By situating himself within the area of
design-oriented research rather than research-oriented
research, Ratto believes that critical making enhance the
shared experience in both theoretical and practical understandings of critical socio-technical issues [6] However,
critical making should not be reviewed as design, but
rather as a type of practice. The quality of critical making
lab is evaluated based on the physical making process,
regardless of quality of the nal material production.[7]
Prior studies have noted the separation between critical
thinking and physical making. Specically, experts in
technology lack the knowledge from art, and vice versa,

4.4. CRITICAL MAKING

71

however it is very important that technology be embedded

in a context rather than being left in isolation especially
when it comes to critical making.
Importance
Rattos empirical ndings in the current research on critical making provide a potential solution for the so-called
wicked problems; this concept refers to issues in which
no consensus exists with regard to problem denition.[8]
In this context, critical making is successful. It encourages participants to collaborate during the process of
making, which can also be referred as a mode of
engagement.[9]
Critical making is an opportunity for participants to design low-delity prototypes. Prototypes help you follow your main inquiry and gure out new possibilities
to a problem, rather than just giving you one solution.
Critical makers might code instructions for an arduino,
construct a structure using traditional crafting supplies
and/or use building toys like Lego to realize their visions.
Thus, critical making seeks to increase the use of technology in classrooms, studios and labs. Participants are not
expected to deliver a highly sophisticated nal product; Students in Critical Making Activities with Lego
thus, critical making can ease hesitant individuals into becoming acquainted with intimidating hardware and software.
which allow users to control the hardware (i.e. colored,
Often, critical making is done in small groups which sup- blinking lights) by using simple coding systems. Reecports discussion and facilitates productivity. Participants tion is a very important process involved in the critical
can leverage the particular skill set of each group member making activities. Participants are asked to reect on the
in the wider group eort. Critical making provides obvi- making process and the conceptual exploration. Some of
ous opportunity to kinaesthetic[10] learners who thrive in the questions could be: What was dicult in your protohands-on situations; however, critical making could also type construction? What would you do dierently next
benet students who learn best while listening. Those time? Having completed this exercise, has your opinion
who learn via written text could be an asset to the greater on the social concept changed or remained the same?
group in their ability to explain concepts from the consulted literature relevant to the making activity.
Critical making, more over uses innovative ways to adhere to the ideas of conceptualizing further more by substituting the nal tools with more simpler and available
ones in order to promote the creative aptitude of the
group involved.

Materials 3D Printing: Allows for relatively cheap and

customizable design of objects which are often integrated
into critical making projects.
Raspberry Pi: Is a single-board computer (SBC). It has
the functionality of a computer with audio, video, USB
and LAN interfaces.

Practice

Arduino: Is a single-board microcontroller (MCU). Used

to interface communications between user and design.

By way of illustration, the concept wr pwr [11] is introduced in critical making scenario, which was introduced to shows how people gain knowledge from critical making.[12] In general, this scenario is created to
encourage people to participate in the infrared communication, visualized by a series of colored, blinking
lights. Specically, wr pwr is simple electronic agents
constructed from pre-assembled and coded components,
including the arduino microcontroller and development
environment[13] Arduino also includes hardware and software. The software can be installed into computers,

LEDs: Small lights integrated into many critical design

projects as a way to give feedback and interact with user.
Conductive textile: Conductive fabrics and thread are
used in many projects to circulate electrical currents
which might connect LEDs to controller boards, like Arduino.
Craft Materials: Critical Making shares similar building
practices from DIY, and as such, much of the easy use
craft materials are used during critical making projects.
As a result, by connecting Arduino to computer through

72

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

use cable, critical making allows designers to create arts Faculty of Information in 2008 where the Arduino softusing technologies.[14]
ware and hardware were used due to its easy accessibility,
We can't restrict ourselves by only the traditional materi- open source nature, but more importantly, the physicality
als. It is on us and our creative outlook to which and what of the material which gave a more hands on understandcan be utilized, for example in a paper mesh when fused ing of making. The goal was also to understand the nawith resin glue is used to make art, it forms a sturdy and ture of construction instead of simply being familiar with
durable material with optimum use of the given materials. a system/concept in an abstract theory.
Critical Making Lab Critical Making Lab is a shared
space for students to experience the practice of critical
making process in Faculty of Information, University of
Toronto. Critical Making Lab provides participants tools
and basic knowledge of digital technology used in critical making. The mission of this lab is to enhance collaboration, communication, and the practice-based engagement in critical making.[15] The Critical Making Lab was
founded by Matt Ratto. Ratto started the practice of critical making workshops since 2007. Since 2007 in Amsterdam, London, Canada, the US, and Scotland. There
are six current lab members, who are all students from
Faculty of Information. With some other active members
and alums, they form the team of critical making lab.

The pedagogy of critical making focuses on the novel understandings imbibed by the makers themselves instead
of creating experiences to be used by people. The unpacking nature of the course is to allow a higher understanding of the digital technology that is already consumed and to come up with alternatives of such technologies.
The course taught at the Faculty of Information included
an assignment for the students to develop a PRM (Physical Rights Management), where the students came up
with modes of control such as auto-self-destruct of a book
if photo-copying rights were breached.

The experimentative and hands on nature of the course

was designed to increase the knowledge base of the maker
towards digitized technologies that they are already familCritical making can continue to enrich the learning en- iar with and create an engagement with the nature of such
vironment of faculty, students and community members systems.
if critical making centers and innovation labs continue to The sense of responsibility and accountability for the
grow in popularity. Such a center would host advanced adoption of the technology is an essential nature of critiresources, tools and shops as well as cross-disciplinary cal making that is often referred to as a movement from
curriculum and research development.
caring about an issue to caring for[16] an issue. The
It is possible for us to incorporate or have our lab of our course has since then been taught in 2009 and 2010.
own, there is no xed criteria for the equipment that needs
to be present for it to be called a critical lab. It is a hybrid, a robotics lab grouped with an art lab with the right 4.4.2 Garnet Hertz and Critical Making
students has the potential to become a critical lab, and its
only 10 Percent of it the rest 90 depends on the minds In 2012, Garnet Hertz adopted the term for a series of ten
involved.
handmade booklets titled "Critical Making" published in
2012. It explores how hands-on productive work making can supplement and extend critical reection on
Site3 Colaboratory Site 3 is created to encourage
technology and society. It works to blend and extend the
people to making, teaching, learning and thinking about elds of design, contemporary art, DIY/craft and techthe intersection between art and technology. It is a space
nological development. In this project, 70 dierent authat invites people to become makers by providing them thors - including Norman White, Julian Bleecker, Dunne
with the right tools to construct and display their creations
& Raby, Daniel Charny, Albert Borgmann, Golan Levin,
while teaching new skills through regular classes and in- Matt Ratto, Natalie Jeremijenko, McKenzie Wark, Paul
spiring many more to join the maker community and Dourish, Mitch Altman, Dale Dougherty, Mark Pauline,
bring their projects to life. Site 3 members form a diverse Scott Snibbe, Reed Ghazala and others - reected on the
group of people, including artists, makers, engineers, cre- term and critical responses to the maker movement. Genators, techies; people who collaborate to make and learn erally speaking, Hertzs use of the term critical making is
from the experience. Site 3 has done a lot of amazing focused around studio production and the creation of obprojects and tests that covers DIY and critical making, for jects as things to think with.[17]
example the PK4A (Using a wireless EEG headset and a
control unit connected to a ame eect, participants can Hertz initially set out to make a zine of about 50 pages
create 20-foot-plus blasts of re with their thoughts) and but was ooded with almost 300 pages of original conDIY IR Remote Shutter Test at Site 3 (iPhone remotely tent from approximately sixty people. It consisted of academic papers, detailed technical projects, interviews and
control your camera).
documented artworks. He then categorised the informaCritical Making-Teaching
tion into specic topics thereby producing multiple bookThe rst masters level critical making course was held at lets. The booklet itself is a testament to critical making.

4.4. CRITICAL MAKING

It was printed using a hacked photocopier and about a
100,000 pages were manually folded and stapled to create
300 copies of 10 booklets each.The publication asks us to
look at aspects of the DIY culture that go beyond buying
an Arduino, getting a MakerBot and reducing DIY to a
weekend hobby.These books embrace social issues, the
history of technology, activism and politics. The project
stems also from a disappointment. A year ago, Make received a grant from DARPA to create makerspaces for
teenagers. Everyone who, so far, had assumed that a culture built on openness was antithetic to the murkiness that
surrounds the military world was bitterly disheartened.
CM is not the anti-Make Magazine, it is simply an alternative, a forum for electronic DIY practice to discuss
hacking, making, kludging, DIYing in a less sanitized,
mass-market way.

73

4.4.5 Concepts Related to Critical Making

DIY and Critical Making

Traditional DIY is criticized by its cost and standard.

DIY products are dicult to spread in lower-income areas where issues of cost and east are more commonly
cited (William, 276) [19] . Today, TET increases the technological standard of DIY,[20] enhance the modernity of
it, and open up a more practical and advanced area for
DIY projects to develop It is not only a lifestyle choices
but also a technological product.[21] DIY activity is not
for example seen as a coping practice used by those unable to aord to externalise the activity to formal rms
and/or self-employed individuals. Instead, and reecting
the broader cultural turn in retail studies, their explanation for engagement in DIY is rmly grounded in human
In 2014, Hertz founded The Studio for Critical Making
agency (Williams, 273).[22]
at Emily Carr University of Art and Design as Canada
Research Chair in Design and Media Arts. The facility explores how humanities-based modes of critical in- Speculative Design and Critical Making
quiry like the arts and ethics can be directly applied
to building more engaging product concepts and infor- According to DiSalvo and Lukens, Speculative design
mation technologies. The lab works to replace the tradi- is an approach to design that emphasizes inquiry, expertional engineering goals of eciency, speed or usability imentation, and expression, over usability, usefulness or
with more complex cultural, social and human-oriented desirability. A particular characteristic of speculative devalues. The end result is technology that is more cultur- sign is that it tends to be future-oriented. However this
ally relevant, socially engaged and personalized. [18]
should not be mistaken as being fantasy-like sense, suggesting, that is unreal and therefore dismissible (DiSalvo and Lukens, 2009).[23]

4.4.3

John Maeda and Critical Making

The term speculative design involves practices from various disciplines, including visionary or futurist forms of
architecture, design ction, and critical design or design
for debate instead of referring a specic movement or
style. More than just diagrams of unbuilt structures,
speculative design aims to explore the space of interaction between culture, technology, and the built environment (Lukens and DiSalvo, 2012, p. 25). Practitioners
of speculative design engage in design as a sort of provocation, one that asks uncomfortable questions about the
4.4.4 Other Uses of Critical Making
long-term implications of technology. These practices
Other individuals to use the term critical making to ori- also integrate pairs of concerns that are traditionally sepent their work include Amaranth Borsuk (University of arate, such as fact and ction, science and art, and comWashington-Bothell), Jentery Sayers (University of Vic- merce and academia. This provocation extends to questions about design itself.
toria), and Kari Kraus (University of Maryland).
In 2012, John Maeda began using the term while at the
Rhode Island School of Design (RISD): rst as a title
for their strategic plan for 2012-2017 and next as part
of the title of an edited collection titled "The Art of Critical Making: Rhode Island School of Design on Creative
Practice" published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

With cross diversity in various elds critical making cannot be held back in terms of usability. To give an example
we can have a look at the making of movies with special
eects, from the movie Volcano (1997) the lava owing
on the streets was designed on a much smaller scale where
the materials used were sluggish clay, paint and lighting
which was later merged with the lm on screen. With
such a thing not been tried before the creative unit came
together in a studio brainstorming to create what we seen
now was then a part of Critical Making but then was not
termed as such. There are many more such experiments
in various elds that yet have to be linked and collected
and can be carried out with the help of collaboration.

3D Printing and Critical Making

3D Printing allows for relatively cheap and customizable
design of objects which are often integrated into critical
making projects. There are two type of industrial manufacturing: subtractive Manufacturing: involves shaping a
material through a process of chipping / removing some
of its substance (think whittling a gure out of wood) and
additive Manufacturing: creates by adding material into
a product. The basic steps of 3D printing are digital design: design the object you want to print using digital design software OR download a design from a website (like

74

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

Thingiverse, for example), press print and the printer will

begin creating a physical version of your digital design.
3D printers use layerization to create objects. 3D printers use a variety of materials to create objects, including
plastic, metal and nylon (Flemming, What is 3D printing?). The Makerbot, for example, uses polylactic acid
(PLA), a substance derived from corn. The coiled PLA
lament is pulled into the machine via a tube and then
heated up by the extruder, causing the PLA to melt. This
melted material forms the models layers, which is applied
in approximately .02 - 1 millimeter layers. The model is
built up until it is nished.

4.4.6

ity in Critical Modes of Making. Proceedings of the 8th

ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems, DIS
2010. New York, USA, August 1820, 2010. 440-441.
(Acceptance 30%)
11. Ratto, Matt. Critical Making: Conceptual and
Material Studies in Technology and Social Life. Hybrid
Design Practices workshop, Ubicomp, Orlando, Florida,
USA, September 30-October 3, 2009. (Acceptance
60%)
12. Ratto, Matt and Stephen Hockema. Flwr Pwr:
Tending the Walled Garden. Walled Garden. Eds. A.
Dekker and A. Wolfsberger. Amsterdam: Virtueel Platform, 2009. 51-60.

Matt Rattos Publications on Critical

Making

1. Ratto, Matt. Taking Things Apart/Making Things

Together: A Critical Making Experiment. Royal College 4.4.7
of Art/Imperial College, London, UK, April 22, 2008.

Students Publications on Critical

Making

2. Ratto, Matt and Megan Boler, eds. DIY Citizenship: Critical Making and Social Media. Cambridge,
1. Resch, G (forthcoming). Waynding in Smart InMA: MIT Press. (2014)
formation Space: The Future of Ambient Sensing in
3. Ratto, Matt and Garnet Hertz. Critical Making. Spe- Academic Libraries and Beyond, Faculty of Information
cial Issue on The Culture of Digital Education: Innova- Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 1.
tion in Art, Design, Science and Technology Practices:
Leonardo Electronic Almanac. Accepted, January, 2014. 2. Record, Isaac, Matt Ratto, Adriana Ieraci, Nina
Czegledy and Amy Ratelle. DIY Prosthetics Work4. Ratto, Matt, Kirk Jalbert and Sara Wylie. Critical shops: Critical Making for Public Understanding of HuMaking as Research Program: introduction to the fo- man Augmentation. International Symposium on Techrum on Critical Making. Special Forum issue on Critical nology and Society (ISTAS) 2013, University of Toronto,
Making, The Information Society 30(2). (2014) 85-95. Toronto, Canada, June 2729, 2013.
5. Wylie, Sara, Kirk Jalbert, Shannon Dosemagen & 3.
Erickson, Ingrid, Lisa Nathan, Nassim JaMatt Ratto Institutions for Civic Technoscience: How
farinaimi, Cory Knoebel and Matt Ratto.
ValCritical Making is Transforming Environmental Re- ues|Design|Critique|Making Workshop, iSchool Confersearch, The Information Society 30:2, (2014) 116-126.
ence, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, February
6. Ratto, Matt, Kirk Jalbert and Sara Wylie, eds. Critical 710, 2012.
Making Special Forum Issue, The Information Society 4. coons, g. & Tissenbaum, M. (2011, February). Non30.2 (March 2014).
Standard Bodies. Poster presented as part of the Design
7. Record, Isaac, Matt Ratto, Adriana Ieraci, Nina
Czegledy and Amy Ratelle. DIY Prosthetics Workshops: Critical Making for Public Understanding of Human Augmentation. International Symposium on Technology and Society (ISTAS) 2013, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Canada, June 2729, 2013.

Methods for the Information School Curriculum at the

iSchools iConference 2011, Seattle, WA.

9. Ratto, Matt. Open Design and Critical Making.

Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive. Eds. P. Atkinson, M. Avital, B. Mau, R. Ramakers and C. Hummels. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers, 2011.
203-209.

History. Poster presented as part of the INplay Conference, Toronto, ON.

5. Resch, G & Ratto, M. (2012, February). Building the

Makerbot: 3D Printing at the Critical Making Lab and
our Study of the Materiality of Information. Poster presented as part of the Collaboration, Convergence & Com8. Ratto, Matt. Critical Making: Conceptual and Ma- munities iSchool Student Conference, Toronto, ON.
terial Studies in Technology and Social Life. The Infor- 6. Resch, G, Jancen, J & Miller, L. (2011, May). ENmation Society 27.4 (2011): 252-260.
route: Turn a Highway into a Museum of Community

7. Cohn, Marisa, Tobie Kerridge, Ann Light, Silvia

Lindtner and Matt Ratto. Tracing Design(ed) Authority in Critical Modes of Making. Proceedings of the 8th
10. Cohn, Marisa, Tobie Kerridge, Ann Light, Silvia ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems, DIS
Lindtner and Matt Ratto. Tracing Design(ed) Author- 2010. New York, USA, August 1820, 2010. 440-441.

4.4. CRITICAL MAKING

Master Theses
1. Blanger, Marie-Eve. (2010). The annotative practices of graduate students: tensions & negotiations fostering and epistemic practice (MI thesis). University of
Toronto.
2. Camisso, Jamon. (2010). Embedding metadata: Exploring the ontology of hybrid digital material object (MI
thesis). University of Toronto.
3. Coons, Ginger (Virginia). (2011). Colour standardization: Its past and a possible future (MI thesis). University of Toronto.
4. Gamba Bari, Antonio. (2010). Critical assessment
of customization discourse in information systems design
(MI thesis). University of Toronto.

75

[5] Ratto, Matt (2011).

Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 252.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.
[6] Ratto, Matt (2011).
Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 254.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.
[7] Ratto, Matt (2011). Open Design and Critical Making.
Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive.
[8] Ratto, Matt (2011).
Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 253.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.
[9] Ratto, Matt (2011).
Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 258.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.

5. Krauss, Armin Martin. (2010). Dynamic catergorization: What we can learn from the emergent arrangement
of physical artifacts in libraries (MI thesis). University of
Toronto.
[10] Kinesthetic learning.
6. Lam, Margaret. (2011). Online music knowledge (MI
thesis). University of Toronto.
7. Ree, Robert. (2011). 3D printing: Convergences,
ctions, uidity (MI thesis). University of Toronto.

4.4.8

See also

1. Critical technical practice

2. Critical thinking
3. Critical design
4. Speculative design
5. Maker culture
6. Technology

[11] Matt Ratto Stephen Hockema (PDF).

[12] Ratto, Matt (2011).
Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 258.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.
[13] Ratto, Matt (2011).
Critical Making:
Conceptual and Material Studies in technology and
Social Life.
The Information Society 27: 258.
doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819.
[14] Platt, Charles (2009). Make: Electronics. United States of
American: O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 1325.
[15] About the Lab. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
[16] Ratto, Matt (2009). Critical Making: conceptual and
material studies in technology and social life. Hybrid Design Practice workshop.
[17] http://futureeverything.org/events/critical-making/

7. Arduino
8. 3D Printing

4.4.9

References

[1] DiSalvo, C (2009).

Design and the Construction of Publics.
Design Issues.
1 25: 48.
doi:10.1162/desi.2009.25.1.48.
[2] Ratto, M. & Ree, R. (2012). Materializing information:
3D printing and social change.. First Monday 17 (7).

[18] http://research.ecuad.ca/criticalmaking/
[19] Williams, Colin C. (2004). A lifestye choice? Evaluating
the motives of do-it-yourself (DIY) consumers. I. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 32
(4/5): 276. doi:10.1108/09590550410534613.
[20] Kuznetsov, S. & Paulos, E. (2010). Rise of the expert amateur: DIY projects, communities, and cultures..
In Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on HumanComputer Interaction: Extending Boundaries: 295304.

[3] Ratto, Matt (2011). Open Design and Critical Making.

Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive.

[21] Blikstein, P. (2013). Gears of our childhood: constructionist toolkits, robotics, and physical computing, past and
future. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children: 173182.

[4] Ratto, Matt. Flwr Pwr: Tending the Walled Garden.

2-day Critical Making Workshop for the Walled Garden
conference, Virtueel Platform, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, November 2022, 2008.

[22] Williams, Colin C. (2004). A lifestye choice? Evaluating

the motives of do-it-yourself (DIY) consumers. I. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 32
(4/5): 273. doi:10.1108/09590550410534613.

76

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

[23] Lukens, J. & DiSalvo, C. (2011). Speculative Design and

Technological Fluency. International Journal of Learning. 4 3: 2340. doi:10.1162/ijlm_a_00080.

4.4.10

External links

1. Arduino
2. Open Design Now

moulds are made by a mouldmaker (or toolmaker) from

metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precisionmachined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body
panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection
moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can
be used for some simple injection moulds.

Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process; the material
used for the part, the desired shape and features of the
4. Critical Making - Paulos Syllabus (Berkeley)
part, the material of the mould, and the properties of
5. Critical Making - Hertz (2012)
the moulding machine must all be taken into account.
6. The Studio for Critical Making (Emily Carr Univer- The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this
breadth of design considerations and possibilities.
sity of Art and Design)
3. Raspberry Pi or Arduino

7. John Maeda: The Art of Critical Making

4.5 Injection molding

4.5.1 Applications
Injection moulding is used to create many things such
as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive parts
and components, Gameboys, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and parts of them), one-piece chairs
and small tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available
today. Injection moulding is the most common modern
method of manufacturing plastic parts; it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object.[2]

4.5.2 Process characteristics

Injection moulding uses a ram or screw-type plunger to
force molten plastic material into a mould cavity; this solidies into a shape that has conformed to the contour of
the mould. It is most commonly used to process both
P
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, with the volcharge
nozzle
ume used of the former being considerably higher.[3]:13
Thermoplastics are prevalent due to characteristics which
sprue
runner
make them highly suitable for injection moulding, such
as the ease with which they may be recycled, their vergates
parts
satility allowing them to be used in a wide variety of
applications,[3]:89 and their ability to soften and ow
ejector pins
upon heating. Thermoplastics also have an element of
safety over thermosets; if a thermosetting polymer is not
ejected from the injection barrel in a timely manner,
Simplied diagram of the process
chemical crosslinking may occur causing the screw and
potentially damaging the injecInjection moulding is a manufacturing process for pro- check valves to seize and[3]:3
tion
moulding
machine.
ducing parts by injecting material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of mate- Injection moulding consists of high pressure injection of
rials, including metals, (for which the process is called the raw material into a mould which shapes the polymer
diecasting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most into the desired shape.[3]:14 Moulds can be of a single cavcommonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. ity or multiple cavities. In multiple cavity moulds, each
Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, cavity can be identical and form the same parts or can be
and forced into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens unique and form multiple dierent geometries during a
to the conguration of the cavity.[1]:240 After a product is single cycle. Moulds are generally made from tool steels,
designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, but stainless steels and aluminum moulds are suitable for
An injection moulding machine

4.5. INJECTION MOLDING

77
to the polymer. The material feeds forward through a
check valve and collects at the front of the screw into a
volume known as a shot. A shot is the volume of material that is used to ll the mould cavity, compensate for
shrinkage, and provide a cushion (approximately 10% of
the total shot volume, which remains in the barrel and
prevents the screw from bottoming out) to transfer pressure from the screw to the mould cavity. When enough
material has gathered, the material is forced at high pressure and velocity into the part forming cavity. To prevent spikes in pressure, the process normally uses a transfer position corresponding to a 9598% full cavity where
the screw shifts from a constant velocity to a constant
pressure control. Often injection times are well under
1 second. Once the screw reaches the transfer position
the packing pressure is applied, which completes mould
lling and compensates for thermal shrinkage, which is
quite high for thermoplastics relative to many other materials. The packing pressure is applied until the gate (cavity entrance) solidies. Due to its small size, the gate
is normally the rst place to solidify through its entire
thickness.[3]:16 Once the gate solidies, no more material
can enter the cavity; accordingly, the screw reciprocates
and acquires material for the next cycle while the material
within the mould cools so that it can be ejected and be dimensionally stable. This cooling duration is dramatically
reduced by the use of cooling lines circulating water or
oil from an external temperature controller. Once the required temperature has been achieved, the mould opens
and an array of pins, sleeves, strippers, etc. are driven
forward to demould the article. Then, the mould closes
and the process is repeated.

Thermoplastic resin pellets for injection moulding

For a two shot mold, two separate materials are incorporated into one part. This type of injection molding is
used to add a soft touch to knobs, to give a product mulcertain applications. Aluminum moulds typically are ill- tiple colors, to produce a part with multiple performance
suited for high volume production or parts with narrow characteristics.[4]
dimensional tolerances, as they have inferior mechanical
properties and are more prone to wear, damage, and de- For thermosets, typically two dierent chemical comformation during the injection and clamping cycles; how- ponents are injected into the barrel. These components
ever, aluminum moulds are cost-eective in low-volume immediately begin irreversible chemical reactions which
applications, as mould fabrication costs and time are con- eventually crosslinks the material into a single connected
siderably reduced.[1] Many steel moulds are designed to network of molecules. As the chemical reaction occurs,
permanently transform into a
process well over a million parts during their lifetime and the two uid components
[3]:3
viscoelastic
solid.
Solidication
in the injection barrel
can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to fabricate.
and screw can be problematic and have nancial repercusWhen thermoplastics are moulded, typically pelletized sions; therefore, minimizing the thermoset curing within
raw material is fed through a hopper into a heated barrel the barrel is vital. This typically means that the residence
with a reciprocating screw. Upon entrance to the barrel time and temperature of the chemical precursors are minthe temperature increases and the Van der Waals forces imized in the injection unit. The residence time can be
that resist relative ow of individual chains are weakened reduced by minimizing the barrels volume capacity and
as a result of increased space between molecules at higher by maximizing the cycle times. These factors have led to
thermal energy states. This process reduces its viscosity, the use of a thermally isolated, cold injection unit that inwhich enables the polymer to ow with the driving force jects the reacting chemicals into a thermally isolated hot
of the injection unit. The screw delivers the raw ma- mould, which increases the rate of chemical reactions and
terial forward, mixes and homogenizes the thermal and results in shorter time required to achieve a solidied therviscous distributions of the polymer, and reduces the re- moset component. After the part has solidied, valves
quired heating time by mechanically shearing the mate- close to isolate the injection system and chemical prerial and adding a signicant amount of frictional heating

78

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

cursors, and the mould opens to eject the moulded parts.

Then, the mould closes and the process repeats.
Pre-moulded or machined components can be inserted
into the cavity while the mould is open, allowing the
material injected in the next cycle to form and solidify
around them. This process is known as Insert moulding and allows single parts to contain multiple materials.
This process is often used to create plastic parts with protruding metal screws, allowing them to be fastened and
unfastened repeatedly. This technique can also be used
for In-mould labelling and lm lids may also be attached
to moulded plastic containers.
A parting line, sprue, gate marks, and ejector pin marks
are usually present on the nal part.[3]:98 None of these
features are typically desired, but are unavoidable due
to the nature of the process. Gate marks occur at
the gate which joins the melt-delivery channels (sprue
and runner) to the part forming cavity. Parting line
and ejector pin marks result from minute misalignments,
wear, gaseous vents, clearances for adjacent parts in
relative motion, and/or dimensional dierences of the
mating surfaces contacting the injected polymer. Dimensional dierences can be attributed to non-uniform,
pressure-induced deformation during injection, machining tolerances, and non-uniform thermal expansion and
contraction of mould components, which experience
rapid cycling during the injection, packing, cooling, and
ejection phases of the process. Mould components are
often designed with materials of various coecients of
thermal expansion. These factors cannot be simultaneously accounted for without astronomical increases in the
cost of design, fabrication, processing, and quality monitoring. The skillful mould and part designer will position
these aesthetic detriments in hidden areas if feasible.

4.5.3

History

American inventor John Wesley Hyatt together with his

brother Isaiah, Hyatt patented the rst injection moulding machine in 1872.[5] This machine was relatively simple compared to machines in use today: it worked like a
large hypodermic needle, using a plunger to inject plastic
through a heated cylinder into a mould. The industry progressed slowly over the years, producing products such as
collar stays, buttons, and hair combs.
The German chemists Arthur Eichengrn and Theodore
Becker invented the rst soluble forms of cellulose acetate in 1903, which was much less ammable than
cellulose nitrate.[6] It was eventually made available in
a powder form from which it was readily injection
moulded. Arthur Eichengrn developed the rst injection moulding press in 1919. In 1939, Arthur Eichengrn
patented the injection molding of plasticized cellulose acetate.

mass-produced products.[7] In 1946, American inventor

James Watson Hendry built the rst screw injection machine, which allowed much more precise control over the
speed of injection and the quality of articles produced.[8]
This machine also allowed material to be mixed before injection, so that colored or recycled plastic could be added
to virgin material and mixed thoroughly before being injected. Today screw injection machines account for the
vast majority of all injection machines. In the 1970s,
Hendry went on to develop the rst gas-assisted injection moulding process, which permitted the production of
complex, hollow articles that cooled quickly. This greatly
improved design exibility as well as the strength and
nish of manufactured parts while reducing production
time, cost, weight and waste.
The plastic injection moulding industry has evolved over
the years from producing combs and buttons to producing
a vast array of products for many industries including automotive, medical, aerospace, consumer products, toys,
plumbing, packaging, and construction.[9]:12

4.5.4 Examples of polymers best suited for

the process
Most polymers, sometimes referred to as resins, may
be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets,
and some elastomers.[10] Since 1995, the total number of
available materials for injection moulding has increased
at a rate of 750 per year; there were approximately 18,000
materials available when that trend began.[11] Available
materials include alloys or blends of previously developed
materials, so product designers can choose the material
with the best set of properties from a vast selection. Major criteria for selection of a material are the strength and
function required for the nal part, as well as the cost, but
also each material has dierent parameters for moulding
that must be taken into account.[9]:6 Common polymers
like epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting
plastics while nylon, polyethylene, and polystyrene are
thermoplastic.[1]:242 Until comparatively recently, plastic
springs were not possible, but advances in polymer properties make them now quite practical. Applications include buckles for anchoring and disconnecting outdoorequipment webbing.

4.5.5 Equipment
Main article: Injection molding machine

Injection moulding machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type plunger, and a heating
unit.[1]:240 Also known as presses, they hold the moulds
in which the components are shaped. Presses are rated by
tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping force
The industry expanded rapidly in the 1940s because that the machine can exert. This force keeps the mould
World War II created a huge demand for inexpensive, closed during the injection process. Tonnage can vary

4.5. INJECTION MOLDING

79
can be manufactured either by CNC machining or by using electrical discharge machining processes.
Injection moulding die with side pulls
A side of die for 25% glass-lled acetal with 2 side
pulls.
Close up of removable insert in A side.
B side of die with side pull actuators.
Insert removed from die.

Paper clip mould opened in moulding machine; the nozzle is visible at right

from less than 5 tons to over 9,000 tons, with the higher
gures used in comparatively few manufacturing operations. The total clamp force needed is determined by the
projected area of the part being moulded. This projected
area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 1.8 to 7.2 tons
for each square centimeter of the projected areas. As a
rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in2 can be used for most products. If the plastic material is very sti, it will require
more injection pressure to ll the mould, and thus more
clamp tonnage to hold the mould closed.[9]:4344 The required force can also be determined by the material used
and the size of the part; larger parts require higher clamp- Standard two plates tooling core and cavity are inserts in a
mould base family mould of ve dierent parts
ing force.[10]
Mould
Mould or die are the common terms used to describe the
tool used to produce plastic parts in moulding.
Since moulds have been expensive to manufacture, they
were usually only used in mass production where thousands of parts were being produced. Typical moulds are
constructed from hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy.[12]:176 The choice
of material to build a mould from is primarily one of
economics; in general, steel moulds cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan will oset the higher
initial cost over a higher number of parts made before
wearing out. Pre-hardened steel moulds are less wearresistant and are used for lower volume requirements or
larger components; their typical steel hardness is 3845
on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel moulds are
heat treated after machining; these are by far superior
in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminum moulds can cost substantially less, and when designed and machined with modern computerized equipment can be economical for moulding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in
areas of the mould that require fast heat removal or areas
that see the most shear heat generated.[12]:176 The moulds

Mould design The mould consists of two primary

components, the injection mould (A plate) and the ejector
mould (B plate). These components are also referred to
as moulder and mouldmaker.[13] Plastic resin enters the
mould through a sprue or gate in the injection mould;
the sprue bushing is to seal tightly against the nozzle of
the injection barrel of the moulding machine and to allow molten plastic to ow from the barrel into the mould,
also known as the cavity.[9]:141 The sprue bushing directs
the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels
that are machined into the faces of the A and B plates.
These channels allow plastic to run along them, so they
are referred to as runners.[9]:142 The molten plastic ows
through the runner and enters one or more specialized
gates and into the cavity[14]:15 geometry to form the desired part.
The amount of resin required to ll the sprue, runner and
cavities of a mould comprises a shot. Trapped air in
the mould can escape through air vents that are ground
into the parting line of the mould, or around ejector pins
and slides that are slightly smaller than the holes retaining them. If the trapped air is not allowed to escape, it
is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material
and squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents lling and can also cause other defects. The air can
even become so compressed that it ignites and burns the
surrounding plastic material.[9]:147

80

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
the mould at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic
at the most ecient rate.[9]:86
To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are
divided into pieces, called inserts, and sub-assemblies,
also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable inserts, one mould may make several
variations of the same part.

More complex parts are formed using more complex

moulds. These may have sections called slides, that move
into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form
overhanging part features. When the mould is opened,
the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary angle pins on the stationary mould half.
These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides
Sprue, runner and gates in actual injection moulding product
to move backward when the moving half of the mould
opens. The part is then ejected and the mould closes. The
closing action of the mould causes the slides to move forTo allow for removal of the moulded part from the mould,
ward along the angle pins.[9]:268
the mould features must not overhang one another in the
direction that the mould opens, unless parts of the mould Some moulds allow previously moulded parts to be reinare designed to move from between such overhangs when serted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the rst
part. This is often referred to as overmoulding. This
the mould opens (using components called Lifters).
system can allow for production of one-piece tires and
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction
wheels.
of draw (the axis of the cored position (hole) or insert
is parallel to the up and down movement of the mould
as it opens and closes)[14]:406 are typically angled slightly,
called draft, to ease release of the part from the mould.
Insucient draft can cause deformation or damage. The
draft required for mould release is primarily dependent on
the depth of the cavity: the deeper the cavity, the more
draft necessary. Shrinkage must also be taken into account when determining the draft required.[14]:332 If the
skin is too thin, then the moulded part will tend to shrink
onto the cores that form while cooling and cling to those
cores, or the part may warp, twist, blister or crack when
the cavity is pulled away.[9]:47
Two-shot injection moulded keycaps from a computer keyboard
A mould is usually designed so that the moulded part
reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mould
when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out
of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then falls
freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also
known as submarine or mould gates, are located below the
parting line or mould surface. An opening is machined
into the surface of the mould on the parting line. The
moulded part is cut (by the mould) from the runner system on ejection from the mould.[14]:288 Ejector pins, also
known as knockout pins, are circular pins placed in either
half of the mould (usually the ejector half), which push
the nished moulded product, or runner system out of a
mould.[9]:143 The ejection of the article using pins, sleeves,
strippers, etc. may cause undesirable impressions or distortion, so care must be taken when designing the mould.
The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes drilled through the
mould plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The coolant absorbs heat from the mould
(which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps

Two-shot or multi-shot moulds are designed to overmould within a single moulding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection moulding machines with
two or more injection units. This process is actually an injection moulding process performed twice and therefore
has a much smaller margin of error. In the rst step, the
base color material is moulded into a basic shape, which
contains spaces for the second shot. Then the second material, a dierent color, is injection-moulded into those
spaces. Pushbuttons and keys, for instance, made by this
process have markings that cannot wear o, and remain
legible with heavy use.[9]:174
A mould can produce several copies of the same parts
in a single shot. The number of impressions in the
mould of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one impression will often be called a
single impression (cavity) mould.[15]:398 A mould with 2
or more cavities of the same parts will likely be referred
to as multiple impression (cavity) mould.[15]:262 Some extremely high production volume moulds (like those for

4.5. INJECTION MOLDING

81

bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.

EDM is a simple process in which a shaped electrode,

In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mould a series usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered
of dierent parts in the same tool. Some toolmakers call onto the mould surface (over a period of many hours),
these moulds family moulds as all the parts are related. which is immersed in paran oil (kerosene). A voltage
applied between tool and mould causes spark erosion of
Examples include plastic model kits.[16]:114
the mould surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.[19]
Mould storage Manufacturers go to great lengths to
protect custom moulds due to their high average costs.
The perfect temperature and humidity level is maintained
to ensure the longest possible lifespan for each custom
mould. Custom moulds, such as those used for rubber injection moulding, are stored in temperature and humidity
controlled environments to prevent warping.[17]
Tool materials

Cost
The number of cavities incorporated into a mould will directly correlate in moulding costs. Fewer cavities require
far less tooling work, so limiting the number of cavities
in-turn will result in lower initial manufacturing costs to
build an injection mould.
As the number of cavities play a vital role in moulding
costs, so does the complexity of the parts design. Complexity can be incorporated into many factors such as surface nishing, tolerance requirements, internal or external threads, ne detailing or the number of undercuts that
may be incorporated.[20]

Tool steel is often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or

epoxy are suitable only for prototype or very short production runs.[1] Modern hard aluminum (7075 and 2024
alloys) with proper mould design, can easily make moulds
capable of 100,000 or more part life with proper mould Further details, such as undercuts or any feature causing
maintenance.[18]
additional tooling, will increase the mould cost. Surface
nish of the core and cavity of molds will further inuence the cost.
Rubber injection moulding process produces a high yield
of durable products, making it the most ecient and costeective method of moulding. Consistent vulcanization
processes involving precise temperature control signicantly reduces all waste material.[21]

4.5.6 Injection process

Beryllium-copper insert (yellow) on injection moulding mould for

ABS resin

Machining
Moulds are built through two main methods: standard
machining and EDM. Standard machining, in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection moulds. With technological development,
CNC machining became the predominant means of mak- Video explanation
ing more complex moulds with more accurate mould details in less time than traditional methods.
With injection moulding, granular plastic is fed by a
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark ero- forced ram from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
sion process has become widely used in mould mak- the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type
ing. As well as allowing the formation of shapes that plunger, the plastic is forced into a heated chamber,
are dicult to machine, the process allows pre-hardened where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted
moulds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is re- plastic is forced through a nozzle that rests against the
quired. Changes to a hardened mould by conventional mould, allowing it to enter the mould cavity through a
drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften gate and runner system. The mould remains cold so the
the mould, followed by heat treatment to harden it again. plastic solidies almost as soon as the mould is lled.[1]

82

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Dierent types of injection moulding processes

Small injection moulder showing hopper, nozzle and die area

moulded toothbrush handle

Injection moulding cycle

Although most injection moulding processes are covered

by the conventional process description above, there are
several important moulding variations including, but not
limited to:

The sequence of events during the injection mould of a

plastic part is called the injection moulding cycle. The
Die casting
cycle begins when the mould closes, followed by the injection of the polymer into the mould cavity. Once the
Metal injection moulding
cavity is lled, a holding pressure is maintained to com Thin-wall injection moulding
pensate for material shrinkage. In the next step, the screw
turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw. This causes
Injection moulding of liquid silicone rubber[22]:1718
the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared. Once the
part is suciently cool, the mould opens and the part is
A more comprehensive list of injection moulding proejected.[22]:13
cesses may be found here:

4.5.7 Process troubleshooting

Scientic versus traditional moulding

Traditionally, the injection portion of the molding process was done at one constant pressure to ll and pack
the cavity. This method, however, allowed for a large
variation in dimensions from cycle-to-cycle. More commonly used now is scientic or decoupled moulding, a
method pioneered by RJG Inc.[23][24][25] In this the injection of the plastic is decoupled into stages to allow better control of part dimensions and more cycle-tocycle (commonly called shot-to-shot in the industry) consistency. First the cavity is lled to approximately 98%
full using velocity (speed) control. Although the pressure
should be sucient to allow for the desired speed, pressure limitations during this stage are undesirable. Once
the cavity is 98% full, the machine switches from velocity control to pressure control, where the cavity is packed
out at a constant pressure, where sucient velocity to
reach desired pressures is required. This allows part dimensions to be controlled to within thousandths of an
inch or better.[26]

Like all industrial processes, injection moulding can produce awed parts. In the eld of injection moulding,
troubleshooting is often performed by examining defective parts for specic defects and addressing these defects with the design of the mould or the characteristics of
the process itself. Trials are often performed before full
production runs in an eort to predict defects and determine the appropriate specications to use in the injection
process.[3]:180
When lling a new or unfamiliar mould for the rst time,
where shot size for that mould is unknown, a technician/tool setter may perform a trial run before a full production run. He starts with a small shot weight and lls
gradually until the mould is 95 to 99% full. Once this
is achieved, a small amount of holding pressure will be
applied and holding time increased until gate freeze o
(solidication time) has occurred. Gate freeze o time
can be determined by increasing the hold time, and then
weighing the part. When the weight of the part does not
change, it is then known that the gate has frozen and no
more material is injected into the part. Gate solidication time is important, as it determines cycle time and
the quality and consistency of the product, which itself

4.5. INJECTION MOLDING

83

is an important issue in the economics of the production choice depends upon the type of product, as well as the
process.[27] Holding pressure is increased until the parts general layout of the manufacturing equipment. Vision
are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved.
systems mounted on robots have greatly enhanced quality control for insert moulded parts. A mobile robot can
more precisely determine the placement accuracy of the
Moulding defects
metal component, and inspect faster than a human can.[28]
Injection moulding is a complex technology with possible
production problems. They can be caused either by de- 4.5.10 Gallery
fects in the moulds, or more often by the moulding process itself.[3]:4785
Lego injection mould, lower side
Methods such as industrial CT scanning can help with
nding these defects externally as well as internally.

Lego injection mould, detail of lower side

Tolerances

Lego injection mould, detail of upper side

Lego injection mould, upper side

Moulding tolerance is a specied allowance on the deviation in parameters such as dimensions, weights, shapes, 4.5.11 See also
or angles, etc. To maximize control in setting tolerances
Extrusion moulding
there is usually a minimum and maximum limit on thickness, based on the process used.[14]:439 Injection mould Fusible core injection molding
ing typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT
Hobby injection molding
Grade of about 914. The possible tolerance of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is 0.200 to 0.500 millimeters.
Injection mold construction
In specialised applications tolerances as low as 5 m on
both diameters and linear features are achieved in mass
Matrix molding
production. Surface nishes of 0.0500 to 0.1000 m or
Multi-material injection molding
better can be obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are
also possible.
Reaction injection molding

4.5.8

Power requirements

Design of plastic components

Rotational molding
The power required for this process of injection moulding depends on many things and varies between materials used. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states 4.5.12 References
that the power requirements depend on a materials spe[1] Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994).
cic gravity, melting point, thermal conductivity, part
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide. Industrial
size, and molding rate. Below is a table from page 243 of
Press, Inc.
the same reference as previously mentioned that best illustrates the characteristics relevant to the power required [2] Application Overview: Injection Molding. Yaskawa
America, Inc. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
for the most commonly used materials.

4.5.9

Robotic moulding

Automation means that the smaller size of parts permits

a mobile inspection system to examine multiple parts
more quickly. In addition to mounting inspection systems on automatic devices, multiple-axis robots can remove parts from the mould and position them for further
processes.[28]
Specic instances include removing of parts from the
mould immediately after the parts are created, as well as
applying machine vision systems. A robot grips the part
after the ejector pins have been extended to free the part
from the mould. It then moves them into either a holding location or directly onto an inspection system. The

[3] Malloy, Robert A. (1994). Plastic Part Design for Injection

Molding. Munich Vienna New York: Hanser.
[4] "Injection Molding", Meridian Products Corporation, Retrieved April 26, 2016.
[5] U.S. patent #133229, dated 19 November 1872.
[6] The Chemical Age: Volume 3
[7] About Injection Molding. Xcentric Mold & Engineering, Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
[8] Merril, Arthur M. (1955). Plastics Technology, Volume
1. Rubber/Automotive Division of Hartman Communications, Incorporated, 1955.
[9] Bryce, Douglas M. (1996). Plastic Injection Molding:
Manufacturing Process Fundamentals. SME.

84

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

[10] Injection Molding. custompart.net. CustomPartNet.

4.6 Rapid prototyping

[11] Injection Molding Applications. Engineers Edge: Solutions by Design. Engineers Edge, LLC. Retrieved 30
January 2013.

This article is about rapid prototyping of physical objects.

For rapid software prototyping, see rapid application development.
[12] Rosato, Donald V.; Rosato, Marlene G. (2000). Concise
Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to
Encyclopedia of Plastics. Springer.
[13] Mold Components. hawkmold.com.
[14] Rosato, Dominick; Rosato, Marlene; Rosato, Donald
(2000). Injection Molding Handbook (3rd ed.). Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
[15] Whelan, Tony (1994). Polymer Technology Dictionary.
Springer.
[16] Rees, Herbert; Catoen, Bruce (2006). Selecting Injection
Molds Weighing Cost versus Productivity. Hanser Publishers.
[17] Advanced Rubber Products Custom rubber molding
manufacturer.
[18] Goldsberry, Clare. Aluminum vs. steel tooling: Which
material is right, and how to design and maintain?". Plastics Today. UBM Canon.

A rapid prototyping machine using selective laser sintering

[19] Die Casting. Advantage Tool and Manufacturing.

[20] Injection Molding
[21] Advanced Rubber Products
[22] Injection Molding Handbook (2nd ed.).
[23] Almanac: The fundamentals of Decoupled Molding.
Plastics Today. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
[24] Implementing Decoupled Molding. Paulson Training
Programs. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
[25] Injection Molding Guide (PDF). Lubrizol. p. 6. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
[26] Decoupled Molding(SM)". Plastics Net. Retrieved 14
January 2015.
[27] Pantani, R.; De Santis, F.; Brucato, V.; Titomanlio, G.
(2004). Analysis of Gate Freeze-O Time in Injection
Molding. Polymer Engineering and Science.
[28] Callister, William D. Materials Science and Engineering:
An Introduction. John Wiley and Sons.

4.5.13

External links

3D model slicing

quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design
(CAD) data.[1][2] Construction of the part or assembly is
usually done using 3D printing or additive layer manufacturing technology.[3]

Internal View of Injection Molding Process How

The rst methods for rapid prototyping became available
Injection Molding Works
in the late 1980s and were used to produce models and
Injection molding cost estimator
prototype parts. Today, they are used for a wide range of
applications[4] and are used to manufacture production Shrinkage & warpage
quality parts in relatively small numbers if desired with Manufacturing engineering and mechanical proper- out the typical unfavorable short-run economics. This
ties of plastic parts INTEMA (Research Institute), economy has encouraged online service bureaus. HisUniversidad Nacional de Mar del Plata CONICET torical surveys of RP technology[2] start with discussions
of simulacra production techniques used by 19th-century
Injection molding interactive Video
sculptors. Some modern sculptors use the progeny tech History of Injection Mold Making A Brief History nology to produce exhibitions.[5] The ability to reproduce

4.6. RAPID PROTOTYPING

85

designs from a dataset has given rise to issues of rights, the US Department of Commerce NIST, the US Departas it is now possible to interpolate volumetric data from ment of Defense, Defense Advanced Research Projects
one-dimensional images.
Agency (DARPA), and the Oce of Naval Research coAs with CNC subtractive methods, the computer-aided- ordinated studies to inform strategic planners in their deRapid Prodesign - computer-aided manufacturing CAD-CAM liberations. One such report was the 1997 [2]
totyping
in
Europe
and
Japan
Panel
Report
in which
workow in the traditional Rapid Prototyping process
[7]
Joseph
J.
Beaman
founder
of
DTM
Corporation
[DTM
starts with the creation of geometric data, either as a 3D
RapidTool
pictured]
provides
a
historical
perspective
:
solid using a CAD workstation, or 2D slices using a scanThe roots of rapid prototyping technology can be traced
ning device. For RP this data must represent a valid geometric model; namely, one whose boundary surfaces en- to practices in topography and photosculpture. Within
TOPOGRAPHY Blanther (1892) suggested a layered
close a nite volume, contain no holes exposing the interior,and do not fold back on themselves. In other words, method for making a mold for raised relief paper topographical maps .The process involved cutting the conthe object must have an inside. The model is valid if
for each point in 3D space the computer can determine tour lines on a series of plates which were then stacked.
Matsubara (1974) of Mitsubishi proposed a topographiuniquely whether that point lies inside, on, or outside the
boundary surface of the model. CAD post-processors cal process with a photo-hardening photopolymer resin to
will approximate the application vendors internal CAD form thin layers stacked to make a casting mold. PHOgeometric forms (e.g., B-splines) with a simplied math- TOSCULPTURE was a 19th-century technique to creematical form, which in turn is expressed in a specied ate exact three-dimensional replicas of objects. Most fadata format which is a common feature in Additive Manu- mously Francois Willeme (1860) placed 24 cameras in
facturing: STL (stereolithography) a de facto standard for a circular array and simultaneously photographed an obtransferring solid geometric models to SFF machines. To ject.The silhouette of each photograph was then used to
obtain the necessary motion control trajectories to drive carve a replica. Morioka (1935, 1944) developed a hythe actual SFF, Rapid Prototyping, 3D Printing or Addi- brid photo sculpture and topographic process using structive Manufacturing mechanism, the prepared geometric tured light to photographically create contour lines of
model is typically sliced into layers, and the slices are an object.The lines could then be developed into sheets
scanned into lines [producing a 2D drawing used to and cut and stacked, or projected onto stock material for
generate trajectory as in CNC`s toolpath], mimicking in carving. The Munz(1956) Process reproduced a threedimensional image of an object by selectively exposing,
reverse the layer-to-layer physical building process.[2]
layer by layer, a photo emulsion on a lowering piston. After xing, a solid transparent cylinder contains an image
[8]
4.6.1 Rapid prototyping and production of the object.

automotive spareparts
Electric cars can be built and tested in one year with 3D
production systems. [6]

4.6.2

History

In the 1970s, Joseph Henry Condon and others at Bell

Labs developed the Unix Circuit Design System (UCDS),
automating the laborious and error-prone task of manually converting drawings to fabricate circuit boards for the
purposes of research and development.
In the 1980s U.S. policy makers and industrial managers were forced to take note that Americas dominance
in the eld of machine tool manufacturing evaporated,
in what was named the machine tool crisis. Numerous projects sought to counter these trends in the traditional CNC CAM area, which had begun in the US.
Later when Rapid Prototyping Systems moved out of
labs to be commercialized it was recognized that developments were already international and U.S. rapid prototyping companies would not have the luxury of letting a lead slip away. The National Science Foundation
was an umbrella for the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), the US Department of Energy,

The technologies referred to as Solid Freeform Fabrication are what we recognize today as Rapid Prototyping, 3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing: Swainson
(1977), Schwerzel (1984) worked on polymerization of
a photosensitive polymer at the intersection of two computer controlled laser beams. Ciraud (1972) considered
magnetostatic or electrostatic deposition with electron
beam, laser or plasma for sintered surface cladding.
These were all proposed but it is unknown if working
machines were built. Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute was the rst to publish
an account of a solid model fabricated using a photopolymer rapid prototyping system (1981).[2] Even at that early
date the technology was seen as having a place in manufacturing practice. A low resolution, low strength output
had value in design verication, mould making, production jigs and other areas. Outputs have steadily advanced
toward higher specication uses.[9]
Innovations are constantly being sought,to improve
speed and the ability to cope with mass production
applications.[10] A dramatic development which RP
shares with related CNC areas is the freeware opensourcing of high level applications which constitute an entire CAD-CAM toolchain. This has created a community
of low res device manufacturers. Hobbyists have even

86

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

made forays into more demanding laser-eected device 4.6.6 External links
designs.[11]
Rapid prototyping websites at DMOZ

4.6.3

See also

4.7 Molding

Digital modeling and fabrication

Fab lab

For other uses, see Mold (cooking implement).

Molding or moulding (see spelling dierences) is the

Laser engineered net shaping

Open hardware
Von Neumann universal constructor
Minimum viable product

4.6.4

References

[1] eFunda, Inc. Rapid Prototyping:

Efunda.com. Retrieved 2013-06-14.

An Overview.

[2] NSF JTEC/WTEC Panel Report-RPA http://www.wtec.

org/pdf/rp_vi.pdf
[3] Interview with Dr Greg Gibbons, Additive Manufacturing, WMG, University of Warwick, Warwick University,
KnowledgeCentre. Accessed 18 October 2013

One half of a bronze mold for casting a socketed spear head

dated to the period 1400-1000 BC. There are no known parallels
for this mold.

[4] medical applications of rapid prototyping intech

open books http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/20116/
InTech-medical_applications_of_rapid_prototyping_a_
new_horizon.pdf
[5] sculpture exhibition School of the Art Institute of Chicago
http://blogs.saic.edu/sugs/exhibitions/artifact/
[6] Revolutionary New Electric Car Built and Tested in One
Year with Objet1000 Multi-material 3D Production System
[7] history
of
laser
Additive
Manufacturing
http://www.lia.org/blog/2012/04/
the-history-of-laser-additive-manufacturing/
[8] JTEC/WTEC Panel Report on Rapid Prototyping in Europe and Japan pg.24
[9] SME Wolhers/
[10] Hayes, Jonathan (2002) Concurrent printing and thermographing for rapid manufacturing: executive summary.
EngD thesis, University of Warwick.. Accessed 18 October 2013
[11] Will 3D Printing Push Past the Hobbyist Market?", Fiscal Times, 2 September 2013. Accessed 18 October 2013

4.6.5

Bibliography

Stone mold of the Bronze Age used to produce spear tips.

process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable raw

material using a rigid frame called a mold or matrix.[1]
This itself may have been made using a pattern or model
of the nal object.
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is lled
with a liquid or pliable material like plastic, glass, metal,
or ceramic raw materials.[2] The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a cast. The very common bi-valve molding process
uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Piecemolding uses a number of dierent molds, each creating
a section of a complicated object. This is generally only
used for larger and more valuable objects.

Wright, hakim farhad. (2015). 21st Century Manu- The manufacturer who makes the molds is called the
facturing. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
moldmaker. A release agent is typically used to make

4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP

87

4.7.1 Gallery
Injection molding die with side pulls
A side of die for 25% glass-lled acetal with 2 side
pulls
Close up of removable insert in A side
B side of die with side pull actuators
Insert removed from die

Ancient Greek molds, used to mass-produce clay gurines,

5th/4th century BC. Beside them, the modern casts taken from
them. On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed
in the Stoa of Attalus.

4.7.2 References
[1] Molding Denition of molding by Merriam-Webster.
merriam-webster.com.
[2] Mold Denition of mold by Merriam-Webster.
merriam-webster.com.

4.7.3 See also

Casting
Cookware and bakeware
Ancient wooden molds used for jaggery & sweets, archaeological
museum in Jana, Sri Lanka.

4.8 Organ-on-a-chip

An organ-on-a-chip (OC) is a multi-channel 3-D

removal of the hardened/set substance from the mold easmicrouidic cell culture chip that simulates the activities,
ier. Typical uses for molded plastics include molded
mechanics and physiological response of entire organs
furniture, molded household goods, molded cases, and
and organ systems, a type of articial organ.[1] It constructural materials.
stitutes the subject matter of signicant biomedical engiTypes of molding include:
neering research, more precisely in bio-MEMS. The convergence of labs-on-chips (LOCs) and cell biology has
permitted the study of human physiology in an organ Blow molding
specic context, introducing a novel model of in vitro
Powder metallurgy plus sintering
multicellular human organisms. One day, they will perhaps abolish the need for animals in drug development
Compression molding
and toxin testing.
Extrusion molding
Although multiple publications claim to have translated
Injection molding
Laminating
Reaction injection molding
Matrix molding
Rotational molding (or Rotomolding)
Spin casting

organ functions onto this interface, the movement towards this microuidic application is still in its infancy.
Organs-on-chips will vary in design and approach between dierent researchers. As such, validation and optimization of these systems will likely be a long process.
Organs that have been simulated by microuidic devices
include the heart, the lung, kidney, artery, bone, cartilage,
skin and more.

Nevertheless, building valid articial organs requires not

only a precise cellular manipulation, but a detailed un Transfer molding
derstanding of the human bodys fundamental intricate
response to any event. A common concern with organs Thermoforming
on-chips lies in the isolation of organs during testing.
Vacuum forming, a simplied version of ther- If you dont use as close to the total physiological sysmoforming
tem that you can, youre likely to run into troubles[1]

88

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

says William Haseltine, founder of Rockville, Maryland.

Microfabrication, microelectronics and microuidics offer the prospect of modeling sophisticated in vitro physiological responses under accurately simulated conditions.

4.8.1

prove the physiological relevance of existing in vitro

alveolar-capillary interface models.[3] Such a multifunctional microdevice can reproduce key structural, functional and mechanical properties of the human alveolarcapillary interface (i.e., the fundamental functional unit
of the living lung).

Lab-on-chip
Example

A lab-on-a-chip is a device that integrates one or several laboratory functions on a single chip that deals with
handling particles in hollow microuidic channels. It has
been developed for over a decade. Advantages in handling particles at such a small scale include lowering uid
volume consumption (lower reagents costs, less waste),
increasing portability of the devices, increasing process
control (due to quicker thermo-chemical reactions) and
decreasing fabrication costs. Additionally, microuidic
ow is entirely laminar (i.e., no turbulence). Consequently, there is virtually no mixing between neighboring streams in one hollow channel. In cellular biology
convergence, this rare property in uids has been leveraged to better study complex cell behaviors, such as cell
motility in response to chemotactic stimuli, stem cell differentiation, axon guidance, subcellular propagation of
biochemical signaling and embryonic development.[2]

4.8.2

Transitioning from 3D cell-culture

models to organs-on-chips

3D cell-culture models exceed 2D culture systems by

promoting higher levels of cell dierentiation and tissue
organization. 3D culture systems are more successful
because the exibility of the ECM gels accommodates
shape changes and cell-cell connections formerly prohibited by rigid 2D culture substrates. Nevertheless,
even the best 3D culture models fail to mimic an organs cellular properties in many aspects,[2] including
tissue-to-tissue interfaces (e.g., epithelium and vascular
endothelium), spatiotemporal gradients of chemicals, and
the mechanically active microenvironments (e.g. arteries vasoconstriction and vasodilator responses to temperature dierentials). The application of microuidics in
organs-on-chips enables the ecient transport and distribution of nutrients and other soluble cues throughout
the viable 3D tissue constructs. Organs-on-chips are referred to as the next wave of 3D cell-culture models that
mimic whole living organs biological activities, dynamic
mechanical properties and biochemical functionalities.[1]

4.8.3

Dongeun Huh from Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard describes their fabrication of a system containing
two closely apposed microchannels separated
by a thin (10m) porous exible membrane
made of PDMS.[4] The device largely comprises three microuidic channels, and only the
middle one holds the porous membrane. Culture cells were grown on either side of the
membrane: human alveolar epithelial cells on
one side, and human pulmonary microvascular
endothelial cells on the other.

Organs

Lung-on-a-chip
Main article: Lung on a chip
Lung-on-a-chips are being designed in an eort to im-

Lung-on-a-chip The device consists of three hollow microchannels, and only the middle channel contains a horizontal porous
membrane, coated on either side by either an endothelium or an
epithelium tissue. The side channels are connected to a vacuum
and can therefore simulate the stretching of the membrane. The
contraction of the diaphragm triggers the intrapleural pressure
to decrease, leading to an expansion of alveoli. This is the phenomenon essentially mimicked by this lung-on-a-chip.

The compartmentalization of the channels facilitates not only the ow of air as a uid which
delivers cells and nutrients to the apical surface
of the epithelium, but also allows for pressure
dierences to exist between the middle and
side channels. During normal inspiration in
a humans respiratory cycle, intrapleural pressure decreases, triggering an expansion of the
alveoli. As air is pulled into the lungs, alveolar epithelium and the coupled endothelium in

4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
the capillaries are stretched. Since a vacuum
is connected to the side channels, a decrease in
pressure will cause the middle channel to expand, thus stretching the porous membrane and
subsequently, the entire alveolar-capillary interface. The pressure-driven dynamic motion
behind the stretching of the membrane, also
described as a cyclic mechanical strain (valued
at approximately 10%), signicantly increases
the rate of nanoparticle translocation across the
porous membrane, when compared to a static
version of this device, and to a Transwell culture system.
In order to fully validate the biological accuracy of a device, its whole-organ responses
must be evaluated. In this instance, researchers
inicted injuries to the cells:
Pulmonary inammation
Pulmonary
inammatory responses entail
a multistep strategy,
but alongside an increased production of
epithelial cells and an
early response release
of cytokines, the interface should undergo
an increased number
of leukocyte adhesion
molecules.[5] In Huhs experiment, the pulmonary
inammation was simulated by introducing
medium containing a
potent proinammatory
mediator. Only hours after the injury was caused,
the cells in the microuidic device subjected to
a cyclic strain reacted
in accordance with the
previously
mentioned
biological response.
Pulmonary infection
Living E-coli bacteria
was used to demonstrate
how the system can even
mimic the innate cellular
response to a bacterial
pulmonary infection. The
bacteria were introduced
onto the apical surface
of the alveolar epithelium.
Within hours,
neutrophils were detected

89
in the alveolar compartment, meaning they had
transmigrated from the
vascular
microchannel
where the porous membrane had phagocytized
the bacteria.
Additionally, researchers believe the potential value of
this lung-on-a-chip system will aid in toxicology applications. By investigating the pulmonary response
to nanoparticles, researchers hope to learn more about
health risks in certain environments, and correct previously oversimplied in vitro models. Because a microuidic lung-on-a-chip can more exactly reproduce the mechanical properties of a living human lung, its physiological responses will be quicker and more accurate than a
Transwell culture system. Nevertheless, published studies admit that responses of a lung-on-a-chip dont yet fully
reproduce the responses of native alveolar epithelial cells.
Heart-on-a-chip
Past eorts to replicate in vivo cardiac tissue environments have proven to be challenging due to diculties
when mimicking contractility and electrophysiological responses. Such features would greatly increase the accuracy of in vitro experiments.
Microuidics has already contributed to in vitro experiments on cardiomyocytes, which generate the electrical
impulses that control the heart rate.[6] For instance, researchers have built an array of PDMS microchambers,
aligned with sensors and stimulating electrodes as a tool
that will electrochemically and optically monitor the cardiomyocytes metabolism.[7] Another lab-on-a-chip similarly combined a microuidic network in PDMS with
planar microelectrodes, this time to measure extracellular
potentials from single adult murine cardiomyocytes.[8]
Example

A reported design of a heart-on-a-chip claims

to have built an ecient means of measuring structure-function relationships in constructs that replicate the hierarchical tissue architectures of laminar cardiac muscle.[9] This
chip determines that the alignment of the myocytes in the contractile apparatus made of cardiac tissue and the gene expression prole (affected by shape and cell structure deformation) contributes to the force produced in cardiac contractility. This heart-on-a-chip is a
biohybrid construct: an engineered anisotropic
ventricular myocardium is an elastomeric thin
lm.

90

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
screening.[11] A kidney-on-a-chip device has the potential to accelerate research encompassing articial replacement for lost kidney function. Nowadays, dialysis requires patients to go to a clinic up to three times per week.
A more transportable and accessible form of treatment
would not only increase the patients overall health (by increasing frequency of treatment), but the whole process
would become more ecient and tolerable.[12] Articial
kidney research is striving to bring transportability, wearability and perhaps implantation capability to the devices
through innovative disciplines: microuidics, miniaturization and nanotechnology.[13]

Preparation of the Heart-on-a-chip substrate and contractility

test samples After applying a stimulating the contraction of the
myocytes via the eld electrodes, strips/teeth in the MTF start to
curl. Researchers have developed a correlation between tissue
stress and the radius of curvature of the MTF strips during the
contractile cycle, validating the demonstrated chip as a heart-ona-chip (in the realm of their respective needs).

The design and fabrication process of this particular microuidic device entails rst covering the edges of a glass surface with tape (or
any protective lm) such as to contour the substrates desired shape. A spin coat layer of
PNIPA is then applied. After its dissolution,
the protective lm is peeled away, resulting
in a self-standing body of PNIPA. The nal
steps involve the spin coating of protective surface of PDMS over the cover slip and curing. Muscular thin lms (MTF) enable cardiac muscle monolayers to be engineered on
a thin exible substrate of PDMS.[10] In order to properly seed the 2D cell culture, a
microcontact printing technique was used to
lay out a bronectin brick wall pattern on
the PDMS surface. Once the ventricular myocytes were seeded on the functionalized substrate, the bronectin pattern oriented them to
generate an anisotropic monolayer.
After the cutting of the thin lms into two rows
with rectangular teeth, and subsequent placement of the whole device in a bath, electrodes
stimulate the contraction of the myocytes via a
eld-stimulation thus curving the strips/teeth
in the MTF. Researchers have developed a correlation between tissue stress and the radius of
curvature of the MTF strips during the contractile cycle, validating the demonstrated chip as
a platform for quantication of stress, electrophysiology and cellular architecture.[9]

Example nephron-on-a-chip
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is
composed of a glomerulus and a tubular component.[14]
Researchers at MIT claim to have designed a bioarticial device that replicates the function of the nephrons
glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule and loop of
Henle.
Each part of the device has its unique design, generally
consisting of two microfabricated layers separated by a
membrane. The only inlet to the microuidic device is
designed for the entering blood sample. In the glomerulus section of the nephron, the membrane allows certain
blood particles through its wall of capillary cells, composed by the endothelium, basement membrane and the
epithelial podocytes. The uid that is ltered from the
capillary blood into Bowmans space is called ltrate or
primary urine.[15]

Schematic of a nephron-on-a-chip device with cross-sections of

3 functional units C Connector; G Glomerulus; T Tubule;
L Henles loop
Black arrows: passive transport
White arrows: cell-mediated active transport

In the tubules, some substances are added to the ltrate

as part of the urine formation, and some substances reabsorbed out of the ltrate and back into the blood. The
rst segment of these tubules is the proximal convoluted
Kidney-on-a-chip
tubule. This is where the almost complete absorption of
Renal cells and nephrons have already been simulated by nutritionally important substances takes place. In the demicrouidic devices. Such cell cultures can lead to new vice, this section is merely a straight channel, but blood
insights into cell and organ function and be used for drug particles going to the ltrate have to cross the previously

4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
mentioned membrane and a layer of renal proximal tubule
cells. The second segment of the tubules is the loop of
Henle where the reabsorption of water and ions from the
urine takes place. The devices looping channels strives
to simulate the countercurrent mechanism of the loop of
Henle. Likewise, the loop of Henle requires a number
of dierent cell types because each cell type has distinct transport properties and characteristics. These include the descending limb cells, thin ascending limb cells,
thick ascending limb cells, cortical collecting duct cells
and medullary collecting duct cells.[14]
One step towards validating the microuidic devices simulation of the full ltration and reabsorption behavior of a
physiological nephron would include demonstrating that
the transport properties between blood and ltrate are
identical with regards to where they occur and what is
being let in by the membrane. For example, the large majority of passive transport of water occurs in the proximal
tubule and the descending thin limb, or the active transport of NaCl largely occurs in the proximal tubule and
the thick ascending limb. The devices design requirements would require the ltration fraction in the glomerulus to vary between 15%20%, or the ltration reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule to vary between
65%70%, and nally the urea concentration in urine
(collected at one of the two outlets of the device) to vary
between 200-400mM.[16]
One recent report illustrates a biomimic nephron on hydrogel microuidic devices with establishing the function
of passive diusion.[17] The complex physiological function of nephron is achieved on the basis of interactions between vessels and tubules (both are hollow channels).[18]
However, conventional laboratory techniques usually focus on 2D structures, such as petri-dish that lacks capability to recapitulate real physiology that occurs in 3D.
Therefore, the authors developed a new method to fabricate functional, cell-lining and perfusable microchannels inside 3D hydrogel. The vessel endothelial and renal
epithelial cells are cultured inside hydrogel microchannel
and form cellular coverage to mimic vessels and tubules,
respectively. They employed confocal microscope to examine the passive diusion of one small organic molecule
(usually drugs) between the vessels and tubules in hydrogel. The study demonstrates the benecial potential
to mimic renal physiology for regenerative medicine and
drug screening.
Artery-on-a-chip
Cardiovascular diseases are often caused by changes in
structure and function of small blood vessels. For instance, self-reported rates of hypertension suggest that
the rate is increasing, says a 2003 report from the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.[19] A
microuidic platform simulating the biological response
of an artery could not only enable organ-based screens
to occur more frequently throughout a drug development

91
trial, but also yield a comprehensive understanding of
the underlying mechanisms behind pathologic changes
in small arteries and develop better treatment strategies.
Axel Gunther from the University of Toronto argues that
such MEMS-based devices could potentially help in the
assessment of a patients microvascular status in a clinical
setting (personalized medicine).[20]
Conventional methods used to examine intrinsic properties of isolated resistance vessels (arterioles and small arteries with diameters varying between 30 m and 300
m) include the pressure myography technique. However, such methods currently require manually skilled
personnel and are not scalable. An artery-on-a-chip could
overcome several of these limitations by accommodating
an artery onto a platform which would be scalable, inexpensive and possibly automated in its manufacturing.
Example
An organ-based microuidic platform has been developed as a lab-on-a-chip onto which a fragile blood vessel can be xed, allowing for determinants of resistance
artery malfunctions to be studied.
The artery microenvironment is characterized by surrounding temperature, transmural pressure, and luminal
& abluminal drug concentrations. The multiple inputs
from a microenvironment cause a wide range of mechanical or chemical stimuli on the smooth muscle cells
(SMCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) that line the vessels outer and luminal walls, respectively. Endothelial
cells are responsible for releasing vasoconstriction and
vasodilator factors, thus modifying tone. Vascular tone
is dened as the degree of constriction inside a blood
vessel relative to its maximum diameter.[21] Pathogenic
concepts currently believe that subtle changes to this
microenvironment have pronounced eects on arterial
tone and can severely alter peripheral vascular resistance.
The engineers behind this design believe that a specic strength lies in its ability to control and simulate
heterogeneous spatiotemporal inuences found within the
microenvironment, whereas myography protocols have,
by virtue of their design, only established homogeneous
microenvironments.[20] They proved that by delivering
phenylephrine through only one of the two channels providing superfusion to the outer walls, the drug-facing side
constricted much more than the drug opposing side.
The artery-on-a-chip is designed for reversible implantation of the sample. The device contains a microchannel
network, an artery loading area and a separate artery inspection area. There is a microchannel used for loading
the artery segment, and when the loading well is sealed, it
is also used as a perfusion channel, to replicate the process
of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in
the biological tissue.[22] Another pair of microchannels
serves to x the two ends of the arterial segment. Finally, the last pair of microchannels is used to provide
superfusion ow rates, in order to maintain the physio-

92

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

Artery-on-a-chip and detail of inspection area The green microchannel is used for loading the artery segment, and perfusion
(delivery of nutrients to the luminal walls); the xation channels
in yellow are used to adjust the positioning of the organ in the inspection zone by applying sub-atmospheric pressures at each end;
in red is the superfusion channel, used to deliver nutrients to the
abluminal wall of the artery.

logical and metabolic activity of the organ by delivering

a constant sustaining medium over the abluminal wall. A
thermoelectric heater and a thermoresistor are connected
to the chip and maintain physiological temperatures at the
artery inspection area.
The protocol of loading and securing the tissue sample
into the inspection zone helps understand how this approach acknowledges whole organ functions. After immersing the tissue segment into the loading well, the loading process is driven by a syringe withdrawing a constant
ow rate of buer solution at the far end of the loading
channel. This causes the transport of the artery towards
its dedicated position. This is done with closed xation
and superfusion in/outlet lines. After stopping the pump,
sub-atmospheric pressure is applied through one of the
xation channels. Then after sealing the loading well
shut, the second xation channel is subjected to a subatmospheric pressure. Now the artery is symmetrically
established in the inspection area, and a transmural pressure is felt by the segment. The remaining channels are
opened and constant perfusion and superfusion are adjusted using separate syringe pumps.[20]

4.8.4

Human-on-a-chip

Researchers are working towards building a multichannel 3D microuidic cell culture system that compartmentalizes microenvironments in which 3D cellular
aggregates are cultured to mimic multiple organs in the
body.[23] Most organ-on-a-chip models today only culture
one cell type, so even though they may be valid models for
studying whole organ functions, the systemic eect of a
drug on the human body is not veried.
In particular, an integrated cell culture analog (CCA)

Conceptual schematic of a human-on-a-chip Designing a

whole body biomimetic device will potentially correct one of the
most signicant limitations on organs-on-chips: the isolation of
organs.

was developed and included lung cells, drug-metabolizing

liver and fat cells. The cells were linked in a 2D uidic network with culture medium circulating as a blood
surrogate, thus eciently providing a nutritional delivery
transport system, while simultaneously removing wastes
from the cells.[24] The development of the CCA laid
the foundation for a realistic in vitro pharmacokinetic
model and provided an integrated biomimetic system for
culturing multiple cell types with high delity to in vivo
situations, claim C. Zhang et al. They have developed
a microuidic human-on-a-chip, culturing four dierent
cell types to mimic four human organs: liver, lung, kidney and fat.[25] They focused on developing a standard
serum-free culture media that would be valuable to all
cell types included in the device. Optimized standard
media are generally targeted to one specic cell-type,
whereas a human-on-a-chip will evidently require a common medium (CM). In fact, they claim to have identied a
cell culture CM that, when used to perfuse all cell cultures
in the microuidic device, maintains the cells functional
levels. Heightening the sensitivity of the in vitro cultured
cells ensures the validity of the device, or that any drug
injected into the microchannels will stimulate an identical physiological and metabolic reaction from the sample
cells as whole organs in humans.
With more extensive development of this kind of chip,
pharmaceutical companies will potentially be able to
measure direct eects of one organs reaction on another. For instance, the delivery of biochemical substances would be screened to conrm that even though
it may benet one cell type, it does not compromise the
functions of others. It is probably already possible to print
these organs with 3D printers,[26] but the cost is too high.
Designing whole body biomimetic devices addresses a
major reservation that pharmaceutical companies have
towards organs-on-chips, namely the isolation of organs.

4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP

93

As these devices become more and more accessible, the

complexity of the design increases exponentially. Systems will soon have to simultaneously provide mechanical perturbation and uid ow through a circulatory system. Anything that requires dynamic control rather than
just static control is a challenge, says Takayama from the
University of Michigan.[27]

4.8.5

Replacing animal
organs-on-chips

testing

with

In the early phase of drug development, animal models

were the only way of obtaining in vivo data that would
predict the human pharmacokinetic responses. However,
experiments on animals are lengthy, expensive and controversial. For example, animal models are often subjected to mechanical or chemical techniques that simulate
human injuries. There are also concerns with regards to
the validity of such animal models, due to deciency in
cross-species extrapolation.[28] Moreover, animal models
oer very limited control of individual variables and it
can be cumbersome to harvest specic information.

Mathematical pharmacokinetic (PK) models aim to estimate concentration-time proles within each organ on the
basis of the initial drug dose. Such mathematical models
can be relatively simple, treating the body as a single compartment in which the drug distribution reaches a rapid
equilibrium after administration. Mathematical models
can be highly accurate when all parameters involved are
known. Models that combine PK or PBPK models with
PD models can predict the time-dependent pharmacological eects of a drug. We can nowadays predict with
PBPK models the PK of about any chemical in humans,
almost from rst principles. These models can be either
very simple, like statistical dose-response models, or sophisticated and based on systems biology, according to
the goal pursued and the data available. All we need for
those models are good parameter values for the molecule
of interest.
Microuidic cell culture systems such as micro cell culture analogs (CCAs) could be used in conjunction
with PBPK models. These CCAs scaled-down devices, termed also body-on-a-chip devices, can simulate multi-tissue interactions under near-physiological
uid ow conditions and with realistic tissue-to-tissue
size ratios can simulate multi-tissue interactions under
near-physiological uid ow conditions and with realistic
tissue-to-tissue size ratios. Data obtained with these systems may be used to test and rene mechanistic hypotheses. Microfabricating devices also allows us to customdesign them and scale the organs compartments correctly
with respect to one another.

Therefore, mimicking a humans physiological responses

in an in vitro model needs to be made more aordable,
and needs to oer cellular level control in biological experiments: biomimetic microuidic systems could replace animal testing. The development of MEMS-based
biochips that reproduce complex organ-level pathological
responses could revolutionize many elds, including toxicology and the developmental process of pharmaceuticals Because the device can be used with both animal and
and cosmetics that rely on animal testing and clinical tri- human cells, it can facilitate cross-species extrapolation.
als.[29]
Used in conjunction with PBPK models, the devices perRecently, physiologically based perfusion in vitro systems mit an estimation of eective concentrations that can be
have been developed to provide cell culture environment used for studies with animal models or predict the human
close to in vivo cell environment. A new testing plat- response. In the development of multicompartment deforms based on multi-compartmental perfused systems vices, representations of the human body such as those
have gained a remarkable interest in pharmacology and in used PBPK models can be used to guide the device
toxicology. It aims to provide a cell culture environment design with regard to the arrangement of chambers and
close to the in vivo situation to reproduce more reliably in uidic channel connections to augment the drug develvivo mechanisms or ADME processes that involve its ab- opment process, resulting in increased success in clinical
sorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Per- trials.
fused in vitro systems combined with kinetic modelling
are promising tools for studying in vitro the dierent pro4.8.6
cesses involved in the toxicokinetics of xenobiotics.
Eorts made toward the development of micro fabricated
cell culture systems that aim to create models that replicate aspects of the human body as closely as possible and
give examples that demonstrate their potential use in drug
development, such as identifying synergistic drug interactions as well as simulating multi-organ metabolic interactions. Multi compartment micro uidic-based devices, particularly those that are physical representations
of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models that represent the mass transfer of compounds in compartmental models of the mammalian body, may contribute to improving the drug development process.

References

[1] Melinda Wenner Moyer , Organs-on-a-Chip for Faster

Drug Development, Scientic American 25 February
2011
[2] Dongeun Huh, Geraldine A. Hamilton and Donald E. Ingber (2011), From 3D cell culture to organs-on-chips
[3] Diviya D. Nalayanda, Christopher Puleo, William B. Fulton, Leilani M. Sharpe, Tza-Huei Wang, Fizan Abdullah (2009), An open-access microuidic model for lungspecic functional studies at an air-liquid interface
[4] D. Huh, B. D. Matthews, A. Mammoto, M. MontoyaZavala, H. Y. Hsin, D. E. Ingber (2010), Reconstituting

94

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip

[5] M.I. Hermanns et al., Cell Tissue Res. 336, 91 (2009)
[6] Franke, W. W., Borrmann, C. M., Grund, C. and Pieperho, S. (2006). The area composite of adhering junctions
connecting heart muscle cells of vertebrates: Molecular
denition in intercalated disks of cardiomyocytes by immunoelectron microscopy of desmosomal proteins. Eur J
Cell Biol 85, 69-82.
[7] W. Cheng, N. Klauke, H. Sedgwick, G. L. Smith and J.
M. Cooper, Lab on a Chip, 2006, 6, 1424-1431
[8] A. Werdich, E. A. Lima, B. Ivanov, I. Ges, M. E. Anderson, J. P. Wikswo and F. J. Baudenbacher, Lab on a Chip,
2004, 4, 357362
[9] Anna Grosberg, Patrick W. Alford, Megan L. McCain
and Kevin Kit Parker (2011), Ensembles of engineered
cardiac tissues for physiological and pharmacological
study: Heart on a chip
[10] Patrick W. Alford, Adam W. Feinberg, Sean P. Sheehy,
Kevin K. Parker (2009). Biohybrid thin lms for measuring contractility in engineered cardiovascular muscle
[11] Kidney on a Chip, Highlights in Chemical Biology, RSC
Publishing
[12] Cruz D, Bellomo R, Kellum JA, De Cal M, Ronco C.
The future of extracorporeal support. Crit Care Med
2008;36(4 Suppl):S243-52.

[22] N. Marieb, K. Hoehn (2006), Human Anatomy & Physiology 7th Ed.
[23] C. Luni, E. Serena, N. Elvassore (2014), Human-on-chip
for therapy development and fundamental science, Curr
Opin Biotech 25, 45-50
[24] K. Viravaidya and M. L. Shuler (2004), Biotechnol. Prog.,
20, 590-597
[25] C. Zhang, Z. Zhao, N. Rahim, D. Noort, H. Yu (2009),
Towards a human-on-chip: Culturing multiple cell types
on a chip with compartmentalized microenvironments
[26] 3D Printing Organs
[27] Monya Baker (2011), Tissue models: A living system on
a chip, Nature 471, 661-665
[28] I. Roberts et al. (2002), Does animal experimentation
inform human healthcare? Observations form a systematic review of international animal experiments on uid
resuscitation
[29] Anja van de Stolpe and Jaap den Toonder, Workshop
meeting report Organs-on-Chips: human disease models, RSC Publishing (2013)

4.8.7 External links

4.9 Tissue engineering

[13] C. Ronco, A. Davenport, V. Gura (2011), The future of

the articial kidney: moving towards wearable and miniaturized devices
[14] Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William
McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner,
David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology
and Health. Englewood Clis, New Jersey, USA
[15] Koeppen B, Stanton B. Renal physiology; 3rd ed. St
Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001
[16] E. Weinberg, M. Kaazempur-Mofrad, J. Borenstein
(2008), Concept and computational design for a bioarticial nephron-on-a-chip
[17] X. Mu, W. Zheng, L. Xiao, W. Zhang, X. Jiang, Engineering a 3D vascular network in hydrogel for mimicking
a nephron. Lab Chip 13, 1612 (2013)
[18] D. C. Eaton and J. P. Pooler, Vanders Renal Physiology,
McGraw-Hill, 2009 (2013)
[19] Ihab Hajjar, MD, MS (2003), Trends in Prevalence,
Awareness, Treatment, and Control of Hypertension in
the United States, 1988-2000
[20] A. Gunther, S. Yasotharan, A. Vagaon, C. Lochovsky,
S. Pinto, J. Yang, C. Lau, J. Voigtlaender-Bolz, S. Bolz
(2010), A microuidic platform for probing small artery
structure and function
[21] Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins (2011), Cardiovascular
Physiology Concepts 2nd Ed.

Principle of tissue engineering

Tissue engineering is the use of a combination of

cells, engineering and materials methods, and suitable
biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or
replace biological tissues. Tissue engineering involves the
use of a scaold for the formation of new viable tissue for
a medical purpose. While it was once categorized as a
sub-eld of biomaterials, having grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a eld in its own.
While most denitions of tissue engineering cover a
broad range of applications, in practice the term is closely
associated with applications that repair or replace portions of or whole tissues (i.e., bone, cartilage,[1] blood

4.9. TISSUE ENGINEERING

vessels, bladder, skin, muscle etc.). Often, the tissues
involved require certain mechanical and structural properties for proper functioning. The term has also been
applied to eorts to perform specic biochemical functions using cells within an articially-created support system (e.g. an articial pancreas, or a bio articial liver).
The term regenerative medicine is often used synonymously with tissue engineering, although those involved
in regenerative medicine place more emphasis on the use
of stem cells or progenitor cells to produce tissues.

4.9.1

Overview

95
well as materials science and bio informatics.
In 2003, the NSF published a report entitled The Emergence of Tissue Engineering as a Research Field, which
gives a thorough description of the history of this eld.[6]

4.9.2 Examples
Bioarticial windpipe: The rst procedure of regenerative medicine of an implantation of a bioarticial organ.
In vitro meat: Edible articial animal muscle tissue
cultured in vitro.
Bioarticial liver device: several research eorts
have produced hepatic assist devices utilizing living
hepatocytes.
Articial pancreas: research involves using islet cells
to produce and regulate insulin, particularly in cases
of diabetes.

Micro-mass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with Alcian blue

A commonly applied denition of tissue engineering, as

stated by Langer[2] and Vacanti,[3] is an interdisciplinary
eld that applies the principles of engineering and life
sciences toward the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve [Biological tissue]
function or a whole organ.[4] Tissue engineering has also
been dened as understanding the principles of tissue
growth, and applying this to produce functional replacement tissue for clinical use.[5] A further description goes
on to say that an underlying supposition of tissue engineering is that the employment of natural biology of the
system will allow for greater success in developing therapeutic strategies aimed at the replacement, repair, maintenance, and/or enhancement of tissue function.[5]
Powerful developments in the multidisciplinary eld of
tissue engineering have yielded a novel set of tissue replacement parts and implementation strategies. Scientic advances in biomaterials, stem cells, growth and differentiation factors, and biomimetic environments have
created unique opportunities to fabricate tissues in the
laboratory from combinations of engineered extracellular matrices (scaolds), cells, and biologically active
molecules. Among the major challenges now facing tissue engineering is the need for more complex functionality, as well as both functional and biomechanical stability
and vascularization in laboratory-grown tissues destined
for transplantation. The continued success of tissue engineering, and the eventual development of true human
replacement parts, will grow from the convergence of engineering and basic research advances in tissue, matrix,
growth factor, stem cell, and developmental biology, as

Articial bladders: Anthony Atala[7] (Wake Forest University) has successfully implanted articially
grown bladders into seven out of approximately 20
human test subjects as part of a long-term experiment.[8]
Cartilage: lab-grown tissue was successfully used to
repair knee cartilage.[9]
Scaold-free cartilage: Cartilage generated without the use of exogenous scaold material. In
this methodology, all material in the construct is
cellular or material produced directly by the cells
themselves.[10]
Doris Taylor's heart in a jar
Tissue-engineered airway[11]
Tissue-engineered vessels[12]
Articial skin constructed from human skin cells
embedded in a hydrogel, such as in the case of bioprinted constructs for battleeld burn repairs.[13]
Articial bone marrow[14]
Articial bone
Laboratory-grown penis[15]
Oral mucosa tissue engineering
Foreskin[16]

96

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

Mouse embryonic stem cells

Stained cells in culture

4.9.3

Cells as building blocks

Tissue engineering utilizes living cells as engineering

materials. Examples include using living broblasts in
skin replacement or repair, cartilage repaired with living
chondrocytes, or other types of cells used in other ways.
Cells became available as engineering materials when
scientists at Geron Corp. discovered how to extend
telomeres in 1998, producing immortalized cell lines. Before this, laboratory cultures of healthy, noncancerous
mammalian cells would only divide a xed number of
times, up to the Hayick limit.
Extraction
From uid tissues such as blood, cells are extracted by
bulk methods, usually centrifugation or apheresis. From
solid tissues, extraction is more dicult. Usually the tissue is minced, and then digested with the enzymes trypsin
or collagenase to remove the extracellular matrix (ECM)
that holds the cells. After that, the cells are free oating,
and extracted using centrifugation or apheresis.
Digestion with trypsin is very dependent on temperature.
Higher temperatures digest the matrix faster, but create
more damage. Collagenase is less temperature dependent, and damages fewer cells, but takes longer and is a
more expensive reagent.
Types of cells
Cells are often categorized by their source:
Autologous cells are obtained from the same individual to which they will be reimplanted. Autologous cells have the fewest problems with rejection
and pathogen transmission, however in some cases

might not be available. For example, in genetic disease suitable autologous cells are not available. Also
very ill or elderly persons, as well as patients suffering from severe burns, may not have sucient
quantities of autologous cells to establish useful cell
lines. Moreover, since this category of cells needs
to be harvested from the patient, there are also some
concerns related to the necessity of performing such
surgical operations that might lead to donor site infection or chronic pain. Autologous cells also must
be cultured from samples before they can be used:
this takes time, so autologous solutions may not be
very quick. Recently there has been a trend towards
the use of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and fat. These cells can dierentiate into a variety of tissue types, including bone, cartilage, fat,
and nerve. A large number of cells can be easily
and quickly isolated from fat, thus opening the potential for large numbers of cells to be quickly and
easily obtained.
Allogeneic cells come from the body of a donor of
the same species. While there are some ethical constraints to the use of human cells for in vitro studies,
the employment of dermal broblasts from human
foreskin has been demonstrated to be immunologically safe and thus a viable choice for tissue engineering of skin.
Xenogenic cells are these isolated from individuals
of another species. In particular animal cells have
been used quite extensively in experiments aimed at
the construction of cardiovascular implants.
Syngenic or isogenic cells are isolated from genetically identical organisms, such as twins, clones, or
highly inbred research animal models.
Primary cells are from an organism.
Secondary cells are from a cell bank.

4.9. TISSUE ENGINEERING

97

Stem cells are undierentiated cells with the ability

to divide in culture and give rise to dierent forms
of specialized cells. According to their source stem
cells are divided into adult and embryonic stem
cells, the rst class being multipotent and the latter
mostly pluripotent; some cells are totipotent, in the
earliest stages of the embryo. While there is still a
large ethical debate related with the use of embryonic stem cells, it is thought that another alternative
source - induced stem cells may be useful for the repair of diseased or damaged tissues, or may be used
to grow new organs.

4.9.4

Scaolds

Scaolds are materials that have been engineered to cause

desirable cellular interactions to contribute to the formation of new functional tissues for medical purposes.
Cells are often 'seeded' into these structures capable of
supporting three-dimensional tissue formation. Scaolds
mimic the native extracellular matrix of the native tissue,
recapitulating the in vivo milieu and allowing cells to inuence their own microenvironments. They usually serve
for at least one of the following purposes:
Allow cell attachment and migration

This animation of a rotating carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure. Carbon nanotubes are among the numerous candidates
for tissue engineering scaolds since they are biocompatible,
resistant to biodegradation and can be functionalized with
biomolecules. However, the possibility of toxicity with nonbiodegradable nano-materials is not fully understood.[18]

Materials

Deliver and retain cells and biochemical factors

Many dierent materials (natural and synthetic,

Enable diusion of vital cell nutrients and expressed biodegradable and permanent) have been investigated.
products
Most of these materials have been known in the medical
eld before the advent of tissue engineering as a research
Exert certain mechanical and biological inuences
topic, being already employed as bioresorbable sutures.
to modify the behaviour of the cell phase
Examples of these materials are collagen and some
In 2009, an interdisciplinary team led by the thoracic polyesters.
surgeon Thorsten Walles implanted the rst bioarticial
transplant that provides an innate vascular network for
post-transplant graft supply successfully into a patient
awaiting tracheal reconstruction. [17]
To achieve the goal of tissue reconstruction, scaolds
must meet some specic requirements. A high porosity and an adequate pore size are necessary to facilitate
cell seeding and diusion throughout the whole structure
of both cells and nutrients. Biodegradability is often an
essential factor since scaolds should preferably be absorbed by the surrounding tissues without the necessity
of a surgical removal. The rate at which degradation occurs has to coincide as much as possible with the rate of
tissue formation: this means that while cells are fabricating their own natural matrix structure around themselves,
the scaold is able to provide structural integrity within
the body and eventually it will break down leaving the
neotissue, newly formed tissue which will take over the
mechanical load. Injectability is also important for clinical uses. Recent research on organ printing is showing
how crucial a good control of the 3D environment is to
ensure reproducibility of experiments and oer better results.

New biomaterials have been engineered to have

ideal properties and functional customization: injectability, synthetic manufacture, biocompatibility,
non-immunogenicity, transparency, nano-scale bers,
low concentration, resorption rates, etc. PuraMatrix,
originating from the MIT labs of Zhang, Rich, Grodzinsky and Langer is one of these new biomimetic scaold
families which has now been commercialized and is
impacting clinical tissue engineering.
A commonly used synthetic material is PLA - polylactic
acid. This is a polyester which degrades within the human
body to form lactic acid, a naturally occurring chemical
which is easily removed from the body. Similar materials
are polyglycolic acid (PGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL):
their degradation mechanism is similar to that of PLA,
but they exhibit respectively a faster and a slower rate
of degradation compared to PLA. While these materials
have well maintained mechanical strength and structural
integrity, they exhibit a hydrophobic nature. This hydrophobicity inhibits their biocompatibility, which makes
them less eective for in vivo use as tissue scaolding.[19]
In order to x the lack of biocompatibility, much research has been done to combine these hydrophobic ma-

98

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

terials with hydrophilic and more biocompatible hydrogels. While these hydrogels have a superior biocompatibility, they lack the structural integrity of PLA, PCL, and
PGA. By combining the two dierent types of materials,
researchers are trying to create a synergistic relationship
that produces a more biocompatible tissue scaolding.[20]
Scaolds may also be constructed from natural materials: in particular dierent derivatives of the extracellular
matrix have been studied to evaluate their ability to support cell growth. Proteic materials, such as collagen or
brin, and polysaccharidic materials, like chitosan[21] or
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), have all proved suitable in
terms of cell compatibility, but some issues with potential
immunogenicity still remains. Among GAGs hyaluronic
acid, possibly in combination with cross linking agents Tissue engineered vascular graft
(e.g. glutaraldehyde, water-soluble carbodiimide, etc.),
is one of the possible choices as scaold material. Functionalized groups of scaolds may be useful in the delivery of small molecules (drugs) to specic tissues. Another form of scaold under investigation is decellularised tissue extracts whereby the remaining cellular
remnants/extracellular matrices act as the scaold. Recently a range of nanocomposites biomaterials are fabricated by incorporating nanomaterials within polymeric
matrix to engineer bioactive scaolds.[22]
A 2009 study by Ratmir et al. aimed to improve in vivolike conditions for 3D tissue via stacking and de-stacking
layers of paper impregnated with suspensions of cells in
extracellular matrix hydrogel, making it possible to control oxygen and nutrient gradients in 3D, and to analyze
molecular and genetic responses.[23] It is possible to ma- Tissue engineered heart valve
nipulate gradients of soluble molecules, and to characterize cells in these complex gradients more eectively Textile technologies These techniques include all the
than conventional 3D cultures based on hydrogels, cell
approaches that have been successfully employed for
spheroids, or 3D perfusion reactors.[24] Dierent thickthe preparation of non-woven meshes of dierent
nesses of paper and types of medium can support a varipolymers. In particular, non-woven polyglycolide
ety of experimental environments. Upon deconstruction,
structures have been tested for tissue engineering apthese sheets can be useful in cell-based high-throughput
plications: such brous structures have been found
screening and drug discovery.[24]
useful to grow dierent types of cells. The principal
drawbacks are related to the diculties in obtaining
high porosity and regular pore size.
Synthesis
A number of dierent methods have been described in
literature for preparing porous structures to be employed
as tissue engineering scaolds. Each of these techniques
presents its own advantages, but none are free of drawbacks.
Nanober self-assembly Molecular self-assembly is
one of the few methods for creating biomaterials
with properties similar in scale and chemistry to that
of the natural in vivo extracellular matrix (ECM),
a crucial step toward tissue engineering of complex tissues.[25] Moreover, these hydrogel scaolds
have shown superiority in in vivo toxicology and biocompatibility compared to traditional macroscaffolds and animal-derived materials.

Solvent casting and particulate leaching (SCPL)

This approach allows for the preparation of
structures with regular porosity, but with limited
thickness. First, the polymer is dissolved into
a suitable organic solvent (e.g. polylactic acid
could be dissolved into dichloromethane), then
the solution is cast into a mold lled with porogen
particles. Such porogen can be an inorganic salt
like sodium chloride, crystals of saccharose, gelatin
spheres or paran spheres. The size of the porogen
particles will aect the size of the scaold pores,
while the polymer to porogen ratio is directly
correlated to the amount of porosity of the nal
structure. After the polymer solution has been cast
the solvent is allowed to fully evaporate, then the
composite structure in the mold is immersed in a

4.9. TISSUE ENGINEERING

99

bath of a liquid suitable for dissolving the porogen:

and a polymer-poor phase are formed. Following
water in the case of sodium chloride, saccharose
cooling below the solvent melting point and some
and gelatin or an aliphatic solvent like hexane for
days of vacuum-drying to sublime the solvent,
use with paran. Once the porogen has been fully
a porous scaold is obtained.
Liquid-liquid
dissolved, a porous structure is obtained. Other
phase separation presents the same drawbacks of
than the small thickness range that can be obtained,
emulsication/freeze-drying.[26]
another drawback of SCPL lies in its use of organic
solvents which must be fully removed to avoid any Electrospinning A highly versatile technique that can
be used to produce continuous bers from submipossible damage to the cells seeded on the scaold.
crometer to nanometer diameters. In a typical elecGas foaming To overcome the need to use organic soltrospinning set-up, a solution is fed through a spinvents and solid porogens, a technique using gas as
neret and a high voltage is applied to the tip. The
a porogen has been developed. First, disc-shaped
buildup of electrostatic repulsion within the charged
structures made of the desired polymer are prepared
solution, causes it to eject a thin brous stream.
by means of compression molding using a heated
A mounted collector plate or rod with an oppomold. The discs are then placed in a chamber where
site or grounded charge draws in the continuous
they are exposed to high pressure CO2 for several
bers, which arrive to form a highly porous netdays. The pressure inside the chamber is gradually
work. The primary advantages of this technique
are its simplicity and ease of variation. At a labrestored to atmospheric levels. During this proceoratory level, a typical electrospinning set-up only
dure the pores are formed by the carbon dioxide
molecules that abandon the polymer, resulting in a
requires a high voltage power supply (up to 30 kV),
sponge-like structure. The main problems resulting
a syringe, a at tip needle and a conducting collecfrom such a technique are caused by the excessive
tor. For these reasons, electrospinning has become
heat used during compression molding (which proa common method of scaold manufacture in many
hibits the incorporation of any temperature labile
labs. By modifying variables such as the distance to
material into the polymer matrix) and by the fact that
collector, magnitude of applied voltage, or solution
the pores do not form an interconnected structure.
ow rateresearchers can dramatically change the
overall scaold architecture.
Emulsication/Freeze-drying This technique does not
require the use of a solid porogen like SCPL. First, a Hydrogel-Biodegradable Hydrophobic Polymer Hybrids
synthetic polymer is dissolved into a suitable solvent
To address the problems with the hydrophobic
(e.g. polylactic acid in dichloromethane) then wanature of an electro spun matrix made of polyter is added to the polymeric solution and the two
caprolactone (PCL) and the weak mechanical
liquids are mixed in order to obtain an emulsion.
structure of hydrogels such as poly ethylene glycol
(PEG), research has been done to combine the
Before the two phases can separate, the emulsion
two. One promising experiment done to combine
is cast into a mold and quickly frozen by means of
the two materials was done by polymerizing PEG
immersion into liquid nitrogen. The frozen emulon the surface of the nanobers in an electro spun
sion is subsequently freeze-dried to remove the dismatrix made of PCL. This polymerization was
persed water and the solvent, thus leaving a solidicarried out by immobilizing a trithiocarbonateed, porous polymeric structure. While emulsicabased chain transfer agent on the surface of the
tion and freeze-drying allow for a faster preparation
electrospun matrix and then using reversible addiwhen compared to SCPL (since it does not require a
tionfragmentation chain transfer polymerization to
time consuming leaching step), it still requires the
add a coat of PEG. This hydrogel polymerization on
use of solvents. Moreover, pore size is relatively
the surface of the electrospun matrix resulted in a
small and porosity is often irregular. Freeze-drying
thin layer of the hydrogel that coated the nanobers
by itself is also a commonly employed technique for
in the matrix. Using dierent concentrations for
the fabrication of scaolds. In particular, it is used
the polymerization of PEG, the thickness of the
to prepare collagen sponges: collagen is dissolved
hydrogel layer can be adjusted. Using the correct
into acidic solutions of acetic acid or hydrochloric
acid that are cast into a mold, frozen with liquid niconcentration of PEG, a matrix with a hydrogel coat
trogen and then lyophilized.
thick enough to maintain its form on the surface of
the bers but thin enough to avoid clogging pores
Thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) Similar
was produced.[19]
to the previous technique, this phase separation
procedure requires the use of a solvent with a low CAD/CAM technologies Because most of the above
melting point that is easy to sublime. For example,
techniques are limited when it comes to the control
dioxane could be used to dissolve polylactic acid,
of porosity and pore size, computer assisted design
and manufacturing techniques have been introduced
then phase separation is induced through the addito tissue engineering. First, a three-dimensional
tion of a small quantity of water: a polymer-rich

100

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
structure is designed using CAD software. The
porosity can be tailored using algorithms within the
software.[27] The scaold is then realized by using ink-jet printing of polymer powders or through
Fused Deposition Modeling of a polymer melt.[28]

A 2011 study by El-Ayoubi et al.

investigated
3D-plotting technique to produce (biocompatible and
biodegradable) poly-L-Lactide macroporous scaolds
with two dierent pore sizes via solid free-form fabrication (SSF) with computer-aided-design (CAD), to explore therapeutic articular cartilage replacement as an
alternative to conventional tissue repair.[29] The study
found the smaller the pore size paired with mechanical stress in a bioreactor (to induce in vivo-like conditions), the higher the cell viability in potential therapeutic
functionality via decreasing recovery time and increasing
transplant eectiveness.[29]

quite dicult to get cells to reassemble into the complex structures that make up our natural tissues. While
cells aren't easily stackable, building blocks are. So the
micromasonry starts with the encapsulation of living cells
in polymer cubes. From there, the blocks self-assemble
in any shape using templates.
Liquid-based template assembly

The air-liquid surface established by Faraday waves is explored as a template to assemble biological entities for
bottom-up tissue engineering. This liquid-based template can be dynamically recongured in a few seconds,
and the assembly on the template can be achieved in a
scalable and parallel manner. Assembly of microscale
hydrogels, cells, neuron-seeded micro-carrier beads, cell
spheroids into various symmetrical and periodic structures was demonstrated with good cell viability. Formanetwork was achieved after 14-day tisLaser-assisted BioPrinting (LaBP) In
a
2012 tion of 3D neural
[31]
[30]
sue
culture.
study,
Koch et al. focused on whether Laserassisted BioPrinting (LaBP) can be used to build
multicellular 3D patterns in natural matrix, and
Additive manufacturing
whether the generated constructs are functioning
and forming tissue. LaBP arranges small volumes
of living cell suspensions in set high-resolution Main article: Organ printing
patterns.[30] The investigation was successful, the
researchers foresee that generated tissue constructs It might be possible to print organs, or possibly entire ormight be used for in vivo testing by implanting them ganisms using additive manufacturing techniques. A reinto animal models" (14). As of this study, only cent innovative method of construction uses an ink-jet
human skin tissue has been synthesized, though mechanism to print precise layers of cells in a matrix of
researchers project that by integrating further cell thermoreversible gel. Endothelial cells, the cells that line
types (e.g. melanocytes, Schwann cells, hair follicle blood vessels, have been printed in a set of stacked rings.
cells) into the printed cell construct, the behavior When incubated, these fused into a tube.[28][32]
of these cells in a 3D in vitro microenvironment
The eld of three-dimensional and highly accurate modsimilar to their natural one can be analyzed, useful
els of biological systems is pioneered by multiple projects
[30]
for drug discovery and toxicology studies.
and technologies including a rapid method for creating
tissues and even whole organs involves a 3D printer that
can print the scaolding and cells layer by layer into a
4.9.5 Assembly methods
working tissue sample or organ. The device is presented
One of the continuing, persistent problems with tissue en- in a TED talk by Dr. Anthony Atala, M.D. the Director
gineering is mass transport limitations. Engineered tis- of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine,
sues generally lack an initial blood supply, thus making it and the W.H. Boyce Professor and Chair of the Departdicult for any implanted cells to obtain sucient oxy- ment of Urology at Wake Forest University, in which a
kidney is printed on stage during the seminar and then
gen and nutrients to survive, and/or function properly.
presented to the crowd.[33][34] It is anticipated that this
technology will enable the production of livers in the fuSelf-assembly
ture for transplantation and theoretically for toxicology
and other biological studies as well.
Self-assembly may play an important role here, both from
the perspective of encapsulating cells and proteins, as
well as creating scaolds on the right physical scale for Scaolding
engineered tissue constructs and cellular ingrowth. The
micromasonry is a prime technology to get cells grown in In 2013, using a 3-d scaolding of Matrigel in various
a lab to assemble into three-dimensional shapes. To break congurations, substantial pancreatic organoids was prodown tissue into single-cell building blocks, researchers duced in vitro. Clusters of small numbers of cells prohave to dissolve the extracellular mortar that normally liferated into 40,000 cells within one week. The clusters
binds them together. But once that glue is removed, its transform into cells that make either digestive enzymes

4.9. TISSUE ENGINEERING

101

or hormones like insulin, self-organizing into branched

pancreatic organoids that resemble the pancreas.[35]
The cells are sensitive to the environment, such as gel
stiness and contact with other cells. Individual cells do
not thrive; a minimum of four proximate cells was required for subsequent organoid development. Modications to the medium composition produced either hollow
spheres mainly composed of pancreatic progenitors, or
complex organoids that spontaneously undergo pancreatic morphogenesis and dierentiation. Maintenance and
expansion of pancreatic progenitors require active Notch
and FGF signaling, recapitulating in vivo niche signaling
interactions.[36]
The organoids were seen as potentially oering miniorgans for drug testing and for spare insulin-producing
cells.[35]

4.9.6

Tissue culture

In many cases, creation of functional tissues and biological structures in vitro requires extensive culturing to
promote survival, growth and inducement of functionality. In general, the basic requirements of cells must
be maintained in culture, which include oxygen, pH, Bioreactor for cultivation of vascular grafts
humidity, temperature, nutrients and osmotic pressure
maintenance.
Tissue engineered cultures also present additional prob- physiological environment in order to promote cell or tislems in maintaining culture conditions. In standard cell sue growth in vitro. A physiological environment can
culture, diusion is often the sole means of nutrient and consist of many dierent parameters such as temperametabolite transport. However, as a culture becomes ture and oxygen or carbon dioxide concentration, but can
larger and more complex, such as the case with engi- extend to all kinds of biological, chemical or mechanical
neered organs and whole tissues, other mechanisms must stimuli. Therefore, there are systems that may include
be employed to maintain the culture, such as the creation the application of forces or stresses to the tissue or even
of electric current in two- or three-dimensional setups.
of capillary networks within the tissue.
Another issue with tissue culture is introducing the proper
factors or stimuli required to induce functionality. In
many cases, simple maintenance culture is not sucient.
Growth factors, hormones, specic metabolites or nutrients, chemical and physical stimuli are sometimes required. For example, certain cells respond to changes in
oxygen tension as part of their normal development, such
as chondrocytes, which must adapt to low oxygen conditions or hypoxia during skeletal development. Others,
such as endothelial cells, respond to shear stress from uid
ow, which is encountered in blood vessels. Mechanical
stimuli, such as pressure pulses seem to be benecial to all
kind of cardiovascular tissue such as heart valves, blood
vessels or pericardium.

In academic and industry research facilities, it is typical

for bioreactors to be developed to replicate the specic
physiological environment of the tissue being grown (e.g.,
ex and uid shearing for heart tissue growth).[37] Several
general-use and application-specic bioreactors are also
commercially available, and may provide static chemical
stimulation or combination of chemical and mechanical
stimulation.

The Bioreactors used for 3D cell cultures are small plastic cylindrical chambers with regulated internal humidity
and moisture specically engineered for the purpose of
growing cells in three dimensions.[38] The bioreactor uses
bioactive synthetic materials such as polyethylene terephthalate membranes to surround the spheroid cells in an environment that maintains high levels of nutrients.[24][39]
They are easy to open and close, so that cell spheroids
Bioreactors
can be removed for testing, yet the chamber is able to
maintain 100% humidity throughout.[40] This humidity is
Main article: Bioreactor
important to achieve maximum cell growth and function.
The bioreactor chamber is part of a larger device that roA bioreactor in tissue engineering, as opposed to indus- tates to ensure equal cell growth in each direction across
trial bioreactors, is a device that attempts to simulate a three dimensions.[40] MC2 Biotek has developed a biore-

102

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

actor known as ProtoTissue[38] that uses gas exchange

to maintain high oxygen levels within the cell chamber;
improving upon previous bioreactors, because the higher
oxygen levels help the cell grow and undergo normal cell
respiration.[41]

Molecular self-assembly
National Institutes of Health
National Science Foundation
Soft tissues

Long ber generation

Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society

In 2013, a group from the University of Tokyo developed

Xenotransplantation
cell laden bers up to a meter in length and on the order
[42]
of 100 m in size.
These bers were created using a
microuidic device that forms a double coaxial laminar
4.9.8 Notes
ow. Each 'layer' of the microuidic device (cells seeded
in ECM, a hydrogel sheath, and nally a calcium chloride [1] Whitney G. A.; Jayaraman K.; Dennis J. E.; Mansolution). The seeded cells culture within the hydrogel
sour J. M. (2014). Scaold-free cartilage subjected
sheath for several days, and then the sheath is removed
to frictional shear stress demonstrates damage by crackwith viable cell bers. Various cell types were inserted
ing and surface peeling. J Tissue Eng Regen Med.
into the ECM core, including myocytes, endothelial cells,
doi:10.1002/term.1925.
nerve cell bers, and epithelial cell bers. This group then
showed that these bers can be woven together to fabri- [2] Langer Lab: Professor Robert Langer.
cate tissues or organs in a mechanism similar to textile [3] The Laboratory for Tissue Engineering and Organ Fabweaving. Fibrous morphologies are advantageous in that
rication - Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA.
they provide an alternative to traditional scaold design,
R;
Vacanti
JP
(May
1993).
and many organs (such as muscle) are composed of - [4] Langer
Tissue
engineering.
Science
260
(5110):
brous cells.
9206.
Bibcode:1993Sci...260..920L.
doi:10.1126/science.8493529. PMID 8493529.

Bioarticial organs
Main article: Bioarticial organ

[5] MacArthur BD; Oreo RO (January 2005).

Bridging the gap.
Nature 433 (7021):
19.
Bibcode:2005Natur.433...19M. doi:10.1038/433019a.
PMID 15635390.

An articial organ is a man-made device that is implanted [6] NSF: Abt Report on The Emergence of Tissue Engior integrated into a human to replace a natural organ, for
neering as a Research Field"".
the purpose of restoring a specic function or a group of
related functions so the patient may return to a normal [7] Anthony J. Atala, MD, Urology.
life as soon as possible. The replaced function doesn't
[8] Doctors grow organs from patients own cells, CNN, 3
necessarily have to be related to life support, but often is.
April 2006
The ultimate goal of tissue engineering as a discipline is
to allow both 'o the shelf' bioarticial organs and regen- [9] Lab-grown cartilage xes damaged knees - health - 5 July
2006 - New Scientist Space
eration of injured tissue in the body. In order to successfully create bioarticial organs from a patients stem cells,
[10] Whitney GA (August 2012). Methods for Producing
researchers continue to make improvements in the generScaold-Free Engineered Cartilage Sheets from Auricuation of complex tissues by tissue engineering. For examlar and Articular Chondrocyte Cell Sources and Attachple, much research is aimed at understanding nanoscale
ment to Porous Tantalum. BioResearch Open Access 1
cues present in a cells microenvironment.[25]
(4): 157165. doi:10.1089/biores.2012.0231. Retrieved
Oct 2013.

4.9.7

See also

Covidien
Biomedical engineering
Biological engineering
Biomolecular engineering
ECM Biomaterial
Induced stem cells

[11] Macchiarini P; Jungebluth P; Go T; et al.

(December 2008). Clinical transplantation of a tissueengineered airway. Lancet 372 (9655): 202330.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61598-6. PMID 19022496.
[12] Zilla, Peter; Howard Greisler (1999). Tissue Engineering Of Vascular Prosthetic Grafts. R.G. Landes Company.
ISBN 1-57059-549-6.
[13] Tissue Engineering.
[14] Creating articial bone marrow. The Economist. 7 January 2009.

4.9. TISSUE ENGINEERING

[15] Articial Penis Tissue Proves Promising in Lab Tests.

[16] Epistem.co.uk can create foreskin.
[17] Mertsching H, Schanz J, Steger V, Schandar M, Schenk
M, Hansmann J, Dally I, Friedel G, Walles T. Generation
and transplantation of an autologous vascularized bioarticial human tissue. Transplantation. 2009; 88: 203-10.
[18] Newman, Peter; Minett, Andrew; Ellis-Behnke, Rutledge; Zreiqat, Hala (November 2013). Carbon nanotubes: their potential and pitfalls for bone tissue regeneration and engineering.
Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 9 (8): 11391158.
doi:10.1016/j.nano.2013.06.001. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
[19] Wang, J; Wang, K; Gu, X; and Luo, Y. Polymerization of
Hydrogel Network on Microber Surface: Synthesis of
Hybrid Water-Absorbing Matrices for Biomedical Applications ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2016
[20] Bosworth, L. A.; Turner, L. A.; Cartmell, S. H. State
of the art composites comprising electrospun bres coupled with hydrogels: a review. Nanomedicine 2013, 9,
322335.
[21] Hwa Park Jung; Schwartz Zvi; Olivares-Navarrete
Rene; Boyan Barbara D.; Tannenbaum Rina (2011).
Enhancement of surface wettability via the modication of microstructured titanium implant surfaces
with polyelectrolytes.
Langmuir 27: 59765985.
doi:10.1021/la2000415.
[22] Gaharwar, AK; Peppas, NA; Khademhosseini, A (March
2014). Nanocomposite hydrogels for biomedical applications.. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 111 (3):
44153. doi:10.1002/bit.25160. PMC 3924876. PMID
24264728.
[23] Ratmir D.; et al. (2009). Paper-Supported 3D Cell Culture for Tissue-Based Bioassays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
106 (44): 1845718462. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910666106.

103

[29] Lee, Genee; Paraic A Kenny1, Eva H Lee1 & Mina J Bissell (29). Three-dimensional culture models of normal
and malignant breast epithelial cells. Nature Methods 4:
359365. doi:10.1038/nmeth1015
[30] Biomarkers for simplifying HTS 3D cell culture
platforms for drug discovery:
the case for cytokines. Drug Discov Today 16: 2937. Apr 2011.
doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.009. PMID 21277382.
[31] Microscale Assembly Directed by Liquid-Based Template. Advanced Materials 26: 59365941. Sep 2014.
doi:10.1002/adma.201402079. PMID 24956442.
[32] Mironov V; Boland T; Trusk T; Forgacs G; Markwald
RR (April 2003). Organ printing: computer-aided jetbased 3D tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol. 21 (4):
15761. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(03)00033-7. PMID
12679063.
[33] Printing a human kidney.
[34] Synthetic sandwich culture of 3D hepatocyte monolayer.
Biomaterials 29: 290301.
Jan 2008.
doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.09.016.
PMID
17964646.
[35] New 3D method used to grow miniature pancreas
model. KurzweilAI. doi:10.1242/dev.096628. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[36] Greggio, C.; De Franceschi, F.; Figueiredo-Larsen, M.;
Gobaa, S.; Ranga, A.; Semb, H.; Lutolf, M.; GrapinBotton, A. (2013). Articial three-dimensional niches
deconstruct pancreas development in vitro. Development
140 (21): 44524462. doi:10.1242/dev.096628. PMID
24130330.
[37] Lee, EL; von Recum, HA (2010). Cell culture platform
with mechanical conditioning and nondamaging cellular
detachment. J Biomed Mater Res A 93: 4118.
[38] MC2 Biotek - 3D Tissue Culture - The 3D ProtoTissue
System".

[24] Prestwich GD (2008). Evaluating drug ecacy and toxicology in three dimensions: using synthetic extracellular
matrices in drug discovery. Acc Chem Res 41 (1): 139
148. doi:10.1021/ar7000827. PMID 17655274.

[39] Spheroid-based drug screen: considerations and practical approach.

Nat Protoc 4: 30924.
2009.
doi:10.1038/nprot.2008.226. PMID 19214182.

[25] Cassidy JW (2014). Nanotechnology in the regeneration

of complex tissues. Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights 5: 2535. doi:10.4137/BTRI.S12331.

[41] Grith, Linda G., and Melody A. Swartz. Capturing

complex 3D tissue physiology in vitro. Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology 7.3 (2006): 211-224.

[26] Nam, Yoon Sung; Park, Tae Gwan (1999).

Biodegradable polymeric microcellular foams by
modied thermally induced phase separation method.
Biomaterials 20 (19): 17831790. doi:10.1016/S01429612(99)00073-3. Retrieved 23 March 2015.

[42] Hiroaki Onoe, Teru Okitsu, and Akane et al. Itou. Metrelong cell-laden microbres exhibit tissue morphologies
and functions. Nature Materials, 12(6):584 590, 2013

[27] CAD/CAM-assisted breast reconstruction. Biofabrication 3: 034114. Sep 2011. doi:10.1088/17585082/3/3/034114. PMID 21900731.
[28] Jennifer Elissee; Peter X. Ma (2005). Scaolding In Tissue Engineering. Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 1-57444-5219.

[40] Marx, Vivien (11 April 2013). A Better Brew. Nature

4.9.9 References
Davis ME; Motion JP; Narmoneva DA;
Injectable selfet al.
(February 2005).
assembling peptide nanobers create intramyocardial
microenvironments
for
endotheCirculation 111 (4):
44250.
lial cells.

104

CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000153847.47301.80.
PMC 2754569. PMID 15687132.

Ma, Peter X. (May 2004). Scaolds for tissue fabrication. Materials Today: 3040.
Holmes TC; de Lacalle S; Su X; Liu G; Rich A; et
al. (June 2000). Extensive neurite outgrowth and
active synapse formation on self-assembling peptide scaolds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97
(12): 672833. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6728H.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.12.6728. PMC 18719. PMID
10841570.
Semino CE; Kasahara J; Hayashi Y; Zhang S
(2004). Entrapment of migrating hippocampal
neural cells in three-dimensional peptide nanober
scaold.
Tissue Eng.
10 (3-4): 643
55. doi:10.1089/107632704323061997. PMID
15165480.
Mikos AG; Temeno JS (2000). Formation of
highly porous biodegradable scaolds for tissue engineering (PDF). Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 3: 1149. doi:10.2225/vol3-issue2-fulltext-5.
National Science Foundation (U.S.A.) (2004). The
Emergence of Tissue Engineering as a Research
Field. Retrieved 28 April 2006.
Nerem, R.M. (2000). Vacanti, Joseph; Lanza, R.
P.; Langer, Robert S., eds. Principles of tissue engineering (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press. ISBN
0-12-436630-9.
{4.
Fountain, Henry.
A First:
Organs Tailor-Made With Bodys Own Cells.
New york Times.
15 Sept.
2012.
http:
//www.nytimes.com/2012/09/16/health/research/
scientists-make-progress-in-tailor-made-organs.
html?pagewanted=all&_r=0}

4.9.10

External links

Clinical Tissue Engineering Center State of Ohio

Initiative for Tissue Engineering (National Center
for Regenerative Medicine)
Pittsburgh Tissue Engineering Initiative
Tissue Engineering Society of Malaysia Pages
Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society
Tissue and Cell Engineering Society
Malaysia Tissue Engineering Laboratory Pages
Tissue engineering articles and information
Tissue Engineering Pages

Institute for Chemical Process and Environmental

Technology Tissue engineered (TE) corneas
Organ Printing Multi-site NSF-funded initiative
Team Research Tissue Engineering and Medical
Research Programmes
LOEX Center Universit Laval Initiative for Tissue
Engineering
Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on
Tissue Engineering the Heart
Journal of Tissue Engineering

Chapter 5

Related
5.1 Molecular assembler

ent from devices that merely (as dened above) guide

chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with
A molecular assembler, as dened by K. Eric Drexler, atomic precision.
is a proposed device able to guide chemical reactions Because synthetic molecular assemblers have never been
by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision. constructed and because of the confusion regarding the
A molecular assembler is a kind of molecular machine. meaning of the term, there has been much controversy as
Some biological molecules such as ribosomes t this def- to whether molecular assemblers are possible or siminition. This is because they receive instructions from ply science ction. Confusion and controversy also stem
messenger RNA and then assemble specic sequences of from their classication as nanotechnology, which is an
amino acids to construct protein molecules. However, the active area of laboratory research which has already been
term molecular assembler usually refers to theoretical applied to the production of real products; however, there
human-made devices.
had been, until recently, no research eorts into the acBeginning in 2007, the British Engineering and Physical tual construction of molecular assemblers.
Sciences Research Council has funded development of
ribosome-like molecular assemblers. Clearly, molecular
assemblers are possible in this limited sense. A technology roadmap project, led by the Battelle Memorial Institute and hosted by several U.S. National Laboratories has
explored a range of atomically precise fabrication technologies, including both early-generation and longer-term
prospects for programmable molecular assembly; the report was released in December, 2007.[1] In 2008 the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council provided funding of 1.5 million pounds over six years for research working towards mechanized mechanosynthesis,
in partnership with the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, amongst others.[2]

Nonetheless, a 2013 paper published in the journal

Science details a new method of synthesizing a peptide in
a sequence-specic manner by using an articial molecular machine that is guided by a molecular strand. This
functions in the same way as a ribosome building proteins by assembling amino acids according to a messenger RNA blueprint. The structure of the machine is based
on a rotaxane, which is a molecular ring sliding along a
molecular axle. The ring carries a thiolate group which
removes amino acids in sequence from the axle, transferring them to a peptide assembly site.[4]

the popular sense. These include hypothetical machines

that manipulate individual atoms and machines with
organism-like self-replicating abilities, mobility, ability
to consume food, and so forth. These are quite dier-

A typical nanofactory would t in a desktop box, in the vision of K. Eric Drexler published in Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation (1992),
a notable work of "exploratory engineering". During

In another paper published in March 2015, also in Science, chemists at the University of Illinois report a
platform that automates the synthesis of 14 classes of
Likewise, the term molecular assembler has been small molecules, with thousands of compatible building
used in science ction and popular culture to refer to blocks.[5]
a wide range of fantastic atom-manipulating nanomachines, many of which may be physically impossible
in reality. Much of the controversy regarding molec- 5.1.1 Nanofactories
ular assemblers results from the confusion in the use
of the name for both technical concepts and popu- A nanofactory is a proposed system in which
lar fantasies. In 1992, Drexler introduced the related nanomachines (resembling molecular assemblers, or
but better-understood term molecular manufacturing, industrial robot arms) would combine reactive molecules
which he dened as the programmed chemical synthesis via mechanosynthesis to build larger atomically precise
of complex structures by mechanically positioning reac- parts. These, in turn, would be assembled by positioning
tive molecules, not by manipulating individual atoms.[3] mechanisms of assorted sizes to build macroscopic
This article mostly discusses molecular assemblers in (visible) but still atomically-precise products.

105

106

CHAPTER 5. RELATED

the last decade, others have extended the nanofactory

concept, including an analysis of nanofactory convergent assembly by Ralph Merkle, a systems design of
a replicating nanofactory architecture by J. Storrs Hall,
Forrest Bishops Universal Assembler, the patented exponential assembly process by Zyvex, and a top-level
systems design for a 'primitive nanofactory' by Chris
Phoenix (Director of Research at the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology). All of these nanofactory designs (and more) are summarized in Chapter 4 of Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines (2004) by Robert Freitas
and Ralph Merkle. The Nanofactory Collaboration,[6]
founded by Freitas and Merkle in 2000, is a focused ongoing eort involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations
and 4 countries that is developing a practical research
agenda[7] specically aimed at positionally-controlled diamond mechanosynthesis and diamondoid nanofactory
development.
In 2005, a computer-animated short lm of the nanofactory concept was produced by John Burch, in collaboration with Drexler. Such visions have been the subject of
much debate, on several intellectual levels. No one has
discovered an insurmountable problem with the underlying theories and no one has proved that the theories can
be translated into practice. However, the debate continues, with some of it being summarized in the molecular
nanotechnology article.

Biological evolution proceeds by random variation combined with culling of the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants. Production
of complex molecular assemblers might be evolved from
simpler systems since A complex system that works is
invariably found to have evolved from a simple system
that worked. . . . A complex system designed from
scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it
work. You have to start over, beginning with a system that
works.[9] However, most published safety guidelines include recommendations against developing ... replicator
designs which permit surviving mutation or undergoing
evolution.[10]
Most assembler designs keep the source code external
to the physical assembler. At each step of a manufacturing process, that step is read from an ordinary computer le and broadcast to all the assemblers. If any assembler gets out of range of that computer, or when the
link between that computer and the assemblers is broken,
or when that computer is unplugged, the assemblers stop
replicating. Such a broadcast architecture is one of the
safety features recommended by the "Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology", and a map of the
137-dimensional replicator design space[11] recently published by Freitas and Merkle provides numerous practical
methods by which replicators can be safely controlled by
good design.

If nanofactories could be built, severe disruption to the

world economy would be one of many possible negative
impacts, though it could be argued that this disruption
would have little negative eect if everyone had such
nanofactories. Great benets also would be anticipated. 5.1.3 Drexler and Smalley debate
Various works of science ction have explored these and
similar concepts. The potential for such devices was part
of the mandate of a major UK study led by mechanical Main article: DrexlerSmalley debate on molecular
nanotechnology
engineering professor Dame Ann Dowling.

5.1.2

Self-replication

Molecular assemblers have been confused with selfreplicating machines. To produce a practical quantity
of a desired product, the nanoscale size of a typical science ction universal molecular assembler requires an extremely large number of such devices. However, a single such theoretical molecular assembler might be programmed to self-replicate, constructing many copies of
itself. This would allow an exponential rate of production. Then after sucient quantities of the molecular assemblers were available, they would then be reprogrammed for production of the desired product. However, if self-replication of molecular assemblers were not
restrained then it might lead to competition with naturally
occurring organisms. This has been called ecophagy or
the grey goo problem.[8]

One of the most outspoken critics of some concepts of

molecular assemblers was Professor Richard Smalley
(19432005) who won the Nobel prize for his contributions to the eld of nanotechnology. Smalley believed
that such assemblers were not physically possible and introduced scientic objections to them. His two principal
technical objections were termed the fat ngers problem and the sticky ngers problem. He believed these
would exclude the possibility of molecular assemblers
that worked by precision picking and placing of individual atoms. Drexler and coworkers responded to these two
issues[12] in a 2001 publication.

Smalley also believed that Drexlers speculations about

apocalyptic dangers of self-replicating machines that
have been equated with molecular assemblers would
threaten the public support for development of nanotechnology. To address the debate between Drexler and Smalley regarding molecular assemblers Chemical & EngiOne method to building molecular assemblers is to mimic neering News published a point-counterpoint consisting
evolutionary processes employed by biological systems. of an exchange of letters that addressed the issues.[3]

5.1. MOLECULAR ASSEMBLER

5.1.4

Regulation

Speculation on the power of systems that have been called

molecular assemblers has sparked a wider political discussion on the implication of nanotechnology. This is in
part due to the fact that nanotechnology is a very broad
term and could include molecular assemblers. Discussion of the possible implications of fantastic molecular
assemblers has prompted calls for regulation of current
and future nanotechnology. There are very real concerns with the potential health and ecological impact of
nanotechnology that is being integrated in manufactured
products. Greenpeace for instance commissioned a report concerning nanotechnology in which they express
concern into the toxicity of nanomaterials that have been
introduced in the environment.[13] However, it makes
only passing references to assembler technology. The
UK Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering
also commissioned a report entitled Nanoscience and
nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties[14] regarding the larger social and ecological implications on
nanotechnology. This report does not discuss the threat
posed by potential so-called molecular assemblers.

107

5.1.6 Grey goo

Main article: Grey goo
One potential scenario that has been envisioned is outof-control self-replicating molecular assemblers in the
form of grey goo which consumes carbon to continue
its replication. If unchecked such mechanical replication could potentially consume whole ecoregions or the
whole Earth (ecophagy), or it could simply outcompete
natural lifeforms for necessary resources such as carbon,
ATP, or UV light (which some nanomotor examples run
on). However, the ecophagy and 'grey goo' scenarios,
like synthetic molecular assemblers, are based upon stillhypothetical technologies that have not yet been demonstrated experimentally.

5.1.7 In ction
Main article: Nanotechnology in ction

Molecular assemblers are a popular topic in science ction, for example, the matter compiler in The Diamond
Age and the cornucopia machine in Singularity Sky. The
5.1.5 Formal scientic review
replicator in Star Trek might also be considered a molecular assembler. A molecular assembler is also a key eleIn 2006, U.S. National Academy of Sciences released the
ment of the plot of the computer game Deus Ex (called a
report of a study of molecular manufacturing as part of
"universal constructor" in the game).
a longer report, A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the
[15]
National Nanotechnology Initiative The study commit- In the political sci- comic series Transmetropolitan,
tee reviewed the technical content of Nanosystems, and written by Warren Ellis, machines called Makers are
in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analy- used to replicate and reform matter. Each morning, Maksis can be considered denitive regarding several ques- ers sweep the streets for garbage, gathering the matter to
tions of potential system performance, and that optimal recycle it into more useful objects. The main character
paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot also uses a Maker in his apartment to instantly produce a
be predicted with condence. It recommends experimen- pair of glasses which take photos, as well as other objects
such as clothing.
tal research to advance knowledge in this area:
Although theoretical calculations can be made
today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamic eciencies of such
bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be
reliably predicted at this time. Thus, the
eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can
be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted
with condence. Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to systems which
greatly exceed the thermodynamic eciencies
and other capabilities of biological systems
cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Research funding that is based on the ability of
investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide
long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve
this goal.

In Dead Money, a DLC of the video game Fallout: New

Vegas, the player can obtain useful items from vending
machines that use an unknown form of molecular assembly technology to transform casino chips that the player
can nd into any of several items.

5.1.8 See also

Nanotechnology
Molecular machine
Bioethics
Biosafety
Biosecurity
Biotechnology
Ecocide

108

CHAPTER 5. RELATED

Ecophagy
Santa Claus machine
3D Printing

5.1.9

References

[1] Productive Nanosystems: a technology roadmap

[2] Grants on the Web. Archived from the original on
November 4, 2011.
[3] C&En: Cover Story - Nanotechnology.
[4] Sequence-Specic Peptide Synthesis by an Articial
Small-Molecule Machine.

Rage Against the (Green) Machine article originally

in Wired
Government launches nano study UK EducationGuardian, 11 June 2003
"Unraveling the Big Debate over Small Machines"
Paper on assembly
http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/nano4/
merklePaper.html
Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines <http:
//www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm>
online technical book: rst comprehensive survey
of molecular assemblers (2004) by Robert Freitas
and Ralph Merkle

[5] Synthesis of many dierent types of organic small

molecules using one automated process.

Design of a Primitive Nanofactory

[6] Nanofactory Collaboration.

Video - Nanofactory in Action

[7] Nanofactory Technical Challenges.

Nanofactory technology

[8] Nanotechnology: Grey Goo is a Small Issue.

Review of Molecular Manufacturing

[9] Gall, John, (1986) Systemantics: How Systems Really

Work and How They Fail, 2nd ed. Ann Arbor, MI : The
General Systemantics Press.
[10] Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology.
[11] Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines.
[12] Institute for Molecular ManufacturingDebate About Assemblers Smalley Rebuttal.
[13] Future Technologies, Todays Choices Nanotechnology,
Articial Intelligence and Robotics; A technical, political
and institutional map of emerging technologies. A report
for the Greenpeace Environmental Trust
[14] Nanoscience and nanotechnologies:opportunities and
uncertainties.
[15] A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative - The National Academies Press.

5.1.10

External links

[ Nanoengineer-1 ] free Open-source multi-scale

modeling and simulation program for nanocomposites with special support for structural DNA
nanotechnology
Nano-Hive: Nanospace Simulator free software for
modeling nanotech entities
Foresight Institute proposes guidelines for responsible development of molecular manufacturing technologies
Center for Responsible Nanotechnology
Molecular Assembler website

Chapter 6

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JWilson0923 and Anonymous: 9
Direct metal laser sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_metal_laser_sintering?oldid=710542139 Contributors: SimonP, Nurg, Khalid hassani, Snwright, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Snori, DMacks, Mgiganteus1, P199, Wizard191, N2e, Gaijin42, Hcobb, Guy Macon, Lfstevens, Fabrictramp, Lightmouse, Robenel, Three-quarter-ten, XLinkBot, AnomieBOT, Mikhael 666
mikhailovich, Jonesey95, Skippy84, Misconceptions2, GoingBatty, Ginger smiles, Plasticspro, Sachinvenga, Growmetal, Iitpkp, CasualVisitor, Greenjackalope, Themoother, Oafyman, Paul Whittaker Inovar, LCS check, AutoNoOpenMined, Spaghettimachine, Tstetler,
Oluwa2Chainz and Anonymous: 25
D-Shape Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Shape?oldid=706488653 Contributors: Edward, Khalid hassani, Bender235, GregorB,
Rjwilmsi, Malcolma, SmackBot, N2e, Cydebot, Headbomb, Nyq, Grundle2600, Blanchardb, Mdnahas, Tide rolls, AnomieBOT, Alvin
Seville, GliderMaven, John of Reading, , Ego White Tray, AlysonStoner5804, Virtualerian, ChrisGualtieri, Zapdos222,
Monkbot, InvertedVantage and Anonymous: 1
Electron beam freeform fabrication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam_freeform_fabrication?oldid=721751448
Contributors: Brianhe, Tony1, Clayhalliwell, Kmarinas86, Nagle, Cydebot, Headbomb, Guy Macon, Ohms law, GimmeBot, Cnilep,
Dabomb87, Alagrave, Spino, XLinkBot, Addbot, Mephiston999, Legobot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Willardconnor, Jay1229, Dani7341,
Danim, Canoe1967, Secondhand Work, Franois Robere, Suswaltz, CityEditors, AndrewV77 and Anonymous: 6
Fused deposition modeling Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_deposition_modeling?oldid=726942160 Contributors:
Dreamyshade, Bryan Derksen, Ronz, Nurg, DavidCary, BenFrantzDale, RapidAssistant, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, Ehudshapira,
KillerChihuahua, Bender235, Jaberwocky6669, Alga, John Vandenberg, Oarih, Halsteadk, Bhtooefr, BRW, Jim Mikulak, DV8 2XL,
CharlesC, Rjwilmsi, Missmarple, Graibeard, Gurch, Raelx, Jzylstra, Whale~enwiki, Tony1, Terber, A Doon, SmackBot, Jurriaan
van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Edgar181, Thumperward, Tsca.bot, Blokkendoos, Quaeler, Zureks, N2e, GargoyleMT, Twohlers,
Magunator, Cydebot, Matrix61312, Plaasjaapie, Headbomb, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Quickparts, .snoopy., Nikevich, Tgeairn, Valbyrne,
VolkovBot, Fran Rogers, Andy Dingley, Mike the Mix, TheBendster, ImageRemovalBot, Slightlymighty, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Journals88, Three-quarter-ten, Scalhotrod, Svachani, Mimarx, Addbot, Mplsap1970, Lightbot, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace,
AnomieBOT, Efa, Cubansmoothie, LilHelpa, Algspd, Karensams, Cleanstation-SRS, Grantmidnight, Stratocracy, Eugene-elgato, Some
standardized rigour, Peterquale, GliderMaven, Gwideman, Mstrogo, Jerd10, Macgeiger, Misconceptions2, Teapeat, ClueBot NG,
OpticalBlimp, IBrow1000, John Cummings, Canoe1967, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, EuroCarGT, Rocknail, Ruby Murray, Dbrown9141,
HyDavo, Clmthomas, Tbessler, Lagoset, Monkbot, Rory Top, WhatAboutThis0000, Mogie Bear, Sarr Cat, BrandoOk, ChemWarfare,
Eric2718, Humbug26, Orbit4447, Arjunpatel07, Royal222, Utters11, FlukeyJam056 and Anonymous: 75
Laminated object manufacturing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminated_object_manufacturing?oldid=686975516 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, Zinnmann, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, CharlesC, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Betacommand, Sbmehta,
Wizard191, Cydebot, .snoopy., VolkovBot, Addbot, GrinDavid, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Univremonster, Materialscientist, Jesus Ultra,
WikitanvirBot, Rapatan, Nanobliss, Epicgenius, Spaghettimachine and Anonymous: 11
Laser engineered net shaping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_engineered_net_shaping?oldid=711401393 Contributors:
Michael Hardy, Delirium, Ehn, BenFrantzDale, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, PDH, Drajput, DV8 2XL, Srleer, BirgitteSB, SmackBot,
Jurriaan van Hengel, NCurse, Onceler, Pilotguy, Wizard191, Twohlers, Cydebot, Guy Macon, Magioladitis, J Dezman, Andy Dingley,
Ezrado, Addbot, Themfromspace, J04n, D'ohBot, Mean as custard, AutoNoOpenMined, Rory Top, Industrias Viwa and Anonymous: 8
Magnetic 3D bioprinting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_3D_bioprinting?oldid=704096417 Contributors: Nyq,
AnomieBOT, MrX, Josve05a, BG19bot, BattyBot, Athomeinkobe, Datdyat, Zehranasser, SpanglishArmado, 3alisonobrien, BethNaught
and Anonymous: 3
Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_bed_and_inkjet_head_3D_printing?oldid=
714526745 Contributors: Edward, Bearcat, Khalid hassani, SoWhy, Malcolma, Tony1, Argento, Cydebot, Headbomb, Mkmori, Bonadea,
Cnilep, Mortense, Tassedethe, Yobot, 4ndyD, John of Reading, Ego White Tray, Gavin.perch, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zhaoyebai, Gorthian,
Comp.arch, Monkbot, Spaghettimachine, KH-1, KarenHillwood89 and Anonymous: 4
Stereolithography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereolithography?oldid=725718453 Contributors: Eloquence, Bryan Derksen,
Ronz, BenFrantzDale, Khalid hassani, Alves~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, Pmsyyz, ArnoldReinhold, Mofochickamo, Alansohn, DV8 2XL,
Je3000, Tabletop, Miroku Sanna, Seidenstud, Graibeard, Lotu, YurikBot, Jzylstra, DRosenbach, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Thumperward, Ado, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jklin, Dr. Crash, Hu12, Wizard191, Iridescent, JohnCD, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Rmallins, Njlowrie, Cydebot, Kupirijo, JFreeman, Sochwa, Headbomb, Bill0756, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Gatemansgc, Quickparts, .snoopy., MastCell, Sarahj2107, David Eppstein, KPD~enwiki, Lchrzan, Trusilver, Rlsheehan, 4johnny, FrummerThanThou, Kovo138, KylieTastic, VolkovBot, LokiClock, Sweetpea2007, Anonymous Dissident, Joshwilf, TheBendster, Frogpussy,

112

CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, 7Piguine, GorillaWarfare, Tjfr, Grrlfox, Johnson25006, Three-quarter-ten, Rhododendrites, Iohannes Animosus, SchreiberBike, Svachani, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Scjules, Rdiger Marmulla, Addbot, MaterialGeeza, MrOllie, Jacobcolt, Yobot,
WikiDan61, Themfromspace, Laserproto, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Unara, Materialscientist, Techdoctor, Stratocracy, Firozinasab, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Fgcity, DrilBot, Tom.Reding, Mstrogo, Callanecc, Diannaa, GodfriedToussaint, Hunterp46, Bilbo571, Amcnicoll, Rocketrod1960, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Anagogist, Hallzer73, BG19bot, Epizarroso, 3dsystems, Phaneza, Adlhancock, Usearch,
Harrington0007, Stephenpnock, Tty780,
, Binarysequence, Koza1983, Hellowikielf, Rory Top, Jonguam, Ksaosa, Greatedits1,
Distransient, Ashley.delmar, Daimand and Anonymous: 109
Selective heat sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_heat_sintering?oldid=687997387 Contributors: Bearcat, Yamla,
Mgiganteus1, Yobot, Xqbot, Tomsdearg92, Crosstemplejay, Faizan, Spaghettimachine, Rory Top and Anonymous: 2
Selective laser sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_sintering?oldid=714526189 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
XJaM, Ronz, Ehn, Jeq, Nurg, DocWatson42, BenFrantzDale, Everyking, Khalid hassani, Gzornenplatz, Sam Hocevar, Addicted2Sanity,
Adashiel, D6, Alansohn, Cdc, Jim Mikulak, Scm83x, Nightscream, Graibeard, DirkvdM, Srleer, Meawoppl, Jzylstra, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, Ms2ger, Cyrus Grisham, Mlibby, SmackBot, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Thumperward, Snori,
Sadads, Thief12, Mion, Mgiganteus1, Ehheh, P199, Wizard191, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Cydebot, MrMacMan, Plaasjaapie, Thijs!bot,
Bloger, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Albany NY, Quickparts, .snoopy., Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Dorftrottel, VolkovBot, AlysTarr, TheBendster, Flyer22 Reborn, Slightlymighty, 7Piguine, Tjfr, Alexbot, Three-quarter-ten, Rimefrost, Svachani, Addbot, Mortense, MaterialGeeza,
FSIM, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Johnkm77, I dream of horses, Calmer Waters, Zachareth, EmausBot, Hunterp46,
ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Nobletripe, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thea10, Paul Whittaker Inovar, Flynn Milligan, Mindblaster6, Vieque, Rory Top
and Anonymous: 70
Selective laser melting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_melting?oldid=710541670 Contributors: Fred Bauder,
Julesd, Bearcat, Khalid hassani, Snori, P199, Wizard191, Cydebot, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Phil Bridger, Lightmouse, Rapidmfg,
Three-quarter-ten, PixelBot, Arjayay, Addbot, Mortense, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Misconceptions2, Donner60, Bk314159,
Growmetal, Eg0u4092, O.Koslowski, Greenjackalope, Djblacky1, Mogism, Wuerzele, RomyBallieux, BHauron, Rory Top, KLBelgium,
TM1927, Jpmaterial and Anonymous: 10
Volumetric printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_printing?oldid=613210957 Contributors: Dravecky, Bensci54,
OccultZone and Smfrayne
3D printed rearms Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printed_firearms?oldid=728869730 Contributors: Furrykef, Tothebarricades.tk, Rich Farmbrough, Anastrophe, Gilliam, Derek R Bullamore, OnBeyondZebrax, N2e, Gaijin42, Headbomb, Magioladitis, Rwessel, Andy Dingley, Meters, Lightbreather, XLinkBot, AnomieBOT, Miguel Escopeta, RjwilmsiBot, Josve05a, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, BattyBot, HistoricMN44, Everymorning, Doctor Papa Jones, Rezin, RollaTroll, FourViolas, Amnichole and Anonymous: 12
3D-printed spacecraft Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D-printed_spacecraft?oldid=720394686 Contributors: JorisvS, N2e,
Jdaloner, BG19bot and Anonymous: 1
Building printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_3D_printing?oldid=729296142 Contributors: Khalid hassani, Bender235, Vegaswikian, Natkeeran, Elkman, KVDP, Chris the speller, Derek R Bullamore, N2e, Headbomb, Xhienne, Awilley, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Tom.Reding, K6ka, , Wingman4l7, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, Virtualerian, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Lagoset,
Monkbot, Insertcleverphrasehere, Ndijks, Trogluddite, Marthe2201, Kees08 and Anonymous: 11
Critical making Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_making?oldid=729264894 Contributors: Giraedata, Rjwilmsi, Welsh,
Chris the speller, Thumperward, Garnethertz, Grhabyt, Headbomb, Doctorhawkes, Magioladitis, Micahcowan, Ost316, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, Dewritech, Dcirovic, Jaobar, BG19bot, BattyBot, Kaelab3, Mr RD, Zhengya3, Junohk, Guddan08, Nivea Vivek, Rupaliarora, Jayatis, Soniya Bhase, Nayana Gupta ADP and Anonymous: 9
Injection molding Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_moulding?oldid=724509398 Contributors: Christopher Mahan,
Olivier, Michael Hardy, GRAHAMUK, Reddi, N-true, Altenmann, Greudin, MPF, BenFrantzDale, Dratman, Wouterhagens, Markus
Kuhn, Macrakis, AlanCox, Rohini, LucasVB, Fpahl, Togo~enwiki, Chrisbolt, Discospinster, Vsmith, Art LaPella, Duk, Foobaz, Alansohn, Eleland, Ynhockey, Clubmarx, Drbreznjev, Angr, Firsfron, Tabletop, Kelisi, SCEhardt, CharlesC, Fleetham, RxS, Jclemens, Melesse, Josh Parris, Bill37212, Graibeard, Fivemack, Ffaarr, Pfctdayelise, Jak123, Gurch, Czar, SteveBaker, MoRsE, DVdm, Bgwhite,
Cactus.man, YurikBot, Shiznitay, Gertlex, Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Bdowler, Sanguinity, Joel7687, Adamsmith, Scs, Ducati38,
Lockesdonkey, BeastRHIT, CLW, Phgao, Sagsaw, CWenger, Micnet, Veinor, SmackBot, C.Fred, Britiju, Canthusus, Edgar181, Gilliam,
Psiphiorg, Lindosland, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Thunderbird62, Baa, DHN-bot~enwiki, A. B., Errans, Teemeah, OrphanBot,
Alice.haugen, Nakon, Drphilharmonic, Doodle77, DMacks, Arielco, Ged UK, Peterlewis, Capmo, AnotherBrian, Beetstra, Wizard191,
Mikael V, J Di, Ehsankiani, Tawkerbot2, Viyer, Knipptang, Van helsing, Hignatz, GargoyleMT, INVERTED, KeeserSilver, Funnyfarmofdoom, Swoolverton, Mblumber, Sir Kenny, Gogo Dodo, Chrislk02, Epbr123, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Tsomkes, AntiVandalBot, -m-i-k-e-y-, Charleslo, Dan D. Ric, MER-C, Petronas, Kevin Crystal, Magioladitis, Quickparts, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Meredyth,
Nyq, Richard Bartholomew, Nikevich, Sasha l~enwiki, Kel.jackson, Grahamjwebster, Adrian J. Hunter, Ciaccona, LorenzoB, Galvanist,
War wizard90, GoTLG, STBot, Grumpylump, CarlFeynman, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Keith D, R'n'B, Nono64, Rareandrsts, Tgeairn,
Rlsheehan, Hans Dunkelberg, Team saint lucia, Waldo1967, Igrowsolutions, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Bobianite, Rythem,
STBotD, Reelrt, VolkovBot, ABF, Search4.0, Joneddyking, Soliloquial, Larry R. Holmgren, Barneca, Wolfnix, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT,
NipokNek, Amirsarmad, Leafyplant, Gytrem, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Dz93x5, Vladsinger, Lerdthenerd, Andy Dingley, Brianpmurphy,
Falcon8765, Turgan, Spinningspark, Shipikiw, Hansjef, Mendeleev, Red, Lylegordon, Elagace, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Hertz1888, Bryantliu,
Prillen, Lesterdan, Radon210, Wizzard2k, Xtruderdood, Benea, Asker-Asker, TechTube, Maelgwnbot, Bogarmiki, WikiLaurent, Oodam,
Keykoder, Frank0625, Escape Orbit, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, John hofman, Mild Bill Hiccup, Declair,
Fr0gmanJon, DragonBot, Plastech~enwiki, Excirial, BeamerNZ, BOTarate, Kakofonous, Thingg, Error 128, SoxBot III, Cmgoogin,
XLinkBot, Mawaisabbas, Matt Coburn, Travlaki, Eoghan88, Addbot, Aukauk, Aistivy, Jpmonroe, AkhtaBot, MrOllie, Trood0099, Krano,
Deathpuppy, LuK3, Margin1522, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Green Ambush, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Malo0178, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, Jackliuhn, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Capricorn42, JcCoPM, There are no names left, Richardofoakshire, Amaury, Tim5021,
Alainr345, Blue tooth7, Locobot, Jaxkoyle, Steven.SRK, MAEstudent, Kevinreganwashere, Jasonmillett, Mexipnuttj, Nobody017, Chupabarro, Bstring5, Mechanicalrocks, Blaueziege, iedas, Kierkkadon, Brockey, JoshuaTopSpot, DES402UOFA, LarryDavis55, Idyllic
press, Weetoddid, Wmcleod, Gangsta1337~enwiki, Kagnie2, OgreBot, Pinethicket, Hammondwb, Tjmoel, Aaron.peachey4, Merlion444,
Reinhard Bosshard, Vrenator, DelLeslie, WikiTome, Weedwhacker128, Suusion of Yellow, Jhessian Zombie, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
DCerulo, RjwilmsiBot, Mr Cool is here, X2a, EmausBot, Efcmagnew, WikitanvirBot, Help4wikis, Wikipelli, F, JackieBM, BrianSnasSSI, Tolly4bolly, Massestephanie, Sugar-Baby-Love, MacStep, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Hi-Qos, Petrb, Mankarse, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, IDESinc, Widr, Electriccatsh2, Danhuama, Plasticexrusionline, BG19bot, Murry1975, Dsajga, Jennifer Grigsby, Slinkblot,

6.1. TEXT

113

Youngermouldhwh, Crh23, Probity incarnate, DPL bot, Repentsinner, Greenjackalope, Vanischenu, Vijayratnakumar, Andrewgprout,
PrabhakarPurushothaman, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Samarthcdesai86, TheJesus doesnothate, Antonme3000, Dexbot, Napf,
Paul Kuklych, Geraldlovesdonkeys, Fluydog655, Retrolord, Mcs109, Nuclear Optimism, Crispulop, Monochrome Monitor, Marigold100,
Ugog Nizdast, Polymermold, Lvlarty, Ginsuloft, Pbznyyankeez, Taojialibian, Gravuritas, Mikeyd277, Thatonewikiguy, Dalans15, Jarforth,
Aurinko17, Biblioworm, Blitz1234, Sparkah, Svenwustho, Matthargis33, Jpanzar, Writerlauren, KH-1, Ballpointbiro, Yugamjai, Ian
(Wiki Ed), Orduin, SvanLeeuwen, Bob on drugs, Jack rayn, TroyLinehan, Jonasisamathgod123, Vkweb99, KasparBot, Ccorniuk, Soisyc
Croisic, Keiran Wake, Thomasnetrpm, JRabbit28, HimsDabral, GetSeriousSEM and Anonymous: 571
Rapid prototyping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping?oldid=727036225 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Deb, Rsabbatini, Michael Hardy, Skysmith, Goatasaur, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Extro, CatherineMunro, Pratyeka, Ehn, Vroman, Mydogategodshat,
Timwi, Itai, Dpbsmith, Robbot, Tualha, Ancheta Wis, Psb777, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Orangemike, Ssd, Zinnmann, Gracefool,
Rdsmith4, Ehudshapira, Sonett72, Brianhe, Rama, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, DCEdwards1966, Pearle, Melaen, Danhash, Staeiou, Jim
Mikulak, DV8 2XL, Oleg Alexandrov, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Cheesdude, Pol098, Knuckles, CharlesC, Btyner, Graham87, BD2412,
Nightscream, Vegaswikian, Haya shiloh, Graibeard, Lotu, Ian Pitchford, Gurch, DVdm, YurikBot, Wavelength, Bhny, ALoopingIcon,
Gorie, Ndavies2, Scope creep, Zzuuzz, Nelson50, Teryx, Euke, Luk, SmackBot, Jurriaan van Hengel, KocjoBot~enwiki, Britiju, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Anwar saadat, Qwasty, Thumperward, Warpling, Guyjohnston, Freddyballo, Andreareinhardt, Man pl, CyrilB, Dicklyon,
TastyPoutine, Wizard191, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, CmdrObot, Dycedarg, Zureks, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Cydebot, BillWeiss, Pascal.Tesson, Plaasjaapie, Satori Son, Thijs!bot, Nslsmith, LachlanA, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Guy Macon, Seaphoto,
Zigo1232, Masonba2000, Smartse, Alphachimpbot, Leuko, Skomorokh, Txomin, Albany NY, GoodDamon, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Quickparts, .snoopy., VoABot II, MastCell, Dvmorris, Lchrzan, Trusilver, Sageofwisdom, Rlsheehan, Murmurr, Vamcc, FrummerThanThou, Hodlipson, El monty, Quack 688, KylieTastic, Emalone, VolkovBot, DSRH, Sammiek23, Jay-so~enwiki, Philip Trueman,
Sweetpea2007, Manufacturing, Duncan A Wood, Inventis, Madhero88, Kuczora, Andy Dingley, BrownBot, TheBendster, SieBot, 4wajzkd02, Frogpussy, Zo86, Foxtrotman, JackTheo, Emesee, Maxx88~enwiki, Firey4342, Arrk, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Three-quarter-ten, Arjayay, Dekisugi, BOTarate, Chaosdruid, Michael751, Aitias, Cassedu, Svachani, DumZiBoT,
Scjules, Dthomsen8, James.barkley, Crazysane, MaterialGeeza, Jackienaylor, MrOllie, RTG, Roux, Lightbot, , Zorrobot, Jarble,
Gadibareli, Dengzhifan, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Asarkof, A123a, Techdoctor, Xqbot,
Capricorn42, Karensams, Almish80, J04n, Omnipaedista, GliderMaven, Anaday, Kagnie2, Squid661, MondalorBot, Akkida, X2bf3,
Jhuglen, EmausBot, Helium4, CaptRik, , Jasonjonesjones, ClueBot NG, Danim, CasualVisitor, KLBot2, Jessica.yau, BG19bot,
Dsajga, M0rphzone, Vinaymn87, Nospildoh, MusikAnimal, Compfreak7, Veob66MI, Fspiceland, Usearch, Autodidaktos, Khazar2, Amirthinker, Mogism, Matheus Faria, Lingob, JulieAsarkofReece, Paul Whittaker Inovar, Hamoudafg, VelocityRap, Rcrumpf, ArdenM29,
Lagoset, KH-1, Musa Raza, OrganicEarth and Anonymous: 202
Molding (process) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molding_(process)?oldid=698162601 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Gracefool,
H Padleckas, Iwilcox, Rama, Longhair, Smalljim, Grutness, Spangineer, Angr, Firsfron, Polyparadigm, Kelisi, Bluemoose, Graibeard,
Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Janke, Ndavies2, SmackBot, Britiju, VMS Mosaic, Abrahami, Capmo,
AndyAndyAndy, Wizard191, Mikiemike, Thijs!bot, X201, I already forgot, BenC7, Raggiante~enwiki, MartinBot, Glrx, Verdatum, Hans
Dunkelberg, Johnbod, Joshua Issac, FuegoFish, Macedonian, Drunkenmonkey, Andy Dingley, AlleborgoBot, ConfuciusOrnis, Lightmouse,
Abhinav, Mild Bill Hiccup, Lantay77, Three-quarter-ten, Jovianeye, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Tide rolls, Timurite, Yobot, Daniele Pugliesi,
Materialscientist, Inbamkumar86, Callanecc, Blaznlilwayne, Sugar-Baby-Love, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, MerlIwBot, Doorknob747,
Atomician, Probity incarnate, AntanO, Alexgower, Mysterious Whisper, Portraitofabride, 8Cisaboss, YiFeiBot, Lagoset, Gronk Oz, Degenerate prodigy, Starwars az and Anonymous: 48
Organ-on-a-chip Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ-on-a-chip?oldid=726498653 Contributors: Pascal666, Beland, Rich Farmbrough, Giraedata, Woohookitty, Racklever, JaGa, R'n'B, Adavidb, Skullers, SimonTrew, SchreiberBike, XLinkBot, Yobot, Frederic Y
Bois, MWMG, Mark Arsten, Timothy.ruban, Wikiacad, 4Jays1034, Sidelight12, Bluedudemi, Harry mu and Anonymous: 6
Tissue engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering?oldid=729360320 Contributors: Taw, Edward, D, Jiang,
Dysprosia, Wik, Astronautics~enwiki, Vespristiano, Naddy, COGDEN, Hadal, Marcika, Kukkurovaca, Just Another Dan, Trevor MacInnis, ClockworkTroll, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Nina Gerlach, Kanzure, Arthena, Mysdaao, ClockworkSoul, Axeman89, , Berserker79,
Oleg Alexandrov, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Uncle G, Kmg90, SCEhardt, Plrk, V8rik, Olbrich~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Strangethingintheland, Ligulem, Bedrupsbaneman, ElKevbo, FlaBot, Latka, Kolbasz, Bgwhite, Uriah923, RobotE, Gaius Cornelius, Cquan, Welsh, Elkman,
JeramieHicks, SmackBot, Zenchu, Edgar181, Ga, M stone, Schmiteye, Chris the speller, Bluebot, RDBrown, Thumperward, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, JonHarder, Keantom, DMacks, StN, Victor D, ArglebargleIV, BrownHairedGirl, Storm Horizon, Soution, Dl2000,
Hu12, JYi, Nehrams2020, Freecat, DLLHell, Harold f, Leujohn, Cydebot, Ladida, Mato, Anthonyhcole, Thijs!bot, Rory rocket, Mojo
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Etxrge, Zxcvbnm, Alai, Zbxgscqf, Rsmith, Benlisquare, WriterHound, Hairy Dude, Arado, Mike Treder, Kkmurray, Dieseldrinker, NHSavage, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, M stone, Betacommand, Ppntori, Toughpigs, DRahier, KaiserbBot, GVnayR, Polonium, Vampus, Paul
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Kni2, , Virtualerian, Star A Star, Cyberbot II, Leafonesky, Spacelion88, Comp.arch, Dersman, Fixuture, SoerenMind, Maplestrip,
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: 3D model: Own work Photo by User:leylosh Original artist: Nevit Dilmen (<a href='//commons.
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File:3D_scanned_interior_of_St_Joseph{}s_Church,_Subiaco.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/
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%289415669149%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: 84530877_FillingSys Original artist: OKFoundryCompany from Richmond,
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spear_tip_mould_IMG_5123.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama
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File:CT_Scan_of_Dale_Mahalko{}s_brain-skull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/CT_Scan_of_
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Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DANIEL CHODOWIECKI 62 bisher unverentlichte Handzeichnungen
zu dem Elementarwerk von Johann Bernhard Basedow. Mit einem Vorworte von Max von Boehn. Voigtlnder-Tetzner, Frankfurt am
Main 1922. (self scanned from book) Original artist: Daniel Chodowiecki

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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Fab%40Home_Model_2_3D_

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commons/4/4e/Guardians_of_Time_sculpture_Manfred_Kielnhofer_3d_printing.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
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File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0

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Animation.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: German Wikipedia, original upload 29. Dez 2004 by APPER Original artist: Original
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two_plate_injection_molding_tool.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Sebastian
Wallroth using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Britiju at en.wikipedia / Later version(s) were uploaded by Ehsankiani at en.wikipedia.
File:Stanford_Bunny.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a7/Stanford_Bunny.png License: Fair use Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Steps_of_forensic_facial_reconstruction_-_Virtual_Mummy_-_cogitas3d.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/cc/Steps_of_forensic_facial_reconstruction_-_Virtual_Mummy_-_cogitas3d.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Cicero Moraes
File:Stereolithography_apparatus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Stereolithography_apparatus.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Materialgeeza
File:Stereolithography_apparatus_vector.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Stereolithography_
apparatus_vector.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Stereolithography apparatus.jpg Original artist: User:Materialgeeza
File:Suzanne.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Suzanne.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ted_Noten_Fashionista_in_green_2009.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Ted_Noten_
Fashionista_in_green_2009.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: General Press Kit 'Atelier Ted Noten' from Utrecht, Netherlands based
press studio Organisation in Design. Original artist: Photography: Atelier Ted Noten / Artwork: Atelier Ted Noten
File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
File:Tissue_engineering_english.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Tissue_engineering_english.jpg
License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HIA
File:Toothbrush_handle_of_sandwich_injection.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Toothbrush_
handle_of_sandwich_injection.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Swoolverton
File:Toothbrush_handle_of_sandwich_injection_closeup.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/
Toothbrush_handle_of_sandwich_injection_closeup.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Swoolverton
File:Two-shot_injection_molded_keycaps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Two-shot_injection_
molded_keycaps.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Previously published: no Original artist: Napf
File:Utah_teapot_simple_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Utah_teapot_simple_2.png License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dhateld
File:VIUscan_handheld_3D_scanner_in_use.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/VIUscan_
handheld_3D_scanner_in_use.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: CreativeTools.se - VIUscan - Laser-scanned - ZPrinter - 3D printed
- Viking Belt Buckle 24 Original artist: Creative Tools from Halmdstad, Sweden

118

CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
File:Wooden_Moulds_(used_for_jaggery_&_sweets).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Wooden_
Moulds_%28used_for_jaggery_%26_sweets%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anton Croos

6.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0