Reverse Osmosis Basics

REVERSE OSMOSIS BASICS
Osmosis
Osmosis is a phenomenon where pure water flows from a dilute solution through a semi permeable
membrane to a higher concentrated solution. Semi permeable means that the membrane will allow
small molecules and ions to pass through it but acts as a barrier to larger molecules or dissolved
substances. To illustrate this, assume that a semi permeable membrane is placed between two
compartments in a tank. Assume the membrane is permeable to water, but not to salt. If we place a
salt solution in one compartment and pure water solution in the other one, the system will try to
reach equilibrium by having the same concentration on both sides of the membrane. The only
possible way to do this is for water to pass from the pure water compartment to the saltwater
compartment.
As water passes through the membrane to the salt solution, the level of liquid in the saltwater
compartment will rise until enough pressure, caused by the difference in levels between the two
compartments, is generated to stop the osmosis. This pressure, equivalent to a force that the
osmosis seems to exert in trying to equalize concentrations on both sides of the membrane, is called
osmotic pressure.
Reverse Osmosis
If pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the high concentration the direction of
water flow through the membrane can be reversed. This is called reverse osmosis (abbreviated RO).
Note that this reversed flow produces pure water from the salt solution, since the membrane is not
permeable to salt.
How Does Reverse Osmosis Work?

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which the molecules are water and the
concentration gradient occurs across a semipermeable membrane. The semipermeable membrane
allows the passage of water, but not ions (e.g., Na+, Ca2+, Cl-) or larger molecules (e.g., glucose,
urea, bacteria). Diffusion and osmosis are thermodynamically favorable and will continue until
equilibrium is reached. Osmosis can be slowed, stopped, or even reversed if sufficient pressure is
applied to the membrane from the 'concentrated' side of the membrane.
Reverse osmosis occurs when the water is moved across the membrane against the concentration
gradient, from lower concentration to higher concentration. To illustrate, imagine a semipermeable
membrane with fresh water on one side and a concentrated aqueous solution on the other side. If
normal osmosis takes place, the fresh water will cross the membrane to dilute the concentrated
solution. In reverse osmosis, pressure is exerted on the side with the concentrated solution to force
the water molecules across the membrane to the fresh water side.
Membrane Separation Technologies
If pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the high concentration the direction of
water flow through the membrane can be reversed. This is called reverse osmosis (abbreviated RO).
Note that this reversed flow produces pure water from the salt solution, since the membrane is not
permeable to salt.
Desalination by reverse osmosis

Desalination is a separation process used to reduce the dissolved salt content of saline water to
a usable level.
All desalination processes involve three liquid streams:
The saline feed water (brackish water or seawater),

low-salinity product water, and
very saline concentrate (brine or reject water).
The saline feed water is drawn from oceanic or underground sources. It is separated by the
desalination process into the two output streams:
- The low-salinity product water and
-Very saline concentrate streams.
The product water of the desalination process is generally water with less than 500 mg/1
dissolved solids, which is suitable for most domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses.
Technical Description
There are two types of membrane process used for desalination:
Reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED). The latter is not generally used in Latin
America and the Caribbean.
In the RO process, water from a pressurized saline solution is separated from the dissolved
salts by flowing through a water-permeable membrane. The permeate (the liquid flowing
through the membrane) is encouraged to flow through the membrane by the pressure
differential created between the pressurized feed water and the product water, which is at nearatmospheric pressure. The remaining feed water continues through the pressurized side of the
reactor as brine. No heating or phase change takes place. The major energy requirement is for
the initial pressurization of the feed water. For brackish water desalination the operating
pressures range from 250 to 400 psi, and for seawater desalination from 800 to 1 000 psi.
A reverse osmosis system consists of four major components/processes:

(1) Pretreatment
(2) Pressurization
(3) Membrane Separation, and
(4) Post-treatment Stabilization.
Below figure illustrates the basic components of a reverse osmosis system.
Pretreatment: The incoming feed water is pretreated to be compatible with the membranes by
removing suspended solids, adjusting the pH, and adding a threshold inhibitor to control scaling
caused by constituents such as calcium sulphate.
Pressurization: The pump raises the pressure of the pretreated feedwater to an operating
pressure appropriate for the membrane and the salinity of the feed water.
Separation: The permeable membranes inhibit the passage of dissolved salts while permitting
the desalinated product water to pass through. Applying feed water to the membrane assembly
results in a freshwater product stream and a concentrated brine reject stream. Because no
membrane is perfect in its rejection of dissolved salts, a small percentage of salt passes through
the membrane and remains in the product water. Reverse osmosis membranes come in a
variety of configurations. Two of the most popular are spiral wound and hollow fine fiber
membranes (see Figure 17). They are generally made of cellulose acetate, aromatic
polyamides, or, nowadays, thin film polymer composites. Both types are used for brackish water
and seawater desalination, although the specific membrane and the construction of the
pressure vessel vary according to the different operating pressures used for the two types of
feed water.
Stabilization: The product water from the membrane assembly usually requires pH
adjustment and degasification before being transferred to the distribution system for use as
drinking water. The product passes through an aeration column in which the pH is elevated from
a value of approximately 5 to a value close to 7. In many cases, this water is discharged to a
storage cistern for later use.
Figure: Elements of the Reverse Osmosis Desalination Process.
Typical Rejection Characteristics

of Reverse Osmosis Membranes
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Calcium
Chloride
Cyanide
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Magnesium
Mercury
Nickel
Nitrate
Phosphate
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfate
Zinc
92-96%
95-98%
95-98%
94-98%
85-92%
84-92%
85-92%
94-98%
95-98%
94-98%
94-98%
95-98%
96-98%
60-75%
96-98%
85-95%
94-96%
85-94%
96-98%
96-98%

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What is osmosis and how does it work?

How does reverse osmosis work and what are its applications?

REVERSE OSMOSIS BASICS

How Does Reverse Osmosis Work?

Desalination by reverse osmosis

The saline feed water (brackish water or seawater),

A reverse osmosis system consists of four major components/processes:

Figure: Elements of the Reverse Osmosis Desalination Process.

Typical Rejection Characteristics

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