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FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
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These are enshrined in Part III of the Indian Constitution under Articles 12 to 35.
These were borrowed from the US constitution (Bill of Rights).
According to Dr. B R Ambedkar it is the most criticized part of the Constitution.
The fundamental rights are justifiable.
In the original Constitution 7 Fundamental Rights are mentioned.

Right to Equality (14-18)

Right to Freedom (19-22)

Right Against Exploitation (23-24)

Right to Freedom of Religion (25-28)

Cultural and Educational Rights (29-30)

Right to property (31) (Deleted through the 44th amendment)

Right to Constitutional Remedies (32).

In the year 1978, through 44th amendment act Right to property was deleted from
the list of Fundamental Rights.
Now it is a legal right under Article 300 A in part XII of the constitution.
The numbers of Fundamental Rights are 6 in the present day Constitution.

 The state can impose restrictions on Fundamental rights. (They are not absolute
but qualified).

Except Fundamental rights guaranteed under Articles 20 and 21 remaining

Fundamental rights can be suspended during operation of National Emergency.

Article 19 can be suspended only when emergency is declared on the grounds of

war or external aggression and not on the grounds of armed rebellion.
Article 12 explains the state. The state includes

The government and the parliament of India

The government and the state legislature

All local authorities (municipalities, Panchayat Raj, District boards, etc)

Other statutory and non statutory authorities (LIC, ONGC etc).

The actions of the state (all the above said) can be challenged in the courts as the
violation of Fundamental Rights.

Article 13: All laws that are inconsistent with or in derogation of any of the
Fundamental Rights shall be void.

This article expressively provides for the doctrine of judicial review. This power is
conferred to SC (Article 32) and High Courts (Article 226) that can declare a law
unconstitutional and invalid on the grounds of contravention of any of the
fundamental Rights.
Note: The words Judicial Review are not mentioned in the Constitution.
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RIGHT TO EQUALITY (14-18)

Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of laws.

Equality before law: The absence of any special privileges in favor of any
person
Note: Equality before law is taken from the British Constitution.

Equal Protection of Laws: The equality of treatment under equal

circumstances.
Note: This is taken from the US Constitution.

Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds only of religion, race,

caste, sex, or place of birth. (Access to various places).

Exceptions:

Special provisions for children and Women

Socially and economically backward sections

Scheduled castes

Scheduled Tribes

Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of Public employment.

Article 16(4) empowers the state to make special provisions for the reservation of
appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which in the
opinion of state are not adequately represented in the services of the state.
Article 17: Abolition of un-touch-ability and prohibition of its practice.

Accordingly the Parliament passed Untouchability (offences) Act, 1955.

In the year 1976, this act is renamed as Civil Rights Act, 1955.
ARTICLE 18: Abolition of titles except military and academic.
Note: On December 23, 2013 the High Court of Andhra Pradesh ordered two
cinema personalities Mohan Babu and Bramhanandam to surrender 'Padma Sri' to
the President.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM (19-22):

 ARTICLE 19: Protection of 6 rights.

Right to freedom of speech and expression 19 (1)

(a)
(freedom of expression means the right to express
ones opinion by words of mouth, writing, printing,
picture, or in any other manner)

Right to assemble peacefully and without arms

Right to form associations

Right to move freely throughout the territory of

India

Right to reside and settle in any part of the

territory of India

Right to practice any profession or to carry on

any occupation, trade or business

Right to acquire, hold, and dispose of property

(deleted through 44th amendment)

Note: On November 20, 2012 the Maharashtra police arrested 2 women (Shaheen
and her friend) for twitting in Facebook for the expression of their opinion after the
demise of Shivasena leader Bal Thackery. This was objected many as the
violation of article 19 (1) (a) of the Indian Constitution.
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Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

No ex-post-facto Legislation:

No Double Jeopardy

No Self-incrimination

 Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty except in accordance with the
procedures established in law.

Right to live with human dignity, decent environment, privacy, free education
up to 14 years etc.

Article 21 A: Right to free and compulsory education for all the children.
Note: This was present in Article 45 of the constitution. Through 86th amendment
in 2002 it was made a fundamental right. This came into force on April 1, 2010.

Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Under punitive detention: right to be informed of the grounds of arrest, consult a

legal practitioner, and produce before the magistrate within 24 hours.

Under preventive detention: grounds of detention should be communicated,

provide an opportunity to make representation.

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (23-24):

Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labor.

Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION (25-28):

Article 25: All persons are equally entitled to
freedom of conscience,

the right to freely

profess
practice

 And propagate religion.

Note: Propagation does not include forced conversions.
Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs:

To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes

Own and acquire movable and immovable property

Right to administer the property

Article 27: Freedom for Taxation for promotion of a religion.

No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion and maintenance
of any religion.

Article 28: Freedom from attending religious instruction.

No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institute wholly

maintained out of state funds.

Religious instructions permitted if it is established by endowments or trust.

Article 28(3): No person attending any educational institution recognised by the

State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any
religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution or to attend any
religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises
attached thereto unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian has
given his consent thereto.
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CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS (29-30):

Article 29: Right to conserve language, script or culture.

The Article 29 grants protection to both religious and linguistic minorities.

Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and administer Educational Institutions:

All Minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions
of their choice.

RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES (32):

The Supreme Court and High Courts can issue writs.

Right to move Supreme Court for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights

including the writs of Habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo
warren to.

Under Article 359 of the constitution provides the right to move Supreme Court
can be suspended during national emergency.

v According B R Ambedkar Article 32 is the heart

and soul of the Indian Constitution.
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HABEAS CORPUS: (TO PRODUCE THE BODY).

This means produce the body.

It is an order issued by the court to a person who has detained another person, to
produce the body of the latter before it. Hence this is against arbitrary detention.
This can be issued to a private person or public authorities.

Mandamus: (To Command): Issued to a public official asking him to perform his

official duties that he has failed or refused to perform. (this cannot be issued
against President or Governor or CJ of a HC or against any private person).

Prohibition: (to forbid): Issued by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal to

prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a jurisdiction that it
does not possess.

Certiorari (To be certified or to be informed): Issued by a higher court to a lower

court or tribunal either to transfer case pending with the latter to it or to squash the
order of the latter in a case.

Quowarranto (By what Authority?): It is issued by a court to enquire into the

legality of claim of a person to a public office.

NOTE: Under Representation of Peoples Act of 1951 a person is allowed to

contest from not more than 2 constituencies. In the year 2001 the leader of
AIADMK Jayalalitaa contested from 4 constituencies (Andipatti, Krishnagiri,
Bhuvanagiri and Pudukottai). On November 20, 2012 the Supreme Court quashed
a criminal proceeding against CM J Jayalalithaa initiated for filing 4 nomination
papers in the 2001 assembly polls and asked Madras High Court to re-examine its
order to lodge the case against her.

Note: As per SC the HC of Madras did not consider the 2 reports of the Returning
Officer were not considered while passing the order.
The SC asked HC to examine the issue in 4 months. The SC order came on
Jayalalithaas plea against the HC order to Election Commission to register a
criminal case.

Note: All the 4 nominations of Jayalalithaas were rejected as she had been
disqualified from contesting the polls at the that time due to her conviction in the
TANSI land deal case. A former DMK MP C Kuppuswamy moved HC against her
and the HC in June 2007 directed the EC to register a case and the same was
stayed by the SC in July 2007.

The HC held that jayalalithaas declaration in 3rd and 4th constituencies

(Bhuvanagiri and Pudukottai) that she has not been nominated from more than 2
segments was false to her own knowledge and amounts to violation of section 33
(7) (b) of the RPA as per which a candidate cannot contest from more than 2
constituencies.

Article 33: The Parliament is empowered to abrogate the fundamental rights of

the members of armed forces, Para-military forces, police forces, intelligence
agencies and other related agencies.

Note: The law made by the Parliament under Article 33 cannot be challenged in
the court of law

Article 34: This provides for the restriction of the fundamental rights while martial
law is in force in any area within the territory of the country.

Article 35: The Parliament makes laws to give effect to certain specified
fundamental rights shall vest only in Parliament and not in the state legislature.

As per the provisions of the Article 35 the Parliament prescribes residence as a

condition for certain employments or appointments in a state or union territory or
local authority. (Article 16).

The Parliament can empower the lower courts (Other than Supreme Court and
High Courts) to issue directions, orders, and writs of all kinds for the enforcement
of the fundamental rights.
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MISCELLANEOUS:
The concept of Martial Law has been borrowed from the English Common Law.
The words Martial law is not defined in the Constitution. The literal meaning is
military rule.

 Martial law is imposed to restore the breakdown of law and order due to any
reason.
The concept of Equality before law is taken from UK.
The concept of Equal Protection of Laws taken from USA.
The term untouchability is not defined in the constitution.
The term minority is not described in the constitution.

The writs were borrowed from English law and they are known as prerogative
writs.
Right to Privacy (Article 21): The Supreme Court in the PUCL vs Union of India in
1997, had ruled that telephone conversation in private, without interference, would
come within the purview of right to privacy as mandated in the Constitution; and
unlawful means of phone tapping amounted to invasion of privacy and were
uncivilized and undemocratic in nature.
The Supreme Court ruled that the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution
would include a pollution free environment.
In January 2012 the Supreme Court observed that the right to life and liberty
guaranteed to a citizen under Article 21 of the Constitution cannot be taken away
without following the due procedure. The mere apprehension of the authorities that
an accused was likely to be released on bail was not a ground for passing
preventive detention orders.

As per the directions given by the Supreme Court, under RTE (Right To
Education) Act all the Private schools will have to provide 25 percent reservation
for poor students from the academic year 2012 -13.

Bombay High Court (October 29, 2013) on Article 28 (3): In 2008 Sanjay Salve
an English teacher in Savitri Bhai Phule secondary school, Nasik was refused to
fold his hands at prayer time in the school. The school has frozen his increments.
He took the school to the court. The court ruled that the folding of hands at prayer

time in state-funded schools could not be imposed on individuals as it went against

Article 28 (3). Justice Abhay oka ruled that salve should respectfully remain
present at prayers.

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