ftl/jfC L - ~5t,

Civics Education Manual

for

In-Service and Pre-Service

Teachers

The Ministry of Education,

Curriculum Development Centre

SCHOOL & COLLEGE PRESS (1) LIMITED

 Curriculum Development Centre, 1996

No part ofthis book may be reproduced

or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or
by any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the Publisher.

First Published 1997

by
School & College Press (Z) Limited
P.O~ Box 32116
Lusaka.

ISBN 9982-23-035-2

Printed and bound by Formsxpress, Retreat, Cape

I TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
Acronyms
References

I
i
ii
iii
iv

Page

Unit
Introduction

Introduction to Political Science

Introduction to Economics

17

International Relations and Organisations

82

Human Rights

99

Conflict and Conflict Resolutions

108

Population and Environment

115

Gender Issues and Development

125

Methodology

136

[preface

This manual has been written on the basis of promoting ideals and
values of democracy. It deals with civic educational experiences which
promote national, regional and international understanding. It tackles
contemporary issues such as human rights, social justice, interdependence,
tolerance, peace and conflict and sustainable development. The concept of
citizenship and the values of the Zambian constitution have widely been
covered. This book has been written in simple language. I trust that it is
reasonably comprehensive to enable the user to utilize it as a guide in the
teaching of Civics. It also examines the teaching of positive attitudes and
values as well as social study skills through which civic awareness can be
realised in society. It is through effective teaching of Civics that
democratic governance can be achieved.

Sichalwe M. Kasanda.
Permanent Secretary.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION.

------

[ACkOWledgements

The Ministry of Education is especially grateful to United States Agency

for International Development(USAID) through the Democratic
Governance Project/Southern University for the financial assistance
rendered during the writing of this manual. The Ministry of Education
would also like to thank the following :-

Ms Chi/umba Nalwamba, Senior Curriculum Specialist, Coordinator

(Demographer), Curriculum Development Centre,Lusaka.
Mr Mukelabai Songiso, Senior Inspector of Schools(Civics), Ministry of
Education, Lusaka.
Ms Lilian Ntalasha, Principal Curriculum Specialist, Consultant, Civic
Education Association, Curriculum Development Centre.
Ms Winnie. N. Chi/ala, Programme Officer, Researcher and
Demographer, Education Support Integrated Programme(ESIP), Lusaka.
Mr Hakasenke, Senior Inspector of Schools(Continuing Education),
Ministry of Education, Lusaka.
Mr Geoffrey Simfukwe, Senior Lecturer(Civics), Nkrumah Teacher's
Training College, Kabwe.

E.F Chingo,
Director,
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE,
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION.

II

[Acronyms)
Movement for Multi-Party Democracy.
UNIP - United National Independence Party.
NEC - National Executive Committee.
FODEP - Foundation for Democratic Process.
WLG - Womens' Lobby Group.
ZCEA - Zambia Civic Education Association.
NGO - Non- Governmental Organisation.
NGOCC - Non- Governmental Organisation Co-ordinating Committee.
SADC - Southern Mrican Development Community.
COMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern African
Countries.
ECOWAS - Economic Organisation for West African States.
UAPTA - Unit of Account of-Preferential Trade Area.
PLC - Public Limited Company.
ZPA - Zambia Privatisation Agency.
OAU - Organisation of African Unity.
WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development.
WID - Women in Development.
WAD - Women and Development.
GAD - Gender and Development.
VIS - Village Industry Service.
ZARD - Zambia Association for Research and Development.
NORAD - Norwegian Agency for Development.
SIDA - Swedish International Development Assistance.
ODA - Overseas Development Agency.
EEC - Europian Economic Community.
nCA- Japan International Development Agency.
IMP - International Monetary Fund.

JvlMI) -

111

[REFERENCES

1.

Ball Alan. (1994). Modern Politics and Government. Macmillan

Press, London.

2.

Boserup Ester. (1976). Environment, Population and Technology

in Primitive Societies, Population and Development Review, 2
NO.1 pp 21-36.

3.

Ghali- Boutros Boutros. (1992). "An Agendafor Peace" Report

to Security Council Meeting of 31st January, Department of
Public information, United Nations, New York.

Gibbons S .R and Morican P. (1970). "The League ofNations and

United Nations Organisation ". Modem Times Services, Longman,
London.

Hunt E. F. Colander, D. C. (1987). Social Science, An

Introduction to the study ofSociety, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York.

6.

Kabira W. M. and Muthoni W.(1994). The Road To

Empowerment. FEMNET, Nairobi.

7.

Kabira W. Met al. (1994). Delusions: Essays and Social

Construction ofGender, FEMNET.

8.

Ministry of Education. (1993). A Report ofProceedings on

Gender Sensitization and Training Workshop for Personnelfrom
Ministry ofEducation(SHAPE Secretariat), NewFairmount
Hotel, 10-16th October, Livingstone.

11.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (1996). Zambia's Foreign Policy.

Lusaka.

iv

12.

Munachonga L. M. (1995). Gender Training Manual, Ministry of

Education in Conjunction with Zambia Education Rehabilitation
Programme, Lusaka.

13.

National Correspondence College. (1992). Ciwcs Lecture Notes

Lesson 20,21 and 22. Luanshya.

14.

NnoH Okwudiba. (1986) Introduction to Politics. Longman

Group Limited, London.

15.

NzouankenJacquesM. (1991). "The African Attitudes to

Democracy", in Introduction to Social Science Journal, Basil
B1ackwall Ltd for UNESCO, Paris.

16.

Papp Daniel S.(l988). Contemporary International Relations

Framework for Understanding, 2nd Edition, Macmillan, London

16.

Pious R. M. (1986). American Politics and (;owrnment,

McGraw- Hill Inc. New York.

17

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987).

Our Common Future, The Brudtland Report, Oxford University
Press, New York.

18.

Zambia Canada GHRDP Field Office. (1992) Modulefor the

Training of Trainers in Gender Sensitisation Techniques,
Lusaka.

[Introduction

This manual for pre-service and in-service trainee teachers has

been produced as a result of the National Civics Symposium which took
place at Mulungushi Conference Centre in Lusaka from 1st to 2nd
November, 1995. The Symposium recommended that up to date
information in Civics be provided to trainee teachers.
This manual provides the resource material to supplement the
information covered in Civics at college level. This is an introductory
manual which should form the basis for further study of the subject
covered. The following topics have been covered in the manual;
Introduction to Political Science; Introduction to Economics;
International Relations and Organisations; Human Rights; Conflict and
Conflict Resolutions; Population and Environment; and Gender and
Development. It is hoped that after reading this manual student teachers
will be able to fully discuss the issues covered and also teach the pupils.
In teaching these topics teachers are expected to use methods that
will enhance achievement of Civics of Basic Education Syllabus. These
methods have been outlined in the last section ofthe manual.

'--.L.n.tr.O.d.U.C.tl.o.n_1'l.O.~.O.I.it.ic.a.l.s.c.ie.n.c.e_..

CJ

.Introduction
Political Science is one of the major components of Civics. This is
because one of the main aims of teaching Civics is to make the learner be
aware of the nature, purposes and functions of political institutions. In
every part of the world people are governed and they take part in the
running of government in one way or another. Governments have leaders
who make laws to ensure order, peace and harmony. The type of
government and the manner in which it is run affects the welfare of the
people. Some of the most important obligations of a (modern) citizen are
therefore, to know how a government operates and to monitor the
decisions and actions of the government so that it responds to the
changing needs of the people.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to: discuss the major political science concepts such as state, government,
power, authority, democracy.
distinguish a democracy from a dictatorship.
describe the functions and the main structures of government.
identify and discuss citizenship qualities that are compatible with
democracy.
discuss the roles of political parties, elections and pressure groups in
promoting democracy.
identify some study ahd social skills that promote citizen participation.

The scope ofpoiitical science.

Political Science can be defined as the study of ideals, values, attitudes,
institutions and processes that relate to the governance of a country. The
study of political science is usually carried out at state level. A state can
be defined as a group of people living in a definite territory, under a
common government and is recognised by other states as possessing
sovereignty. Sovereignty is the independence to make and carry out
decisions without interference from other states.
The following are the characteristics of a state:

Population.
Government.
Territory.
A monopoly of force held by the government.
Sovereignty.

Government is usually associated with a state but the two are not the
same. It is possible to have a government without a state. For example, a
family, community or tribe can be said to have a government in that it has
accepted rules of conduct, of maintaining law and order and of meting out
punishments to offenders. A government can therefore exist
independently.
Every state has a political system. The political system includes the
individuals, who take part in public affairs, the structures and institutions
through which these individuals act and the values that shape their
behaviour. The political system comprises the government and political
culture, values, beliefs and attitudes that determine political behaviour.
The political process refers to the prescribed pattern of political activities
such as law making and the electoral system. A state can have changes in
its political system. From 1973 to 1991, Zambia had a One Party System

whose features were different from the Multi-Party System of the Third
Republic.

Government
The most important institution in a political system is the government. It is
the institution through which a nation is ruled. It consists of the formal
institutions and offices involved in making decisions for a political system.
It is the framework in which the Executive, Legislative, Judicial and
Administrative functions are carried out. This framework is usually
defined in a constitution.
In every society some form of organised government is found because of
the need for an institution capable of exercising overall social control.
The following are therefore recognised as the primary functions of a
government in every society:-

1. Maintaining internal order and external security.

The basic function of government is to protect its citizens against
internal and external enemies. The maintenance of law and order is
usually achieved by using the:a). police to arrest those who break the law.
b). judiciary to pass judgement and determine
punishment.
c). army to deal with external threats and to control internal
disturbances ifthe police fail.

2. Regulating the activities ofSociety.

The maintenance of law and order as well as the interactions and
conflicts within the society require the government to make regulations
governing the activities of all members of the society. In this way the
population is made aware of what is acceptable behaviour in a place

of work, the use of public facilities, the organisation of economic,

social or political enterprises, or interpersonal relations and transactions.

3. Promoting the general welfare.

One other important function of a government in a society is the
distribution of goods and services to the people in the form of social
amenities and welfare services. The government uses tax and other
revenue policies to allocate resources to various sections of the
society.It may subsidise education and health services,other beneficial
social security systems, compensate the injured at a place of work and
offer adequate facilities for old age and child care and the aged.

4. Promoting economic development

The promotion of economic development involves the government in
making decisions on how resources will be used for the production of
goods and services. The government also decides whether to
participate directly or indirectly in the production process.Direct
participation usually means the establishment of public economic
enterprises or acquiring shares in private enterprises.Indirectly, the
government is involved in production by laying down the rules and
regulations that guide the operations of private enterprise. By
manipulating tax laws, prices and wages, the government can affect
the type and quantity of goods produced and how, when and where
they are produced.

5. Safeguarding Human Rights:

This is one of the functions that have increasingly become very
important for modern governments. Governments are now judged by
their citizens and other states on their human rights record. Democratic
governments have come to accept the protection of individual freedoms

and rights as one of their primary functions. The constitution of Zambia

has a Bill of Rights that protects the rights of Zambian citizens.

Political power and authority.

In order to perform the stated functions a government needs political
power and authority. Political power is very important in the resolution of
conflicts in society. The distribution of power within a political system
determines how conflict will be resolved and how the resolution will be
effectively observed by all the parties. Power is the ability to govern and
maintain order within a society. This is achieved by the threat of some
sanctions. These sanctions may be in the form of punishment or rewards.
Opposition to the government may result in imprisonment or even death.
It is the fear of these measures that makes citizens obey their government.
However, obedience secured solely by the fear of punishment is unstable.
Political power is usually accompanied by authority. Authority is the
established right to determine policies, to pronounce judgement on
relevant issues, to settle disputes and to act as a leader or guide to people.
In short it is the right to command and be obeyed.
There are three'types of authority, namely:-

Traditional authority:- this is the right to rule which comes from the
continuous exercise of power through inheritance e.g. chiefs.

Charismatic authority:-

this results from the exceptional personal

qualities of the political leader e.g. Hitler, Nkrumah and Mandela.

Legal-bureacratic or Legal rational authority:- this authority comes

from the constitution and the office that a person holds. For example, the
Zambian Republican President is respected not because of his or her
personality but because of his or her office. The authority comes from the
acceptance of constitutional rules.

The problem ofpower in a state.

Political power is not distributed evenly in any political system. The rich
possess more political resources than the poor. They can finance election
campaigns, bribe supporters and opponents and purchase other political
advantages such as good education. The rich may be individuals or
business organisations. Some individuals may have advantages over other
citizens because of their leadership qualities.
There is a general agreement that political decisions are made by a few
people in all political systems. The common description of power as being
vested in all citizens does not conform to political reality. However, this
description is very important for the legitimacy of the government and the
stability of a political system.
If power is (always) in the hands of a few, then the most important
questions to ask about that political system are :

How are the leaders chosen?

What controls are exercised over them by the citizens?
How can the leaders be replaced?
What are the mechanisms for replacement?
To what extent is the leadership responsive to the demands of the
citizens?

The answers to these questions are used to classifY political systems into
either dictatorships or democracies.

Dictatorships and democratic states

Governments are usually classified into two main categories: Democracy
and Dictatorship.

Dictatorship: This is a government in which a single person or small

group of people have unlimited power. Examples of dictatorships are:
one party states, military regimes, chiefdoms and monarchies. A
dictatorship can take the form of either an authoritarian or a totalitarian
government. An authoritarian government is led by a dictator or a small
group that forbids all opposition to its rule. Authoritarian government is
based on brute force rather than on the consent of the governed. It arrests,
tortures and kills political opponents.

A totalitarian government wants to control all aspects of a person's life. It

is based on force and ideology such as Communism, Nazism or Socialism.
Driven by its beliefs of creating a perfect society, the government does not
hesitate to violate human rights in order to achieve its ideals. All religious,
social, economic, cultural and political groups are subordinated to
the government. The individual bows to the will of the government as
determined by the single ruling party in all matters.
Totalitarian governments seek to control and regulate individuals mind,
spirit and body. The media, schools and teachers are all carefully
supervised. Public meetings are observed for any sign of opposition.
Books that express views which the government does not like are banned
and the authors are sent to prison .
In a dictatorship a government exists independently of the will of the
citizens. Its right to rule does not depend on majority support of the
people.

A democratic state
The word and concept of democracy comes from the Greeks. 'Demos'
means people and Kratos means rule - thus democracy means rule of the
people. Democracies are governments that are based on a popular vote
and elections which decide who will be in power.

However, elections are also held at regular intervals even in dictatorships.

What distinguishes a dictatorship from a democracy are the following
democratic principles: The existence of several political parties representing different
ideologies, thereby recognising a lawful opposition and guaranteeing its
existence.
Freedom of the press and information, which assumes that there is no
government censorship. Backing is not required in order to launch
new press organs and that there is no monopoly on the sources of funds
available to the press that would give one individual or one financial
group a dominant position in this field. This freedom also presupposes
that the tax and criminal laws do not hamper the development of a
press that is independent of the regime in power.
The independence ofthe judiciary, which should not be subjected to any
pressure by the executive and the members who should not fear for
their careers or for their lives as a result of the judgements that they
pass.
The organisation of free elections at regular and reasonable intervals.
There should be elections by secret ballot, the results of which are
unknown prior to the counting of the votes. These elections should
place not only different political parties but also individual candidates
who are independent of the political parties in competition with one
another. When such elections are held, both nationally and locally, the
participation of the population in the decision making process, which is
a basic feature of democracy is guaranteed. These conditions also
ensure the legitimacy of the government. A legitimate government is
one that is periodically elected by universal suffrage and by the majority
of the population of the country.

 The alternation of power, which means that a government that has lost
an election held in accordance with the rules must agree to resign and
leave for the new majority, i.e the latter given an opportunity to
govern.
These five principles must all be present
having democratic foundations.

for a state to be considered as

The power structure ofa democratic state.

The power structure of a democratic state must be based on the principle
of separation of powers. Modern governments generally tend to be
organised in terms of the broad functions which all governments usually
perform. These are the Executive, Legislature and Judicial functions.
Therefore, these are the three component organs of the government: the
Executive, Legislature and Judiciary. The executive organ of the
government has the responsibility of implementing the decisions arrived at
by the Legislature. The Judiciary has the task of interpreting the laws and
ensuring that society obeys the laws. The Judiciary also settles disputes
between the arms of government, Non-governmental Organisations
(NGOs) and individual institutions.
The principle of separation of powers requires that the Legislature must
not be a tool of the Executive. The Legislature must have the power to
remove the Executive which in turn must have the power to dissolve
Parliament. The Judiciary must be separate from the Legislature and the
Executive. The judges must be given guarantees concerning their material
circumstances and their careers in order for them to be fully independent
when carrying out their duties.
There should also be separation between the state and political parties.
There is a tendency for public services such as the state media, the police
and the civil service to be used for the benefit of the party in power.
Ministers who also discharge political duties on the party in power are

10

strongly tempted to use the state's resources to promote their political

activities. These deny the other political parties access to the same
resources.

Democratic Value.
A democratic state will decline rapidly if it is not sustained by democratic
values. Values are beliefs that 'guide the behaviour of people. Democracy
requires that participants in the political process share common standards
of behaviour.
These are some of the values that sustain democracy: respect for human rights.
tolerance and respect for the beliefs and opinions of others.
settling of disputes through persuasion, negotiation and compromise
within the framework of the law.

Obligations ofcitizens
Democracy places certain obligations on citizens. These obligations are
to: vote wisely in local and national elections.
become actively involved in the nation's political system by joining a
political party, seeking political office and by encouraging others to
do likewise.
G
respect the symbols of national identity such as the flag.
demonstrate willingness to finance government services through
payment of taxes.
help defend the country.
By fulfilling all or some of these obligations a citizen becomes an active
participant in the country's decision making process. Citizens in a

11

democratic society have a responsibility to ensure that the system

succeeds. The citizen therefore has a duty to combat the threats to
democracy such as:

Corruption.
Tribalism and nepotism.
Gender inequality.
Apathy.
Suppression of human rights.
Rigging of elections.
Lack of respect for the rule oflaw.

The constitution.
This is the fundamental law that a society uses to organise its government,
define and limit its power by describing its relationship with the citizens. A
constitution is the foundation stone for democracy because it performs the
following functions: promoting the rule oflaw.
limiting the power of the government.
distributing power among the organs of government, that is the
separation of powers.
protecting the human rights of citizens.
A constitution can either be written or unwritten, flexible or rigid. A
written constitution is in the form of a book. An unwritten constitution is
based on conventions, traditions and customs of the society. A flexible
constitution can be -amended by a majority in the Legislature while a rigid
constitution requires a referendum before an amendment can be effected.

12

The Zambian constitution

The structure of the Zambian government is outlined in the Republican
constitution. The constitution has the following sections:

preamble.
bill of rights.
qualifications for Zambian citizenship.
powers of the Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.

Political Parties
A political party is a voluntary association whose members share common
beliefs and wish to form the government of the country. Political parties
make democracy work by carrying out the following functions: nominating candidates for elective positions in the national and local
government elections.
putting forward political, economic and social issues by deciding where
the party stands on a particular question of public interest. This
declaration of principles is called the party platform or manifesto.
conducting election campaigns in order to gain public office, so that the
party's manifesto can be implemented.
acting as a watchdog over the party in power. Opposition parties must
be alert to actions taken by the ruling party which may not be favourable
to the interests of the people.

Party structure and organisation

A party needs a nation wide structure and organisation in order to win
elections. The following are structures of party organisation in Zambia: the National Committee. It organises the party at the national level. It
is made up of senior members of the party such as the President,

13

Chairperson and Secretary-General. In parties like the Movement for

Multiparty Democracy (MMD) and theNational Party, the National
Committee is called National Executive Committee while in United
National Independence Party (UNIP) it is called the Central
Committee.
there are also provincial, district, constituency, section and branch
committees to organise the parties at these levels.

Pressure Groups
A pressure group is a voluntary association of people who share certain
aims and who wish to influence the decisions of the government. Pressure
groups act as communication links between the government and the
citizens who wish to influence the decisions of government leaders.

In order to achieve this objective, pressure groups use the following

methods: holding discussions with top political leaders and civil servants. This is
called lobbying.
carrying out press campaigns.
holding demonstrations.
staging strikes and boycotts. .
promoting civil disobedience e.g. blocking roads and rioting.
Pressure groups are also called interest groups or non-governmental
organisations (NGOs).
Examples of pressure groups in Zambia are the: Foundation for Democratic Process (FODEP).
Women's Lobby Group.
Trade Unions.
Zambia Civic Education Association.
Church.

14

Elections
Elections can be defined as the means by which people choose and
exercise some control over their leaders. In Zambia electoral democracy is
guaranteed by law. The constitution states that the President and
Members of Parliament (MPs) must be elected every five years. In Zambia
there are three types of elections. General elections are held every five
years to elect the President and MPs . Local government elections are
held every three years to elect councillors for local government.
By-elections are held when an MP or a councillor for example dies,
resigns or is imprisoned.
Elections play the following functions in a democracy: enabling citizens to choose their leaders.
legitimising the government in power.
enabling citizens to exercise some control over government policies.
It is therefore very important that elections are free and fair.

Social and Study Skills

If young people are to possess the knowledge and develop the behaviour
and beliefs required of citizens in a democracy, they must be helped to
acquire a variety of skills for locating, gathering, interpreting and applying
their Civics knowledge. Stated in another way, the purpose of teaching
Civics is to ~nable the pupils to gain knowledge concerning their society
and think critically about problems and issues and apply their knowledge
in a constructive way.
The following are some of the skills needed for effective behaviour in
society:-

15

Study Skills

the ability to locate and gather information from a number of sources

e.g. books and newspapers.
taking notes.
listening reflectively to oral presentations.
interviewing resource persons.
observing and describing occurrences in the school and community.

Social Skills

writing and presenting a speech.

participating in a discussion involving social problems.
playing different roles in a group such as being chairperson or secretary.
using procedure of meetings effectively.
suggesting and using methods of measuring group progress.

16

'-,.L.nlllltT.o.d.U.C.t.io.n_to_E.c.o.n.o.m.,.c.s

Introduction
For any country to develop its economy, it must be well organised.
Economics is a key factor in national development. Economics is a vital
subject for national development. It is therefore, important to seriously
examine some of the economic issues affecting a country. This unit will
discuss the following concepts:

Development.
Economic development.
Demand and supply.
Financial institutions.
Private and public enterprises.
Trade.
Budget.
Economic groupings.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to: discuss the subject matter of Economics and its relationship with other
disciplines.
explain the relationship between demand and price, supply and price.
define development and underdevelopment.

17

 discuss factors of production, types of industries, economic policies and

the role of agriculture in development.
compare and contrast private with public enterprises.
discuss the meaning, types and origin of money, inflation and deflation,
and the role of financial institutions.
discuss the meaning and types of foreign aid, its importance, the role of
donor agencies, the effects of foreign aid to developing countries and
the debt crisis.
discuss the National Budget, taxation and donor support.
define local and international trade, balance of trade, balance of
payments, terms of trade and government policies on trade.

The subject matter ofeconomics

Economics has been defined in different ways. However, all the
definitions agree that it is concerned with the production, distribution and
consumption of wealth.
Economics is about the satisfaction of peoples' wants. It is concerned with
people and the social systems by which they organise their activities to
satisfy their basic material needs such as food, shelter and clothing and
also non- material wants such as education, leisure and spiritual fulfilment.
It is peoples' wants rather than their needs which provide the motive for
economic activity. The production of wealth is necessary because it
enables individual's wants to be satisfied. It is the use of resources, or their
allocation and organisation that constitutes the subject of Economics.
Human existence has been preoccupied with the production and
consumption of wealth, the desire for which seems to arise from peoples'
basic impulse to increase on their welfare. The concepts of wealth and
welfare, therefore form the basis of Economics. A nation's wealth
consists of its stock of goods and services. Welfare on the other hand
refers to the satisfaction that an individual or society derives from wealth.

18

The relationship with other disciplines

Economics is a social science. Unlike the physical sciences, in the social
science of economics tht:re are only tendencies which are subject to great
variations in different countries and activities and at different times.
However, economics has to be studied in a scientific manner. Problems
are considered, analysed, simplified and perhaps subjected to
mathematical treatment as they are solved. Mathematical figures are used
for illustrations. Like Geography, Economics deals with various issues
pertaining to human development. For example, it examines the effects of
large population on the developing economies, allocation and
development of industries, distribution of wealth and many others.

19

[Development

Development embraces the major economic and social objectives that

societies strive for. It is the process of improving the quality of life for all.
These include: the provision of basic needs, such as food, clothing, clean water,
housing and health facilities.
the increase of peoples freedom to choose by providing a variety of
consumer goods and services.
the utilisation of available resources effectively.
the eradication of poverty.

Underdevelopment
An underdeveloped country is one which has good potential for using
more capital or more labour or more available natural resources to
support its present population but fails to do so. The following are
indicators ofunderdevelopment:-

low per capita income.

poverty leading to malnutrition and high mortality.
high unemployment.
high levels of illiteracy.
unsafe drinking water.
inadequate industrial and social infrastructure.
low quality of labour force.
over population.
low foreign currency earnings.
mono- economy.

20

Indicators ofDevelopment.
The following are the indicators of development:- adequate family income for providing the basic necessities, such
food, shelter and clothing.
- availability ofjobs to all family heads.
-increased productivity in the economy.
- high standard of living- including nutrition, housing, health and
education.
- high national income or Gross National Product(GNP).
national independence.

21

as

Economic Development
Economic development entails the increase in the amount of goods and
services produced in a country. Demands for higher standards of living
have put great pressures on governments to achieve faster rates of
economic growth. Economists have identified several factors which
determine the rate of growth.

Factors ofproduction
Any activity which helps to satisfy material wants is called production.
Enterprising individuals organise production by employing what are called
factors of production(land, labour and capital).

eLand
Land includes all kinds of natural resources such as agricultural areas,
natural grasslands, woodlands, deserts, oceans, seas and lakes, rivers,
the atmosphere and everything in them.

Labour
This is human effort, physical and mental, directed to the production of
goods and services. It must be understood that it is the services of
labour which are bought and sold and not labour itself

Productive Forces
These are means of production such as factories, machines and people
with production experience, labour skills and knowledge (science and
technology).

22

Labour,productivity and work culture

Production is not only affected by the size of labour force and the number
of hours worked, but also by the quality and effective utilisation of the
working population. Improving the efficiency of labour is a matter of
concern to all countries. It is the productivity of labour which is the
critical factor. Productivity refers to the output per worker per unit of
time. The unit of measurement is per man-hour. The following are the
factors influencing labour productivity:-

Education and training.

A well trained labour force with sound technical training is more
effective than one which lacks training.

Working conditions.
The efficiency of labour is very much influenced by the conditions
under which it is carried out. Great attention should be paid to things
such as ventilation, lighting, temperature and many others in places of
employment.

Welfare services.
Firms should provide welfare services for their employees such as
playing fields, social and recreational facilities, medical facilities and
transport. Such provisions contribute towards a happier, healthier and
more efficient l~bour force.

The co-operating factors.

The quality of the factors (land and capital) with labour is an important
determinant oflabour productivity. Organisation of workers and
motivation are also important. The positioning of the working tools, the

23

layout of the machinery, the movement of materials are all important

for improvements in productivity.

Motivation.
This is a very important determinant of productivity. A high degree of
joint satisfaction is necessary for improved productivity. The payment
of bonus schemes where monetary reward is more closely related to
effort, are widely used as means of stimulating productivity. Profit
sharing schemes can also encourage workers to work hard. Also
workers should be involved in decision making process. If workers pass
decisions involving reaching certain targets in production, they will
work harder.

Labour Market
This is where people who are ready to work sell their labour. There are
those who are trained to do specific jobs, referred to as skilled workers
and those who are not trained at all, known as unskilled workers.
Another category of workers in the labour market is that of highly trained
people with years of specialised training. These are called professionals.
They require intensive training to master the skills of their professions.
Semi-skilled workers receive training for a short time only e.g. drivers.

Labour Laws
There are a number of laws protecting both an employee and an employer.
These laws are contained in the Industrial Relations Act of 1972 (refer to
Civics Grade 9 Teacher's Book).

24

Labour Movement
A labour movement is an organisation of trade unions. Trade Unions are
organisations formed by workers for the purpose of collectively
bargaining with employers. Objectives of trade unions are to: Improve members' working conditions in terms of working time,
holidays, welfare facilities and negotiating for higher wages and salaries
for members and so forth.
Encourage members to take an active role in national development.
Provide workers' education, especially on workers' rights.
If an agreement is not reached between a trade union and the employer, an
arbitrator is called. He or she is an independent official who comes in to
solve a dispute between the trade union officials and the employers.
In Zambia, the Industrial Relations Court makes a final decision on labour
disputes. When workers go on strike without the support of their trade
union, it is 'an illegal or an official or wild cat strike. A strike becomes
legal when a union declares a dispute with the employer,

Capital
Capital is any product of labour and land which is used to produce goods
and services. It includes all equipment used in production e.g. factory,
buildings, motor vehicles, roads, darns, money and so on. The capital used
in the direct production of commodities may be subdivided into fixed and
working capital. In the textile factory, the machinery installed in the
factory forms the fixed or sunk capital. While the various inputs which are
fed into the machinery in the process of production are the variable
capital. Whether production is carried out or not, expenses must be
incurred on fixed capital, while expenses on variable capital only occur

25

when production takes place. Circulating capital is the working capital

which directly enters into the production of the commodity. For example,
cotton is circulating capital when it directly goes into the manufacture of
cotton cloth.

Capital accumulation or formation

This is important for the sustainability and development of the economy.
The fonowing factors affect its formation or accumulation:. Low incomes leaving little or nothing to save.
. Consumption habits; people eat expensive food, foreign drinks, buy
expensive cars, radios, television sets and so on.
The extended family system. By maintaining large families it is difficult
to save any money.
No future plans. People spend more to fulfil their present needs and end
up being extravagant.
Social status. This tends to depend on consumption in housing e.g.
dress, cars, etc. This acts as a disincentive to capital accumulation.

Entrepreneurship
A person responsible for an enterprise in a business is called an
entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is responsible not only for arranging how a
piece of work shall be carried out but also for organising the work of
others. He or she has to make important decisions, to determine what to
produce, how much to produce and the production methods to be used.

Economic Policies
Economic policies are guidelines or an outline of measures government
intends to take in order to achieve specific goals. Economic analysis is
concerned with the means of achieving particular economic objectives.
The choice of the objectives, how people want economic resources to be

26

used in order to satisfY their wants is a matter of political decision. The

main aims of government's economic policy are:

a high and stable level of employment.

price stability.
a satisfactory balance of payments position.
an acceptance rate of economic growth.
an equitable distribution of income and wealth.

27

l---------Demand and Supply

Demand is the amount of any commodity or service which a person or the

community is prepared to buy at a given price. All goods are scarce as far
as the demand for them is concerned. There is no sufficient amount for
anything to allow everyone to have as much of it as she or he would like.
Supply is the quantity of a commodity or service that is offered for sale at
any given price. You must clearly distinguish between "demand" and
"desire" or "need" or "want". What people desire or need or want is of no
direct concern to the economist. He or she is interested only in how much
people are prepared to buy at a given price. Unlike demand, supply in
economics always means supply at a price. It is meaningless to talk of
large supply of something without quoting the price at which the
commodity is being supplied.

The laws ofDemand and Supply

Professor Sir Hubert Henderson stated three laws of demand and supply
in his book entitled Supply and Demand. These are:Law 1: " When at the price ruling, demand exceeds supply, the price tends
to rise. When supply exceeds demand, the price tends to fall. "
Law 2: "A rise in price tends, sooner or later, to contract demand and to
extend supply. Therefore, a fall in price tends to extend demand
and reduce supply."
Law 3: "Price tends to level at which demand is equal to supply."
According to Professor Henderson, these three laws are the cornerstone
of economic theory, because all economic analysis rests on them.

28

The relationship between price and demand

A change in the price of an item will result in a change in the demand for
it. A rise in price will tend to lower demand. This is because:1. Ifprice rises, fewer people can afford to buy the commodity, or they
may not buy as much as they would like to, so that the demand will
tend to fall.
2. If the item becomes cheaper, more people can afford to buy it, and
these people who previously managed to buy a little of it, may buy
more, so that the demand is likely to rise.

Demand schedules and demand curves.

A demand curve can be obtained by showing the effects .Qf changes in the
price of an item demanded, for example:-

Price in Kwacha Per Kg

Amount

demanded in Kg
KlO

lOKg
8Kg

K20
K30
K40
K50
K60

7Kg
4Kg
3Kg
lKg

A demand curve can be obtained by plotting this schedule on a graph.

The amounts demanded at various prices are joined by dots with a smooth
curve as shown in the graph :-

29

Graph J
10

Demand Curve

~---------------------..,

7
en

.5
III

:!!
~

l!
a

I-+- Amount I

4
3
2

o-'10

--.20

-r-

--.-

40

30

-r-

50

-'I
60

Price in Kwacha

In this diagram the line DD is the Demand Curve. It indicates the various
quantities which will be demanded at different prices. At a price ofK30,
the amount demanded will be 7Kg. If the price were to rise toK50 the
amount demanded would fall to 3 Kg. While if the price were to fall to
KIO, the demand would rise to IOKg. Notice that these changes are in
accordance with the relationship between price and demand as shown in
the graph.

The relationship between price and supply

Effects of Price and Supply is the amount oftered for sale at a fixed
price. Different quantities will be supplied at different prices. Therefore,
a change in the price of an article will bring about a change in the supply
of it. This means, a: rise in price will cause a rise in supply;
fall in price will cause a fall in supply.

30

Supply schedules and supply curves:~ You can show the relationship
between price and supply by a table of prices and the different quantities
supplied at each of these prices as follows:-

Amount Supplied in Kg

Price in kwacha per Kg

2Kg
4Kg
7Kg
8Kg
9Kg

KIO
K20
K30
K40
K60

If you plot the above schedule as a graph you obtain a Supply Curve:
Graph 2
Supply Curve

60_.__--------------------'7'9
.

"5

50

I-o-Prlcej
40

30

20

10

o-l------.,..-----....------.....----~
2

Quantities Supplied in Kg

The line SS in the diagram is the supply curve. It shows the various
quantities which will be supplied at different prices. If the price is K20
the supply will be 4Kg; but if the price rises to K30 the amount supplied
will rise to 7Kg. A rise in prices will cause a rise in supply.

31

The elasticity ofdemand

Elasticity of demand shows the degree of responsiveness of demand to a
small change in price. If a small change in price causes a large change in
demand then demand is said to be elastic. However, if a small change in
prices causes small change in the amount demanded, then demand is said
to be inelastic.

Measurement ofelasticity ofdemand

There are two methods of measurements:1. The total expenditure method
This method measures variations in total expenditure by the public on a
commodity. This shows how the total expenditure on an item will be
affected by changes in its price, and whether the demand for the item is
elastic or inelastic. This is in relation to:
a). Falling Prices
If there is a small fall in price, and demand is extended a little, so that
the total expenditure on the commodity is unchanged, the elasticity
of demand is said to be Unity. For example, 24 items are sold at K10
per item. If the price is reduced toK8 per item and the demand goes
up to 30 items, then the total expenditure on the commodity is
unchanged at K240. The elasticity of demand is therefore unity or
equilibrium.
b). If there is a small fall in price, leads to extension of demand, so that
the total expenditure on the commodity is greater than before, the
demand is said to be elastic. In the example above the fall in price
from K 10 to K8 per item will cause the demand to rise to 40 items,

32

then the total expenditure will rise from K240 to K320, that is 40 items at
K8 each. This means that demand is elastic.
c). If there is a small fall in price leading to a very small extension of
demand, so that the total expenditure on the commodity has now
fallen, the demand is inelastic.

2. The percentage method

This method considers comparative changes in price and demand. By
this method elasticity of demand is measured arithmetically as follows:Elasticity of Demand is Unity if:i). The Percentage rise in the demand
The percentage fall in price
or
ii). The Percentage fall in the demand
The percentage rise in price.
If the value of the fraction is greater than 1 the demand is elastic; if it is
less than 1, the demand is inelastic.
For Example, if in the first case the percentage rise in demand had been 8
percent and the percentage fall in demand had been only 4 percent then
the elasticity of demand would have been 8 divided by 4 = 2, this is
greater than 1 (Unity). The demand would therefore have been elastic.

33

Factors which determine elasticity ofdemand

There are several factors which help to determine whether the demand for
a commodity is elastic or inelastic. Here are some ofthem:-

. The existence of substitutes:

The demand for goods which have close and effective substitutes is likely
to be very elastic, while if no adequate substitutes can be found the
demand will be inelastic. For example, the demand for salt and sugar are
extremely inelastic because there are no substitutes. The demand for one
brand of beer is likely to be extremely elastic, since an increase in one
brand of beer is likely to cause a large number of drinkers to buy another
brand.

. Proportion of total expenditure

The proportion of a person's total expenditure which is spent on the
commodity will affect elasticity of demand. Any item which requires a
large proportion of an individual's total expenditure is likely to be elastic
in demand. For example, an increase in the price of a dinning table set
from K80,OOO to K200,OOO will probably cause a very substantial fall in
demand.

Luxuries or necessities:
The demand for luxury goods is generally elastic, while the demand for
necessities is usually inelastic. Necessities have to be purchased whatever
happens to their price. Thus, the demand for salt is inelastic not only
because it is a necessity, but also because it has no adequate substitute.

34

 Personal Habits:
Our personal habits often decide which commodities have elastic demand
and which do not. Some people have turned goods which are really
luxuries into necessities. For example, tobacco and alcohol are luxuries
and may not be necessities to some, so the demand for these goods tends
to be inelastic. Increases in the price usually have very little effect on the
quantities of these goods.

The Importance ofelasticity ofdemand

Elasticity of demand is not merely a theoretical concept, but it is also of
great practical use. For example:a). A shopkeeper who is not satisfied with the sales of his or her product
may consider changing the price of the commodity in order to increase
the profits. Before he or she changes the price, consideration of the
elasticity of demand for the product, should be given. If the demand
for the commodity is inelastic, then any rise in prices will be profitable.

b). Elasticity of Demand is also of great importance to the government. If

the Minister of Finance wants to raise extra revenue from taxes on
goods, he or she will impose taxes on goods for which the demand is
inelastic, such as tobacco, alcohol, sugar and petrol. Since the demand
is inelastic, the public will continue to buy as much as before even
when the price is increased by the amount of the tax. This will make
the government get more revenue.

35

Financial Institutions

Financial institutions are very necessary in any given economy. There are
organisations that deal with money. There are different types of financial
institutions such as Commercial Banks, Credit Unions, Building Societies
and Insurance Companies. Without financial institutions, most business
activities would be at standstill.

Money
Money is a medium of exchange. It should be fairly durable, capable of
being divided into reasonably small units and easy to carry about. It
should also be relatively scarce, that is, using special metal like silver as
money or special print paper which is difficult for counter feiters to copy.

Functions ofMoney
a) used as a means of exchange.
b) acts as a measure of value. It expresses value of all other commodities.
c) as a means of accumulation or loading. You save money in the bank for
future use.
d) as a means of payment for something or services done.
e) as an international means of purchase, for example, the US dollar and
the British pound. One single currency is used in relation to other
currencies in international trade and at the world market. This is
known as convertible currency.
Any currency which is legally accepted by a government becomes a legal
tender. A legal tender is any means of payment that a debtor can legally
compel his creditor to accept.

36

Types ofInflation
i) Creeping or chronic inflation. This involves a steady but moderate
annual rise in the general price level of goods and services at an annual
rate between 1 and 6 percent.
ii) Hyper or galloping iriflation. This occurs when the price level of
goods and services rise at a very rapid rate. Money loses function or its
value as a medium of exchange. People are unwilling to receive it and
prefer to barter their goods. When things have become very bad like
this, the only possible course of action is to withdraw the currency and
issue new monetary units. A good example is when Zaire's currency
"Zaire" was pegged at 2.5 million to a 1 US$ in 1993. Zaire withdrew
the currency and replaced it with a new one.
iii) Suppressed Inflation. This is a situation where demand exceeds
supply, but the effect on prices is minimised by the use of measures
such as price controls and rationing. However, price controls do not
deal with the causes of inflation, they merely attempt to suppress the
symptoms. The excess demand continues to exist and tends to show
itself in the form of waiting lists and queues.

Causes ofInflation
Causes of inflation are usually classified as demand as a pull factor and
cost as a push factor.
i) Pressure ofdemand When too much money is chasing too few goods
and services, there is bound to be an increase in supply. This type of
inflation is called buyers' inflation or demand inflation. It is a situation
where aggregate demand persistently exceeds aggregate supply at
current price so that prices are being pulled upwards. This type of
inflation is mostly associated with conditions of full employment. A
situation of excess demand may arise when a country is trying to
achieve an export surplus, in order to payoff some external debts.

37

Exports are inflationary because they generate income at home but

reduce home supplies of demand in the home market unless taxes and
savings are increased.
ii) When costs of production rise. This is referred to as seller or cost push inflation. It is due to: Labour costs, workers demanding and receiving more pay than what
they produce. The cost of materials, such as a sharp rise in the price
of crude oil.
Greater profits especially monopoly profits.
Tax increases; higher indirect taxes and import duties.
iii) Increase in money supply. A rapid and large increase in the money
supply will encourage an existing inflation and further stimulate total
demand.
iv) Expansion of the non-market sector ofgovernment services financed
from taxation. High taxation required to pay for the services tends to
reduce the savings and profits.

The Effect ofinflation

Inflation is undesirable because it produces serious economic and social
problems, such as :i) the effects on income. People receiving fixed incomes are badly
affected. Inflation reduces their real income because the value of their
money is reduced. Wages, salaries, pensions and rents are affected.
On the other hand, inflation favours business people, shareholders and
others whose incomes are not fixed in money terms. Business profits are
likely to rise during inflation.
ii) the effects on production and employment. Entrepreneurs invest more
during an inflationary period. More investment means more jobs for

38

people. Thus, output and employment levels are likely to rise during
inflation.
iii) the effects on the pattern ofsavings. During inflation, money is not a
good store of value. The real value of assets such as savings deposits
and life insurance policies, begin to fall. People prefer to invest in
property and art objects whose value rises during inflation.
iv) the effects on borrowers and lenders. Borrowers gain at the expense
of lenders, by the time a borrower repays his or her loan its value will
have been reduced.
v) the effects onforeign trade. By raising prices of home-produced goods
relative to the prices of goods produced abroad, inflation encourages
imports. Similarly, exports are discouraged. With imports rising and
exports declining, a country is likely to end up with severe difficulties
with the balance of payments.

Deflation
This is a continuous fall in the general price level of goods and services.
It is a deliberate contraction of money supply in an attempt to reduce
prices. Deflation is usually caused by a fall or reduction of total demand
for goods and services. When this happens producers are forced to sell
their goods at lower prices.

Tile effects ofdeflation

These are the opposite of those ofinflation:i) Groups with fixed incomes gain at the expense of groups whose
incomes are not fixed. This is because when prices fall the real value
(purchasing power) of their money increases. Business costs do not fall

39

as fast as the fall in prices, leading to lower profits or even losses; as a

result, the incomes of businessmen and shareholders will fall.
ii) As business profits decline, the levels of investment and employment go
down thereby, reducing total production.
iii) The real value of debts and savings is increased, lenders gain at the
expense of borrowers since the purchasing power of rapid money is
higher than that of the original money lent out.
iv) By lowering the prices of home-produced goods relative to the prices
of goods produced abroad, deflation tends to encourage exports and
discourage imports.

Solutions to deflation
Government tries to increase total spending by lowering:i) the bank rates, making it cheaper for business people and consumers to
borrow money and hence increase demand. Purchasing power can be
increased by reducing taxes.
ii) government may increase its own expenditure to increase demand. It
may increase the salaries and wages of public employees and encourage
firms to do the same for their workers.

Reflation
This is a deliberate expansion of the money supply undertaken to stimulate
an economy that is under employed.

40

The Roles offinancial institutions

Banks
A bank is an institution that is prepared to accept deposits of money and
repay cash on demand.

Functions of banks are to:i) accept cash deposits and safe guard them. This is done on savings
accounts, fixed deposits and current accounts.
ii) act as agents for payment. A cheque is the principal method of
payment in businesS. It provides a safe means for the transmission of
money from one business to another or from one customer to another.
iii) issue bank notes. Bank notes are issued in fixed denominations. On
its face the banker promises to pay the bearer on demand the sum
stated. A bank note is thus an acknowledgement. This is done in
Zambia by the Bank of Zambia in conjunction with other commercial
banks.
iv) lend some money to customers. A bank can lend a customer cash as
long as the customer promises to pay back with interest. This is
possible especially for those with established businesses or big savings.
This is done in the following ways:-

By means of a loan account. The borrower's current account will be

credited by the amount of the loan. Thus, the borrower draws cash from
his or her current account.

By means ofan overdraft. The customer is permitted to draw cash

more than the amount banked but pays interest on the amount
overdrawn.

41

 By acting as agents for their customers. Banks transact foreign

exchange business and obtain foreign currencies. They issue bank
drafts, travellers cheques, provide night safe facilities, cash dispensers
and so on.

Types ofBanks in Zambia

There are different banks in Zambia; the main ones are:-

Commercial Banks. These offer various services mentioned above.

Some of these are: BarclaysBank, Zambia National Commercial Bank,
Standard Chartered Bank, Indo -Zambia Bank, Finance Bank, Citi
Bank, Capitol Bank and Union Bank. All these banks are controlled
by a central bank, the Bank of Zambia.
Building Societies. The main one is the Zambia National Building
Society, whose main function is to provide loans to people who want to
build houses. It also provides savings facilities like a commercial bank.
Zambia National Provident Fund(ZNPF). This was established in 1965
to offer pension schemes and savings for employees not covered by
government pension schemes. Part of an employee's wage is deducted
and deposited into the Fund. The employer also contributes the same
amount towards the employee's pension scheme. Benefits from ZNPF
are given when an employee retires after the age of 45.
Other Financial Institutions are: Credit Unions. These are co-operative banks providing loan facilities
to their members.

42

 Development Bank ofZambia. This was formed to provide loan

facilities to small entrepreneurs and also to established business
houses.
Lima Bank. It was formed to finance agriculture by providing loan
facilities to farmers.
Zambia Co-operative Federation (ZCF). This offers banking and
insurance facilities mostly to co-operative societies. It also provides
loans to farmers in co-operative societies.

43

Budget

A budget is an estimate or plan of future income and expenditure. A

family might draw up a budget in accordance with the expected income.
Similarly, every government draws up a budget each year. In Zambia, for
instance, the government presents an annual budget proposal to
parliament. The purposes of a budget are to:
carry out the development plans by providing money for public
expenditure, cutting down on wastage and making the best use of the
money available.
supply community services.
redistribute income and wealth by making services like health, education
and many others affordable to the people.
There are three types of budget. These are:

Personal Budget: This shows how an individual wants to spend his or

her money and the source of his or her income.
Family Budget: This is the expenditure of the family.
The National Budget: This shows how a country proposes to spend the
money on development, at any given period, especially per year, and
how the government intends to collect revenue to finance projects and
services.
The National Budget
The government through the Ministry of Finance gives a statement or a
plan which forecasts its income and expenditure for the year. It is simply

44

an instrument for achieving economic control of the economy during the

year. Powers to collect taxes have to be renewed annually as a protection
to the common people. The main task of the Ministry of Finance is to
assess the economic situation in the country. It may bring a budget which
will have an accelerating, neutral or restraining effect in accordance with
the Government's estimates of what is required.
A National Budget is made up of revenue and expenditure. It consists of
the following parts:-

1. Recurrent revenue: This is money that government receives every year

from different sources. The main source is taxation.
2. Recurrent expenditure: This is money spent by government every
year. For example on salaries, maintenance, etc.
3. Capital expenditure: This is money spent on new projects such as road
construction, building of schools and so on
A good budget is one which shows surplus or balance
(income=expenditure, income>expenditure).

Budgeting for a deficit:

When the Ministry of Finance budgets for a deficit, it plans to spend more
in the year than the amount expected to be collected from taxes. This is
necessary when the economy needs stimulation so that the aggregate
monetary demand can be raised. Some of the signs which require
budgeting for a deficit are high unemployment, loss of confidence by the
entrepreneurs on profitability of their businesses and the collapse of
industries.
By budgeting for a deficit, such as reducing taxation, the Ministry of
Finance leaves the average citizen with more money to spend. If the

45

citizens spend more money, the economy will be revived. Another way of
doing this is for the government to increase welfare benefits to the needy
people and to go ahead with capital projects. This will stimulate the
economy and recovery will start.
Budgeting for a surplus
Inflationary pressure in the economy will make the Ministry of Finance
take measures to arrest the situation. For example, it can raise taxes to
reduce spending. This will leave the budget with a surplus. The reduction
of money supply in the economy will reduce the demands for goods and
services. This will prevent prices rising and ease the inflationary pressure
in the economy. Whether the economic policy is successful or not
depends on the reaction of the tax payers. The extra taxation may
encourage wage demands that may fuel inflation. The people may give up
extra work due to heavy tax burden. This will result in the drop of
productivity. This is also inflation.
A neutral budget
The Ministry of Finance wiJl bring in a neutral budget when the economy
is believed to be right, with neither a stimulus nor restraint required. This
means any tax charged will cancel out another. For example, an increase
in the tax of fuel and a reduction in duty tax will make little difference.
This will leave the demand for fuel unchanged.
Taxation
Tax is a sum of money paid to the government in accordance with
theTaxation Act. Taxation is the act of taxing or money raised from taxes.
Tax is paid according to income, property owned, goods bought, etc.
Taxes are of two main types - direct and indirect.

46

Direct Tax is tax levied on an individual by the state. It is paid directly to

the government. Examples of direct tax are poll tax, pay as you earn
(P.A.Y.E), personal levy and customs duty. The most common direct tax
in Zambia is income tax or P.A.Y.E. This provides the government with
the biggest source of revenue. The higher the income, the more tax you
will be required to pay. Personal levy is deducted from government
employees twice in a year and is paid to the district councils.
Indirect tax is tax included on certain categories of goods. Tax is paid
when you buy an item in a shop. In Zambia sales tax has been replaced by
Value Added Tax (VAT). This is tax added to the value of an item. As the
value of the item increases so does the tax. In 1995 VAT was fixed at 20
percent.
Taxation can further be classified as progressive, proportional or
regressive.
Proportional taxes are taxes charged to all tax payers on the same
proportion of their income. For example, the government can tax every
worker 20 percent of their pay irrespective of the amount they get.
Regressive taxes are taxes which make the poor pay a greater
proportion of their income than the rich. For example, poll tax in
Zambia was fixed before independence in 1964. Both the rich and the
poor had to pay the same tax.
Progressive taxes make those who earn more money pay more tax. A
greater percentage of their income is taxed.
The significance of taxation to a country.
Taxation is required to cover government expenditure.
Taxation discourages excessive consumption by reducing the supply of
money to a single individual or groups of people. This is important
where there is a shortage of goods to go round.

47

 Taxation to a certain extent discourages importation of luxury goods

into a country.
Taxation helps to reduce inequality of incomes in a country through
progressive income tax.

The disadvantages oftaxation

If tax is very heavy, it discourages workers from working hard. Hence it
acts as a serious check to production. Workers will not work overtime
for fear of being heavily taxed.
Tax can act as a deterrent to savings since it reduces people's ability to
save. Workers are left with little money to spend and therefore,
withdraw their whole salaries for expenditure.
Tax also reduces the profit margin of enterprises. This leads to lack of
expansion of industries or non- investment in new ventures. As a result,
economic development is hindered.
Taxation encourages inflation. Workers are forced to go on strike to ask
for more money to increase their purchasing power.
Tax discourages diversification of the economy. People tend to invest in
areas where there is less tax. For example, when the Zambian
Government removed import duty and sales tax from passenger
transport in 1993, a lot of buses and mini-buses were brought into the
country by business people. This improved transportation to some parts
of the country.

Zambia Revenue Authority

This is a government agency which collects taxes from companies and
individuals. It operates as an independent body without government
interference. This has made the government collect a lot of taxes. The
authority has introduced a number of measures to prevent tax evasions.
Punitive measures have made businessmen and women comply with their
tax obligations.

48

Donor support
The government cannot raise the required revenue to meet its budget. It
therefore asks for donors to support funding of some projects, especially
capital projects. Donors give grants and loans to Zambia. Refer to the
section on Foreign Aid. International financial institutions also give loans
to Zambia. However, the loans, unlike the grants, have to be paid back
with interests. This creates a debt burden to Zambia.

49

Private and Public Enterprises

A public enterprise is owned by the state while a private enterprise is
owned by an individual or a group of individuals. The main differences
between them are those of ownership and motive. Businesses in a public
sector are owned by the state and belong to the community as a whole.
There is no clearly identified owner. It is mostly the consideration of
public interest that determines the operation of a public enterprise and not
profit or surplus. In a private enterprise the pursuit of profit or surplus is
the determining factor in the operation of the enterprise. It has an obvious
owner or group of owners. Decisions are taken by the owners of capital
or their elected representatives within the firm, while in a public enterprise
decision making procedure is highly centralised and in the hands of the
political representatives of the people. The following are types of firms in
the private sector:-

The sole trader

This is a single owner of a business enterprise. Control is vested in one
person who enjoys all the fruits of success and hence has a great incentive
to run the business efficiently. There is personal capital and labour,
assisted perhaps by one or two employees. This type of enterprise is
mostly confined to the retail trade. Personal supervision ensures effective
operation at all times. There are no formal procedures to be followed.

Partnership
In this enterprise a sole trader takes a partner into the business, thus
sharing responsibility and ownership. It is a very convenient method of
getting more capital for the expansion of business. The number of
partners is limited to 20. It is also a suitable method of acquiring
expertise. People specialise in different aspects of the business such as
taxation and transport. The tasks, responsibility and organisation of the

50

business are shared. The action of one partner is binding on others.

Therefore, it is very important for partners to have absolute confidence in
each other. A person who joins a partnership, supplies capital and shares
the profits, but does not take part in the management, is known as a
dormant or sleeping partner. This business organisation is common in
professions such as law, accountancy, surveying and medicine.

The joint stock company

This consists of an association of people who contribute towards a joint
stock of capital for the purpose of carrying out business with a view of
making huge profits. There are two kinds of joint stock company, the
private and public company. In most cases public companies are much
larger units than private. A private company must include the word
"Limited" in its name, while a public company must have the words
"Public Limited Company" at the end of its name, abbreviated as PLC.
The distinctive feature of the joint stock company is that a large number
of people provide the capital in varying amounts and receive shares in the
profits. In this way it is possible to raise large sums provided the owners
of the company are able to persuade the public about the prospects of the
company.

Important features ofthe Joint Stock Company

the company itself is completely liable for its debts, but the liability of
the shareholders is limited to the amount they have agreed to subscribe
to the capital of the company. After paying for the shares in full, the
shareholders cannot be asked to meet any debts the company may incur.
A business organisation which undertakes large-scale operations is
called a Limited Company. The principle attraction of this business unit
is that shareholder's liability is limited to the nominal value of the shares
held,. In this way many people can buy shares in ;m enterprise without
risking their entire personal possessions.

51

 the prospect of continuity which the company offers. Its existence is

independent of the lives and fortunes of its shareholders. If a shareholder
dies, another person can inherit, or if he or she does not like the way
the company is being run he or she can sell the shares. The company
will not be affected.
the transferability of shares. The company has the use of the capital
subscribed by the original shareholders who may sell their shares at any
time on the open market. The market value of shares may change from
time to time.
those who cannot or do not want to take an active part in management
can contribute capital towards economic activity.

Public enterprises
In the public enterprises there are usually no private shareholders. The
government owns the capital and appoints the members of the controlling
board which has similar functions as directors, but they are answerable to
the government and not to shareholders. In general, the policy to be
followed by the enterprises is determined by the government. However,
the controlling board is given wide freedom of action.
The main purpose of the public enterprises is to provide an efficient public
service at a reasonable price. It does not aim to maximise its profits, but it
is given the responsibility to operate economically.

Puhlic Corporations are the most prominent form of public enterprises

and there are of two types, namely those which sell a product directly to
the public, for example, Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation (ZESCO),
and those which do not, such as Zambia National Broadcasting
Corporation (ZNBC). Each Corporation is a legal entity which can sue or
be sued.

52

In contrasting the joint stock company and the public enterprises the
following features should be noted: Control: The joint stock company is controlled by a board of directors
elected by the shareholders, while the public corporation is controlled by
a board appointed by the government.

Ownership: A joint stock company is owned by the shareholders

whereas the public corporation is owned by the state.

Finance: A joint stock company raises its own capital by the issue of
shares to the general public, but the public corporation obtains most of
the capital directly from the government.

Motives: A joint stock company exists primarily for making profits,

while the public corporation operates in the public interest and simply
makes little profit to cover the costs.

Advantages ofa public enterprise

Provide necessary social facilities like education, sanitation and health.
Being unprofitable ventures they are not likely to be provided by
private enterprise cheaply.
Provide services which are a natural monopoly like railways, electricity
and water supply.
Capital can be provided by taxation as well as by borrowing with
government guarantees about interest and repayments. This is useful
where profits are unlikely for sometime, such as the ZCCM.
The provision of services without a major emphasis on profit making
rend~rs the goods or services cheaper than in private sector. This
. amounts to a social subsidy.
There are large scale operations e.g. electricity supply by ZESCO.

53

Disadvantages ofpublic enterprise

Prices charged for goods and services are not economical. Therefore,
large losses are incurred.
Politicians may interfere with the operations of the enterprise. This will
result in loss making or total collapse.
Waste is sometimes not discouraged, since losses are borne by the
taxpayers or ratepayers.
The government is likely to discourage private investment by protecting
state enterprises. This may lead to shortage of goods in the country due
to lack of variety. Therefore, there is no freedom of choice.
Goods produced are of low quality due to lack of competition.

Nationalisation
Nationalisation is the taking over of private companies by the
government. This is done through a complete take over after
compensation is paid to the owners of the company or through buying
over 50 percent of the shares in the private company.
Nationalisation allows the interests of the community to prevail. The
government may try to influence the general economic activity by way of
nationalisation. For example, it may want to create more jobs by
encouraging expansion of industries.
A private industry producing a major source of government revenue may
be nationalised. For example, the Zambia Consolidated Copper
Mines(ZCCM) which was nationalized in 1968 is the major foreign
exchange earner for Zambia. The arguments for nationalisation are that: Basic industries should be operated in the national interest and not with
a view to private profit.

54

 Only public ownership can ensure that a powerful monopoly position

will not be used to exploit consumers.
Only the state can provide a very large injection of capital which is
needed to restructure and modernize capital - intensive industries.
A large sector of the economy directly under government control can be
used as a powerful tool to control the economy. This will stimulate an
increase in income and employment.
Nationalised industries, charged with operating in the public or national
interest, will be under strong political and social pressures to give much
more attention to public service than private ones. They may be forced to
operate some loss making activities. For example, the liquidated United
Bus Company of Zambia (OOZ) provided transport services to rural areas
where roads are very bad. Buses broke down and a lot of money was
spent to repair them. Heavy losses were incurred in running the company.
The government provided subsidies for such non- profitable operations.

Privatisation
This is the process of selling state owned businesses to the private sector.
This includes the selling off of government owned shares in state
enterprises.
Arguments for Privatisation are that: It raises revenue for the government. The revenue makes it possible for
the government to reduce its borrowing and to make tax cuts without
reducing its own spending.
It increases competition and efficiency. Competition motivates private
companies to imr ;()ve their products and services. Inefficiency leads
to bankruptcy.

55

 Managers of private enterprises are free from political control and

interference. They are able to charge economic prices in order to make
profits and to make investments they think will generate good income.
It broadens share ownership. The idea is to shift ownership away from
the state and large businesses towards individuals. For example,
Zambians have been given an opportunity to buy shares in privatised
companies like Chilanga Cement and Zambia Sugar Company.

Zambia Privatisation Agency (ZPA)

Is given the task of selling government owned companies to private
individuals. The companies on sale are advertised in newspapers.
Individuals are free to bid for the companies. The highest bidder is asked
to buy the company. However, ZPA is free to determine the price of any
company. By April 1996, over 20 state owned companies had been
privatised. This included, Zambia Breweries, Chilanga Cement, Eagle
Travel, Auto Care, Mpongwe Development Company and National
Milling Company.

56

Trade is important to any society. Without it there can be no meaningful

development. Trade is the selling and buying of goods and services. There
are two types oftrade: Local or domestic.
External or International.

Chain of distribution: The movement of goods from the producer to the

consumer is called the chain of distribution. The production of goods and
services requires well organised methods of distribution. Goods for sale
move from the manufacturer to the wholesaler and then to the retailer and
finally to the consumer.

The Retail Trade

A retailer is a business person who sells things in small quantities. He or
she acts as an agent for the manufacturer and the wholesaler who provide
goods. The consumer buys goods from the retailer.

Functions ofthe retailer

The retailer performs the following functions:-

providing local supplies. By establishing their shops in town and

villages throughout thecountry, retailers provide consumers with
goods.

the breaking ofbulk. While manufacturers and wholesalers deal in very

large quantities, retailers provide goods in small units.

57

 providing a variety ofgoods. A manufacturer may make only one

particular brand. A retailer sells goods from a number of
manufacturers, and this provides a variety of goods for consumers to
choose from.
advice and information. A retailer may be able to give information to
the manufacturers'representatives who call on him or her, on the
requirements of certain products. This may affect future production.
providing other services. A retailer may provide a delivery service in
respect of some durable goods such as television sets, cars, etc. It may
not be possible for the customer to collect these from the shop. Some
retailers close their shops very late to allow their customers enough
time to do their shopping.
Types of Retailers

Street markets. This includes stalls in markets. They are mostly owned by
small retailers who have complete control of their businesses.
Multiple shops. These are large scale retailers specialising in a range of
goods or a large variety of goods.
Departmental stores. These are mainly found in big towns and cities.
There are separate departments dealing with specific goods, for example,
furniture, electrical goods, clothing and so on. All departments operate
under one roof
Supermarkets. These are generally known as self-service shops. They
mostly concentrate on food and household goods.
Hypermarkets. These are very huge supermarkets which sell a much
wider range of products especially consumer durable goods. They require
a large area for buildings and car parks.

58

Retail-cooperatives. These are retail shops organised by a group of people

as shareholders. Services are offered to members and non- members.

The wholesale trade

The chain of distribution for any given commodity depends on a number
offactors:

the nature of product. For example, perishable goods have to be

treated with care.
the conditions of production. Some goods are highly demanded, while
others are not.

There are six different types ofwholesalers:-

General wholesalers. These may operate on a national or regional

basis. They stock a wide range of goods in their warehouses.
Specialist wholesalers. These restrict their activities to a particular
trade and mostly to a particular area.
Cash and carry wholesalers. These do not allow credit purchases.
They usually concentrate on local markets. Sometimes they sell goods
directly to consumers.
Brokers. These are agents who work on behalf of customers. Their job
is to find buyers for the goods. The buyers and sellers make their own
arrangements for delivery of their goods. hey receive a commission for
their services.
Factors. These are a special kind of agent. They do not merely bring
buyers and sellers into contact with each other, but also have goods in
their possession. They are usually found in the export trade.

59

The Functions ofthe wholesaler:

The main function of a wholesaler is to facilitate the flow of goods from
the producer to the consumer. In order to achieve this, they provide the
following services:-

Warehousing. They buy goods in bulk and store them in warehouses

until they are required by retailers.
Marketing. By visiting the wholesaler's warehouse or showroom, the
retailer gives the wholesaler the opportunity of promoting the sale of
goods by means of effective displays.
A Reservoir. A wholesaler serves as a source of supply to retailers. He
or she offers them a wide selection of goods from a number of different
manufacturing companies. Retailers do not have to visit each individual
manufacturer to choose their goods.
Breaking bulk. A wholesaler buys goods in huge quantities and
divides them into smaller quantities for the retailer.
Price stability. By carrying large stock of goods, a wholesaler is able
to control the price fluctuations that would otherwise occur. By buying
the produce at harvest time and releasing it gradually over the year, the
wholesaler can eliminate the wilder price fluctuations.

"

Risk bearing. By holding a large stock of goods or materials, the

wholesaler also removes a number of risks from the shoulders of
producers and retailers.
Delivery. A wholesaler may deliver goods to a retailer, thereby saving
him or her from transport expenses.

60

 Information. A wholesaler is a useful source of information to

producers and retailers. For example, he or she can tell retailers about
new products.He/she may also let the manufacturers know which of
their goods are selling well and which are less demanded by the
public.
In short, without these services, the distribution of goods by the
wholesaler would be less efficient.

Markets
In general terms a market is a place where people come together to buy
and sell goods and services. Shopping centres are markets.

A Competitive Market is one in which there are a large number of buyers

and a large number of sellers. Prices of commodities vary from one
person to the other. There are no obstacles preventing would be
consumers from reaching all suppliers. Such a market is prefect. If there
are obstacles in the market, for example, no transport, no variety of
goods, etc. it is called an imperfect market.

Types ofmarkets
The Perfect Market. In this market all potential buyers should have
perfect knowledge of the prices asked for by all potential sellers, and
that all sellers should seek to maximise prices for their produce, while
all buyers should try to pay minimum prices in order to obtain the best
value for their money. All persons should also be dealing in readily
identifiable products.
Commodity Market. These are places where variety of commodities
are sold. The methods oftrading may be by:i)

Auction Sales. Buyers decide how much they are prepared to pay for
every commodity. The highest bidder wins.

61

ii) Ring Trading. Dealers sit in a ring announcing their bids for
consignments, especially metals.
iii) Private Treaties. These characterise the Stock Exchange, the Foreign
Exchange, etc. In a Stock Exchange, a broker will approach a number
of wholesalers on behalf of his or her client before concluding a deal
on the most favourable terms available.

Markets are vital to the whole process of production. This is because

they:
i) reduce price fluctuations due to the seasonal nature of the product.
market specialists carry stocks of goods in order to prevent prices
falling too rapidly in periods of high output, or rising too rapidly in
periods oflow output.
ii) bring together buyers and sellers usually to the same place.
iii) allow both producers and consumers to take advantage of the
specialised services.

International Trade
Nations trade with one another for several reasons:

the production of different kinds of goods requires different kinds of

resources used in different proportions.

various types of economic resources are unevenly distributed

throughout the world. Climate plays a larger part in the production of
many natural products.
a nation with vast demands may supplement home production with
imports. International division of labour makes it necessary for an

62

 a nation with vast demands may supplement home production with

imports. International division of labour makes it necessary for an
increase in the exchange of commodities between countries. The
greater the amount of specialisation, the greater, therefore, the output
of all kinds of goods by the world as a whole.
a country can produce one commodity more cheaply than the other.
This encourages trade between the two countries because it has a
greater comparative advantage in the production of that commodity.
In short, international trade greatly increases the variety of goods available
to each country. It encourages economic growth.

Balance of Trade
This is a situation where the value of a country's exports and the value of
the imports of visible items are equal. Visible items are items which can
actually be seen. For example, raw materials, food and manufactured
goods are kinds of visible trade. If a country's exports exceed imports, it
has a favourable balance of trade or trade surplus, but if imports exceed
exports, it has unfavourable balance of trade or trade deficit.

Balance ofpayments
A country's balance of payments is a record of all its financial and
economic transactions with the rest of the world. International trade gives
rise to indebtedness between countries. The balance of payments shows
the relationship between a country's payments with the other countries
and its receipts from them, and is thus a statement of income and
expenditure on international accounts.
Payments and receipts on international accounts fall into three groups:i) the visible balance of trade.

63

ii) invisible items.

iii) capital movements.

Items in the balance of payments which relate to goods are known as

visible items, and the relation between imports and exports is known as
balance of trade.
In general terms, a country's balance of payments can be described under
two main headings; the current account and the capital account.

The Current Account

This account includes both visible and invisible items. The 'visible' imports
and exports consist of physical merchandise of all kinds, whereas the
'invisible' imports and exports are mainly services and come under the
following major headings:i) net income from services rendered by residents to non-residents, this
includes tourism, transport and various financial services like insurance
and banking.
ii) the balance of gifts and transfer of migrant's funds.
iii) net grants by the government to other countries.
iv) interest, profits and dividends.
All inflows of money, which result from visible and invisible imports are
recorded as debt items in the accounts. It follows that an excess of
imports over exports will give rise to a current account deficit and an
excess to a current account surplus.

64

This account includes both long term and short term capital movements
between the home country and all other countries. The long term capital
movements include direct investments (which involve the actual setting up
and controlling of an enterprise in a foreign country), portfolio
investments (which involve the purchasing of the securities of a foreign
company or government) and inter-governmental loans. The short-term
private lending and short- term investments.
We can, therefore, define a deficit and surplus on the balance of payments
as follows; a deficit exists when the value.ofautonomous debt items exceeds the
value of autonomous credit items.
a surplus exists when the value of autonomous credit items exceeds the
value of autonomous debt items.

Terms of Trade
Terms of trade mean the rate at which one country's products are
exchanged for those of another. It depends on the prices of commodities
entering into international trade. The terms of trade are said to be
favourable to a country when the prices of its exports are relatively higher
than the prices of its exports. If the prices of its imports are higher than
those of its exports, then the terms of trade are unfavourable.
Zambia's balance of payments h~ve been very unfavourable since the
1980s. Exports continued to decline mainly because of the decline in
copper exports. Merchandise exports declined by 53 percent from
US$I,457 million in 1980 to US$681 million in 1986. Imports of goods
and non-factor services declined by 9.7 percent. The drastic cut in
imports aggravated the already very difficult economic situation. Despite
the shortfall in goods, the trade balance improved from a deficit of US$
20 million in 1986.

65

the shortfall in goods, the trade balance. improved from a deficit of US$
20 million in 1986.

The following table shows Zambia's balance of payments from 1990 1993:-

Balance of Payment Between Zambia and Selected Countries

Trade in Million kwacha

Year
1990
1991
1992
1993

UnitedKingdom South Africa

Exp
Imp
Exp
Imp
336
5974
6229
56
3209 9659
306 10673
3392 16950 880 38603
4882 34054 5786 137364

U.S.A
Exp
Imp
270 3743
150 3658
811 12406
1264 8839

Japan
Germany
Exp
Exp
Imp
Imp
5101 2464
108 4294
13162 4908
95
2144
26200 6472
641
5362
47632 13526 581 14910

Source: Central Statistical Office, 1995 Economic Report.

66

Foreign Aid

There are two sources of Foreign Aid:1. Multilateral aid This is aid from international agencies to a country.
For example, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Zambia, World
Bank and Zambia.
2. Bilateral aid. This is aid from one nation to another. For example, aid
from the United Kingdom to Zambia.

Aid is either bilateral or multilateral and comes in different forms, for

example, in capital goods or in the form of expertise or finance.
Critics of foreign aid argue that international assistance may help to
support governments which are pursuing policies which are obstructing
development, and that by increasing the power of government, aid breeds
corruption, inefficiency and tensions in society which retard development.
They further argue that aid may encourage irresponsible financial policies
and if the assistance is free, there may be no incentive to use resources
productively. However, the most recent study has shown that the
provision of aid has played a major part in the direct provision of basic
needs and the relief of poverty in many developing countries. The need
for foreign aid as loans and grants is that: it supplements the national income and domestic resources to meet
target levels of savings, investment and foreign exchange.
it stimulates and facilitates the process of development.
it helps in paying for imports.

67

These are either bilateral or multilateral. Examples of donor agencies are

International Monetary Fund (IMF), ( ileA), (ODA), (SIDA),
(NORAD). They provide funding to various capital projects in Zambia.

Policies ofDonors
Many developing countries that are recipients of aid prefer that it came
from and through multilateral rather than bilateral channels. Multilaterally
provided aid is considered to be comparatively neutral in its effect upon
domestic politics, and to have relatively fewer strings or conditions of use
than bilateral aid. The donor countries continue to prefer programmes of
direct aid. They often wish to influence the political and economic policies
of the recipient countries at least indirectly. They desire that credits be
supplied against purchases of advantage to them, and they are likely to
allocate funds to countries where there is a special interest. Practically, all
aid, is tied, but this does not make such aid undesirable, even though
untied aid would theoretically be preferred by the recipient country.
Bilateral loans or credit, usually carry a lot of strings. These strings can be
broken up into two main dimensions:i) Ideological aspect. A given country wants to make sure that it shares
the objectives with what the other countries are going to achieve.
ii) The Commercial aspect. This is the potential aspect for a receiving
country to repay the loan. The donors ensure that money is invested in
viable projects which are likely to benefit the majority. This is most
likely where a country is perceived to run into financial problems. At the

68

same time, there is a fear that the money will be misused if it is pumped
into those projects.

The effects offoreign aid on third world economies

The Third World Economies are those where the real income per head
and the general standard of living are much lower than In the developed
countries.
In some cases aid is given to areas which are non- productive. Capital for
investment in form of loans, is money that must be paid back. The term
of payment may affect the volume of foreign exchange which may be
needed for future capital investment. This is mostly due to high interest
rates to be paid by the recipient country. The larger the loan, the larger
the debt service burden.
The disadvantage with loans is that the investor may wish to use a capital
intensive technology which is not suitable to local conditions. This will in
the long run drain the country's foreign exchange by importing expensive
spare parts. or technical assistants.
Food aid may kill the agriculture sector by encouraging laziness or cheap
food. Technical Assistance can be given but if not well checked can
encourage brain-drain from the recipient country to other countries. Since
expatriates are given better conditions of service than locally employed
staff.
In short, technical assistance which is effectively and related to a country's
development programme has a desirable impact, whereas technical
assistance which is not so related to the country's programmes has a
distracting effect andean even impede development.

69

Debt Crisis
Third World countries' over dependence on aid has resulted in more
dependence on International Aid. Hence facing a problem of debt
servicing for a long time. Between 1970 and 1974, the debt in Third
World countries stood at 606 billion US dollars. The increase of debt was
a result of debt servicing and not the actual money that the countries
borrowed.
The floatation of interest rates. The interest rate changes according to
the international rates.
The shortening of the maturation period. In the period 1970 - 1985, the
period in which the interests were going to mature was shortened from
10 to 3 years. That led to the accumulation of debts.
The tendency of Third World countries borrowing to finance consumer
products. Hence the failure to repay the money due to lack of
productive infrastructure.
Most ofthe commodities exported from Third World countries to
developed countries are undervalued. As a result, they are unable to
repay the loans. Since they could not repay the debts, the loans were
rescheduled with higher interest rates. Hence, the debt crisis came in
as a result of accumulation of debts.

70

Economic Groupings

This is when countries come together to trade among themselves. Since

the second world war, there have been many examples of groups of
countries joining together for the purpose of stimulating trade among
themselves and obtaining other economic cooperation.
Economic
integration among countries can take several forms such as:-

A Free trade area. This consists of a group of countries who have

removed tariffs and quotas on trade among themselves. However, each
member country maintains its own independent restrictions on imports
from non-member countries.
.Customs union. This is a form of economic integration. There is free
trade among member countries, but all members are required to
operate a common external tariff on imports from non-member
countr,ies.
Common market. This is an economic grouping which conducts free
trade in goods and services. It also allows free movement of factors of
production (labour and capital) between the member states.
Economic Union. This requires member states to adopt common
economic policies on matters such as agriculture, transport and taxation.
Some of the regional economic groups include the following:1. The Southern African Development Community (SADC).
The previous name of the Soutnern Mrican Development Community
(SADC) was the Southern Mrican Co-ordination Conference (SADCC).

71

It was formed on 1st April 1980 in Lusaka, Zambia. The main aim was to
try to reduce economic dependence on South Africa so as to enforce UN
economic sanctions against South Africa. This was at the height of the
liberation struggle in Southern Africa. The name SADCC became SADC
in August, 1992.
In 1996 it had 11 member states. These were Zambia, Angola, Botswana,
Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Lesotho,
Malawi and South Africa. South Africa was admitted as a member in 1994
after the first democratic elections in South Africa. The secretariat of
SADC is in Gaborone, Botswana.
The following are the objectives of SADC: Achieve development and economic growth to reduce poverty, improve
the standard and quality of life of the people through regional
cooperation.
Encourage common political values, systems and institutions.
Promote and defend peace and security.
Promote the proper use of resources of the region and achieve
protection of the environment.
Strengthen and consolidate the long standing historical, social and
cultural values and links among the peoples of the region.

Overview ofSA De
Trade has been increasing among SADC countries. However, trade has
been in favour of the most industrialised countries like South Africa and
Zimbabwe Other countries have continued to be dumping grounds of
finished products SADC has assisted in the development of many sectors

72

in the region especially in the field of agriculture. Tariffs have been

reduced but not very much. The problem SADC faces is lack of foreign
exchange in member countries to support viable projects. SADC has
continued to rely heavily on donor funding in its projects. As a regional
economic grouping, it has succeeded in increasing trade among member
states, but much still needs to be done.

2. Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA)

This was previously known as the Preferential Trade Area (PTA). The
members are Angola, Zambia, Kenya, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Burundi,
Ethiopia, Lesotho, Tanzania, Zaire, Uganda, Sudan, Namibia, Eriteria,
Comoros, Mauritius, Madagascar, Swaziland, Namibia and Rwanda.

Objectives

Achieve sustainable growth and development of the member states by

promoting a more balanced and cooperative development of production
and marketing structures.
Promote joint development in all fields of economic activity so as to
raise the general standard of living of its peoples, and raise closer
relations among its members.
Cooperate in creating an attractive environment for investment
including the joint promotion of research and adaptation of science and
technology for development.
Cooperate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among the
member states in order to enhance economic development in the region.
. Contribute towards the establishment, progress and realisation of the
objectives of the Mrican Economic Community, signed in Abuja,
Nigeria on 3rd June 1991.

73

All the member states who have signed the treaty, agree to the formation
of:1. A free trade area to allow free movement of goods and services
amongst cOMESA states by removing tariff and non-tariff restrictions.
2. A customs union in which goods and services bought from countries
which are not members of cOMESA are charged a single tariffby all
COMESA members.
3. A gradual establishment of a payment union through the cOMESA
clearing house and eventually establish a common monetary union with
a common currency.
4. The adoption ofa common visa arrangement so as to remove visa
requirements within cOMESA for all citizens.
cOMESA has achieved a number of successes. Trade among member
states has increased. Unit of Account of Preferential Trade Area
(UAPTA) was introduced to enable member states trade without
obstacles offoreign exchange constraint. Under this arrangement, member
states use their own local currencies to purchase goods from other
members. PTA clearing house now cOMESA clearing house was
established to facilitate trade relations among member states.

3. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

This is an economic organisation of countries in West Africa. It was
formed in 1978. Its headquarters are in Lagos, Nigeria. It has 16 member
states.

Major objective ofECOWAS

1. Free movement of goods and people throughout the community area to
promote trade among member states.
2. To establish a free trade zone.

74

3. To eliminate all barriers to goods exported from member countries by

introducing a common customs tariff

Successes
1. For the ordinary man the community has brought the benefits of a
wider choice of products and services and new opportunities to work in
any of the member states.
2. A fund for cooperation, compensation and development has been set up
to finance member states.
3. There is considerable trade or barter arrangements in commodities
among countries in ECOWAS.

Problems
Many leaders in ECOWAS have not shown serious concern for poverty
for the masses of their population.
Products produced in member states no longer attract good prices
overseas. This has led to serious economic difficulties due to lack of
foreign exchange.
Due to the diversity of languages and culture in ECOWAS, European
buyers have shown some form of discrimination. For example, French
buyers buy from French speaking countries.Portuguese buyers buy from
Portuguese speaking countries and so on.
There is unbearable taxation borne by the poor and evaded by the rich in
member states.
There are monopolistic activities of marketing boards.
There are misguided agricultural policies.
Poor communication links.
Proliferation of currencies and a foreign exchange restrictions and
control.
Economic nationalism and acute economic difficulties by member
states.

75

 Political instability, constant military coups in some countries have

disrupted regional cooperation.

4. European Economic Community (EEC)

This is a Customs Union which aims not only at the elimination of all
internal barriers to trade but also at the establishment of a common
external tariff so that the exports of non-members receive the same
treatment wherever they enter the customs union or common market.
There are common economic policies in a number of fields. Some of them
are: The elimination of customs duties and quotas on the import and export
of goods between member states.
The establishment of a common customs tariff and a cornmon
commercial policy towards non-member countries.
The abolition of obstacles to the free movement of persons, services and
capital between member states.
The establishment of common policies for agriculture and transport.
The prohibition of business practices which restrict or distort
competition within the common market in ways which are considered to
be harmful.
The association of overseas countries to increase trade and
development.
The other community institutions are:-

1. The Economic and Social Committee: The members of this committee

represent trade unions, employers associations, and the general interest
of people. It is an advisory body of the council of ministers and
commission. It is contacted before any action is taken on major
economic or social matters.

76

2. The European Investment Bank: The main source of funds is the capital
subscribed by member countries. Its aim is to provide loans for
projects such as those which stimulate development in the less
prosperous regions, develop resources for energy, protect the
environment, expand the use of new technology and improve
communications.
3. The European Regional Development Fund: The main aim of the fund
is to redistribute community resources to the poor regions. Aid from
the fund is in the form of non-repayable grants. Much of the money
goes to infrastructure, roads, water schemes, bridges,
telecommunications, ports, etc. The policy of the fund is to provide
additional aid for projects mounted by national governments.
4. The European Social Fund: This fund is meant to provide assistance in
form of grants. The main purpose is to improve employment
opportunities for workers and to increase their occupational movement.
It helps to fund training, resettlement and job-creation schemes.
5. The European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund: This fund
accounts for more than two-thirds of the community's expenditure. It
consists of two parts.
a) The Guidance Section. This is concerned with the improvement of the
organisation and structure of agriculture. It supports general
modernisation of farms and drainage

b) The Guarantee Section. It finances schemes which provide farmers

with guaranteed prices. The main features of the schem~ include the
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

77

The CAP aims at:

increasing agricultural productivity.

ensuring a fair standard ofliving for the agricultural community.
stabilising the markets in farm products.
providing adequate supplies offood stuffs.
ensuring supplies to consumers at reasonable prices.

Successes ofEEC
Since it came into being, the EEC has made substantial progress. The
common external tariff has been established and progressively reduced.
Progress has been made in establishing a common market in agriculture.
There has been a large increase in the trade among the member countries.
In 1957 the original six members did 34 per cent of trade with one
another.
The European Monetary System (EMS) was introduced in 1979 in order
to obtain a greater degree of stability in the exchange rates among
member countries of the EEC.

78

International Relations and

Organisations

[]

---------

Introduction

As a member of the International community Zambia inevitably interacts

in various ways with other nations. It is therefore imperative for patriotic
citizens to know what Zambia's relations with other countries are and to
strive to better those relations. In this interaction Zambia is guided by her
foreign policy. This unit looks at Zambia's foreign policy and her role in
international relations through international organisations.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: define the terms "International Relations" and "International
Organisations" .
explain the importance of interactions among nations.
describe Zambia's foreign policy correctly.
justifY Zambia's membership to international organisations.

Importance ofinteractions among nations

The term "International Relations" can be defined as relations or
interaction among nations in various aspects of human endeavour e.g.
political, economic, scientific and socio-cultural.
We now live in a global village: an increase in the oil price on the world
market sends the price of any commodity sky-rocketing in Zambia; a civil
war in Angola means Zambia cannot export her copper through that

79

country; when Zambia is hit by a drought, the international community

pours in food aid.
Nations of the world are economically interdependent. No one nation
produces all the raw materials that it requires for its products nor does it
consume all that it produces.
Problems have become trans-national (i.e. they transcend national
boundaries)- no one country can solve them single handedly. Examples of
these problems are poverty, hunger, disease and environmental
degradation. All these dictate the need for peaceful co-existence and
co-operation among nations.

Zambia's Foreign Policy

A foreign policy is a set of guidelines which governs a country's relation
with other nations.
During the 1st and 2nd Republics (1964 - 1991) Zambia's foreign policy
was not formally documented. Although the major focus during this
period was on support to the liberation of Southern Africa from white
domination, Zambia participated in international affairs through her
membership to regional and international organisations.

Factors that shape Zambia's Foreign Policy

Geo-political position and population
Zambia is a landlocked country whose boundaries were imposed by
colonialists without regard to ethnic groupings. The result is that Zambia
shares the same ethnic groups with all her neighbouring countries along
the borders and all her imports and exports routes pass through these
countries. Her interest therefore is to maintain good neighbourliness,

80

peace and harmony with all her neighbours based on this common
heritage.

Mono-economy
Historically, Zambia's economy has been based on one product - copper,
which is a wasting asset. She wishes to diversifY her economy to attract
investment from donor countries and international organisations.

Fundamental values
Zambia cherishes the values of human freedom, equality of races and
equitable development for all peoples.

Pan - Africanism
At independence, Zambia, together with other independent states
supported the liberation struggle for the total liberation of Africa from
colonial rule. Having achieved this by 1990, efforts are now towards the
economic development and security of the African continent through
Pan-African co-operation.

National interests
National interests are those values that Zambia is determined to defend in
international relations. These are:-

Sovereignty: Maintenance of her national independence and exercise

of her rights as a sovereign state and free determination of her destiny,
while respecting the rights of other sovereign states.
National Security: Ensuring peace and security for the Zambian
people through peaceful and friendly relations among them and with

81

neighbours. This is essential for economic and political stability of both

Zambia and her neighbours.

Protection of citizens: Ensuring that citizens' rights to liberty,

freedom of action and protection of property from arbitrary
expropriation at home and abroad.
Justice and rule of law: Ensure that this is promoted in international
relations.
Democracy: Cultivation or encouragement of a democratic culture
within and among states in her international relations.
Protection ofenvironment: Initiate actions and participate in all
efforts aimed at the sustainable use and protection of the environment.
Economic development: Liberalisation ofthe economy on the basis of
a free market system which requires active international co-operation
and assistance. Zambia has to identifY countries that can provide capital
and technology and those that are potential markets.
Principles ofZambia's foreign policy
The following principles form the basis of Zambia's foreign policy:-

Self determination:- All people have a right to self-determination or

independence.
Equality ofpeoples:- No segregation of people on the basis of sex,
race, creed or religious beliefs.
Human rights andfundamental freedoms: - Upholding of these e.g.
right to life, freedom of association, freedom of speech, liberty and
security, cruel, inhuman and degrading of treatment or punishment.
Good neighbourliness:- based on common historical, cultural and
ethnic ties with neighbours.

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Zambia' foreign policy objectives

The following are the objectives of Zambia's foreign policy:-

Improvement ofthe quality oflife: Zambia can only be a stable and

respectable country if her citizens enjoy a high standard of living which
she hopes to achieve through international support.
Investment and Trade: Creating of a self-sustaining economy
through effective participation in international trade and growth oriented
investment.
Consolidation ofdemocracy: encouraging the development of a
democratic atmosphere internationally so that Zambia's own
democracy can thrive. Allowing citizens to contribute in the formation
and implementation of the country's foreign policy.
Freedom and social security: ensuring that the social security and
material well being of its citizens by acting in the interests of its citizens
as sovereign state in its relations with other countries.
International peace and security: As preconditions for the prosperity
and development of any given nation, international peace and security
are absolutely necessary. In this regard, Zambia believes that nuclear
disarmament and the elimination of international terrorism and drug
trafficking be speeded up.
Tools ofZambia's foreign policy
These foreign policy objectives are to be achieved through:-

Diplomacy: the use of negotiation to solve international problems and

issues.

83

 Military:- her defence force is not only used to defend her borders
and sovereignty but also in the maintenance of international peace and
security in line with international agreements e.g. Peace keeping in
Mozambique, Angola and Rwanda and Burundi under the United
Nations.
Human and natural resources: Zambia's skilled citizens working in
other countries are encouraged to behave in a manner that promotes
good relations with the host countries. Various sporting links have been
fostered with countries in Africa and the world. Her natural resources
have been exploited to strengthen trade, cultural and environmental
co-operation with other countries.

Focus of Zambia's foreign policy:

Recognising that peace is the foundation of productive relations, Zambia's
foreign policy targets the cultivation and maintenance of good relations
with other countries and encourages negotiation, arbitration and
reconciliation in international conflicts. She has established diplomatic and
trade contacts with countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South
Africa the Caribbean and Middle East. In addition she is a member of
many international, political and economic organisations where common
ideas on peace, security and development are shared.
On the African Continent, Zambia is a member of the following
organisations: Southern African Development Community (SADC): Which aims
at the economic integration of Southern African states through
promoting development and cultural co-operation.

84

 Front-Line States: To mediate in political conflicts within and among

Southern African states.

African Development Bank (ADB): this finances economic and

development programmes and projects in Zambia.

Organisation For African Unity (OAU): for the promotion of

African unity, peace and the socio-economic development of all
African states.

Apart from the above, Zambia is also a member of other international

organisations namely the Commonwealth and the United Nations
Organisation.
Internationalorgan~ations

Any International organisation is an organisation set up by two or more

states to facilitate interaction among the states in one or more fields e.g.
political, economic etc. Some of the international organisations are:-

The Commonwealth.

Origin
The Commonwealth was established in 1931 by the statute of
Westminster. The Commonwealth is an international organisation of
Britain and her former colonies and dominions. It is an association based
on voluntary co-operation among members and held together by
communities of history, English language, similar education, legal and
parliamentary systems.

Aims
The Commonwealth aims to:-

85

 Promote co-operation among members in their economic and social

developments e.g. education, trade, financial and technical aid.
Provide a forum for members to share and exchange ideas and
information in matters of common interest.
Provide members with a basis for diplomatic support.

Membership.
Originally the Commonwealth consisted of the United Kingdom and its
dominions of Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. With the
ind~pendence of India and other Afro-Asian colonies, it became
multi-racial and by 1996 it had more than 50 member countries of equal
status, but recognising the Queen of England as Head of the
Commonwealth. However, some countries that were not colonies of
Britain have been admitted as members such as Mozambique, Namibia
and Cameroon. South Africa which was expelled in 1961 was readmitted
in 1995.

Structure
The Commonwealth consists of four main organs:-

The Commonwealth Head\' of Government Cmiference: which is held

every two years where views on international and Commonwealth
affairs are exchanged.

The Finance Ministers' Conference: which is held regularly to discuss

their international economic situation and advise the Heads of
Government on what steps to take.

86

 High Commissioners: members exchange diplomats known as High

Commissioners. In London, the High Commissioners meet regularly to
discuss matters of interest to their Government.

The Commonwealth Secretariat. This is based in (London) : headed

by the Secretary General, two Assistants and a staff of 200 persons,
the Secretariat co-ordinates the activities of members. It administers
conferences of Heads of Government, meetings of the organs of the
Commonwealth and keeps members informed on political, social,
economic and cultural issues. It is the administrative organ of the
Commonwealth.

Functions
Through this structure the following functions are performed: Co-ordination of economic and social development programmes in
member countries.
Administration of the commonwealth fund for technical co-operation,
the Commonwealth Multilateral Technical Assistance Scheme funded
by voluntary contributions from member countries.
Dissemination of information on issues of vital interest to member
states.

How Zambia has benefited from being a member

Zambia has received financial, scientific and technical assistance from the
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Assistance(CFTA).

87

The Organisation ofAfrican Unity (OAU)

At the end of the 19th century people of Mrican origin in America and
West Indies formed the Pan-Mrican Movement which aimed at uniting all
peoples of Mrica together to overcome European influence, prejudice
and exploitation. Pan-Mricanism is a belief in Mrican Unity.
From 1900 the movement held a number of meetings but the most
important was the 1945 Pan- Mrican Conference in Manchester England.
This conference was attended by a number of leading African nationalists
like Kwarne Khrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya.

On May 25,1963, a conference was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia by 33

independent African states at which a Charter was signed by those in
attendance setting the Organisation of Mrican Unity. A Charter is a set of
guidelines that states the aims, structure and principles of an International
Organisation. The OAD Charter has the following aims: To promote unity and solidarity (togetherness) of member states.
To co-ordinate increased co-operation and efforts to improve the
standard of living of the people.
To defend its members' independence and territorial integrity.
To put an end to colonialism in Mrica.
To promote international co-operation in the same way as the United
Nations.

Membership
Membership is open to all independent African states, both in Africa and
surrounding islands.

88

The Structure
The GAD has four main organs:-

Assembly ofHeads of State: comprising all heads of state of member

countries or their representatives. It meets once a year to map out
GAD policy. Extraordinary meetings may be held whenever there is an
emergency. Recently meetings have been held in Addis Ababa, the
Headquarters of the GAD in Ethiopia. For the host government, the
Head of state chairs the meetings.
The Secretariat: the administrative organ of the GAD. It is headed by
the Secretary General chosen by the Assembly, and assisted by the 4
Administrative Secretaries .The term of office of the Secretary
General is 4 years.
Council ofMinisters: made up of foreign ministers of member states,
the council meets twice a year.
Committees on various subjects.
Specialised Commissions: to deal with special problems.
Functions
1. The Secretariat

Carries out the administrative work of all the other organs of the GAD.
Carries out duties assigned to it by the DAD Charter, e.g. making sure
that decisions of the Council of Ministers are carried Qut.
Prepares the GAD budget.
Prepares the agenda for meetings of the Council of Ministers and other
GAD organs.

89

2. The council ofministers

Meets twice a year to prepare recommendations to be considered by the
Assembly. The Council only makes recommendations which must be
approved by the Assembly before being implemented by the Secretariat.

3. The assembly of heads ofstate

Meets once a year at the request of member states to deal mainly with
DAD Common policy, the Charter and matters of common interest. A
two-thirds majority is required on important decisions.

4. Specialised commissions and committees

These may be created by the Assembly of Heads State to deal with a
particular problem or issue and may be dissolved (as was the case with
the decolonisation committee when the purpose was accomplished in
1996.) There are 5 such organs working under the Assembly.

The educational, cultural, scientific and health commission

This encourages co-operation in education, culture, science and health
matters.

The defence commission

This is responsible for collective and individual defence in military
training. It works closely with the U.N. and cannot use force without
the permission of the U.N.

The Commission ofmediation, conciliation and arbitration

This has 21 members elected by the Assembly for 5 years to settle
disputes (referred to it) among members peacefully.

90

The preparatory committee

It works closely with the United Nations Economic Commission for

Africa (ECA) to encourage economic co-operation in Africa e.g.

ratification of the treaty establishing the African Economic Community
of which Zambia is one of the few signatories.

OAU's role in maintaining World Peace

TheOAUhas:
acted as a powerful lobby for world peace at the United Nations.
aided the liberation of Africa.
tried to settle some disputes e.g. the Southern Sudan and the
Libyan-Chad conflicts.
promoted socio-cultural ties among member countries through
cultural and sports activities.
established regional economic stability.
acted as a forum for useful exchange of ideas and information.
The United Nations Organisations
The United Nations is a world organisation to which all countries belong.

Origin
It was evident with the outbreak of the second world war in 1939, that the

league of nations had failed. For six years the world had suffered death
and distraction. However, people still believed that the best chance for
peace lay in forming international organisations stronger than the league
of nations.
Before the end of the war in 1945, the leaders of Britain ,the United
States, France, Soviet Union and China (the Big Five) met in San
Francisco to draw up a 'Charter' or a "Constitution" for the United
Nations Organisation.

91

Other nations were encouraged to sign the charter. The United Nations
came into being on 24th October 1945 made up of 51 nations. Zambia's
independence day 24th October is also United Nations day. It was
deliberately chosen so as to underscore her faith in the world body.
Membership has increased from 51 in 1945 to about 150 in 1996. Zambia
became a member on 1st December 1964 and has a Permanent
Representative at the UN Headquarters in New York.

The Charter ofthe United Nations

The charter sets out the aims of the UN, spells out how these are to be
achieved, the principles the UN will follow and how it is to be organised.
The charter reads as follows:" We the people ofthe United Nations are determined:
to save succeeding generations from the scourge ofwar, which twice in
our life time has brought untold sorrow to mankind and
to reaffirm our faith in fundamental Human Rights in the dignity of
men and women and of nations large and small, and
to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arisingfrom treaties and other sources ofinternational
law can be maintained, and
to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom,
AND FOR THESE ENDS
to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as
good neighbours and
to unite to maintain international peace and security, and

92

 to ensure, by the acceptance ofprinciples and the institution of

methods, that armedforce shall not be used, .'lave in common interest,
and
to employ international machineryfor the promotion ofthe economic
and social advancement ofall peoples.

HAVE RESOLVED TO
ACCOMPLISH THE AIMS

COMBINE

OUR

EFFORT..5

TO

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through their representatives

assembl<!d in the City of San Francisco, who have exhibited their powers
found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of
the United nations and do hereby establish an international organisation
to be known as the "United Nations."
Aims ofthe United Nations
From the charter, you can see that the aims of the UN are'

To
To
To
To

maintain international peace and security

promote disarmament.
encourage international co-operation.
combat ignorance, poverty, disease and social ills

Principles ofthe UN
These are rules which every member must abide by. Every member nation
must: regard all other members-nations as equals.
sincerely fulfil the aims of the charter.
settle disputes by peaceful means without force or the threat of force .
- help the UN in any action it takes in accordance with the ,Charter, and
not help any country against whom action is being taken.

93

Membership
Any independent country is free to apply for membership of the UN.

Structure andfunctions
There are six main organs of the UN each with special tasks to perform:1. The General Assembly

Acts as the "Parliament" of the UN where discussions, debates and

recommendations or any matter censored by the Charter and raised by any
member country is represented and has only one vote. Important issues
such as international peace or finance require a two thirds majority before
any decision can be passed. The Assembly meets once a year usually in
September but emergency meetings can be held as circumstances dictate.
Other functions of the Assembly are to: elect new members whose applications have been approved by the
Security Council.
elect the President of the Security Council and most of the important
officials of other {TN organs.
Control the finances of the organisation.

2. The Security Council

This is a small body of 15 members, five of whom France, China, Britain,
the United States and Russia are permanent members, and ten are
non-permanent members elected every two years by the General
Assembly. It meets more frequently than the other UN organs.

94

The main functions of the Security Council are to 'TIaintain World Peace
through: investigating any dispute which may threaten peace.
recommending how disputes should be settled.
application of economic sanctions against intransigent nations instead of
using force.
dispatching a UN peace keeping force to an area of conflict or taking
military action against an aggressor.
Important decisions of the Council require a 9 vote majority in favour but
the permanent members have the power of "Veto" to prevent action being
taken. When this happens, the matter is referred to the General Assembly
for action.

3. The Secretariat
This is the Civil Service of the UN staffed by international workers. It is
headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the General
Assembly and recommended by the Security Council for a term of five
years. The Secretary General: informs the Security Council of any threats to international peace and
security.
speaks on behalf of the international community and his/her words and
deeds are taken seriously.
has routine consultations with world leaders and attends various UN
functions.
The Secretariat employs more than 25,000 civil servants from more than
150 countries, its functions are: to implement the decisions of UN organs.
to advise the Secretary General on world problems.
to publish UN reports and run an information service.

95

 to keep the accounts of the UN.

to provide translators for the five official UN languages.
to carry out the day-to-day business, (e.g. correspondence and other
clerical work) of running the UN.

4. The International Court ofJustice

The is the judicial organ of the UN. It comprises 15 judges elected by the
General Assembly and Security Council. The Court sits at the Hague in
Holland. Its main function is to arbitrate in disputes among member states
and other parties who undertake to abide by the court's decision. The
court deals with all cases referred to it by member states and all issues
covered by the Charter.

5. The Trusteeship Council

The main function of this Council was to supervise the administration of
Trustee Territories to promote the development of self-government. This
work is now almost over as many such territories are now independent.

6. The Economic and Social Council

Members of this council are elected by the General Assembly for a period
of three years. Its main functions are to: promote Human Rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
facilitate discussions on economic and social issues.
organise international conferences and preparation of draft
conventions for the General Assembly.
supervise performance of services approved by the Assembly for UN
members.
co-ordinate the activities of the Specialised Agencies.

96

 halting conflicts and preserving the peace once it has been achieved
(peacemaking and Peace-keeping).
taking measures to prevent the recurrence of violence among nations
and peoples (post-conflict Peace-building).
The UN has a wider realm of work for peace through decolonisation,
disarmament, international law and socio-economic development. The
world has been plagued by a number of conflicts and massive human
suffering and deprivation. But this would have been far worse without the
continuing efforts of the UN.

Zambia 's benefits as a member ofthe UN

Zambia as a member of the UN participates in the attainment of peace
and security. To underscore this, various UN specialised Agencies are
active in Zambia, for example: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) carries out
programmes in health and education among others.
The United Nations WorldHealth Organisation (WHO) supports and
promotes health programmes in Zambia like immunisation campaigns.
United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) has carried out programmes in the field of education
science and culture since 1974.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) gives loans to Zambia and
advice on how to manage the monetary and fiscal policies.
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) assists Zambia in her
drive to improve her food production capacity.

97

 United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

(UNICEF) targets children and women in sectors such as health,
education water supply and nutrition.

Conclusion
This unit has covered International Relations in the context of Zambia's
Foreign policy and her membership to three international organisations
namely the GAD, the Commonwealth, and the UN. International
understanding and co-operation are important components of Civics
Education. As Civics teachers you should take part in activities that
promote international solidarity.

98

lQ

l.. __H_u_m_a_D_R_ig_h_t_s_ _
Introduction

Today, people are advocating for the promotion and enjoyment of Human
Rights. Human Rights are claims which individuals make against the
rulers. These are inherent to all human beings. Every human being
irrespective of his or her culture, religion, nationality, political opinion and
tribe is entitled to the enjoyment of human rights.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to; define the concept of Human Rights.
give a brief history of the United Nations Declaration for Human Rights
(UNDHR).
describe the International Convention on Children's Rights.
explain the violations of vulnerable groups in society.
list institutions that safeguard Human Rights.
explain the role of pressure groups in the promotion of Human Rights.
give a case study of Zambia on Human Rights (Munyama Human
Rights Commission).

99

Historical background to the United Nations Declaration for Human

Rights.
The concept of Human Rights dates back to the time of Magna Carta in
England in 1215 AD. It is also associated with the French and American
Revolutions which gave rise to the declaration of des droits de l'homme et
du citoyen and the Bill of Rights (1791). It was a consequence as well as
a means of possible solutions to the detrimental Second World War. This
led to violations of peoples rights. The United Nations which was formed
in 1945, realised that conflict could be best resolved through peaceful
means. Hence in 1948, members of the United Nations General Assembly
ratified the UNDHR which granted all people the following rights and
freedoms:

Right to life and liberty.

Freedom of worship and association.
Right to social security.
Freedom of conscience.
Freedom of movement, residence and nationality.
Right to food, safe and clean water, health, education and shelter.
Right to work and leisure.
Protection from discrimination.
Protection of home and other property.
Protection from torture and inhuman treatment.

The above rights are enshrined in the Zambian Constitution under the Bill
of Rights. The world observes the 10th of December as a Human Rights
Day.

The International Convention on Children's Rights

Although the United Nations touched on the issue of children's' rights, the
General Assembly of the United Nations felt that there was need for a
separate document on Children's' Rights. In 1989 the United Nations

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ratified the International Convention on Children's Rights Charter which

was adopted in 1990.
The convention for Children's Rights included among other basic needs
the following: Adequate life style necessary for the promotion of children's emotional,
physical and social development.
Free and compulsory primary education aimed at preparing children to
participate effectively in democratic governance.
Protection from all forms of child abuse, human exploitation,
discrimination, against the girl child early marriages, child labour and
other forms of violations.

The International Conventions On Women's Rights

Women have since time in memorial been denied full human rights. They
have not enjoyed equal rights with men. Women have been associated
with the kitchen. They have been brought to shoulder heavy
responsibilities and duties in the home, such as firewood and water
collection, child rearing and general home management. Above all they
have and still are producing 75 percent of the food required for human
sustainance.
The latter situation has been prevalent in developing
countries. On the Mrican continent, women in the sub-Saharan Africa
grow about 90 percent of the total food reserves. This is generally
perceived as part of women's natural responsibility in rural areas of the
developing world. Derek Heater (1995) makes the following quotations
from the United Nations report in 1981:-

"Women are halfthe world's population, one third ojthe official

labour jorce and do nearly two thirds oj the world's work hours.

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Yet they receive directly only one tenth of the world's income and
own less than one- hundredth ofthe world's property. "
The above quotation shows how women have been made more vulnerable
in their political, economic and social rights. Women have. been
discriminated against after divorce in terms of property inheritance. In
terms of credit facilities, women have also been discriminated against. In
Zambia today some women especially those in the urban environment
have had little access to borrowing finances from business institutions and
organisations. Most have had to seek permission from their husbands.
Others may borrow using their fathers or brothers. In most parts of
Zambia women are not allowed to own land.
It was therefore these social, economic and political violations that made
the United Nations Charter to lay emphasis on the equal rights between
men and women. According to the United Nations Declaration on Human
Rights, all people are born equal and free in dignity and rights. Hence all
people are entitled to the same rights. In order to improve the status of
women in society, the United Nations Commission on the Status of
Women was established in 1946 by the Economic and Social Council. It
advocated for raising the status of women in politics, education, economic
development, in law and in practice.
In 1952, the United Nations again introduced the Convention on the
Political Rights of women. It was aimed at instituting equal human rights
between men and women in laws.
In 1962, the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for
Marriage and Registration of Marriages was ratified. This was intended to
ensure by national legislation, equal rights for married people.
In 1979, the Discrimination Against Women was ratified. It examined
women's rights in politics, health, education, public life, nationality and
family life.

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In 1993, the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

commission was introduced. This was intended to eradicate any forms of
physical, sexual and psychological discrimination against the female
population throughout the world.
In 1995, a World Conference on Women was also held in Beijing, China.
Thus, we can see that the United Nations has advocated for the
empowerment of women in all fields of human endeavour.

Violations ofHuman Rights

Women and girls
In many spheres of work women have been denied equal rights by their
male counterparts. The girl child has always been discriminated against
from birth into adulthood. Most parents have had preference for the boy
child in terms of education, health, nutrition and so on. In terms of school
enrolment, in Zambia, statistical evidence shows that more boys than girls
are enrolled into schools. In developing countries, the prejudice against
the girl child tends to be based on sexism. In some cases, girls have been
pulled out of schools to enter into early marriages as well as to assist with
household chores. It is important to bear in mind that this category of the
human population too should enjoy equal rights with men. The teaching of
Civics always encourages the development of respect for others.

Refugees
Another group that has been vulnerable since biblical times are refugees
and these can be defined as groups of people who flee from their countries
to live in other countries for religious, economic, political and other forms
of social violations. Almost all countries have received refugees.
Refugees have lost most of their rights and fundamental freedoms. Those
who run away from their countries because of political and other forms of

103

conflict have faced psychological miseries. They have been separated

from their families. They have lost their property and have been denied the
chance to produce their own food and so on. Refugees usually depend on
charity from their host countries. The United Nations High Commission
for Refugees (UNHCR) sees to it that these people are provided with
health facilities, education, clean and safe water and shelter. In some
cases, jobs have been made available to them.
Today, the problem of refugees has become a matter of global concern.
All host nations should tolerate refugees. They too have the right to enjoy
all forms of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms.

Prisoners
These too have suffered in terms of the denial of Human Rights. In most
countries, prisoners may be detained without trial. Sometimes law
breakers have been given unfair trial. National governments should not
interfere with the Courts of Law. They should be made to bear in mind
that no human being can be imprisoned without evidence that they are
guilty of an offence. Sometimes people have been indefinitely put in
police cells where they have been .tortured and some cases they have died
there.

The Aged
Elderly people have been discussed during the United Nations
Conventions for example, the World Assembly on ageing was convened in
Vienna in 1982. It emphasised action in employment, education, financial
security; health, housing, nutrition and social security. The General
Assembly and the Economic and Social Council urges governments and
NGOs to prioritise the matter of ageing populations. They have also
advocated for the creation of government ministries that would look into
the plight of these vulnerable people.

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Institutions til at promote Human Rights.

1. The United Nations Centrefor Human Rights

The United Nations Centre for Human Rights has its Headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland. It has a liaison office in New York. The centre is
headed by the Under Secretary for Human Rights. The functions of this
organisation are outlined below: It assists the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, the
Commission on Human Rights and UN bodies to promote peoples'
rights and fundamental freedoms.
It works in liaison with governmental, inter-governmental and
non-governmental organisations to gather and collect information on
Human Rights. It publishes articles on Human Rights issues.
It also offers secretarial services and substantive information to UN
organisations which advocate for the promotion of peoples' rights.
2. The European Court and Commission

Advocates for international co-operation to protect peoples' rights. Most

European countries are members. They see to it that any person who feels
that his or her rights have been denied should appeal to the court and
commission which comprises the commission of the body of experts of the
court with one judge from each member country but he or she should not
represent their country of nationality in dealing with cases.

3. The Committee of Ministers of Foreign Affairs from all members

states. The commission takes a long-time in solving peoples' problems.

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Non-Governmental Organisations
Non-governmental Organisations are pressure groups that support the
promotion of peoples rights and freedoms, for example the Minority
Rights which has its headquarters in London pressurises rights for groups
of people in the world whose rights have been violated through various
forms of discrimination. They also receive information on human rights
violations and investigate them in order to find solutions. Amnesty
International sees to it that people, world over are not tortured and
imprisoned without fair trial. It ensures that those who are imprisoned
unjustly are released.
The Organisation of Mrican Unity through its Charter sees to it that the
people of Mrica respect each others' rights. It advocates for peace and
security among nations. It observes the concept of attitudes for example,
co-operation, tolerance, inter-dependence and social justice.
The United Nations Commission for Refugees sees to it that refugees are
offered asylum and are provided with all basic human requirements.
At local level, Zambia has many pressure groups that offer various forms
of assistance such as training skills, health, water and other social and
economic services to the disadvantaged groups. Some of these groups
include Churches, the Women Lobby Group and many more. NGOs also
receive and investigate cases of human rights violation. They conduct
seminars and workshops to educate people and disseminate information
on how to solve human rights violations.

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The Munyama Human Rights Commission Report

The Munyama Human Rights Commission was appointed by President
Chiluba in 1993 to look into the plight of vulnerable groups such as those
imprisoned without trial, those who are tortured in police cells and prisons
and women who are bartered by their husbands. The commission has
documented several cases which have been outlined in the report.

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Conflict and Conflict Resolution

~~_ _

0
5

Introduction
Conflict can be defined as a misunderstanding between two persons or
countries. Conflict may take place in the home, school, community,
country, region or the world. The First and Second World Wars were
extreme forms of conflict at global level.

Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to: define the concepts: conflict, peace and resolution.
describe the causes and effects of conflict at national, regional and
global levels.
suggest possible solutions to conflict.
conduct a case study of conflict in Zambia.
In a multi-party system, conflict may occur over inter-party ideologies.
The struggle may be over power, positions, wealth and recognition.
Conflict can also be intra-state (domestic) or inter-state in nature.

Peace
Peace signifies the absence of conflict. Currently many governments spend
a lot of financial resources to buy firearms and ammunition. As a result
some of them are undergoing a state of absolute poverty. However, most
peace loving nations get concerned when peace seizes to be the order of
the day. Peace promotes a given country's national unity and harmony.
The United Nations organisation advocates for international peace in

108

quest to accord any form of conflict. Peace can also be described as a

condition through which a sovereign state can achieve national unity and
be proud of its national heritage. Peace promotes social development. It
stands for condition of national scourge such as, poverty, hunger, disease
and environmental degradation.

Resolution
Resolution of conflict is a way of negotiation through diplomatic means.
This can be attained through round table discussions and negotiations at
national, regional and global levels.

Causes andforms ofconflict

Conflict can be attributed to social, political and economic reasons. Below
are some of the forms of conflict that afflict human beings the world
over:Crime
~rime

is a scourge associated with urbanisation which is characterised by

overcrowding, drug abuse etc. The problem is rampant among the
disadvantaged groups. Added to this problem is the unequal distribution
of resources which is a characteristics of developing countries.

Racial Discrimination
Racial discrimination is a characteristic of racial superiority by certain
racial groups. The founder minority white South African population are a
good example of people who believed in this theory. Racism is associated
with disputes in job opportunities and provision of social amenities like
schools, hospitals, recreation facilities and so on.

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Racial Segregation
Racial segregation stands for separate development policies for different
racial groups. The former Apartheid regime of South Africa was
renowned for this policy. Blacks, Coloureds and Indians were segregated
against. Africans were confined to Bantustans or homelands. Although
these areas were referred to as independent lands, they were not
recognised by the international community.

Genocide
Genocide involves the killing of one group by another. During the reign of
Adolf Hitler between 1939 and 1945, 6 million Jews were killed. In mid
1994, Hutus killed one million Tutsis and moderate Hutus in Rwanda.
Genocide is another extreme form of conflict.

Ethnic Conflict
When tribal groupings become more loyal to its own kind than to the
nation, ethnic conflict arises. Cultural differences may also be a cause of
conflict. Ethnic conflicts have been experienced in Nigeria, Chad and the
Sudan. Somalia is one country in Africa which has experienced inter-clan
wars. Genocide can be attributed to a selfish leadership who has cared
less for the majority.

Colonial Boundaries
Colonial boundaries were demarcated without regard for various ethnic
groups. The partition of Africa by European powers, Britain, Germany,
Belgium, Spain, Portugal, France and Italy aimed at acquiring national
resources such as cotton, cocoa, timber and minerals from Africa, created
some conflict among countries.

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The result of the division of the continent was disparity between Africa
and Europe in terms of social and economic development. Colonial
boundaries also divided people who spoke similar languages and practised
similar cultures, customs and traditions. These colonial boundaries have
also led to border conflicts e.g. Chad, Libya, Somalia and Kenya, Ethiopia
and Somalia.

Unequal Distribution ofscarce resources

Colonialism resulted in unequal distribution of resources. The situation
was made more critical by uneven patterns of development which usually
affected various ethnic groups. For example, the people of northern
Uganda felt that the former British establishment favoured the population
of Southern Uganda in terms of economic development. At the world
level the distribution is extreme. For instance 20 percent of the world's
population in developed countries consume 80 percent of the world's
resources. Unfair distribution of resources have affected the governance
of the African countries. Finances which are meant for the development of
some countries have fallen into the hands of a few political figure heads.

Corruption
This can lead to unfair distribution of resources and political instability.

Religious Conflicts
Religious conflict may arise when a country denies its citizens the right to
practice their religion of their choice. Countries like Lebanon and India
have experienced religious conflicts.

Class Conflict
Class conflict is a social phenomenon which takes place between the rich
and the poor. This type of conflict is as a result of "exploitation" of the

111

poor by the rich. In some countries this conflict has resulted in strikes,
riots, civil wars and revolution e.g. Russia, Cuba and China.

Gender conflict
Gender conflict is a common feature through out the world. Gender
conflict is more prominent in terms of land and property ownership.
Women grow more food in the developing world and yet they have little
con~rol over what they produce.

National or civil wars

National conflicts have been common in Africa since the mid 1970s. The
former Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique experienced
conflicts before and after independence. In Europe, the former republic of
Yugoslavia experienced religious and political differences between
Christian Serbs and Moslem believers. Other Mrican countries that have
experienced conflict are Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, South Mrica and
Sudan.

Inter - state conflict

Conflicts do not only exist within a country but may also take place
between countries. In the 1970s former dictator Idi Amin of Uganda
occupied part of the Republic of Tanzania. This inter-state problem led to
the ousting of Amin. During the 1970s and 80s the former White South
Mrican regime waged war on Angola and Mozambique. In 1980 Iraq and
Iran fought over a piece of land. In 1991 Iraq invaded Kuwait over oil.
This resulted into the desert storm operation which was an alliance of
western countries like the United Kindom, USA, France and others.
In the Middle East conflict has existed since 1948 when Israel was
created. This conflict is over territorial boundaries and economic areas
like the Suez Canal and fishing grounds in the Mediterranean sea.

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Effects ofconflict on society

Wars and conflicts have resulted in the abuse of human rights and social
justice. The numerous wars in a number of countries on the African
continent have resulted in human rights violation through indiscriminating
rape, displacement of people and mass involvement's of refugees from one
country to another. This has been a matter of concern for the international
community. Usually, countries afflicted by war do not develop
economically and socially.

Ways ofresolving conflicts

The world community attempts to stop conflicts in the following ways:-.
Introducing laws and regulations that offer and protect peoples, rights
and fundamental freedoms.
Introducing democratic governance to maintain law and order which
permits equitable use of the resources and use of the means of
production, land, capital and technical skills and knowledge.
Creating regional and international organisations to discuss and
negotiate security, peace, co-operation, tolerance, understanding and
social justice and development.
.. Encouraging refugees to return to their homelands where they can
enjoy their social and political freedoms.
Encouraging free trade and movement of goods between countries and
continents.
Empowering the female population to participate effectively in planning
and decision making. This calls for better political, economic and social
positions in relation to those of the male population.
Introducing common human rights policies that protect peoples' rights.
Teaching about peace, education and co-operation.
Using international tribunals like the International Court of Justice to
resolve political conflict.

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 Sending peace keeping forces to areas of conflicts.

Applying economic sanctions, restricting the arms trade and nuclear
disarmament.
Using preventitive diplomacy.

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Population and Environment

Introduction
Demographic factors refer to changes that take place in a population. The
factors of population change include births, deaths and migration. These
three variables are referred to as components which affect population
change. These variables determine the numbers in a population, its age
composition and how fast it is growing or declining. People studying such
type of information may ask questions such as:How many are they?
What are their ages?
How many births have occurred and to whom?
What are the characteristics of those who die or migrate?
How and why will these change?

It is important to study these changes because human society is a human

made environment within which these processes take place. For instance,
beliefs and attitudes towards procreation, marriage customs, the structure
of the family, the frequency with which people have children, standard of
living, public health practices and methods of treating the ill are closely
related to the incidence of mortality. Ethnic and religious conflicts,
territorial differences in economic opportunity, immigration laws, and the
uprooting of peoples by war are all principal determinants of migration.
Because social factors are so central in the causes of these factors(births,
deaths and migration) it is important to study the characteristics that are
associated with these factors.

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Learning out comes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
d!scuss factors that lead to population change.
discuss population policy.
outline the positive effects on rapid population growth on the
environment.
discuss the negative effects of population growth on the environment.
outline ways of how they can empower the community to care for the
environment.
suggest some policies in the community that can contribute to positive
values of caring for the environment.

Characteristics ofPopulation
It is not only important to know the absolute numbers of the population
inhabiting a selected area but it is also important to learn about their
characteristics. A population has measurable attributes such as age, sex,
marital status, citizenship, rural-urban residence, education, occupation
and income.

Age and sex: These are very important because they are directly related
to fertility and mortality. For instance, only women aged 15-49 are
capable of bearing children. Also, people die more frequently at some ages
than others. The number of births and deaths clearly depend to some
degree on the age-sex composition of a population. For example, from the
1990 Census of Population, the Zambian age structure was as given
below:-

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Distribution of the (de facto) Household

Population by Age, Zambia 1992
Ago

80+
75
70

65
60
55
50
45

40
35
30

25
20

15
10
5

o
10 9

10

Percent

ZDHS 1992

More than 50 percent of the population was below the age of 15.
Marital Status: The institution of marriage is universal and nearly in all
societies the vast majority of births occur to married women. Therefore
the number of marriages and the marital composition of a population are
closely related to trends in the number of births.
Other characteristics may be economic in nature. Occupation groups, for
example differ with respect to fertility and mortality. Occupational
distribution of a population also indicates a great deal about its
socio-economic structure apart from the possible relevance of such
information to population trends.
Theories ofpopulation
Demographic factors discussed earlier have always been associated with
theories. These theories are important in providing explanations to
population changes over time. One of the prominent theories is that of
Thomas Malthus. His theory postulates that unless there are preventive

117

checks to the population, it will outstrip the available resources in terms

of food supply. Malthus theory postulated that population increased
arithmetically (1, 3, 6, 9) while food supply increased geometrically (2, 4,
6, 8). The preventive checks referred to in his theory were that
population growth could only be checked through abstinence from sexual
activities or through hunger, famine, war and disease. The Malthusian
theory has been criticised by several authors pointing out that Malthus
was short sighted and could not foresee the changes that would take place
in technology. Some of these changes include the introduction of
fertilisers to produce high yielding crops as well as family planning
programmes to slow down population growth.

Demographic transition theory

This is another population theory that offers a partial explanation to
population trends that occurred to a number of European countries. The
theory provides a form of advice to the developing countries as to the
various stages that they might go through before their populations can
decline. The theory explains that before a population can decline it is
characterised by different stages such as high mortality, declining
mortality, lower fertility and practice of family planning methods.

First Stage:- This stage is characterized by high mortality because of the

absence of facilities such as modern medicine and poor sanitation. In this
case birth rates tend to be high as a form of replacement for high deaths
occurring in a population.
Second Stage:- For this stage mortality begins to decline because of
improvement in technology. However, births are still very high.
Third Stage:- In this particular stage fertility begins to decline simply
because individuals begin consciously to control their fertility. Institutions
that favour fertility reduction are set up.

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It is importa.nt to analyse whether this theory can be relevant to changes

taking place in different populations.

Population policies

Recognising that social and economic problems may be caused by

particular levels of population growth and by distribution of populations,
governments at various stages have intervened in an attempt to regulate
population dynamics. Population policies are those measures adopted by
governments .to alter the natural course of population change. The
ultimate aim is the achievement of primary goals like the enhancement of
national security, and of economic and social welfare. There are two
types of policies "Pro-natalist" and"Anti-natalist".
Pro-natalist exist mainly in countries where fertility has fallen. It embraces
strategies of promoting positive attitudes to child bearing through the
provision of financial incentives and the creation of moral climate
approving large families.
Anti-natalist are those policies mainly aimed at reducing fertility. For
instance, Zambia pronounced its population policy in 1989 which is
anti-natalist aimed at reducing fertility levels from 7.2 children per woman
to at least 4 children per woman by the year 2000.

World population
Although estimates of the world's population before the twentieth century
are less reliable, it is estimated that today the world population exceeds,
five billion people and has been growing at a very fast rate since 1700.
The United Nations (1988) reported that since the 18th century the rate of
growth of population speeded up largely because of falling death rates, so
that on average for many countries life expectancy increased.

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The unprecedented growth rates of the population has far reaching

consequences for the development process of many countries. For
instance, during the past decades issues concerning population growth
have become the centre of controversy with population conferences held
in 1974, 1984 and 1994 (Bucharest, Mexico, Cairo). At all these
conferences, focus has been on the advantages and disadvantages of rapid
population growth. Population growth has been viewed as an obstacle to
development because of the pressure it continues to exert on the resources
and the declining standards of living in many parts of the world.
Alternatively population growth has not been viewed as a problem as it
continues to stimulate technology to meet the demands of increasing
population. Therefore, the linkages between population growth and the
environment are among the issues causing concern to environmentalists,
social scientists, educationists and many others concerned with policy
making in different countries.

Population growth and renewable and non-renewable

resources
Renewable resources are those that can be replenished like forests while
non-renewable resources can not be replenished like minerals. In many
developing countries forests are a common property where all have access
without limitations. Because of this, there is large scale degradation
without necessarily forseeing the importance of forests in protecting the
environment. For instance, the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED: 1987) report points out that in spite of the massive
investment in urban electrification, the majority of urban households in
developing countries depend on fuel-wood for cooking and heating. In
Zambia 65 - 100 percent of urban households use fuel-wood and charcoal
for cooking and heating. The destruction or conversion can exert serious
long term effects on the environment particularly the ecology, rain-cycle
and on human and plant life. It is therefore important for us to understand
that forests constitute a fundamental factor of environmental stability.

120

World level examples of population pressure on the forests are cited from
Brazil and India. Brazil's development strategies of encouraging migration
into the Amazon forest have been responsible for the destruction of the
rain forests. In India and China the destruction is directly tied to overpopulation as timber cutters respond to the needs of the cities for
fire-wood and timber. Other resources like wildlife are also endangered.
Water also continues to be polluted.
It is estimated that non- renewable resources are limited, and these will
probably be consumed within the next few hundred years. These products
include fossil fuel, coal, petroleum and natural gas. It is pointed out in the
same report that the consumption of these fossil fuels e;g. coal has
increased since 1965. In 1994 the same commission pointed out that only
1.2 percent of the total value of all production is that of non-fuel mineral
resources. This implies that ever increasing population has to rely on
other sources of energy.

Population growth and agricultural practices

Changes in agricultural practices have contributed to environmental
degradation. Brown (1989) points out that "nowhere is this more clear
than in Africa where a combination of recorded population growth and
wide spread degradation is reducing the grain productivity". Mrica's grain
productivity in particular has declined since 1967 and this has converted
the continent into a grain importer thereby accumulating a huge debt.
Brown also mentions that forest productivity is being diminished by
grassland degradation. This problem is highly visible in Mrica (Botswana)
where livestock numbers have expanded nearly as fast as human
population. Boserup (1990) also shows a relationship between land area
and the population that has to be supported. She says in most cases where
there has been population pressure, land has continued to be cleared and
improved to give way to different systems of agriculture. In this case the
concept of carrying capacity should be emphasised. This is the optimum

121

size of population that can be supported by the environment in tern:'s of

available resources.
At home (Zambia) the Chitemene System of agriculture is one good
example of an ecological disaster if it continues to be practised. This is
because forests regenerate after a long time and there is a possibility of
desertification in the near future.
With increasing population there has been the need to produce enough
food through use of pesticides and fertilizers. Achievements of such
practices have been recorded in India and China. However, the major
issue is that of its effect on the environment. There may be inadequate
statistical data to show the current quantity of pesticides in the
environment, but it is assumed that the whole world has been exposed to
DDT.

Population growth and pollution

Population growth has been cited among the major contributors to the
deterioration of the environment. Increased consumption comes in as a
result of increased population. Air, water and the surroundings that we
live in are classic examples of environmental degradation where
population is a major contributor. Both developed and developing
countries' combustion of products are exhausted into the atmosphere
causing an environmental imbalance. As for water, in many developing
countries as the population grows there is more demand for sewerage
treatment facilitates which might have been adequate before. It is also a
well known fact that today many countries are facing a disposal crisis for
most of their waste products. Therefore, increased population will
produce more wastes and reduce the valuability of land for dumping
wastes.

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Positive effects ofpopulation on the environment

There are situations where the population is not a threat to the
environment. The 1974 Bucharest Conference viewed population growth
as a real problem and saw the need to adopt relevant policies which could
help the proper utilisation of the available resources. Todaro (1989) states
that in terms of resource consumption, developed countries with less than
one quarter of the world population consume directly almost 16 times as
much of the world's food energy and material resources. Some people
strongly argue that rapid population growth may not prevent fast
economic growth and that population growth is not a major source of
environmental degradation. They argue that although food shortages are
always associated with population growth it may not be true. Hunger and
diet deficiency may be so prevalent in many developing countries, but the
major problem is that food supplies are controlled by government
programmes and farmers who want to sell at a profit where the majority
of the population may not afford to pay.
Rapid population growth provides labour supply in countries where there
are numerous industries.

Conclusion
In Zambia, the way we keep our environment shows the extent of the
sense of responsibility to property and also respect for our resources. We
should be aware that we live in a world of interdependence within our
ecosystem and therefore we should bring up citizens who do not only
exploit the environment but also take care of it by e.g. using toilets,
planting trees and cleaning the surroundings. These values should be
inculcated in pupils and the surrounding community. Therefore, a school
should be a model of environmental awareness to the surrounding
community. Our environment faces major problems of deforestation,
firewood, air pollution, garbage dumping, contamination of water, soil
degradation, dilapidated and dirty buildings and poor sanitation. There is

123

therefore need to educate the pupils on environmental problems. They

should acquire values of concern and responsibility for the them to
participate in efforts to care fOf the environment. Today, many countries
are faced with the challenge of re-afforestation which have proved
successful where they have been implemented.
This unit has focused on the relationship between population and the
environment. This aspect is important in that we live in a community
where we are interdependent. The unit has also considered the positive
and negative effects of population growth on the environment.

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Gender Issues and Development

Introduction
Over the past decades there has been increasing pressure on governments
to recognise the importance of women's contribution to developmental
issues. This is because a number of development strategies have failed to
address women as equal partners in development.
A clear understanding and appreciation of how gender acts as a social
variable and organising principle in society which in turn affects access to
land, control over development, resources and other benefits is crucial.
This will bring an increased awareness, understanding and appreciation of
gender issues and also of areas in which women are discriminated against.
This unit focuses on certain gender issues in order to make you aware of
the importance of pressurising governments and society to promote
gender equality in all aspects of development.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
describe the historical development of Women in Development (WID)
and its linkages to Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and
Development (GAD).
distinguish between gender and sex roles.
discuss how cultural practices and myths affect male and female
participation in education and socio-economic development.
discuss how gender roles are linked to the value system of society.

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 describe how perceived gender roles affect female participation in

development.
, discuss the role of government and NGOs in promoting gender equity in
development.

Terminology
Gender: Refers to the identity of men and women in any society. It is a
variable that is used to establish the socio-cultural relationship between
males and females. It is culturally and physiologically determined as
opposed to sex which is biologically determined.
Development: This concept has no universally agreed upon definition. It
may be taken to refer to economic growth, modernisation or
transformation in the quality of social, cultural and economic status of
individuals as a given society moves from one level to another. The
definition involves an improvement in the quality of life for all (see unit 2
on Economics).
Myths: Beliefs which people have about men and women in society. These
beliefs may be in terms of personal qualities, mental capabilities, physical
characteristics and roles and duties in society.
Gender roles: These are acquired modes of behaviour in a given social
context. They determine which activities, tasks and responsibilities are
considered feminine or masculine. In terms of men's and women's
activities gender roles may be termed reproductive, productive or
community-linked.
Sex roles: refers to the function that a male or female performs by virtue
of his or her biological characteristics. Sex roles are closely linked to
human reproduction.

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The emergence ofgender and development

In the quest to deal with the unequal situation between men and women,
various women's movements and issues as advanced by United Nations
organisations and other bodies, have been developed through time. Issues
of gender and sex have been of great interest as addressed by this question
"Why Women in Development when development is thought to benefit
everyone?" This doesn't seem to be the case as development planning and
implementation is skewed towards the modern and public sector which
favours mostly men. Since the recognition of this fact various approaches
have been advanced.
Before the theoretical approach of Gender and Development, women's
movements and world bodies came up with Women in Development
analysis (WID). WID focused on highlighting the important roles of
women and documenting the need for women's equitable position in
society and the development process. Therefore, WID exclusively focused
on women . The WID approach aims at integrating women in
development by increasing their participation (through separate
programmes/projects for women), but does not necessarily address itself
to the benefits of women's participation. This approach worsened the
situation for women by overburdening them with additional activities and
further marginalizing them from the mainstream of development
programmes. However, many developing countries including Zambia
adopted the WID approach.
The Women and Development (WAD) approach which developed in the
1970s is Marxist oriented in that it uses the analogy of North-South
relations to explain women's oppression and exploitation by men. The
exploitation of women by men is perceived as arising from the existing
male dominated or patriarchal structures. This approach suggests that
women can only develop by avoiding men i.e. through self-reliance. It is
derived from the development theory analogy that suggests that "the

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South can only gain freedom and develop by cutting ties with the
exploitative developed North".
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach is more of a reaction to
the first two approaches which helped further marginalize the women in
socio-economic development. GAD deals with what both women and men
do by seeking equal participation and equal employment benefits. Overall,
this approach seeks to understand the root causes of gender inequality
such as poverty and lack of basic services and addresses itself to these
causes. It emphasises equality of benefit and control and concerns itself
with social construction of gender that also determines division of labour,
access and control of resources. Therefore GAD involves greater
participation of women and men especially the poor, in defining and
shaping the development process with the ultimate goal of empowering
women. This means that GAD also gives special attention to women.

Gender and sex roles

Distinguishing various roles, duties, and responsibilities pertammg to
women and men in the prevailing division of labour and understanding
how these are incorporated into the value system of society is very
important. The distinctions assist one to understand why people behave in
certain ways at different times. Gender roles are learnt socio-cultural
modes of behaviour and they condition activities, tasks and responsibilities
of men and women. Sex roles are biological roles performed by men and
women e.g. sperm production by men or conception and lactation by
women. Sex roles are very few and are mainly restricted to child bearing.

Gender,myths, values and attitudes

Gender values and attitudes affect participation of men and women in the
development process. At the individual level, gender values affect one's
perception and belief of what he or she should be doing (his or her role)

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and is capable of doing depending on which gender he or she belongs to.

At societal level, jobs, social services, credit facilities and so on, are
designed to what is deemed appropriate to that gender. The following are
some of the commonly held myths, attitudes and values about males and
females: Boys are academically more intelligent than girls.
ED Boys are good at science and mathematics subjects while girls are weak
in these areas.
Boys are assertive or aggressive while girls are less assertive and are
paSSIve.
Girls are kind.
Boys are stronger.
Men are breadwinners.
Men are the heads of families.
II Girls will always get married.
Boys propagate lineage (family name).
lit Men are decision makers.
o A woman's/girl's place is in the kitchen.
Men are interested in things and ideas while women are interested in
people and feelings.
Girls are submissive.
The above stereo-typed myths, values and attitudes are usually assumed to
be correct without critically appraising them. Though their content may
not be necessarily true, they are influential to those who uphold them. For
instance, married women who wish to hold on to their "respectable" status
will argue, among others, that single mothers are miserable women.

Institutions that perpetuate gender myths, values' and

attitudes
In society, there are institutions that help transmit and promote gender
values and attitudes. Despite the talk about equality of opportunity in all

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aspects of development there is a deeper current of assumptions that the

capabilities, interests and behaviour of individuals are related to their sex.
These assumptions manifest themselves in different treatment of females
and males as briefly indicated by the following institutions:-

1. Learning institutions
In institutions of learning, males and females are treated differently
because of the upheld myths, values and attitudes. Different experiences
and training opportunities are offered in a gender discriminatory manner.
Values and attitudes are imparted to children by teachers, books and
peers. A female student, for instance, may lose her academic potential in a
mathematics subject because she may believe that females are not good at
mathematics. Other results of perpetuating myths, values and attitudes
are: Boys are offered science and mathematics subjects while girls are made
to study the traditional "girls" subject courses such as Home Economics,
Typing and Nursing.
Teachers expect boys to be more intelligent than girls and encourage
them to work hard.
Teachers make boys participate more in class than girls.
Boys take technical subjects and even pursue technical courses unlike
the girls. For example, boys become engineers and doctors while girls
become nurses and secretaries.

2. The Family
This is the primary and most important social unit of society. It serves the
functions of reproduction, production, socialisation, consumption and

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provision of labour. The family transmits and promotes gender values and
attitudes in the following ways: The belief that boys will propagate lineage and support the family while
girls get married. This marginalizes girls in a home.
In case of limited resources families prefer to educate and spend more
money on boys than on girls if made to choose between the two sexes.
Parents make girls do most of the household work, leaving them with
little or no time for study.
Girls perform poorly at school because they are made to believe that
they will get married and be taken care of.

3. Traditional institutions(Initiation Ceremonies, etc.)

Socialisation in these institutions leads to:e

Girls becoming passive in class if they undergo initiation ceremonies.

Women not taking part in decision making at home or even at the work
place.
Women, especially married ones, becoming submissive to men.

4. Tile church
Religious institutions perpetuate gender myths, values and attitudes in the
following ways: Decisions are usually made to discriminate against women e.g. there
may be no female pastors because of gender.

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 Doctrines that are based on the submissive nature of women denied

them an opportunity to hold positions of leadership in the church.

5. Other agents ofsocialisation that reinforce sex-discriminatory

behaviour include the community (e.g. through peer groups) and the
mass media folk heroes(e.g. models and musicians).

Effect of myths, values and attitudes on education and

development
The practices resulting from the reinforced gender values, attitudes and
beliefs are as follows: Poor performance of girls in class since they lack the spirit of
competition.
Better performance and participation of boys in class.
High progression for boys while most girls drop-out.
Fewer women in managerial decision making positions.
More women in "inferior" types ofjobs.
Women's economic dependency on men.
e At work, women stay in the same positions because it is not feminine to
be ambitious Men, even those who are less competent, come and get
promoted because there is nothing wrong with men being ambitious.

Gender and politics in zambia

Female representation in the highest circles of government is less than 10
percent world wide. Women hold no ministerial positions in 93 countries
around the world. In 1990, only 3.5 percent of cabinet positions around
the world were held by women. By 1991 there were 7 female heads of
state. In 1996, only 2 women were cabinet ministers in Zambia. The
change from one party to a multi-party system has not changed the
position of women in terms of national decision making either.

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It should be observed that women's formal and non-formal contribution to

the economy is emomous. Their access to political institutions cannot only
enhance production and welfare for all. Women should not only be
represented but be allowed to present men and women. They should be
allowed to participate effectively without intimidation or any form of
gender-based discrimination. But the following legislative and legal
matters should be addressed if women are to achieve greater political
empowerment:-

Ownership and access to land.

Access to credit and loan facilities.
Promotion of women to high public offices.
lit Elimination of gender discrimination in employment and remuneration.
Provision of social services such as water and health that would
improve women's roles and reduce their work load.

Government and NGOs role in promoting women's

participation in development
There are several ways in which women's status can be improved so that
there is increased participation of women in national development.
Education plays a major role in fostering this change. Women who have
some educational background stand a better chance in life and can have
better nutritional status for their families among others.
Despite women's exposure to some form of education not all end up being
empowered as seen from their inability to infiltrate the "male" jobs or own
land and property or even have full rights to inheritance of property.
Within the Zambian government there is only one wing called the Women
in Development unit at the National Commission for Development
Planning (NCDP) which aims at fostering women's rights to equal
participation with men in national issues. Otherwise most of the groups

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that promote women participation in national development belong to the

voluntary and non-governmental organisations.
There are a number of Non-governmental organisations that aim at
promoting the welfare of women. A number of these NGOs were formed
immediately after the 1980 World conference on women. They are
co-ordinated by an umbrella body known as the Non-governmental
Co-ordinating Committee (NGOCC) to avoid duplication of roles. In
Zambia over 30 NGO's are members of the NGOCC. Roles of these
Non-governmental organisations vary from place to place, but all aim to
ensure that there is full participation of women in national development
issues. In a democratic society like Zambia, NGO's have become an
important form of pressure group. They keep an eye on the government
so that issues aimed at improving the welfare of women are looked into.
Some of them are:J. The Village Industry Service (VIS). VIS for sometime has been

conducting various courses for both men and women to increase their
skills of entrepreneurship. It also provides credit assistance to
strengthen women's enterpreneurship capacity.

2. The Zambia Association for Research and Development (ZARD) is

also an important organisation that conducts research on the welfare of
women. Such research helps the national planners and implementors to
identify areas of focus in improving their standard of living.
3. Women's Lobby Group is another pressure group aimed at
encouraging female participation. For instance in 1995/96 this group
undertook several activities to encourage women to participate in
politics and decision making.
There are several other organisations that campaign against discrimination
against women. Some of them provide financial assistance like Women's
Finance Trust Fund. Others provide assistance in form of reform of

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women behaviour such as the Tasintha, Centre for Battered Women and
the Young Women's Christian Association(YWCA). Others provide
assistance in form of protecting women's rights such as the Legal Aid
Clinic for Women. With several world conferences that always emphasize
the importance of recognizing females as equal partners in development, it
is important that women and the girl child receive adequate education.
This will encourage them to participate fully in all areas of development.

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Methodology

SUGGESTED METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES OF

TEACHING CIVICS
This manual examines methods and strategies of teaching Civics. As the
heading reads, the suggested methods referred to below, can be applied
together with other techniques the teacher may wish to use.

What is Civics?
Civics is a living subject. It deals with human beings and their natural and
social environments. This means that it operates within onds immediate
environment. The teaching of Civics can also be based on the aspect of
awareness creation about people's social, cultural, political and economic
development. Pupils ought to be sensitized to the idea of living and
working together in one world. They have to know that they live in a
multi-cultural and multi-racial environment inhabited by people with
different religious practices, cultural values, traditions and customs as well
as diverse political ideologies and economic policies.
Civics is an interdisciplinary subject. This means that it covers a wide
range of subjects in the school curriculum. Civics can be taught through
History, Geography, Environmental Science, Moral and Spiritual
Education, Political Science and Economics.
The teaching of core values, attitudes, social and study skills are not often
emphasized. These are necessary in character shaping of pupils. The
subject should therefore be taught in such a way that Pupils should grow
up into useful global citizens.

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Methods of Teaching
Research has proved that the success of a lesson depends on the. type of
methods applied during the learning process. In selecting these methods
the teacher should consider the pupil's varied abilities, interests and levels
of learning. The method chosen should be pupil - centred rather than
teacher-centred. The method should encourage maximum pupil
participation. The teacher therefore plays the role of a facilitator. Pupil
motivation can be achieved by applying a wide range of teaching and
learning methods.
Below are some of the suggested methods which can be used to teach
civics effectively:-

- Debate:- this involves an argument or contest or formal discussion

between two groups of people. The purpose of deabte is to encourage
pupils to develop the skill and ability to argue. Among the topics that can
be presented using the debate method are democracy and dictatorship,
conflict and conflict resolution, Human Rights, International Relations and
Political Parties in realtion to the Zambian struggle for independence.

-Brain storming-this is a method which can be applied at the beginning of

a problem solving solution. It is recommended because it involves critical
thinking or analytical skills. In this way, therefore, a wide range of
alternative solutions to the problem can be arrived at. Human Rights,
Democracy, Conflict and Conflict resolution are among the topics suitable
for this method.

-Inquiry approach:- this technique enables the pupil to gather information

through questioning in order to arrive at a valid conclusion. The method
promotes child interaction and creativity. It covers the following aspects:- identification of the problem.
- statement of the problem.

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- formulation of the hypothesis

- information gathering.
- data interpretation or analysis.
- recommendations and conclusions.
The suggested topics for this method are Human Rights, Population and
Environment and Gender Issues and Development.

Field trips:- it exposes the learner to real-life situations outside the

classroom. It is a scientific approach which allows pupils to investigate the
problem with the teacher as facilitator. During the field trip, pupils are
able to observe and record data. The pupils may compare information,
discuss,interpret data, analyse and synthesise various aspects under
investigation. Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Population 'and
Environment and Gender and Development can be taught using the field
trip method.

Project method:- this method offers pupils a wide range of participation.

Projects can be done individually or in groups. However, all the tasks
assigned should be related to the main theme. Pupils can draw or model or
gather information from museums and archives, newspapers, textbooks
and libraries.

Written methods:- these are usually found in libraries and archives. They
expose the teacher and the learners to a wide reserve of information. Once
recorded information cannot be altered. The method can be used to teach
all topics in the syllabus.

Role playing (theatre or drama):- the method is ideal for inroducing or

summerising a lesson. It involves pupil participation - even those who are
slow can be given something to do. The method can be applied to teach
Human Rights, Conflict and Conflict Resolution, Gender and
Development.

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 DisCllssion:- this is a popular teaching method. It encourages pupils to

express themselves. It may invoive the question and answer technique. It
also allows for pupil- teacher interaction. However, an untrained teacher
may find it difficult to use. The method is very effective for group work.
It can be used to teach all topics in the syllabus.
Lecture method:- the lecture method is one of the most popular
strategies. It is teacher-centred; the teacher is active while the learner
remains passive. The method can be used effectively to teach big classes.
It can be used to teach all topics in the syllabus.
Question and Answer:- like the lecture method, this method is very
popular. Most of the time, the teacher applies low level questioning which
does not encourage high level thinking skills. Today, only those questions
which encourage high learning skills are recommended. The teacher can
use it throughout the course.
Textbook: - The textbook method is widely used by teachers. However,
pupils should be guided on how the book should be used. Ideally, recent
publications are recommended. Out-dated information does not serve any
purpose at all. All topics can be effectively taught using the textbook
technique.

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