Midwifery in Europe: An Inventory in Fifteen EU-member States

Midwifery in Europe
An inventory in fifteen EU-member states
J.K. Emons
M.I.J. Luiten
Under the authority of and

in co-operation with the EMLC
For more information please contact:
The European Midwives Liaison Committee (EMLC)

Rembrandtlaan 44
P.O. Box 18
3720 AA Bilthoven
The Netherlands
Telephone: +31 (30)-2294299
Contact:
Rafael van Crimpen, secretary EMLC
Deloitte & Touche

Kastanjelaan 6
P.O. Box 336
3830 AJ Leusden
The Netherlands
Telephone: +31 (33)-4537200
Contact:
Robert Eikelenboom, senior consultant Deloitte & Touche Bakkenist

Suzanne van Uffelen, senior consultant Deloitte & Touche Bakkenist
Contents
Foreword
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1 Phases
2.2 Comments
9
10
3. Midwifery in Europe
12
4. Finance systems
14
4.1 Insurance systems

4.2 National system of (generally tax financed) health care
14
15
5. Midwifery in Austria
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
17
The midwife
The midwifery system
Number of professionals
Finance and income
Training
Developments
Statistics
17
18
19
19
21
21
22
6. Midwifery in Belgium
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
23
The midwife
Finance and income
Training
Developments
Statistics
23
24
25
25
27
28
29
7. Midwifery in Denmark
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
30
The midwife
Finance and income
30
31
32
32
7.5 Training
7.6 Developments
7.7 Statistics
33
34
35
8. Midwifery in Finland
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
36
The midwife
Financing and income
Training
Developments
Statistics
36
38
39
40
42
42
44
9. Midwifery in France
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
45
The midwife
Training
Developments
Statistics
45
46
48
48
50
51
53
10. Midwifery in Germany
54
10.1 The midwife

10.2 The midwifery system
10.3 Number of professionals
10.4 Financing and income
10.5 Training
10.6 Developments
10.7 Statistics
54
55
56
57
59
59
60
11. Midwifery in Greece
61
11.1 The midwife

11.5 Training
11.6 Developments
61
62
63
63
65
66
11.7 Statistics
67
12. Midwifery in Ireland
68
12.1 The midwife

12.4 Finance and income
12.5 Training
12.6 Developments
12.7 Statistics
68
69
70
70
72
73
74
13. Midwifery in Italy
75
13.1 The midwife

13.5 Training
13.6 Developments
13.7 Statistics
75
76
76
77
79
79
80
14. Midwifery in Luxembourg
81
14.1 The midwife

14.5 Training
14.6 Developments
14.7 Statistics
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
15. Midwifery in the Netherlands
89
15.1 The midwife

15.5 Training
15.6 Developments
15.7 Statistics
89
90
93
94
96
96
97
16. Midwifery in Portugal
99
16.1 The midwife

16.5 Training
16.6 Developments
16.7 Statistics
99
100
100
101
102
103
104
17. Midwifery in Spain
105
17.1 The midwife

17.5 Training
17.6 Developments
17.7 Statistics
105
106
107
107
109
110
111
18. Midwifery in Sweden
112
18.1 The midwife

18.5 Training
18.6 Developments
18.7 Statistics
112
113
114
115
117
118
119
19. Midwifery in the United Kingdom
120
19.1 The midwife

19.4 Finance and Income
19.5 Training
19.6 Developments
19.7 Statistics
120
121
122
122
124
125
126
20. Summary and conclusions
127
20.1 Threats
127
20.2 Conditions
20.3 To continue
128
129
Supplements
131
Supplement 1: Names of all participants

Supplement 2: Questionnaire
Supplement 3: Ideal midwifery
Supplement 4: Tables
Supplement 5: Literature
132
134
154
156
166
Foreword
The European Midwives Liaison Committee, which currently meets on an annual
basis, is a midwives committee representing professional associations of midwives
from each of the member States of the European Union. Observer status is granted to
midwife representatives in the professional associations of midwives from countries
that have made an application to join the European Union and countries of the
European Economic Area. The committee has links with European and global health
professional organisations.
The European Midwives Liaison Committee previously carried out a survey on the
Activities, Responsibilities and Independence of Midwives within the European
Union. This survey, which was the first survey of its kind, taking place between 1989
and 1994, involved the then twelve Member States and was published in 1996. This
document was extremely valuable.
At its meeting in 2001, the European Midwives Lia ison Committee considered that
there was a need to review the role of the midwife in the fifteen member States of the
European Union. This review commenced in February 2001 and was concluded in
September 2001. The findings of this research will provide an important base, which
can further embellish the midwifery profession and more importantly, will influence
the care of mothers and babies in a positive way.
The deep appreciation of the European Midwives Liaison Committee has been
expressed to Mandy Luiten and Josine Emons who, in a short time, produced such a
comprehensive report. Their diligence is remarkable and admirable. Gratitude is also
expressed to all who completed the questionnaires and who attended meetings
involved in the research, especially Dorthe Taxbol, Rafael van Crimpen and Jan van
Gorp. Deloitte & Touche in The Netherlands, and in particular Mr. Giljam Lokerse,
who provided very generous financial assistance for this research. For this and for all
their support, the European Midwives Liaison Committee thanks Deloitte & Touche
most sincerely.
Anna Monaghan
President
European Midwives Liaison Committee.
1.
Introduction
The report presented here is the result of research on midwifery care in Europe,
carried out in co-operation with The European Midwives Liaison Committee (EMLC)
and Deloitte & Touche. This study started in February 2001 and ended in September
2001.
The EMLC aims to represent the interests of all midwives in Europe. To achieve this
target it is necessary for the EMLC to gain an insight into the obstetric systems of all
European Union member states. The objective of the research is to make an inventory
of the most important characteristics of the different midwifery systems.
The survey therefore focuses on the job responsibilities and competencies of
midwives, their position within the health care system, the training and statistics, such
as the numbers of midwives and their income. In addition, the finance structure of the
health care system in general and more specifically midwifery care are examined.
Because of the occurrence of a lot of changes with respect to these subjects, some
future developments have also been investigated. Based on this inventory in all the
countries involved, the EMLC expects to make a declaration about the future policy
concerning midwives in Europe.
The EMLC wants her members, the national umbrella organisations of midwives, to
be actively involved in defining the state of affairs and the development of a future
policy. That is why the organisations were asked to participate in the survey by filling
in a questionnaire and attending a working conference in Amsterdam. The methods
of the study will be discussed more thoroughly in the next chapter.
On the basis of the new insights collected by this survey, midwives in Europe will be
able to draw up a plan to improve their position.
The report contains twenty chapters in total. In Chapter 2 the methods of the study are
discussed. A brief discussion of the European directives on midwives tasks and
responsibilities is given in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 is about the definitions used in the
report with regard to health care systems and finance structures. Then the descriptions
of the midwifery systems follow, each country being considered separately (Chapters
5 to 19). In Chapter 20, the researchers summarise the report and make some
recommendations for future research and policies.
2.
Methods
The purpose of the study is to describe the midwifery systems of all European
member states: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and The
United Kingdom.
The study was implemented by two researchers of Deloitte & Touche The
Netherlands, supported by a working group in which the vice-president, the secretary
and an advisor of the EMLC and three Deloitte & Touche consultants participated.
With regard to the collecting of information, the researchers were, to a large extent,
dependent on the members of the EMLC. A list with the names of all participants is
attached to this report as supplement 1. The study was made up of several different
phases.
2.1
Phases
By means of desk research, the researchers tried to gather as much information as

possible about the obstetric systems. Because there was limited literature available,
the researchers decided to compose a questionnaire on the main features of midwifery
systems. The questionnaire is attached to this report as supplement 2. All umbrella
organisations of midwives were asked to fill out the questionnaire.
The subjects that were discussed in the questionnaire, are:
1. Birth and death rates
2. Care provided by midwives
3. Numbers of professionals
4. Division of tasks between professionals active in midwifery care
5. Finance structure and income
6. Training
7. Historical deve lopments
8. Opportunities and threats.
These were also the main subjects that were presented per country at the group
meeting in Amsterdam on 21 and 22 June 2001. Of the fifteen umbrella organisations,
that returned the questionnaire, twelve were represented at this meeting. Only Austria,
Finland and Sweden were unavoidably detained. One of the purposes of the working
9
conference was that each country got the chance to elucidate and comment on the
presentation of his or her midwifery system. The researchers were able to gather
complementary information on the subjects. Moreover, the group meeting was used to
exchange thoughts about what would be an 'ideal midwifery system'. The results of
this group discussion are noted partly in Chapter 20 and further noted in supplement
3.
Deloitte & Touche offices in Austria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, Sweden and
the United Kingdom provided some complementary information about the financial
aspects of their health care systems and midwives income.
Having collected a lo t of information, the researchers made a description of each
midwifery system, which was checked by the EMLC-member concerned.
This is, in short, the description of the realisation of this report that will serve as a
starting point for the EMLCs future policy. The results of the study are presented in
tables as well (see supplement 4).
2.2
Comments
One of the pitfalls of the study is that the researchers use the Dutch midwifery system
as their frame of reference, due to their Dutch origin. Therefore, the questionnaire
might have contained questions and definitions based on the Dutch system, open to
various interpretations by other countries. Due to this and to the linguistic problems
between the countries, confusion about apparently simple definitions arose during the
filling in of the questionnaires and during the group meeting.
This problem has been overcome, as much as possible, by using member-checks over
and over again. Before sending the questionnaire to the umbrella organisations, it was
checked by two members of the Board of the EMLC. A Dutch midwife, who has been
working in Spain for several years, has critically judged whether the questionnaire
was also suitable for countries other than The Netherlands. As said in paragraph 2.1,
every member got the chance to comment on the final description of the midwifery
system.
It should be noted that this report is not a plea for any particular midwifery system,
for it recognises the reality of a range of appropriate systems. It aims to identify the
main features of the different midwifery systems. Only in the last chapter, do the
researchers conclude on the characteristics of a perfectly ideal midwifery system
according to the umbrella organisations themselves.
Because of the use of the methods described in paragraph 2.1, the survey represents
the points of view of the midwives only. The study reflects midwives opinions on the
10
midwifery systems and its problems. This is why other professionals who are active in
midwifery care might not fully recognise the system described here, as their own.
On reading the report, one might notice that not every chapter on a country contains
the same (amount of) information. For example, with regard to historical
developments. In those cases, no exhaustive information was available.
In this report, the physicians who are active in midwifery care are referred to as
gynaecologists. This term also encompasses the terms obstetrician-gynaecologist
and obstetrician used in some countries for a physician specialising in obstetric care.
As a final comment, in the report, the midwife is being referred to as a she and the
gynaecologist as a he. Naturally, both professions can be done by women as well as
men. And so it should be read as such.
11
3.
Midwifery in Europe
In the questionna ire, the researchers asked the countries to give a definition of a
midwife. Some countries referred to the definition as stated by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) or the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM).
Countries also referred to the activities of a midwife as laid down in EU-directive
80/155/EEC Article 4. To prevent repetition in the report, these definitions will be
described in this chapter.
The international definition of the midwife, according to WHO, ICM and the
International Federation of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (FIGO) is:
"A midwife is a person, who has been admitted and who has successfully completed
an official course of studies in midwifery, duly recognised in the country in which it is
located, and has acquired the requisite qualifications to be registered and/or legally
licensed to practice midwifery".
Generally, she is a competent care provider in obstetrics, especially trained for care
during normal childbirth. However, there are great differences between countries with
respect to training and tasks of midwives. In many industrialised countries, midwives
function in hospitals under the supervision of obstetricians (WHO 1997).
The effect of the International Definition of the Midwife is to acknowledge that
different midwifery-training courses exist.
Member States of the European Union shall ensure that midwives are at least entitled
to take up and pursue the following activities, according to EU-directive 80/155/EEC
Article 4.
1. To provide sound family planning informa tion and advice
2. To diagnose pregnancies and monitor normal pregnancies; to carry out the
examinations necessary for the monitoring of the development of normal
pregnancies
3. To prescribe or advise on the examinations necessary for the earliest possible
diagnosis of pregnancies at risk
4. To provide a programme for parents to prepare them for parenthood and
childbirth, including advice on hygiene and nutrition
5. To care for and to assist the mother during labour and to monitor the condition of
the foetus in utero by appropriate clinical and technical means
12
6. To conduct spontaneous deliveries including an episiotomy when required and a

breech delivery in urgent cases
7. To recognise the warning signs of abnormality in the mother or infant which
necessitate referral to a doctor and to assist the latter where appropriate; to take
the necessary emergency measures in the doctors absence, in particular the
manual removal of the placenta, possibly followed by the manual examination of
the uterus
8. To examine and care for the newborn infant; to take all initiatives which are
necessary and to carry out immediate resuscitation whenever necessary
9. To care for and to monitor the progress of the mother in the postnatal period and
to give all necessary advice to the mother on infant care, to enable her to ensure
the optimal progress of the newborn infant
10. To carry out the treatment prescribed by a doctor
11. To maintain all records.
The WHO states that in many developed and developing countries, midwives are
either absent or present only in large hospitals where they may serve as assistants to
the obstetricians. In a few European countries, midwives are fully responsible for the
care of normal pregnancy and birth, either at home or in hospital. But in many other
European countries, almost all midwives (if present) practise in hospitals under the
supervision of the obstetrician (1997).
13
4.
Finance systems
In this chapter, some definitions frequently used in this report with respect to the
various finance systems of health care and midwifery care specifically, will be
discussed. The text presented here comes from Y.W. van Kemenades book: Health
Care in Europe (1997).
Health care coverage in Europe is essentially the concern of the countries themselves.
The systems differ in organisation, financing and delivery of health care. Even if one
cannot speak of a common health insurance scheme, similar benefits are included in
the health care packages of all countries. All systems financing and providing health
care are mixed public/private systems.
Systems of financing have a major effect upon the way a health care system operates.
There are two major ways of funding health care: an insurance system and a national
system (funded from tax revenues).
4.1
Insurance systems
There are two kinds of insurance systems: social and private health insurance. The
main difference between both systems is the extent to which the government
determines the functioning of their health insurance and the nature of their demands.
The systems vary in respect to the populations covered, the payments and the social
services, which are included or excluded.
4.1.1
Social health insurance
General features of the social insurance system are a compulsory health insurance
system, paid by employers and/or employees; public and independently controlled
system; a public and non-profit making delivery of care. The group of people to
whom compulsory insurance applies is established statutorily. Premiums (payroll
taxes) are usually based upon solidarity (income and risk) and not on individual risk
factors (age, lifestyle).
There can be reductions, exceptions or special rules for special groups, such as the
disabled, the unemployed, prisoners, low- income workers and the self-employed. The
premium-rate setting can be fixed by the government or by a non-governmental
organisation.
A traditional national insurance system is the most influential type of social insurance,
generally covering the whole population, a large insurance cover, a statutory package
of benefits, an income-related premium, recompenses of in natura and a
reimbursement system for non-competitive executors of the insurance ('sickness
funds').
14
Social health insurance can also have a limited benefits package (in which case
supplementary private insurance exists) or cover a limited group of people.
4.1.2
Private health insurance
In a private health insurance system, the premium is mainly related to individual risk,
and classes of risks are defined (age, sex, state of health, occupation). Everyone in the
same risk class pays the same premium. People in different classes pay different
premiums.
Private insurance is controlled by the government to a lesser extent; there is more
freedom in setting the level of the premium, in defining the classes and the contents of
the benefit packages. There is also competition between insurers.
In many countries, combinations of social and private insurance exist. Private insurers
offer a minimum of a basic package for people excluded from social insurance. In
addition, they offer supplementary benefit packages, comprising what is excluded
from social security (such as co-payments, first class hospital admittance, etc.).
4.2
National system of (generally tax financed) health care
Features of a national system of health care are that the financing takes place through
taxes and that the system is implemented by the government. Expenditure in such
systems is fixed each year in parliamentary budget negotiations. The most familiar
example is the United Kingdom: the National Health Service. In a national system,
every citizen has the right to obtain the care that is available. There is total equity of
care.
In contrast to social sickness funds, healthcare services can be provided in state-run
institutions and be financed extensively via public funding.
All European countries have a mixture of finance systems. For example: private
insurers exist within most national and social insurance systems. And in most
countries in Europe, a combination of taxation and social health insurance payments
provides the main source of finance.
Premiums and taxes can both be combined with co-payments by the citizen to the
health care provider. Co-payments can be either voluntary or compulsory. They are
directly linked to the individual use of health care provisions. There is no Western
country with only co-payments in health care.
15
The following table summarises the characteristics of the two ways of funding health
care.
Insurance system
National system
Compulsory health insurance for specific groups
Government implementation
Income- and risk related premiums
Financing through taxes
Employer/employee cost sharing
Annual budget negotiations
Statutory package of benefits
Free healthcare for all
Supplementary private insurance
Supplementary private insurance
Co-payments
Co-payments
Table 4.1: Health care financing systems
In the next few chapters, the descriptions of the different midwifery systems will be
presented.
16
5.
Midwifery in Austria
5.1
The midwife
5.1.1
Tasks and responsibilities
The job responsibilities of Austrian midwives include providing care and advice to
pregnant women, women who give birth and young mothers and their babies. By
performing these activities, the midwife works within the legal frame of the social
medical system.
The midwifes activities are:
1. To provide family planning information
2. To diagnose pregnancies
3. To recognise abnormalities in time and to co-operate with the doctor
4. To prepare women/couples for parenthood
5. To conduct spontaneous deliveries (including an episiotomy when required and a
breech delivery in urgent cases)
6. To care for the mother and the newborn infant.
By law, the midwife is responsible for normal pregnancy and birth, but in practise
doctors and midwives share the responsibilities. In the case of abnormalities, the
midwife refers to the gynaecologist and thereafter continues to share the
responsibilities with him.
The midwife should always be present at the birth, because it is prohibited by law to
give birth without a midwife.
The profession of midwifery has been protected by law since the
"Bundeshebammengesetz" of 1984.
5.1.2
History
Between the 1940s and 1950s, the home birth-rate was 80%. But since the 1960s there
have been more and more clinical births. As a consequence of this development, the
home birth-rate nowadays is 2%.
From 1960 to 1970, there was a trend towards high-tech births. From 1980 to 1990,
there were more alternative births.
17
Up to 1985, the total number of midwives was in decline; down to 20%, which was
less than the number in 1970. A steady increase occurred only after 1990. Compared
to 1970, 16% more midwives were active in 1998. There was also a clear shift in the
way midwives were practising; in 1970, more than half were either publicly appointed
or self-employed; by 1995 this number had fallen to 19%. At the same time, the
number of midwives practising in hospital has risen substantially, reflecting a decline
in home births (European Observatory 2001).
5.2
Even though Austrian women are free to choose their care provider, 98% of all
women follow the recommendations of the Mutter-Kind-Pass of 1973. This booklet
recommends that all examinations during the pregnancy should be done by a doctor.
So most women choose a gynaecologist to be their primary care provider. In the
future, one consultation with a midwife will be added to the booklet.
Midwives are always present at the birth, but the exact percentages of deliveries
conducted either by midwives or by gynaecologists are not known.
5.2.1
View on pregnancy and birth
The recommendations in the Mutter-Kind-Pass are in conflict with the natural view on
pregnancy and birth in Austria. Even though both midwives and society see
pregnancy and birth as natural processes, the doctor is the main care provider.
5.2.2
Division of tasks
Most women are under the guidance of a gynaecologist. Sometimes, doctors refer the
woman to the midwife.
Gynaecologists and midwives mainly share the responsibilities both in normal and
abnormal cases.
In rural areas, some general practitioners are active in midwifery care.
5.2.3
Place of birth
Parents have a choice between giving birth in hospital, at home or in a maternity

clinic. But just 2% of all births take place at home. The remainder takes place in
hospital (90%) or in a maternity clinic. There are four maternity clinics in Austria;
each of them takes care of no more than 100 births a year. These maternity clinics are
independent institutions, which means that they are not part of the hospitals.
18
5.3
In this paragraph the number of midwives, gynaecologists and general practitioners

active in midwifery care are discussed.
5.3.1
Midwives
In Austria there were 1,550 midwives in the year 2000. Most midwives are between
the ages of 20 and 40 years old.
In 1998, some 10% of active midwives were self-employed, 30% were both selfemployed and working in hospitals, and almost 60% were employed solely in
hospitals (European Observatory 2001).
5.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 2000, there were 590 gynaecologists in Austria.

5.3.3
General practitioners
About 5% of the general practitioners are active in midwifery. They work in rural
areas.
5.4
Finance and income
5.4.1
General insurance system
Austria is a federal state with nine autonomous provinces. The health care system
consists of shared responsibilities between the federal and the provincial authorities
(Lnder), which is based on the federal constitut ion. The Federal Ministry of Labour,
Health and Social Affairs is the supervising authority for the health insurance system
(Van Kemenade 1997).
The social insurance system is a compulsory system and includes health insurance,
pension insurance and accident insurance. The finance system is a mixture of social
insurance (51%), private insurance (8%), co-payments (16%) and taxation (25%)
(ibid.).
There are five social insurance laws. Participants do not have the option to select their
own insurance system, because the deciding factor is membership of an occupational
group. Compulsorily insured persons are covered by the following schemes:
ASVG (Allgemeines Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for all employees and some other

groups
19
GSVG (Gewerbliches Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for the self-employed
BSVG (Bauern-Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for the self-employed in agriculture

and forestry
B-KUVG (Beamten-, Kranken- und Unfallversicherungsgesetz) for civil servants
FSVG (Freiberufliches Sozialversicherungsgesetz): freelancers insurance
Social insurance is administered by 28 social insurance funds, which are selfgoverning bodies under public law (ibid.).
The health insurance schemes are financed by obligatory social security premiums.
Premiums are fixed by law, are income-related and there is a maximum. Employers
and employees contribute to this premium on a 50/50 basis. The income of the social
insurance funds consists of the contributions (premiums) of the insured persons
(88%), prescription charges (11%) and contributions from the federal authorities to
the farmers health insurance scheme (1%).
Private insurance is often supplementary. About 38% of the population have some
degree of private insurance (ibid.).
5.4.2
Reimbursement
The social insurance system is based on a benefit in kind system, instead of the
restitution system of the privately insured.
In general, pregnant woman is entitled to free treatment by a doctor and the assistance
of a midwife (Vertragshebamme) during the pregnancy and after the delivery. A
woman has to have a Mutter-Kind-Pass, which contains information about check-ups.
The woman needs this booklet for her maternity allowance.
But it is also possible to choose a private midwife (Wahlhebamme). She has no
contractual relationship with the insurers of the compulsory system. The pregnant
woman pays the midwife for services rendered and has the possibility of claiming a
maximum of 80% of the costs from the social healthcare system.
Furthermore, the woman is entitled to medication, reimbursement of costs for a
hospital delivery and home care (Dialoog met de Burgers 2001). She can also get
insurance for extra or luxurious midwifery care via additional private insurance.
5.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary for employment, paid per client or paid a fee-forservice. An independent midwife can make a contract with the umbrella organisation
of the social insurance associations, or if she does not have a contract, she can arrange
20
her fees herself and the social insurer will reimburse 80% of the amount of the fee to
the client. For employed midwives, salaries are set by contracts between employers'
organisations and trade unions. The average income annually for midwives working
in a hospital is about 21,802.
5.5
Training
5.5.1
Admission requirements
To be admitted to the midwifery-training course, students need a university entrance

qualification, except for when they are already general or childrens nurses.
5.5.2
Colleges
The duration of the midwifery-training course is three years. Examples of the subjects
that are dealt with are:
Obstetrics
Gynaecology
Anatomy
Physiology
Paediatrics.
The students must complete 3,250 hours of practical experience and 1,530 hours of
theoretical and technical education. The course complies with the European Union
Directives. The training course goes on every three years, with 156 new students
enrolling.
5.6
Developments
According to the Austrian umbrella organisation (sterreichisches HebammenGremium), midwives will become increasingly competent. This will lead to new
opportunities for the midwifery profession. But first there are some threats that have
to be overcome.
5.6.1
Threats
Almost all births take place in hospital. This is probably due to the fact that most
women choose the gynaecologist to be their primary care provider. This is maintained
through the Mutter-Kind-Pass that recommends check- ups by a doctor, even in the
case of normal pregnancies and births. Usually, the midwife and gynaecologist share
responsibilities in both normal and abnormal cases whereas, according to the
21
midwives, the midwife should be the leading professional in the case of a normal
pregnancy and birth.
5.6.2
Opportunities
It is said that in the future, in the Mutter-Kind-Pass, one consultation by a midwife

will be added. This will give the midwife a better (stronger) position in the natural
process of pregnancy and birth (normal cases).
5.7
Statistics
Year
Inhabitants
2000
7,900,000
Birth-rate
77,887
Born alive
77,568 (99.59%)
Stillborn
319 (0.41%)
Perinatal mortality rate
0.50%
Midwives
1,550
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
590
General practitioners active in

midwifery care
5.0%
The perinatal mortality is the number of stillborn and deaths weighing at least 500
grams that occur in the first week of life (Statistik Austria 2001).
22
6.
Midwifery in Belgium
6.1
The midwife
6.1.1
In the definition of the World Health Organisation, the care provided by a midwife
includes: preventive measures, the detection of abnormal conditions in mother and
child, the procurement of medical assistance and the implementation of emergency
measures in the absence of medical help. This means that the midwife has a role in
primary, secondary and tertiary prevention (WVVV 1996).
Primary prevention entails trying to prevent illnesses. The task of the midwife is
to provide information on medication, sexuality, freedom of choice, pregnancy,
birth etc.
Secondary prevention entails trying to detect illnesses or abnormalities as soon as

possible. This way, further development of the disease can be prevented. The most
important task for the midwife here is to detect high-risk pregnancies and to assist
with antenatal screening.
Tertiary prevention entails trying to prevent and/or to slow down diseases and to
teach people to cope with a disease or abnormality. The midwife is the right
person to guide the woman and her partner psychologically and emotionally
(ibid.).
The WVVV document Beroepsprofiel van de vroedvrouw (Professional profile of

the midwife) makes full references to the ICM/FIGO/WHO agreed definition of a
midwife (1992) and the activities of a midwife as laid down in 80/155/EEC Article 4.
In Belgium, a midwife is able to take responsibility for a woman experiencing normal
pregnancy and birth independently. In the case of abnormalities, she contacts the
gynaecologist, who then takes over responsibility.
The profession of midwifery was first protected in 1818 and was revised in 1991.
6.1.2
History
Since the Second World War, there has been an important shift in midwifery care.
The physiological delivery has moved from primary care to secondary care. The
reason for this shift was the introduction of the compulsory health- and disablement
insurance scheme in 1944, which specified that, from 1945 onwards, all deliveries in
hospital and all specialist medical care would be reimbursed by health insurance,
regardless of it having been a physiological or pathological birth. This decision was
23
prompted by an increasing number of gynaecologists and a surplus of hospital beds

(Gooris 1994).
The midwives course also became more and more focused on the midwife working
in a clinical setting: the midwife who assists the gynaecologist during the delivery. In
1957, the midwives course was categorised as nursing education.
In the last 40 years, the number of midwives in midwifery care has been reduced from
31% to 3%. Also the number of general practitioners active in midwifery decreased
from 53% to 8.5% in 1991. On the other hand, the number of gynaecologists exploded
from 15% (1950) to 86% in 1980 (ibid.).
6.2
When a woma n thinks she is pregnant, she can go to a midwife, general practitioner
or gynaecologist. Usually a woman will choose a gynaecologist to be her primary care
provider; it is exceptional to choose a midwife. Independent midwives and general
practitioners have very limited access to hospitals. Some hospitals are closed and
therefore only accessible to doctors who have contracts with the hospitals. Other
hospitals are open, which means that general practitioners have access to them.
Independent midwives are rarely accepted for conducting deliveries in hospitals
(Gooris 1994).
Midwives conduct 2-3% of all deliveries.
6.2.1
In spite of the facts that most women choose the gynaecologist to be their primary
care provider and midwives rarely have access to hospitals, society and midwives
both feel that pregnancy and birth are natural processes.
6.2.2
Division of tasks
Midwives are hardly involved in antenatal care, because most women go to a

gynaecologist during their pregnancy. In the natal phase, midwives often play an
assisting role. But if a doctor is absent, the midwife is able to conduct the delivery
on her own.
Midwives provide postnatal care in hospital under the supervision of the doctor on
duty (Gooris 1994). In 2000, 815 deliveries were registered as conducted by
independent midwives and reimbursed by national health insurance companies.
In 1991, total share of general practitioners active in midwifery care was 8.5%, but
the share in antenatal care is higher. This is because some ge neral practitioners guide
24
the women through the pregnancy, but leave the delivery to the gynaecologist at the
hospital (ibid.). General practitioners conducted 1987 deliveries in 2000;
gynaecologists conducted 107,180 deliveries.
6.2.3
Place of birth
Parents can choose where to give birth. They can give birth at home or at the hospital
where their gynaecologist practises. Annually, only 600 deliveries take place at home
(1%). The remainder takes place in hospital.
6.3
In this paragraph, the number of midwives, gynaecologists and general practitioners

active in midwifery will be discussed.
6.3.1
Midwives
In Belgium, there were 4,351 midwives practising midwifery in 1999. About 3% of

those midwives work in independent free practices. The remainder is employed in
hospitals in the public sector.
6.3.2
Gynaecologists
The number of gynaecologists for 1999 was estimated at approximately 450.

6.3.3
The number of general practitioners active in midwifery is not known.
6.4
Finance and income
6.4.1
Virtually, the whole population of Belgium is insured against sickness and

disablement, under a publicly organised and controlled but privately managed
compulsory health insurance system.
Health care is financed through a combination of social security contributions
(54.4%), governmental subsidies generated by tax revenues (32%) and individual copayments (13.5%). The social security contributions are paid by employees as a
percentage of their salaries and by employers. Since January 1995, some groups (e.g.
widows, orphans etc) have been partly exempted from contributing and the state pays
on their behalf. Therefore, social security is partly financed through general taxation
(Van Kemenade 1997).
25
There are two health insurance schemes:
A general scheme which covers both major and minor risks and applies to
employees and civil servants, the retired, handicapped and their dependants,
making up 85% of the population;
A scheme for the self-employed, which covers only major risks and accounts for
most of the remaining 15% of the population. About 70% of the population of the
self-employed take out additional insurance for minor risks.
All persons are required to subscribe to a health insurance company (sickness fund).
There are 129 different sickness funds, which may provide additional insurance on
request. A growing number of people purchase extra private insurance to cover
additional costs or services not generally provided under the system of compulsory
health insurance (ibid.).
Since January 1995, health insurance companies (sickness funds) have become more
financially independent due to the introduction of a risk-adjusted system. The health
insurance companies (sickness funds) are now (partly) responsible for their own
deficits.
6.4.2
Reimbursement
The benefits of the statutory scheme include both health insurance cover and income
support in the event of illness. The benefit packages vary according to employment
status. Social health insurance has both forms of payments: restitution and benefit in
kind.
The insured may voluntarily change to another health insurance company (sickness
benefit), but as premiums are identical there is little point. There has been a growth in
private health insurance (supplementary insurance) as a result of the financial strains
suffered by compulsory health insurance (Van Kemenade 1997).
Care provided by midwives and gynaecologists is reimbursed.
6.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary if employed or paid a fee- for-service if independent.
If midwives are employed at the hospital, they receive a fixed salary. According to the
National Council for Midwives, the starting salary for midwives in hospitals is
21,000. Midwives get extra allowances for night shifts, weekend shifts etc.
If midwives work independently, they receive a fee- for-service; this fee is dependent
on the number of women she cares for. To get some idea about these fees, which are
paid per service by social security insurance, some examples are shown below:
26
Activity
Fee
Delivery at home (labour not included)
156.50
Conducting labour
156.50
Prenatal care 1st session (intake)
28.50
Prenatal care, next sessions
20.50
Postnatal care (average per day)
45.00
6.5
Training
6.5.1
To be admitted to the course, the students must have finished secondary school. The
diploma they get, must be equivalent to that required to enter university.
6.5.2
Colleges
The training of midwives is divided into two separate systems.
The Flemish version of three years, with direct entry to the course.
The Walloon version of four years. In the Walloon version, the students spend one
year on nursing, one year on nursing/midwifery and only two years on midwifery.
In Walloon 11 and in Flanders 12, midwifery educational institutes provide midwifery

education and training within High Schools, which will very soon be attached to
universities.
In Flanders, the students have to complete 1,025 hours of theoretical education and
1,575 hours of practical training. In the Walloon provinces, the students have to
complete 1,185 hours of specific midwifery practical training.
The number of new students is hard to estimate, because the Walloon version of
midwifery-training is considered to be part of nursing education.
Midwives estimate the number of new students to be 500 and the total number of
students to be 750. There are a lot of new students, but more than 50% of students
drop out during the second year of their course.
27
6.6
Developments
6.6.1
Threats
Midwives already conduct very few deliveries. And the fact that independent
midwives have very limited access to hospitals and most deliveries are in hospital
justify this situation. Furthermore, specialist medical care is reimbursed, independent
of a pregnancy or if the delivery is physiological or pathological. That is probably
why most women choose the gynaecologist to be their primary care provider. Also,
general practitioners play a larger role in midwifery care than midwives do.
6.6.2
Opportunities
In Dutch-speaking Belgium, midwives are thinking of increasing their training to four

years, including a module that would enable midwives to practice as independent
midwives. According to the agreement of Bologna, a fourth year that would lead to
the title of Master is being researched.
Both the Flemish and Walloon midwives are thinking of making ongoing training
compulsory, to develop a dynamic and competent approach to the profession. The
National Council of Midwives, which represents midwives nationally, is working on
several projects. One of these projects is to give independent midwives access to
hospital delivery wards.
Some agreements with health insurance companies have also been made. Midwives
now get an extra payment for work during holidays and weekends, and a second
midwife now receives a higher payment for home births. Due to the recognition of
their role and the reimbursements now being more realistic, more and more midwives
are beginning to practice as independent midwives.
28
6.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
10,100,000
Birth-rate
114,276
Born alive
99.30%
Stillborn
0.70%
0.73%
Midwives
4,351
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
2000
815
450
General practitioners active in midwifery care
The perinatal mortality is the number of stillborn and deaths weighing more than 500
grams until the 29th day after birth.
29
7.
Midwifery in Denmark
7.1
The midwife
7.1.1
The midwife helps the woman to deliver her baby and also provides antenatal and
postnatal care. The Danish term 'jordemoder' (midwife) means, 'authorised health
personnel' and has been protected by law since 1978.
In short, the activities midwives perform, are:
1. To teach antenatal classes and perform antenatal examinations. (On average,
midwives do five examinations per woman, but this could be more if the woman
has special needs)
2. To take responsibility for delivering all normal and spontaneous deliveries
3. To visit the woman in case of abnormalities
4. To provide postnatal care during the first few hours after the delivery
5. To be involved in the training course and up to 50 midwives are involved in
research.
Midwives are able to take responsibility for a normal pregnancy and birth
independently. In the case of an abnormal pregnancy and birth, the gynaecologist
takes over responsibility.
In 6 out of 15 different hospital authorities, midwives are employed independently,
under the county-chief- midwife. In these counties, midwives work with more
responsibilities in the primary sector.
7.1.2
History
After the Second World War, the government introduced regulations for better
pregnancy and childbirth results. This boosted the profession of midwives
considerably.
Until 1947 midwives had been private practitioners or county employees earning a
small salary and fee per delivery (if the woman could pay that). Since the war, the
fees have been paid by health insurance.
30
During the 1960s, women increasingly preferred to give birth in hospital or in a clinic.
During those years there was a scarcity of midwives, resulting in nurses moving into
maternity care in spite of having had different training.
In the 1970s and 1980s, doctors and midwives were influenced by the great leaps in
technological power and 'consumer' viewpoints, which led to the present situation.
Midwives are now competent enough to work independently, but are often curtailed
in their performance, due to their inferiority in employment. In most cases they work
under the chief-obstetrician.
7.2
When a woman thinks she is pregnant, she has three options of whom to turn to. First,
she can go to a general practitioner. Secondly, she can turn to a midwife (at a
midwifery care centre) and thirdly, she can go to a gynaecologist. If the parents do not
go directly to the midwife and it is a normal pregnancy, the general practitioner or
gynaecologist will refer the woman to the midwife. If there are any problems with the
pregnancy, the midwife and general practitioner will refer the woman to the
gynaecologist.
Midwives conduct approximately 70-75% of all deliveries; gynaecologists assisted by
midwives conduct the remainder.
7.2.1
The prevailing view that pregnancy and birth are natural processes is unified in the
Danish midwifery system. With normal pregnancy and birth, the woman is referred to
the midwife.
7.2.2
Division of tasks
3,500 General Practitioners diagnose pregnanc y. They also perform two antenatal
consultations. Most of them provide antenatal and postnatal examinations. If it is
expected that the pregnancy and delivery will be normal, the pregnant woman will be
under the responsibility of the midwife. In the case of abnormalities, the
gynaecologist will take over responsibility. Then the gynaecologist will conduct the
delivery, usually in co-operation with midwives. Midwives also conduct home births.
They visit the mother twice at home after the delivery.
7.2.3
Place of birth
Parents can choose where to give birth. In the case of a normal pregnancy, the
delivery can take place at home, in a maternity clinic or in hospital. A maternity clinic
31
is a midwife- led unit that is part of the hospital. In the case of an abnormal pregnancy,
the delivery takes place in hospital.
Just 1% of all births takes place at home. 99% Takes place in hospital and at the
maternity clinics. Approximately 10% of these take place at the maternity clinic.
7.3

are discussed.
7.3.1
Midwives
Of the 1,600 registered midwives in Denmark, 1,350 are practising midwifery in

2001. Most midwives are between the ages of 43 and 44 years old.
Less than 1% of the midwives works in independent practices. Over 99% of the
midwives work in the public sector (hospitals and maternity clinics). Midwives do not
work in the private sector, because no deliveries are performed there.
7.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 2001 there are 880 gynaecologists.

7.3.3
There are about 3,500 general practitioners that are active in midwifery care.
7.4
Finance and income
7.4.1
Health care in Denmark is generally considered to be a public responsibility. Virtually

all health care care services are financed, planned and operated by public authorities.
The finances are derived mainly from general taxation. All residents in Denmark have
equal access, free of charge, to most health care services, regardless of employment
and financial and social status (Van Kemenade 1997).
The country is subdivided into 16 provinces (regional authorities), each containing
200 to 600 thousand inhabitants (with two exceptions). The 16 provinces are general
administrative entities at regional level and are responsible for hospital care, primary
care, curative care (except for home nursing) as well as for health promotion
initiatives (ibid.).
32
82% of healthcare is financed through general taxation at a national, regional and

local level. The remaining 18% is financed through co-payments by patients (of
which 92% are direct payments and 8% are premiums for private insurance).
Basic health care services are provided free of charge to all citizens by the public
health care sector and include both hospital and primary health care services. About
27% of the population are members of a private health care insurance company called
Danmark. Danmark subsidises the costs of dental services and drugs (ibid.).
7.4.2
Benefit packages
In the Danish health care system, citizens may opt for one of two packages. About
96.4% (1991) opted for Group 1 membership, with a free choice of a family
physician or general practitioner within the area. The patients first contact with
primary health care is the family physician. The family physician acts within the
system as gatekeeper. The Group 2 package is not completely publicly financed.
Patients have an unlimited choice of family physicians and open access to specialist
care, but make a contribution from their own resources, usually in the range of 25% of
the full amount (Van Kemenade 1997).
All midwifery care is provided free of charge. There is no (supplementary) private
insurance for midwifery care. Midwifery care in the benefit package consists of five
preventive medical visits, hospital admittance, medical assistance during the delivery
in hospital or at home and abortion and sterilisation (Dialoog met de Burgers 2001).
7.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary if employed or paid by the client if independent. But
there are very few private practices. The salaries of the public sector are regulated
according to the developments in salaries of professional groups in the private sector.
So, when the salaries of, for example, policemen rise, the salaries of midwives will
also rise.
The average income annually for a midwife is about 32,000 to 35,000. This is
exclusive of extra payments for overtime, late nights etc.
7.5
Training
7.5.1
In order to be admitted to the midwifery-training course, students need to possess a

students degree (12 years of school) or an equivalent. Students also need to have at
least nine months of relevant work experience (e.g. in old peoples homes).
33
Every year, 900 students wish to be admitted, but only 90 can be admitted. 50% of the
students are accepted on the basis of the highest degrees and 50% are accepted at
random.
7.5.2
Colleges
The midwifery course takes 3.5 years.

The student must qualify in the following subjects:
To promote good health
To take care of the woman and family
To provide professional midwifery care
To prescribe and apply medication
To document their own practice and evaluate their work in co-operation with
women and colleagues.
The course does not have an academic level; it has a middle range academic level,
which is roughly equivalent to a bachelor level. The students who started in 2001
will be the first to finish their course with a bachelors degree.
7.6
Developments
7.6.1
Threats
The prevailing view among midwives and also in society is that pregnancy and birth
are natural processes. But discussions threatening the normal processes of parenthood
are becoming very pressing.
The National Health Board has sanctioned a new system for the organisation of health
care. The last six counties with midwives working in the primary care sector (see
7.1.1) may have to change their employment status to one of inferiority working
under the guidance of a specialist like the normal practice in the larger hospital units.
This may turn out to be a setback to midwifery in Denmark. It is threatening to
envisage the midwife as the central figure in the normal process.
Families do not have the choice of continuous care during the pregnancy, birth and
postnatal care unless they pay privately for one of the few private midwives.
34
7.6.2
Opportunities
Nowadays, there is just one maternity clinic, apart from the obstetric ward. In order to
strengthen the midwifes position, it would be good if there were more of these
independent maternity clinics led by midwives.
7.7
Statistics
Year
1998
Inhabitants
Birth-rate
2000
5,200,000
64,792
Born alive
Stillborn
0.80%
Midwives
1,300
1,350 (1,600 registered)
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
midwifery care
880
3,500
The perinatal mortality is the number of stillborn and deaths from week 28 of the
pregnancy until the first week of life.
35
8.
Midwifery in Finland
8.1
The midwife
8.1.1
A Finnish midwife is a trained and registered health care professional, who provides
ante- and postnatal care in maternity clinics (primary health). In hospitals she
provides antenatal, natal and postnatal care. She is active in the whole field of
reproductive health, including gynaecological nursing and family planning.
In short, midwives activities consist of:
1. Antenatal classes
2. Antenatal check-ups
3. Normal delivery (incl. episiotomy and suture)
4. Assistance in case of abnormalities
5. Postnatal (home) visits
6. Parental education (e.g. breastfeeding, parenting skills).
In primary care, the midwife or public health nurse (PHN) performs 16.6 antenatal
check- ups per pregnancy independently. After that, she refers the woman to a general
practitioner or a gynaecologist in an antenatal clinic. The midwife also provides
antenatal classes and birth preparation. Because births are only performed in hospital,
midwives in primary care do not conduct them. In the postnatal phase, the midwife (or
PHN) pays one or two home visits to check the mother and baby. After that, the baby
is transferred to the care of the public health nurse. The mother remains under the
supervision of the maternity clinic until eight weeks after the birth.
In secondary care, the midwife assists the medical specialists in the antenatal clinics,
and runs special clinics for, amongst others, diabetics and drug addicts. She also does
ultra-sounds (screenings) and all midwifery and nursing duties on the antenatal wards.
Natal care is always provided in a hospital, where the midwife conducts normal
births. She is allowed to administer non-narcotic pain relief, episiotomies and suture.
If there are abnormalities, the midwife assists the gynaecologist; she provides care
under his direct medical supervision.
36
During the postnatal phase, the hospital- midwife is in charge of the care and
wellbeing of mother and baby. She provides support with breastfeeding and teaching
parental skills.
The law has protected the profession of midwives since 1711, but not their functions
and activities.
8.1.2
History
Midwifery has a long history in Finland. The first midwifery regulations were formed
in 1711 in united Sweden-Finland. In 1777 a new midwifery directive stated that
every parish should have at least one trained midwife.
A new era in Finnish midwifery care started when a maternity hospital and midwifery
school were set up in 1816. At the end of the 19th century there were approximately
600 midwives, although just of the women used their services.
At the turn of the century, the Journal of Finnish Midwives was first published and
within a few years there was a midwifery association in almost every county. Finland
became an independent republic in 1917.
The young nation had to make up its own law and regulations. A law on midwifery
and delivery hospitals was introduced in 1920, forbidding everybody but a trained
midwife to conduct deliveries. It also regulated the salary and supervision by a
general practitioner. Most births took place at home.
In 1944, 41% of the births took place at home. Since then, the law has protected the
organised maternity care and midwifery care. Every woman had the right to use these
services, regardless of her economical status. Midwives were trained to work both in
the community and in hospitals.
Around 1950, a central and district hospital system was developed. Hospitals took
care of 75% of the births now. This gave the municipal midwives more time for
maternity care and birth preparation/education.
In the 60s, home births became rare (3%). Medical authorities specified that public
health nurses could provide all primary health from then onwards. A special training
course added on to the nursing course satisfied the demand for hospital- nurses.
A new national health law from 1972 onwards has been the basis of the present
existing system. The law did not even mention midwives and maternity care. Public
health nurses were supposed to provide for primary health needs, and the hospitalmidwives were replaced by 'specialised nurses'. At the same time the use of
technology increased and home births were abolished.
37
At the beginning of the 80s, however, the Federation of Finnish Midwives did
accomplish the foundation of a new course. Newly-trained midwives could now work
in primary as well as in secondary care.
Finland became a full member of the EU in 1995. This led to several adaptations of
midwifery practice. Now, midwives are highly appreciated.
In the past, the training course consisted of 15 months vocational hospital training. In
1930, the course moved from University settings to the Midwifery Institute. It was
extended to two years and maternity care was included in the curriculum. Later the
curriculum was amended with subjects like gynaecology, birth preparation and mental
health. Midwives were trained to work in both the community and in hospital. Their
education changed radically in 1968. It became a 9- month special training course in
maternity care and gynaecological nursing, based on a general nursing exam. It was
only in use until the 1980s, when the Finnish Federation of Midwives managed to
establish a midwifery course again. Since then, students have been able to qualify as
midwives. They are capable of working in primary and secondary care.
8.2
A lot of professional groups are active in midwifery care: midwives, gynaecologists,

general practitioners, paediatricians and public health nurses (PHN).
8.2.1
The prevailing view of pregnancy and birth in Finland is that these are natural
processes. Still, there is a trend towards 'overmedicalisation' because society prefers
the use of technical back- up. This view can be seen in some aspects of the Finnish
midwifery system.
8.2.2
Division of tasks
A midwife in Finland is responsible for the care she provides. But the final
responsibility over all phases of (ab)normal pregnancy and birth lies with the
gynaecologist, the paediatrician and the general practitioner; the general practitioner
being partly responsible for ante- and postnatal care and the paediatrician being
jointly responsible only for postnatal check-ups.
Midwives conducted 78% of all deliveries in the year 2000, under the medical
supervision of a gynaecologist. The rest of the deliveries were conducted by the
gynaecologists themselves. This 22% assisted births such as breech positions and
vacuum extractions.
38
When a woman thinks she is pregnant, she books in at a maternity clinic at the health
centre. She automatically comes under the care of a midwife or a PHN. The PHN is
also largely involved in postnatal care for the baby.
The midwife, the PHN or the general practitioner from the health centre refers the
woman to the hospital (ANC) when she is going to deliver, or in case there is a
medical problem.
8.2.3
Place of birth
There is no other option than to give birth in a hospital. The only deliveries at home in
2000 were on special request from the parents with a private midwife or by accident.
This concerned ten births in total.
8.3
In this paragraph, the number of professionals active in midwifery care will be

discussed.
8.3.1
Midwives
Of the 4,220 registered midwives in Finland, approximately 2,000 practise midwifery.

However, it is difficult to estimate this number as midwives can also be called Nurses,
Charge nurses or PHNs and recorded in the statistics as such. There are about 1.63
midwives available per 1,000 fertile women. Only 25 of the registered midwives are
male. Most midwives are between 30 and 50 years old.
Age
Midwives (%)
<30 years
12%
31-40 years
35%
41-50 years
30%
>51 years
23%
Table 8.1: Age structure Finnish midwives
Most midwives (99.9%) are employed in the public sector. This sector consists of the
hospitals and the maternity clinics at the community health centres. The Finnish
Federation of Midwives estimates that 1% of these midwives work independently in
their leisure time too. There is a small group of midwives (approximately 1%)
working in the private sector. The percentages are difficult to estimate, as there are no
records being kept.
39
8.3.2
Gynaecologists
There are about 584 gynaecologists in Finland.

8.3.3
Others
Some of the 1,950 general practitioners work 3.5 hours per week in antenatal and
postnatal care.
There were 13,138 primary health nurses working in Finland in the year 2000
(National Research and Development Centre 2001).
8.4
8.4.1
Finance system
In Finland, municipalities are mainly responsible for arranging basic services such as
schooling, social and health services for the local population. Currently, there are 452
municipalities. The main decisionmaking power lies within the municipal council.
Decisions concerning planning and organisation of health care are made by the Health
Board, the municipal council, the municipal government and the leading personnel of
the municipal health centres (Van Kemenade 1997).
The country is divided into 21 hospital districts, which are responsible for providing
hospital services and co-ordinating public hospital care within their area. Each
municipality located in the district area must be a member of the hospital district
(ibid.).
The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health directs and manages social and health
services at a national level. It defines general policy lines, prepares major reforms and
directs and monitors their implementation and assists the government in decisionmaking. A Basic Security Council is attached to the Ministry and may investigate any
deficiencies observed in the provision of municipal health services (ibid.).
The government makes the states annual budget proposal and the Parliament makes
the final decision on the amount of money to be allocated to the health care sector.
The municipalities are pretty free to decide on administration, personnel and user
charges. They have the right to purchase services from any provider of their choice
and to contract out services from the private sector (ibid.).
Within the health care system, there is a statutory state health insurance scheme. The
Social Insurance Institute runs this scheme with about 400 local offices throughout the
country. The insurance is used to provide part reimbursement for prescribed
40
medication, transportation costs, private medical care, occupational health care,

student health care and rehabilitation.
Everyone in Finland has the right to health services, regardless of ability to pay or
place of residence. Health care in Finland is mainly tax- financed. Both the state and
municipalities have the right to levy taxes. The municipalities also receive a subsidy
from the state for health care, social services and schooling. The subsidy is calculated
according to demographic criteria and is automatically paid in advance (Van
Kemenade 1997).
National state health insurance revenues come from insurers and employers, returns
on assets held and state contributions. The contribution is a specified percentage of
income. The state pays total costs of sickness, parenthood and special care allowances
(ibid.).
Finland has a limited private insurance sector (2% of total health care expenses) in
addition to a public health care scheme.
8.4.2
Benefit package and co-payments
Municipalities can decide whether or not to charge for services and can also set the
rate of charges (up to a maximum). However, according to the law, some services
must still be free of user charges.
The care provided at the maternity clinics (under the responsibility of the municipals)
are free of user charges and funded by taxes. Hospital care, including visits to the
antenatal clinics, has a subsidised user charge. The hospital charges the municipal for
the remaining amount. The government sets a maximum price for the user charges.
Every baby (mother) has the right to a benefit package consisting of supplies
(clothing, nappies, booklets, etc.). If the mother does not want the package, she can
get some money instead. In order to get this benefit funded by the Social Insurance
Institute, she has to attend a maternity clinic.
8.4.3
Income
Midwives are paid a salary for employment, are employed by hospitals or by

maternity clinics. The salaries are fixed in a general salary agreement made by the
trade unions. The Federation of Finnish Midwives estimates the annual average
income of a Finnish midwife to be at 26,910.
41
8.5
Training
8.5.1
Midwifery-training is a 1 - year training course complementary to the 3- year nursing

course.
In order to be admitted to the nursing course students must do a matriculation, or have
a secondary school or college diploma in the same field. Students should also be in
good health. They must pass an aptitude test before enrolment.
8.5.2
Colleges
Students qualify as midwives. They are capable of working in primary and secondary
care.
The 200 midwifery students must earn 180 credits in order to get a degree. The
practical training is worth 39 credits in total, of which 19 concern natal care. The
subjects that are dealt with are:
Basic midwifery studies
Professional studies in nursing
Professional studies in midwifery
The midwife and the development of the profession
Optional studies.
The Ministry of Education is responsible for the training, together with the schools
themselves.
8.6
Developments
The purpose of the Finnish Federation of Midwives is to be a unifying organisation

for trained midwives and midwifery students. The goals are to promote sexual and
reproductive health, to support the development of midwifery care and to promote the
developme nt of midwifery skills. To do this, the Federation takes the initiative to
provide and support education, research, make publications and contacts with
(inter)national organisations. In the current situation, the Federation is facing some
threats, but there are also some opportunities to be grasped.
42
8.6.1
Threats
There is a trend towards increasing 'medicalisation'. Young people seem to think that
technical back-up is necessary. This is reflected by the increased use of epidural
anaesthesia and Caesarean section, for example.
It is hard to develop midwifery skills and to promote the midwives as professionals,
when the primary health nurse (PHN) performs a lot of midwifery activities. The PHN
provides antenatal care and she is also largely involved in postnatal care for the baby.
Despite the protests of midwives, the trend with the PHN providing primary maternity
care is developing rapidly.
The municipalities can choose to employ a midwife or a PHN. A study done in 1998
(4/1998) shows that 60% of the maternity clinics did not employ a midwife. The
prevailing view in primary health care is that a PHN is the 'Family nurse', taking care
of the whole family from baby to grandmother, pregnancy and birth included.
It should be noticed however that a 'maternity clinic' us ually encompasses only one
visit to the PHN. In the municipals that have chosen to maintain the maternity clinics,
there is a midwife, a PHN or a 'doubly competent' person. It is difficult to estimate the
number of midwives providing antenatal care in primary health, as their positions are
called PHNs.
Apart from these threats, it is difficult to choose a midwife unless the woman goes
private. And private services are not free. Only in the areas of economic growth is the
demand for private services increasing. This leaves the Finnish women living in less
favoured areas often without midwifery services.
8.6.2
Opportunities
The midwives are highly appreciated today. In a recent survey, midwives were
number nine on the ranking list. If midwives continue the publication of research
results and information on good midwifery care and on the choices parents have, the
public will support them in their goals. Most pregnant women use free antenatal care
services. Now the aim is to get them to purchase this care from a midwife. So
midwives will not only conduct deliveries, but also become the primary midwifery
care providers.
43
8.7
Statistics
Year
1998
1999
Inhabitants
Births
5,100,000
57,345
Born alive
57,108 (99.6%)*
Still born
237 (0.4%)*
0.49%*
56,730
0.56%
Midwives
General practitioners active

in midwifery care
0.63%
2,000
(4,208 registered)**
(4,220 registered)
540**
584
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
2000
28
1,950
Definition of perinatal mortality: Perinatal mortality is defined as the proportion of

stillborn and liveborn infants dying during their first week of life (<168 hours) per
1000 births. A stillborn is defined as a newborn, who does not have any signs of life
and who has a weight of 500 grams or more, or whos gestation period is 22 weeks or
more.
*Statistics Finland Library
** STAKES: the National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health/
Library
44
9.
Midwifery in France
9.1
The midwife
9.1.1
The profession of midwives in France consists of pregnancy diagnosis, antenatal care,

birth and postnatal care for mother and children. Midwives are competent enough to
supervise the growth and development of children until they are three years old. The
profession also consists of family planning consultations. As well as supervising
pregnancy and conducting normal childbirth, midwives educate and counsel future
parents.
In short, the tasks of the French midwife include:
1. Pregnancy diagnosis and all antenatal care
2. Antenatal classes
3. Echography (when necessary)
4. Medical supervision of normal labour and birth (incl. episiotomy, suture, infusion,
resuscitation, etc.)
5. Postnatal medical supervision of mother and child (incl. examinations as Guthrietest, bloodtest)
6. Parental education (e.g. breastfeeding, incontinence, nutrition) and family
planning.
As mentioned above, a midwife is able to take responsibility for a normal pregnancy
and birth independently. The law says, in the case of a pathological birth and
postpartum, the midwife must call the doctor. Therefore, the midwife sends the
woman to the gynaecologist for a consultation if any abnormalities during pregnancy
occur. He will decide whether the midwife can continue her tasks or whether the
patient needs a prescription for more examinations by a midwife. The gynaecologist
attends the delivery with the assistance of the midwife in case of complications during
birth.
However, because the law does not prescribe what is normal or abnormal, every
hospital has its own protocol written by doctors.
Some midwives have started independent free practices to provide mostly antenatal
and postnatal care. Only some of them perform deliveries (at home and in maternity
45
units). They have to follow 'good practice' regulations, also decided upon by
experienced doctors.
Midwives in France have to be more and more able to operate all kinds of medical
instruments, of which they should be able to read and interpret data. Often, the
treatment of women during pregnancy and birth has become limited to constant
check- ups of the maternal blood pressure, the heartbeat of the child and the
contractions, which are stimulated by oxytocin, and the epidural analgesia.
The midwifery functions and activities are protected in the Public Health Code and
the Public Function Status. It states that midwives are free in their own practice. The
law also describes a list of instruments, midwives can use, and a list of medicaments
and labour tests they can prescribe. The midwife will consult a doctor if she decides
the patient needs one of these methods.
Midwives in France participate in 99.5% of all births.
9.1.2
History
The profession of midwives has been protected by law since 1846 by the Public
Health Code, and the Ethical Code of 1944.
Just after 1945, midwives believed that their working load would be less if they
worked under doctors orders. Private maternity clinics have been mistaking the
responsibilities of midwives ever since. The independence of midwives and
responsibility for their own actions was not confirmed by law until 1995.
Over the years, the job responsibilities of midwives in France have become more and
more 'technicalised' due to major technological discoveries. A lot of therapeutic and
diagnostic progresses have been made in medical science. The ultra sound scan and
the electronical surveillance of birth have been used in French midwifery care ever
since.
Although midwives in France have gained competencies and technological skills, they
have lost part of their independence since 1970. In order to guarantee and improve the
safety of pregnancy and birth, new standards and procedures have been made. As a
result of this, pregnancy and birth have become multidisciplinary issues. This will be
discussed more thoroughly in paragraph 2.
9.2
Midwifery care in France is multidisciplinary. Paediatricians, anaesthetists,

psychologists, obstetrician-gynaecologists and midwives all work together in a team.
46
Radiologists and geneticists are active in midwifery care too. And general
practitioners are also allowed to practice midwifery.
Of all births, 70 to 75% took place under the responsibility of a midwife in the year
2000. Gynaecologists were accountable for 25 to 30% of all deliveries.
9.2.1
In France they say: You only know two hours after the birth that the pregnancy and
birth were normal. Only a few midwives believe that pregnancy and birth are natural
processes in life to start with, until they diagnose it. However, the prevailing
(potentially pathological) view is expressed in the features of the French midwifery
system most of the time.
9.2.2
Division of tasks
Women see gynaecologists as well as midwives and general practitioners for different
'aspects' of their pregnancies (Devries et al. 2001). It is recommended that preparation
courses always contain one or more information sessions with an anaesthetist. But not
every hospital does this, due to a lack of anaesthetists.
A midwife is allowed to perform normal births on her own, and a gynaecologist takes
over if there are any complications. She then acts alongside the gynaecologist.
Everybody is responsible for his or her own actions in the different phases of
pregnancy and birth.
However, in the private sector (i.e. hospitals and maternity clinics) a gynaecologist
should always conduct the delivery of the baby, in accordance with the contract he
arranges with the parents. The midwife then conducts the birth until the gynaecologist
arrives at the second stage of labour. Even though midwives in private settings usually
act in obedience with the gynaecologists, they remain responsible for their own
actions all the time.
According to the Ethical Code, the gynaecologist is never the hierarchical superior of
the midwife and the gynaecologist can never free a midwife from her medical
responsibility (not even when comp lications occur). Therefore, the position of
midwives working in private organisations is often very uncertain.
9.2.3
Place of birth
Somewhere around 1945, 50% of all women delivered their baby at home under the
guidance of a midwife. Since then a shift towards hospitals has taken place.
Nowadays, almost all women deliver in the hospital, where their gynaecologists work.
Although there are some differences within the country and between hospitals/clinics,
47
a large percentage of births take place in large hospitals (Devries et al. 2001). The
number of home births has come down to less than 1%, of which half accidentally
take place there. Midwives perform almost all home births (99.9%).
9.3
In this paragraph the number of professionals in midwifery care will be discussed.

9.3.1
Midwives
Of the 16,687 registered midwives in France 15,027 practice midwifery (in the year
2000). Most of them (99.5%) are female. The average age of midwives is estimated at
43 years old (National Officer Board 2000). There is one midwife available per 1,000
births.
Of all midwives, 60% are employed in public hospitals and 25% in private hospitals.
The rest (10-15%) work as independent midwives (National Officer Board 2000).
Independent midwives mostly provide antenatal and postnatal care, and some of them
do deliveries (at home and in maternity units). The number of independent midwives
has been growing over the past five years.
9.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 2000, there were approximately 4,674 gynaecologists who were specialised in

midwifery care (obstetricians) (Doctors National Board). In fact, this means there is a
shortage of gynaecologists. Medical students find the profession unattractive because
of the high pressure of work, stress and relatively bad payments.
At this point 27% of the gynaecologists are female. A growing number of the female
obstetricians work part-time (Jongmans 1999).
9.3.3
All general practitioners in France are allowed to be active in midwifery care, but
there are no statistics about how many actually do it. The density of general
practitioners in general varies between 118 and 309 GPs per 100,000 inhabitants
(Doctors National Board).
9.4
9.4.1
Finance system
The health care system is under the regulatory authority of the French government,
which directly intervenes in the production and financing of health care services. At a
48
national level the Ministry for Social Affairs and the Ministry of Health are the most
important government actors in the health care sector (Van Kemenade 1997).
The Regional Bureaux of Health and Social Affairs (DRASS) are responsible for the
smooth running of all health care delivery services, prevention and local health
promotion. Their main responsibility is to plan health and social amenities, through
the imposition of an annual budget control or a revision of the 'health care map' which
establishes the number of hospital beds and sets standards for the allocation of
expensive equipment. Every region makes a health care map, within the regulations of
the Ministry of Health. The maps are based on analyses of regional and local needs.
The aims are control of the hospital sector, convergence of regional differences and
gearing of the development of the private and public sectors (ibid.).
Almost the entire population (99%) is covered by the statutory health insurance
scheme, which is a part of Frances social security system.
The health insurance scheme is administered by social security sickness funds
(Assurance Maladie de la Scurit Sociale). The sickness funds are divided into a
number of regimes, each of which represents a different sector of occupation. About
81% of the compulsorily insured French people are, for example, covered by the
scheme for salaried employees.
In addition to compulsory insurance, about two thirds of the population take out
optional supplementary insurance.
The social security system is funded by compulsory contributions related to income
and shared between employers (70%) and employees (30%). Direct payments from
the government are limited to hospital investments and insurance for the handicapped
and special groups of the unemployed.
A national central agency (URSAFF) gathers together all the contributions collected
at a local level. Funds are then dispensed to local sickness funds. The regions
negotiate with the sickness funds regarding tariffs for hospital-services and day-care
in private clinics.
9.4.2
Reimbursement
Restitution by the social sickness fund varies according to the type of care. The
sickness funds reimburse one hundred percent of the amount: all midwifery
consultations, 3 ultra sounds in the case of a normal pregnancy (more after
agreement), tests, 8 antenatal classes and all care from the 6th month of the pregnancy
until the 7th day after the delivery (until the 21st day if pathological). Other kinds of
care and postnatal care after the 7th day are partially reimbursed by the social insurers
(70%) and completed by private insurers most of the time. Private insurers reimburse
49
costs above the conventional fee (i.e. extra and more luxurious care), depending on
the contract with the insured.
9.4.3
Income
Midwives, who work in public hospitals, earn a salary, based on scales applicable to
all public hospitals. In the private sector, the salary is nationally negotiated between
trade unions, where midwives are not (or badly) represented, and representatives of
the private clinics. The professional trade unions are not allowed to participate. But as
there are not enough midwives acceding to work in private clinics, they can negotiate
with the clinics directly.
Independent midwives get a fee for each service they provide. The government, the
unions and social security determine the amount of this fee.
Midwives estimate their average annual income to be between 18,544 and 28,934.
A midwife in the private sector is paid less than a midwife in the public sector.
9.5
Training
9.5.1
Before enrolment on a midwifery course, a student needs to do A- level examinations.

This is a diploma (baccalaurat) from secondary school, which grants access to a
university education. Students also have to succeed in a competitive examination.
From next year onwards, instead of the competitive examination, a student has to
fulfil the first year of medical university in order to be admitted.
9.5.2
Colleges
There are 33 schools for midwifery education, which accept 760 new students each
year. It takes four years to become a midwife. In this period of time a student has to
complete 1,820 hours of theoretical education and 4,370 hours of practical training.
Students receive their diploma from the Faculty of Medicine when they graduate.
Examples of subjects that are dealt with are:
Antenatal consulting
Normal and abnormal birth
Postnatal care
Supervision of normal babies growth and development
50
Ultra sounds
Anatomy
Physiology
Pharmacology
Paediatrics
Intensive care.
A student needs to perform at least 80 births, 10 episiotomies and sutures, 10 artificial

deliveries, some newborn resuscitation and 2 breech deliveries. Furthermore, she has
to provide antenatal care to a minimum of 100 women without pathology and to 60
women at risk. The student is also trained in medical supervision.
All schools are under the guidance of a headmidwife, and a doctor is the director of
the course. The schools are responsible for the organisation of the practical and
theoretical course, of which the contents are constitutionalised by the government to
guarantee the ability of midwives to care for women and newborn babies, when they
finish the course. Public hospitals and university hospitals are obliged to participate in
the training course.
If students insist on following a part of their practical training in private maternity
wards or with an independent midwife and if the college approves, the private sector
is allowed to participate in the training too. For maternity wards, antenatal care and
antenatal classes, this is usually possible only in the 4th year of the course; it is also
possible to train in maternity wards and antenatal classes for 2 weeks in the 2nd and
3rd year.
9.6
Developments
There have been various developments in the current situation, which can result in an
opportunity or threat to French midwifery as a medical, independent profession,
active in antenatal consulting, normal birth and postnatal care.
9.6.1
Threats
As said in paragraph 2.1, pregnancy and birth are 'medicalised' processes in France.
Even though the National Union for Midwives considers the current view on
pregnancy and birth too technical, most of the midwives hold a pathological view.
Together with the Union, only a few midwives feel the contrary and think these are
natural processes in life. But it is the case that legal proceedings and court decisions
51
have led to an increasing usage of (new) techniques, just to make sure everything has
been done to prevent any complications.
A point of criticism of the Union is that midwifery education is still a practical
training course, given at maternity wards of university hospitals, where students are
shown the abnormal pregnancies, births and postpartum. Therefore, some
headmidwives of the midwifery schools agree that the natural aspects of pregnancy
and birth are too often neglected.
According to the Union, another negative aspect is that any doctor can conduct
midwifery care, even if he has not had any experience or training in a maternity ward
or in obstetric consultation. The public does not know this.
Midwives themselves express their concerns with regard to low salaries, the limited
possibilities of providing antenatal care and the obligation to work according to
protocols made by doctors. Moreover, independent midwives who do provide
antenatal care are being kept out of the hospitals (Jongmans 2000).
9.6.2
Opportunities
As the number of gynaecologists is low and continuing to go down, midwives are

trying to change the midwifery system and to strengthen their position in it. Midwives
see opportunities to expand their job responsibilities, with regard to antenatal
consulting, prescriptions of contraceptives and independent guidance of the whole
process of normal pregnancy and birth. The National Union for Midwives is already
trying to develop a better fee for consultations and birth; the UNSSF follows and
supports the National Association of Independent Midwives that works to re-establish
insurance for home births.
A few midwives and women feel dissatisfied about the French midwifery system. As
an alternative to home birth and the 'medicalised' hospital birth, they are planning to
set up birth centres where low risk women can deliver babies in a homelike
atmosphere with the personal guidance of a midwife (Jongmans 1999). This too can
contribute to recognition (from doctors as well as from the public) of the fact that
pregnancy and birth are normal and natural processes in life. And to the positioning of
the French midwife as an independent practitioner of physiological midwifery.
From next year onwards, midwives will be trained at medical university level. This
will provide the midwives with the opportunities to conduct research in the field of
midwifery to support the ir goals as described above.
52
9.7
Statistics
Year
1995
Inhabitants
Births
736,487
Born alive
731,332 (99.3%)
Still born
5,155 (0.7%)

Midwives
2000
57,700,000
778,900
0.76%
15,027
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
4,674

midwifery care
Definition of perinatal mortality: the number of stillborn and deaths from week 25 of
pregnancy (or 500 grams), until the 7th day of life.
53
10.
Midwifery in Germany
10.1
The midwife
10.1.1
Since 1985, the Law has been protecting the profession of German midwives.
According to this law, a midwife is trained and qualified to provide care and
counseling to women during normal pregnancy, birth and post-partum.
A midwife is the only skilled person, other than a physician, in the health care
profession who is legally entitled to deliver medical care independently (without a
nurse or physician).
The law also requires that for every birth, both at home and in hospital, a midwife
must be present. Physicians are required to call in a midwife for every delivery.
However, a physician must be called in for any complications. When it comes to
decisionmaking in cases of complicated labour, the physician assumes the final
decision (Scheuermann 1995).
Areas in which midwives are entitled to provide professional services include the
following:
1. Antenatal examination and monitoring
2. Antenatal classes and counselling
3. Treatment of disorders during pregnancy, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension
and anaemia (this may only be done after the midwife has informed the woman of
the disorder and treatment options by a physician);
4. Normal deliveries, including episiotomies
5. Complete postnatal care for at least ten days, including nutritional counseling and
a follow-up.
Ultrasound and laboratory examinations can only be done by a physician. Every
woman has the option to choose between a physician and a midwife as her primary
care provider.
Because of these limitations on midwifery, both midwives and physicians will see
most women. This may lead to conflict, just like different opinions regarding
management (ibid.).
54
In conclusion, the midwife and the physician share the final responsibility for normal
pregnancies and births. And the physician is ultimately responsible if there are
irregularities.
10.1.2
History
The midwifery law of 1938 required the presence of a midwife at every birth and fully
recognised midwifery as an independent profession. In 1941 the first training course
for midwives began. In 1963 new training and examination ordinance came into force.
The most important law with regard to tasks and responsibilities described above was
made in 1985.
Over the years, the profession of midwives has become increasingly dominated by
doctors. In the 1980s, gynaecologists tried to persuade the government to forbid home
births so that everybody had to deliver their baby in hospital. This scheme failed,
because of the support of the World Health Organisation (WHO) to the German
midwives (Treffers 2000).
But still, the promotion of midwifery interests frequently encounters resistance by
gynaecologists. There is a long-standing conflict related to an overlap of skills and
services that both professions claim as their own (Scheuermann 1995).
10.2
Both midwives and gynaecologists are important in the German midwifery system. As
has been stated, every woman is free to choose her primary provider for routine
examinations during and after pregnancy. But until now, it is still common for women
to go to a gynaecologist first. In the natal and postnatal phase, paediatricians are also
active.
It is not clear how many of the 770,774 births in 1999 were conducted by midwives or
by gynaecologists.
10.2.1
The German midwifery system complies with the general view on pregnancy and
birth. Both midwives and society consider these events as natural processes and
midwives are required at every birth.
10.2.2
Division of tasks
For all deliveries done in hospitals, gynaecologists are present, even when the
midwife is on duty. In the case of a difficult labour, the gynaecologist is ultimately
responsible. Midwives and gynaecologists have overlapping competencies.
55
Consequently, they may compete for patients. Sometimes gynaecologists will not
accept, or only with resistance, a woman for ultrasound examinations or treatment of
pathological conditions if she plans to return to her midwife for appropriate care.
Arguments about midwives duties and competencies are frequent (Scheuermann
1995). As stated previously, gynaecologists work in the same area as midwives. In
fact, they are more involved in antenatal care than midwives.
A midwife provides all aspects exceeding primary medical services.
10.2.3
Place of birth
Every woman can choose where to give birth. For normal deliveries, there are three
possibilities (BDH 2000):
1. The clinical birth (delivery and early childbed in the hospital)
2. The ambulatory birth (delivery in clinic, birth centre or practice and childbed at
home)
3. The home birth (delivery and childbed at home).
The number of home births decreased from 42.6% in 1960 to 0.8% in 1991. More
than 98% of all deliveries are currently performed at hospitals. There were only 8,578
non-clinical births in 1999. Yet, more and more hospitals are trying to create a homely
atmosphere.
10.3
In this paragraph the number of midwives and gynaecologists will be discussed.

10.3.1
Midwives
There are approximately 15,000 midwives in Germany. Most of them work in

hospitals.
Independent practices of midwives and birth centres are attracting more and more
interest. In 1983, 23% of the midwives worked in independent practices, of which
many had an additional part-time position in a hospital. Nowadays, 1/3 of the
midwives are self-employed, 1/3 of the midwives are both self- employed and
employed and 1/3 of the midwives are employed.
99% of all midwives are female.
56
10.3.2
Gynaecologists
There are more established gynaecologists than there are midwives (more than
15,000).
10.4
10.4.1
In 1883 the German health care system started with the introduction of a compulsory
health insurance system. Germany is recognised as the first country to have
introduced a national social security system, the Bismarck-model (European
Observatory 2000).
A fundamental facet of the German political system (and more specifically the health
care system) is the sharing of decisionmaking powers between the states (Lnder)
and the federal government, with further powers governing statutory insurance
schemes being delegated to non-governmental corporatist bodies (ibid.).
In 1999 there were 453 statutory sickness funds with about 72 million insured persons
and 52 private health insurance companies covering about 7.1 million fully insured
people.
Health insurance companies (sickness funds) can be divided into seven different
groups. All authorities are non-profit making and are based on the principle of selfgovernment, elected by membership. By law, sickness funds have the right and the
obligation to raise contributions from their members, which includes the right to
determine what contribution rate is necessary to cover expenditure. The Health
Insurance Contribution Exoneration Act of 1996 interfered with this right by legally
lowering the contribution rates of all sickness funds on 1 January 1997 by 0.4%
(ibid.).
Contributions towards statutory health insurance with its current 453 sickness funds
constitute the major system of health care financing in Germany. Becoming a member
of a sickness fund is compulsory for employees whose gross income does not exceed
a certain level and is voluntary for those above that level. Contributions are dependent
on income and not on risk and are shared equally between the insured and their
employers (ibid.).
Traditionally, the majority of insured people had no choice over their sickness fund
and were assigned to the appropriate authority (fund) based on geographical and/or
job characteristics. This mandatory distribution of fund members led to greatly
varying contribution rates due to different income and risk profiles. The Health Care
Structure Act gave almost every insured person the right to choose a sickness fund
57
freely (from 1996) and to change from one sickness fund to the other on a yearly
basis. All general regional funds and all substitute funds were legally opened to
everyone and they had to have a contract with all applicants (ibid.).
To provide all sickness funds with an equal starting point in a competitive field, a risk
structure compensation scheme to equalise the difference in contribution rates and
expenditure was introduced.
In the German statutory-based system, three other main sources of finance can be
identified: taxes, out-of-pocket payments and private health insurance. Private health
insurance will be discussed now (ibid.).
In the German system, private insurance has two facets: to fully cover a certain
percentage of the population and to offer supplementary insurance to insured people.
The 7.1 million with full-cover private health insurance consist of three main groups:
-
people with an income above the sickness fund level
self-employed people
active and retired permanent public employees
Fully privately insured patients usually enjoy more benefits equal to or better than
those covered by statutory health insurance. This depends, however, on the insurance
package chosen. In the private health insurance market, premiums vary according to
age, sex and medical history at the time of underwriting. Separate premiums have to
be paid for spouses and children (ibid.).
10.4.2
Reimbursement
The following midwifery care is reimbursed: antenatal, natal and postnatal care
provided by a doctor or a midwife, medication, costs of the (home) delivery
(Scheuermann 1995; Dialoog met de burgers 2000).
10.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary for employment, paid per client or paid a fee for
services. If the midwife is paid a salary, her income is set by her employer (e.g. the
hospital). If the midwife is self-employed, her income is dependent on the charges she
can collect.
The German midwives estimate their average income to be about 26,610.
58
10.5
Training
10.5.1
To enrol on the training course a student must be at least 17 years old, be healthy
enough to practice the profession, and possess a diploma of the Realshule or an
equivalent examination. Next year, students will need a diploma that is good enough
for university.
Six hundred students are admitted to the education annually. There are 57 schools for
midwives, which receive too many applications each year. Therefore, there is a
waiting period before enrolment.
10.5.2
Colleges
Midwifery-training in Germany takes three years. The course integrates classroom

instruction with practical training. The mandatory, minimum requirements before the
final examination and becoming qualified, are 1,600 hours of classroom instruction
and 3,000 hours of practical training. The practical training consists of working in the
delivery room, maternity ward, pediatric department, clinical and non-clinical nursing
wards, operating room and independent practice (www.bdh.de). There are written
exams, as well as oral and practical exams.
Midwives and physicians manage the schools together. Midwifery colleges are always
affiliated to major universities or major city-hospitals. But the government is
officially responsible for the training course. There is no tuition. Midwifery students
receive a salary from the hospital with which the college is affiliated (BDH 2000;
www.bdh.de).
10.6
Developments
10.6.1
Threats
There are a lot of gynaecologists (more than 15,000). Because of the overlapping
competencies of gynaecologists and midwives, the job responsibilities of the
midwives are threatened. Doctors give antenatal care more often than midwives do.
The number of gynaecologists also causes more 'medicalisation'.
Women are badly informed about the possibilities of where to give birth and about
their primary care provider. They can choose where to deliver the baby, but 98% of
the deliveries still take place in hospital.
Most midwives are dissatisfied with their income.
59
10.6.2
Opportunities
Women do have a free choice between a midwife and a gynaecologist, but it is normal
to go to the gynaecologist when a woman thinks she is pregnant. If women are better
informed about the care provided by a midwife or by a gynaecologist, they might
decide differently.
10.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
82,000,000
Birth-rate
770,744
Born alive
767,691(99,60%)
Stillborn
2000
3,053 (0,40%)
0,40%
Midwives
15,000
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
15,000
General practitioners active in midwifery

care
The perinatal mortality rate is the number of deaths of babies weighing more than 500
grams who have shown signs of life before plus the number of babies weighing more
than 500 grams born without a heartbeat, pulsation of the umbilical cord or definite
movement of voluntary muscles, untill the 7th day postpartum*.
*Paragraph 29, Abs. 2 und 3 der Verordnung zur Ausfhrung des
Personenstandgesetzes 1994.
60
11.
Midwifery in Greece
11.1
The midwife
11.1.1
In Greece, midwives responsibilities are differentiated and depend on the place and
sector where they work. In private maternity clinics in the big urban cities, the
midwife is involved in antenatal and postnatal care and she helps obstetricians in the
labour ward during delivery or an operation. She also takes care of women with
gynaecological problems.
In public maternity clinics in the urban cities, the job responsibilities are similar to the
ones mentioned above. She also performs other tasks. Only a small number of
midwives, who work in a labour ward, conduct spontaneous deliveries.
In public maternity clinics in the rural areas, the midwife takes charge of normal
deliveries on her own.
In centres of primary health care, the midwife is sometimes involved in the care of
women during pregnancy, birth and postpartum. The activities of those midwives
mainly consist of general nursing.
A few midwives co-operate with obstetricians and their responsibility is to educate the
woman and guide her and prepare her for labour and birth.
Generally, the tasks of the Greek midwife concern the following:
1. Antenatal check-ups (i.e. temperature, blood pressure, pulse, foetal growth,
position, etc.)
2. Delivery monitoring (physical examinations, psychological support, hydration,
bladder care, etc.)
3. Postnatal examinations
4. Parental education (i.e. breastfeeding and nutrition).
Midwifery skills are frequently under-utilised and midwives therefore regularly
perform tasks below their level of training.
11.1.2
History
The profession of midwives has been protected in law since 1953, as have been their
tasks and responsibilities. This law was updated in 1989.
61
11.2
In this paragraph, some aspects of the Greece midwifery system are discussed.
11.2.1
While the view among midwives is that pregnancy and birth are natural processes, the
general prevailing view is that pregnancy and birth are natural processes only in
retrospect. In Greece there are no feminist organisations requiring natural birth. This
view can be seen in the Greek midwifery system, where 98.9% of all deliveries are
actually conducted by obstetricians. And where obstetricians are always ultimately
responsible.
11.2.2
Division of tasks
In antenatal care, midwives as well as obstetricians and organised maternity care are
active. At the birth, a paediatrician is also available. Midwives and obstetricians
participate together in postnatal care.
While a midwife is able to take charge of a normal pregnancy and birth on her own,
the obstetrician always assumes the final decisions. He is usually the one who
performs the actual birth, while the midwife functions as a subsidiary.
The relationships between obstetricians and midwives are highly charged and
traditionally antagonistic. Medical and midwifery staff often have conflicting views
on each others legitimate spheres of practice.
11.2.3
Place of birth
In general, the obstetrician decides where the birth is going to take place. This would
be the (maternity clinic in) hospital, unless the parents explicitly demand otherwise. In
contrast, the number of home births is insignificant. It is usually an accident if a
woman delivers at home.
62
11.3
In this paragraph, the number of midwives and gynaecologists will be discussed.

11.3.1
Midwives
In 2000, of the 4,000 registered midwives in Greece, approximately 2,300 practised

midwifery. Only 89 of them are male. Most midwives are between 30 and 40 years
old, as is highlighted in the next table:
Age
Midwives (%)
<30 years old
25%
30-40 years old
45%
40-50 years old
25%
>50 years old
5%
Table 11.1: Age structure of Greek midwives
Most midwives (60%) work in public hospitals and public maternity clinics and 20%
are employed in private maternity clinics. Only 2% of the midwives are selfemployed in an independent free practice. The rest (18%) works in centres for general
health care where no deliveries are conducted.
11.3.2
Gynaecologists
According to the National Statistical Service of Greece there were about 2,176
gynaecologists in 1998.
11.4
11.4.1
Finance system
Greece has 12 health care regions and 52 districts. In 1983 Greece adopted a national
health care system that was to unify all public health services under the Ministry of
Health and reduce the size and inequities of the private sector. The Greek health care
system is highly centralised and regulated. The Ministry has power to regulate almost
every issue concerning the financing and provision of health care (Van Kemenade
1997).
The Central Council of Health advises the Ministry of Health but has little influence
on health care priorities. At a regional level, similar regional health councils operate,
whose role it is to advise the Central Council about the needs of the population and
the planning and evaluation of health care services. The regional councils will become
more important if a trend of decentralisation gets under way in the next few years.
63
Below the regional level, a representative of the government operates at a district

level. The head of the district administration is a physician who reports to this
representative (ibid.).
About 99% of the people are covered by compulsory public insurance organisations
(occupation based). The health care system has three main sources of finance. There
is direct public provision made through the Ministry of Health, which has its own
budget and is mainly responsible for hospital services. Secondly, there are numerous
public funds, which provide cover for both hospital and ambulatory services.
Furthermore, private insurance is available to cover all sorts of care (ibid.).
The health insurance funds are financed by contributions of employers and employees
(75%), except for the large Agriculture Workers Fund which is fully financed by
earmarked taxes. The contributions and the range of benefits differ among insurers.
Large funds operate their own polyclinics, health centres and hospitals.
In 1997, 26% of health care was financed through taxes, 32% through social
premiums and 42% through private sources (direct payments and voluntary
insurance). The market for private insurance is growing. In Greece, one percent of the
GNP is spent on maternity care.
11.4.2
Benefit packages and co-payments
The social insurance funds benefits provide their own benefits packages. But all
security benefits provide their members with free cover for outpatient and hospital
care services within the public sector. In the case of an admission to a private hospital,
the health insurance company reimburses a small proportion of the costs. Since the
provision of public health services often fails to meet consumer expectations, patients
frequently contribute out-of-pocket payments for private care (Van Kemenade 1997).
With regard to midwifery care, the social insurance funds benefits reimburse
laboratory examinations, medical visits, birth and postnatal care in public maternity
clinics and medication. There are only a few social insurance funds which also cover
charges in the private sector.
11.4.3
Income
The great majority of midwives work as employees, either in the National Health
System or in private clinics, and are paid a salary. The Ministry of Health sets the
salary of midwives working in public organisations, while the salary of those working
in private hospitals is set in a labour contract. Midwives working on a freelance basis
earn a fee for each service they provide.
64
Midwives find that they have a low-paid job, except for those who are self-employed.
The Hellenic Midwives Association estimates the average income of midwives in
Greece at approximately 11,739.
11.5
Training
11.5.1
To be admitted to the midwifery-training course, a student has to pass national

examinations after finishing secondary school.
11.5.2
Colleges
It takes the 300 midwifery students eight semesters (each of 14 weeks) in a

Technological Educational Institution to become a midwife. This encompasses 4,282
hours in total, of which 1,470 hours are spent on theoretical education. The course is
independent of any nursing course.
Examples of subjects that are dealt with during the course, are:
Human anatomy
Physiology
Basic nursing
Paediatrics
Neonatology
Family planning
Gynaecology
Gynaecological nursing
Sociology
Psychology.
A student has to complete 20 weeks of antenatal practical training and 30 weeks of

natal plus 20 weeks of postnatal practical training.
65
11.6
Developments
The Hellenic Midwives Association aims to improve the standard of care provided to
women, babies and their families through the development, education and appropriate
utilisation of the professional midwifery role. But Greek midwives face a lot of
threats, which obstruct the way to safer birth practices and fulfilment of the needs of
the women.
11.6.1
Threats
Generally speaking, medical practitioners dominate the Greek health care system.
Society has accorded them the right to this control, and also the right to define the
needs of the market. This combination of social and economic control makes their
political influence extremely powerful and difficult to oppose. Besides that, and
maybe because of that, the relationships between midwives and gynaecologists are
highly charged and traditionally antagonistic.
Although there is a law describing quite clearly the autonomous status of the
profession of midwives, midwives are often exposed to practices which undermine
this belief.
Midwives regularly perform tasks below their level of training. The 'medicalisation' of
birth plus the medical ideology that all births are normal only in retrospect, mean that
obstetricians have legitimate control over all births. All births are under the leadership
of obstetricians and midwives act only in accordance with his policies.
For midwives, this means that they do not often have their own responsibilities. They
play a consulting role.
11.6.2
Opportunities
According to the Hellenic Midwives Association, there is nothing positive in the

midwifery system. They are waiting for new government regulations on changes in
health care provision to be realised. Maybe these will help to strengthen their position
and provide other job responsibilities for midwives, so that there will not be so many
medical interventions during (normal) pregnancy and birth.
66
11.7
Statistics
Year
1998
Inhabitants
Births
2000
10,400,000
101,491
Born alive
Stillborn
1.5%
Midwives
2,300 (4,000 registered)
Births per midwife
Gynaecologists
midwifery care
2,176
-
Definition of perinatal mortality: The number of stillbirths after the 24th week and 5th
day of pregnancy plus the number of neonatal deaths during the first 28 days of life.
67
12.
Midwifery in Ireland
12.1
The midwife
12.1.1
Ireland has accepted the definition of a midwife made by the ICM/FIGO/WHO (1992)
and the activities of a midwife as laid down in 80/155/EEC Article 4.
A midwife is able to take responsibility for a woman experiencing normal pregnancy
and birth independently. She may assist high-risk women with care. In these cases, the
midwife shares the responsibility with the gynaecologist.
The Irish midwife also gives parental education.
The profession of midwives has been protected by law by the European Midwifery
Directives and the Nurses Act 1985 and by the Health Act 1970.
12.1.2
History
In the 1950s, hospital births were less frequent. In 1954, the Government introduced
the Maternity and Infant Scheme under the Health Act of 1953. Many women gave
birth at home at the time. In the 1960s, this began to change and most births occurred
in hospitals. This trend continued until the 1990s, when women began to request
home births. But Obstetricians and Health Boards objected to this.
A review of the Maternity and Infant Welfare Scheme took place in 1994 and
following recommendations made in this report, centres that offer the DOMINO
scheme with early discharge and home births were set up. The National Maternity
Hospital in Holles Street initiated this and was followed by Sligo, Galway and now
Cork.
Following a ten-day strike of nurses and midwives, the Government set up a
Commission on Nursing, which was chaired by Judge Mella Carroll. This group
produced a report; among the recommendations for midwifery was the setting up of a
Direct Entry Midwifery course. This commenced in 2000 and is a three-year course.
The areas involved are the University of Dublin, Trinity College and the Rotunda
Hospital School of Midwifery and the School of Midwifery in Our Lady of Lourdes
Hospital, Drogheda.
The Nurses Act (1985) is currently being reviewed and will become the Nurses and
Midwives Act and will recognise midwifery as totally separate and distinct from
nursing.
68
12.2
The woman may go to the general practitioner for the first antenatal check-up. Free
choice of care provider is a basic principle in the health system. However, most
women choose an obstetrician to be their primary care provider. Since the 1960s,
midwifery care has become more 'medicalised'. Therefore, midwives have become
hospitalmidwives and obstetrical nurses.
Midwives clinics exist in some Maternity Hospitals and provide care for low risk
women.
12.2.1
Society feels that pregnancy and birth are potential pathological processes. They feel
that there are potential risks to mother and child. Midwives sometimes see pregnancy
and birth as potential pathological processes and sometimes as natural processes. But
the overall view fits the trend of 'medicalisation' and the fact that midwives have
become hospitalmidwives and obstetrical nurses.
12.2.2
Division of tasks
The gynaecologist is not always present at the birth. He is just present in the
background. The midwife can contact him if there are problems. Then she will assist
the gynaecologist. The midwife is completely responsible for her own performance.
12.2.3
Place of birth
In Ireland, 99.6% of all births take place in hospital.

There are approximately two hundred home births a year. Legally, women have the
right to give birth at home, but for 30 years they have been more or less obliged to
deliver in the maternity clinic where their gynaecologist works. In those institutions,
at least 2000 deliveries a year take place under the responsibility of the gynaecologist
(OConner 2000).
Home births are at the parents request. They are conducted under the supervision of
an independent midwife. 0.4% of all deliveries take place at home.
69
12.3

who are active in midwifery will be discussed.
12.3.1
Midwives
The number of midwives is not known exactly, because there is not a separate register
for midwives. In 2000, the total number of midwives and nurses together was 39,000.
The number of midwives can not be estimated. In the future, it will be possible to see
the number of midwives, because there is going to be a separate register for midwives.
11 Midwives work in independent free practices, the remainder work in the public
sector. They are employed in hospitals, in delivery rooms and maternity clinics.
12.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 2000, there were 81 gynaecologists-obstetricians in Ireland.

12.3.3
The total number of general practitioners that are active in midwifery care is
unknown.
12.4
Finance and income
12.4.1
The Irish health care system was regulated in the Health Act of 1970. It is a centrally
controlled and financed system that is accessible to the whole population.
The public health services are funded mainly through general taxation, supplemented
by a health levy of 1.25%, which applies to all earnings (Van Kemenade 1997).
The services are provided to the citizens in accordance with the following eligibility
categories. Category 1 (37% of the population) is concerned with people who are
unable, without undue hardship, to arrange medical treatment for themselves and their
dependants and those whose family annual income falls below a particular level.
People in this category are entitled to free hospital care, free general practitioner
services, free drugs and free access to the services available (ibid.).
Category 2 (63% of the population) concerns people whose annual family income is
above the category 1 level. Patients in this category are predominantly the employed,
but farmers and other self-employed people can be entitled to this by paying a
relatively small sum. Category 2 patients are entitled to various co-payments for
70
hospital care, consulting treatment in public wards or as outpatients, general

practitioners and for drugs, although if the costs are high they may obtain a refund
from the health board (ibid.).
Most people in category 2 are members of the Voluntary Health Insurance (VHI)
scheme, which covers, at least to some extent, hospital treatment. The coverage
depends upon the premium paid.
The Voluntary Health Insurance Board is the monopoly provider of health insurance.
The VHI is financed through premiums of the insured and through state subsidies.
78% of health care is financed through taxes, 9% through premiums via the Voluntary
Health Board and 13% through (other) private financing. Private insurance is
voluntary and approximately 35% of the population choose to purchase private health
insurance.
The underlying principal reasons for private insurance are, for example, freedom of
choice of doctor and hospital, and speedy access to treatment (ibid.).
There is a very delicate balance in Ireland between public and private health care,
with a great deal of interdependence between the two sectors. Firstly, the public
system depends on the existence of private health insurance, because those who take
out private insurance continue to support the public system through their tax
payments, and the majority will forego their entitlements under this. Secondly, the
budgets of the public hospitals are supported by revenue from designated semi-private
and private beds. And thirdly, the coexistence of public and private practices in
publicly funded hospitals helps to ensure that good doctors are available to public as
well as private patients (ibid.).
12.4.2
Women are entitled to midwifery and maternity care, provided by their local health
care centre. But there are two possibilities, depending on the category the woman
belongs to.
If the woman belongs to category 1, all services are free. The services include
midwifery care, maternity care and care for babies until six weeks old and a maternity
allowance for each child.
If the woman belongs to category 2, she is entitled to midwifery care, maternity care,
infant welfare, and the care provided by the general practitioner during the pregnancy
and up to six weeks after the delivery (Dialoog met de Burgers 2001).
71
12.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary if employed or paid fee- for-service if independent.
The national government sets the level of the salaries of midwives employed in
hospitals. Independent midwives form contracts with insurers about the fee for each
service.
The local social insurers have stopped paying directly to the midwife. They now
comply with the law by paying the pregnant woman an allowance ( 825) if she gives
birth at home. Private insurers deny the right of midwives to receive payment for their
services. Instead of direct payment to the midwife, they grant an allowance to the
parents ( 381-667) for a home delivery. The average tariff, a midwife in Dublin asks
for antenatal, natal and postnatal care at home with the mother is 1,524 (OConner
2000). The mother has to pay the midwife directly.
It is not possible to determine what the average income annually is for a midwife,
because there are several salary scales.
12.5
Training
12.5.1
To enrol on a midwifery course, a student must be registered as a general nurse and

have post qualification experience.
There are approximately 140 new students each year, distributed around seven
schools.
A Pilot Direct Entry (vocational) Midwifery Course commenced in June 2000.
12.5.2
Colleges
Training to become a midwife takes two years. The students have to complete about
1,014 hours of theoretical training and 2,574 hours practical experience. The practical
hours are divided into 11 weeks minimum of antenatal care, 18 weeks minimum of
intra partum care and 16 weeks minimum of postnatal care.
The midwifery course complies with the European Union Directives (see also United
Kingdom).
The hospital and the university are responsible for the training course.
72
12.6
Developments
12.6.1
Threats
There is poor postnatal care. This means that there is a threat to the continuity of care.
Another consequence of this discontinuity are perhaps the low breastfeeding rates.
Practically, women are restricted in where to give birth.
Midwifery care has become more 'medicalised', and midwives have become hospitalmidwives and obstetrical nurses. This undermines their position as independent
professionals.
Most of the time, the gynaecologist is only present at the delivery when the midwife
calls him (if she needs him). But if it is a private patient of the gynaecologist, the
midwife always has to consult him, because the patients pay for this. So even if the
midwife does not need the gynaecologist, she is obliged to consult him. This again
threatens the midwifes status as an independent professional.
12.6.2
Opportunities
Every woman is entitled to free care. And also free choice of a care provider is a basic
principle in the health system. However, most women choose an obstetrician to be
their primary care provider. According to the midwives, this should be changed;
women should choose a midwife to be her primary care provider. Care provided by a
midwife is reimbursed. There is also a high standard of midwifery care and this
contributes as one of the factors to low perinatal mortality. These characteristics
should make it possible for a midwife to strengthen her position and to make her the
primary care provider for midwifery care.
73
12.7
Statistics
Year
1997
Inhabitants
Birth rate
Born alive
2000
3,500,000
54,239
53,971
Stillborn
Midwives
0.50%
39,000 (incl nurses)
Births per midwife

Gynaecologis ts
81

midwifery care
The perinatal mortality is the number of stillborn and deaths from week 24 of the
pregnancy until the first week of life.
74
13.
Midwifery in Italy
13.1
The midwife
13.1.1
A midwife is a health care worker, with a university diploma and a licence. She helps
and counsels women during pregnancy, birth and postpartum. She is entitled to
deliver first assistance medical care and drugs. She participates in health and sexual
education, gynaecological treatment, prevention activities and also in professional
training, a midwives course and research.
The tasks of the Italian midwife concern the following:
1. Surveillance and management of normal pregnancy and birth
2. Counselling
3. Prevention (e.g. urinary incontinence)
4. Parental education (e.g. parenting skills and breast-feeding)
5. Postnatal newborn and mothers treatment.
There might be some differences between job descriptions at hospitals.
Responsibilities also depend on the outcome of the situation.
A midwife in hospital and a gynaecologist share the final responsibility for normal
pregnancies and births, even when the midwife is on duty. The midwife usually
conducts the actual birth, except in the case of a pathological situation. She then
assists the gynaecologist.
A self-employed midwife (or freelance midwife) is allowed to take care of a pregnant
woman. However, some tasks are exclusively reserved for the gynaecologist.
Examples of these are echography, exam application, pathological situations, etc.
The profession of midwives is protected by law, as are their competencies. In fact, all
health activities and professional positions are defined in the Law on the Italian
National Health System.
13.1.2
History
Since 1888, the law has been protecting the profession of midwives. Italian midwives
have had an Edict for their functions and activities since 1890.
75
13.2
In Italy, several professional groups are active in midwifery care. Besides the midwife
and the gynaecologist, the general practitioner and organised maternity care are active
in antenatal care. The midwife, gynaecologist and maternity care provide natal care.
And postnatal care is given by the midwife and the gynaecologist, as well as by the
paediatrician, the general practitioner, the maternity care provider and an infant nurse.
13.2.1
The prevailing view on pregnancy and birth in Italy is that these are natural processes
in life. This is not always reflected in aspects of the midwifery system.
13.2.2
Division of tasks
A midwife and a gynaecologist share the final responsibility for normal pregnancies
and births, even when the midwife is on duty. The paediatrician is also responsible
for care in the postnatal phase.
The midwife always conducts a physiological birth in the presence of the
gynaecologist. It may happen that he is in another room, but the gynaecologist is
always at hand, to function in a pathological situation or to suture the perineum if
necessary. Because every head- gynaecologist is free to organise the activities in his
maternity unit, some differences in these practices may exist.
In the case of an abnormal pregnancy and birth, a gynaecologist is ultimately
responsible, together with the organised maternity care and also the paediatrician in
the postnatal phase.
It is common for a woman to go to a gynaecologist when she is pregnant. She is free
to choose between gynaecologists either in a private or in a public sphere (county
ambulatory or hospital ambulatory). Women seldom opt for going to a midwife first.
13.2.3
Place of birth
All deliveries take place in hospital. Only if the parents explicitly ask for a delivery at
home or in a maternity clinic, does the delivery take place there. That is, if it concerns
a normal pregnancy. The percentage of home deliveries is 1%.
13.3
76
13.3.1
Midwives
In the year 2000, there were approximately 14,500 midwives practising midwifery in
Italy, of which about 14,000 (or 96.5%) were female.
Most of the midwives (80%) work in the public National Health Service (NHS)
sector, which means they are employed in public hospitals, university hospitals and/or
a 'consultorio' in the country. It is not very common for midwives to work in
independent free practices. There are only about 120 midwives (10%) who do.
Another 10% work in the private sector of a hospital, clinic or ambulatory.
The age groups, comprising an equal number of Italian midwives in each category,
are highlighted in the following table:
Age
Midwives (%)
22-30 years old
15%
31-40 years old
30%
41-50 years old
25%
51-60 years old
20%
61-older
10%
Table 13.1: Age structure of Italian midwives
13.3.2
Gynaecologists
The number of gynaecologists was estimated at 12,000 in the year 2000.
13.4
13.4.1
Finance system
In recent years, the Italian National Health System has undergone a series of changes
and modifications. The National Health Service (Il Servizio Sanitario Nazionale:SSN)
was established in 1978, and replaced a system of more than 200 health insurance
schemes. The law now provides universal coverage and comprehensive free health
care at the point of delivery (Van Kemenade 1997).
Health care is regulated at different administrative levels. At the national level the
Ministry of Health establishes a legal, operational and financial context for the health
care services. Italy has an annual health care budget set by Parliament. The 20
regional health authorities are responsible for the provision of health services in their
regions. They must draft a regional health plan and evaluate the efficiency of regional
health services (ibid.).
77
These regions are responsible for all activities in the field of health care and they have
considerable autonomy. They exert influence on the way services are delivered at a
local level and they negotiate contracts with private hospitals and teaching
universities (ibid.).
In 1996 the regions were divided into 228 local health areas under the authority of
Azendia Sanitaria Locale (ASLs). The local level is the operational part of the system
and runs health care programmes and facilities.
The Italian National Health Service is financed by a National Health Fund. The most
important source of funding are the social insurance premiums (50.5%). General
taxation accounts for 42%. An out-of-pocket combined contribution by the citizen and
other kinds of co-payments contribute respectively 4.2% and 3.3%. These sources of
finance account for 73% of all health care costs. The rest (27%) is paid for through
the voluntary system, meaning out-of-pocket payments and voluntary insurance for
extra or more luxurious care.
At the beginning of each quarter, payments are transferred to the regions, which in
turn allocate funds to the local health areas. Private insurance mainly provides
supplementary cover (Van Kemenade 1997).
13.4.2
Benefit packages
The SSN aims to ensure that all citizens have access to both primary and secondary
care. There are few exclusions (dental care and plastic surgery). Since 1992, the
regions have had to provide a minimum level of health care. But regions can make
additions to this minimum, meaning that different regions can have different benefit
packages. All care included in these packages is free. Parents who want other care or
extra services have to pay for it themselves, or they can choose to enclose
supplementary insurance (Van Kemenade 1997).
In principle, all midwifery care provided in the public health care sector is paid for
(i.e. enclosed in the benefit packages). Parents sometimes arrange supplementary
insurance for care provided by a self-employed midwife or for extra and more
luxurious care.
13.4.3
Income
Midwives in hospitals are paid a salary for employment. The level of their income is
determined by negotiations between the trade unions of the national health care
employees and the national government. Regional health authorities and local health
authorities can add a certain amount to the income, after negotiating with a regional
trade union. This is because in the different regions of Italy there are different
78
quantities and quality of work. Self-employed midwives earn a fee per client of which
the amount is set by the Midwives Order for free services.
The annual average income of Italian midwives is estimated at nearly 15,500.
13.5
Training
13.5.1
Admission re quirements
In order to be admitted to the midwifery course, a student must have a high school
diploma. This diploma is necessary for admission to a university course.
13.5.2
Colleges
The midwifery-training course takes three years, in which 1,600 hours of theoretical
training and 3,800 hours of practical training must be completed before graduation.
The practical training is made up of 800 hours concerning antenatal care, 2,000 hours
of natal care and 1,000 hours of postnatal care.
There are 700 students who study midwifery at the universities.
In 2001 a new law will set up a new system of midwifery education. There will be a
first level degree for students completing three years of training, and a second level
degree (an extra two years) to become a teacher and head of staff. In this new
education system, a student must earn 180 credits to get a first level degree. After 5
years of work experience, she can earn another 120 credits in order to get a second
level degree. One credit represents 30 hours of education.
13.6
Developments
Important developments affecting midwives in their current situation will result in

new opportunities as well as threats to the midwifery profession.
13.6.1
Threats
The Italian Midwives Federation considers the high Caesarean section rate as a
negative aspect of the Italian obstetric system. It seems to be an indication of the
'medicalised' way of thinking in midwifery care, which hinders a more physiological
and natural approach. The fact that women go and see a gynaecologist first when they
are pregnant might be another indication of this way of thinking.
According to the Federation there is little attention in the media, as well as from
politicians paid to the obstetric system in general and more specifically the midwifery
79
profession. Therefore, it is hard for midwives to get support or consideration when

they are in need of change.
Furthermore, there is no integration between hospital and countryside activities.
Therefore, women who receive antenatal care in country surroundings feel lost when
they go to hospital to deliver. Moreover, they are 'unknowns' there. There is no data
available of women between hospitals and the countryside. That is why there is an
overlapping of care resulting in a waste of money and work.
13.6.2
Opportunities
In order to counter the threats and to strengthen the position of Italian midwives, the
Federation aims to increase the number of midwives and to increase the number of
courses for continuous training and education. A first step with regard to the latter has
been made with the new law on education (13.5.2). Midwives will play a more
important role in professional training.
The Federation wants to establish more autonomy and responsibility for midwives.
And they want to improve the quality of midwifery care. Therefore, it is a positive
thing that all pregnancies, births and postpartums are already well managed. And also,
that the percentages of perinatal mortality and morbidity are low.
13.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
Births
Born alive
Stillborn
Midwives
2000
57,200,000
525,428
523,463 (99.6%)
1965 (0.37%)
0.40%
14,500
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
12,000

midwifery care
According to the umbrella organisation the definition of perinatal mortality is the

number of stillborn and deaths in the first week of life.
80
14.
Midwifery in Luxembourg
14.1
The midwife
14.1.1
Theoretically, in accordance with the EU-directives, a midwife in Luxembourg is a

professional, taking responsibility for women and families throughout pregnancy and
birth in a physiological situation and assisting the gynaecologist in a pathological
situation. But in practice, the medical profession assumes the final responsibility.
In short, the tasks of a midwife from Luxembourg consist of:
1. (Parenting classes)
2. Complete care during delivery
3. Assistance during birth
4. (Postnatal care)
5. Guidance in breastfeeding
6. (Neonatal) Intensive care.
Nearly all midwives work in delivery rooms and maternity wards in hospitals. In the
antenatal phase, they only see pregnant women for CTG-scans in the last week of
pregnancy, or if women come in for problems such as bleeding. Some midwives do
parenting classes for the hospital, but gynaecologists are primarily responsible for
antenatal care.
During labour, a midwife is completely responsible. She keeps in contact with the
gynaecologist and she calls him for the actual birth or if there is a problem or a
demand for epidural anaesthesia. Here too, the gynaecologist is ultimately responsible
together with a paediatrician.
In some hospitals, midwives perform postnatal care. General nurses, paediatric nurses
and auxiliary nurses usually deliver postnatal care. Midwives are responsible for
domestic care, dealing with such things as early discharge or problems with
breastfeeding.
Some midwives are employed n a gynaecological/ high risk pregnancy unit or in a
neonatal unit.
81
14.1.2
History
The profession of Luxembourg midwives has been protected by law since 1967. From
1981 onwards, the education requirements and competencies of the midwives were
regulated too.
In Luxembourg, midwifery used to be a 'healing-art-profession' (art de gurir)
together with doctors, dentists, pharmacists and veterinarians. In 1967, a new law put
the midwives together with nurses and other paramedical professions, as there were
less and less independently working midwives. Midwives were only employed in
hospital settings, because of the regular income and the prospect of a pension.
Midwives did not put forward any opposition to the new law, because they were glad
to be employed. Fees for home births and home visits were forgotten in the law,
because these were no longer used.
In the 70s, a law protecting women during pregnancy allowed them a certain
allowance to see a gynaecologist at least five times, and a dentist once during
pregnancy. After the birth, they had the right to visit the gynaecologist once more plus
the right to regular medical check-ups for the child until it was two years old. This
law assured reimbursement (by the social security office) of maternity care, but only
the care given by doctors. It was part of a preventive programme, financially
supported by the government.
Several aspects of the law were changed in 1995 in order to adapt to European
directives. Midwives then managed to insert two new articles, stating that pregnant
women can pay some supplementary visits to a midwife during pregnancy and after
birth. It also stated that a new regulation had to be made, to define the conditions for
these visits. Midwives have been pushing the government and the gynaecologists to
produce this regulation ever since. But it still has not happened.
14.2
Several professional groups are active in the Luxembourg midwifery system. As well
as midwives and gynaecologists, there are also general nurses, paediatric nurses,
auxiliary nurses and paediatricians involved.
14.2.1
Paragraph 1 reveals that the medical profession of gynaecologists is mainly

responsible for midwifery care. This is because pregna ncy and birth are seen as
medical concerns, which put all women at risk. Even some midwives like to rely on
the gynaecologists, according to the Luxembourg Association of Midwives.
82
14.2.2
Division of tasks
Antenatal care is mainly provided by gynaecologists. They also usually conduct the
births in hospital. It is impossible to find out what percentage of births are carried out
by midwives, because this depends on the hospital organisation and on the
gynaecologist being on time. General nurses, paediatric nurses and/or auxiliary nurses
often provide postnatal care.
There are two independent gynaecologists who each employ a midwife to do things
like CTG-scans, parenting classes and even some antenatal and postnatal visits.
It should be noted that the gynaecologist and the paediatrician are usually ultimately
responsible.
14.2.3
Place of birth
Parents are supposed to be able to choose the place of birth, but in reality, the
gynaecologists decide about this. Deliveries therefore take place at the hospital where
the gynaecolo gist concerned works, except if parents explicitly ask for a home birth.
However, it is a political decision, initiated by gynaecologists, that home births are
not reimbursed. This contributes to the fact that there were only two home births in
the year 2000.
14.3

14.3.1
Midwives
There were about 97 registered midwives in Luxembourg in the year 2000, of which
60 to 70 were practising midwifery actively. So this means that there are about 0.5
midwives per 1,000 fertile women.
There is only one midwife who works fulltime independently in a free practice.
Fourteen midwives work part-time independently. The rest work in public hospitals.
The fifteen independent midwives see each other regularly to discuss problems, plan
holidays, see who is covering which area and so on. Some form a 'baby-friendly'
team, meaning that they handle breastfeeding as recommended by the
WHO/UNICEF initiative 'Baby- friendly hospital'.
14.3.2
Gynaecologists
The number of Luxembourg gynaecologists was estimated at 70 to 80 in the year

2000. Every gynaecologist has some kind of contract with a hospital.
83
14.4
14.4.1
Finance system
The fundamental principles of the Luxembourg health system are a free choice of the
provider by the patient, compulsory health insurance and compulsory provider
compliance with the fixed fees- for-service fixed in the insurance system (European
Observatory 1999).
In Luxembourg, two governmental departments are involved in health care. The
Ministry of Health being responsible for the organisation of hospitals, preventive care
and social medicine and the Ministry of Social Security supervising the health
insurance schemes. The organisation of the health care system is centralised and
practised in a context broadly determined by a free practice of the medical professions
and an extended role for the private sector (Van Kemenade 1997).
Public health insurance is administered by nine sickness funds, each of which is
targeted at a different professional group. The main objective of the sickness funds is
the provision of services to persons insured. In addition, they manage their existing
assets.
The Union of Sickness Funds is responsible for: negotiating agreements/contracts
with health care providers, drawing up the annual budget for sickness and maternity
insurance, revising the contribution rates and so on (ibid.).
The method of financing health and maternity insurance follows the contributory
model. Since 1992, financial intervention by the state has been determined in
accordance with contributions paid by the insurer (and by employers in the case of
salaried employees) and no longer on the basis of the payments made (Van Kemenade
1997).
Contributions are levied on incomes below an upper limit. For salaried employees, the
rate of contributions is shared equally between the insured and employers.
Of the total health expenditure, about 59% is financed through contributions, 39%
through taxes and 2% through private payments. Private health insurance covers
certain charges not refunded by the sickness funds.
14.4.2
Reimbursement
The benefit packages and co-payments are the same for all sickness funds. Health care
benefits are granted either in the form of a reimbursement by the sickness funds to the
insured or by the Union of Sickness Funds paying the bill directly. Public care
84
financed directly by the government through taxes, such as maternity care, is free of
co-payments (Van Kemenade 1997).
So, a basic 'birth package' is available for everyone, which includes, in particular,
treatment by gynaecologists, care provided in the hospital, the stay in the hospital and
medication. The tasks of midwives include only postnatal care at home if it is a case
of an early discharge (before day 4 after the birth) and treatment with a prescription
from a doctor (for example, home visits after day 4 in the case of breastfeeding
problems). Parents can choose to enclose supplementary insurance for more luxurious
care, such as a one-bed-room and epidural anaesthesia. The sickness funds do not
reimburse antenatal care provided by a midwife and home births. In fact,
gynaecologists will do everything to make sure that insurers will not pay midwives
for this kind of care in the future too.
14.4.3
Income
For employed midwives there is a collective agreement on their salary like there is for
all caring professionals. Trade unions negotiate these agreements every five years. In
the meantime, wages are rising due to market trends or the 'living index'.
A midwife collects a fee- for-service or a fee per client for things that are not covered
by social security. For independent midwives the fees are negotiated every year by a
commission, represented by one midwife.
In Luxembourg, a midwifery salary is circa a middle to upper class income;
approximately 30,000 before taxes annually. But there are barely any opportunities
to make a career for herself.
14.5
Training
14.5.1
Midwifery-training is a two- year complementary course to the three-year general

nursing course. There are no further admission requirements.
Every two years, ten new midwifery students are admitted to the course.
14.5.2
Colleges
Midwifery students have to complete 700 hours of theoretical training and 2,300
hours of clinical (i.e. practical) training.
The theoretical training consists of such lessons as:
Anatomy
85
Embryology
Gynaecology
Normal and abnormal pregnancy, birth and postpartum
Anaesthetics
Pharmacology
Paediatrics
Nutrition
Psychology.
A student has to do all the activities written in the midwifery directives, for example,
to actively perform 40 deliveries. The student will gain experience in the delivery
room, in the (neonatal) intensive care unit, in the high-risk pregnancy unit and in the
maternity wards.
The Ministry of Education is responsib le for the school. The Ministry of Health
accounts for the curriculum, the examination and graduation.
14.6
Developments
The Luxembourg Association of Midwives is trying to establish the midwife as a

professional, who can take responsibility for herself in a physiological situation and
who assists the gynaecologist in case of pathological problems. Therefore, the
midwifery profession needs to be supported and strengthened. In the current situation,
several threats hinder this development. But there are also some opportunities.
14.6.1
Threats
In a way, midwives are still considered as a less valuable professional group than
physicians are. Despite the promise of a new law on extended competencies in 1995,
no attempts have been made since then. Gynaecologists work hard against the
development of this law through their political influence. So, tasks performed by
midwives are still only reimbursed with a prescription from a doctor, and the sickness
funds do not pay anything for antenatal care provided by a midwife and for ho me
births. As a consequence, women in Luxembourg are not free to choose their primary
care provider. They all go to a gynaecologist when they are pregnant.
86
There is a strict law stating that hospitals are allowed to have a maternity unit. A
small unit is to be closed and maternity centres or midwifery led units can not be
authorised.
The view that pregnancy and birth are natural (physiological) processes in life has not
been assimilated into the Luxembourg obstetrical system just yet. In fact, most
pregnant women are considered at risk.
The Ministry of Education is actually attempting to reduce the admission
requirements for midwifery-training to a two-year nursing course, instead of a
complete three-year curriculum leading to a nursing diploma. The midwifery
Association is strongly opposed to this. The proposition would be in conflict with the
European directives and would lead to a more poorly prepared midwife with the risk
of providing care of a lesser quality.
14.6.2 Opportunities
As the costs for health care are growing, decision- makers can only come to the
conclusion that midwifery care provided by midwives is cheaper than medical care
provided by gynaecologists. According to the Association, Normal pregnant women
just need to see a midwife and then costs can be kept at an acceptable level.
14.7
Statistics
Year
1999
2000
Inhabitants
Births
Born alive
Stillborn
435,700
5,596
5,582 (99.7%)*
14 (0.3%)*
0.52%
Midwives
0.7%
60-70 (97 registered)
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
midwifery care
61*
60-70
According to the umbrella organisation the definition of perinatal mortality is the

number of stillborn plus the number of deaths from the moment the gynaecologist
perceives the foetus as a potential living baby, to one week after birth.
The perinatal mortality rate fluctuates greatly every year, due to the low number of
births, for example: 0.81% in 1998.
87
* Statec; Service Central de la Statistique et des Etudes Economique.

The number of midwives and gynaecologists was estimated in 2000.
88
15.
Midwifery in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, midwives can work in primary or secondary care. Midwives who
work in secondary care, are employed by the hospital. Because most midwives work
in primary care, this chapter will concentrate on that.
15.1
The midwife
15.1.1
In the Netherlands, there is a clear division of tasks in primary and secondary

midwifery care, based on the dichotomy between physiology and pathology. The
midwife (or general practitioner) in primary health care conducts the normal
pregnancy and birth. She is in charge of the prevention and selection of pathology. In
the case of a pregnancy or birth with an increased risk, the midwife consults and/or
refers to a gynaecologist in secondary health care.
The midwifery profession has been protected since 1995 by a law on individual health
care (BIG). According to this law, a midwife has to be registered in the BIG-register.
In this law, such things as the skills and competenc ies of midwives are
constitutionalised , as well as their reserved operations.
According to the description of the Royal Dutch Organisation of Midwives (KNOV),
the midwife is completely and medically responsible for antenatal, natal and postnatal
care and a check- up six weeks postpartum for low- and medium- risk midwifery. The
midwife also has a duty in the area of family planning (Crbas 1992).
According to the KNOV, the midwife is the only paramedical professional that one
can consult without a referral. She has the autonomous power to judge and decide on
the supervision concerning the physiological pregnancy and birth (ibid.).
The midwife integrates psychosocial guidance into her work. This implies attention to
the personal, social and cultural background of the pregnant woman.
In practice, the midwife has three main tasks:
1. The midwife is able to take responsibility for a normal pregnancy and birth
independently (This concerns the home delivery and the polyclinical delivery)
2. The midwife should recognise and deal with medical and non- medical risks (If
there is a risk, the client should be referred to the gynaecologist at the right
moment)
89
3. The midwife, if in doubt, should decide whether consultation of the gynaecologist

is necessary. She decides that on the basis of certain criteria (the midwifery list of
indications) (Crbas 1992).
15.1.2
History
The position of midwives has often been under discussion. In 1969 Dr. Pannekoek
wondered if midwives and home deliveries would still exist in the 21 st century. Yet,
the position of midwives has improved. Nowadays, it can be said that the midwife and
the home delivery still have a future.
In 1920, the training course was extended from two to three years. There were two
reasons for this supplementary year. Firstly, it was thought that the pressure on the
students to learn midwifery in two years, was too high. Secondly, it meant that there
would be more attention paid to neonatal care, maternity care and social hygiene
(Drenth 1998).
Because of educational and technical developments, the curriculum was reviewed in
the 1970s. The shortage of midwives made it necessary to increase the number of
students each year (Schoon 1998).
In 1993 the course became four years in duration.
15.2
15.2.1
View on pregnancy and birt h
In the Netherlands, both midwives and society see pregnancy and birth as natural
processes. Most gynaecologists also see pregnancy and birth as natural processes.
The midwife plays a key role in the perinatal period. She has to deal with very diverse
questions. That is why the midwife has contact with a lot of other (medical)
professionals.
If it concerns extramural care, the midwife has contact with organised maternity care,
the district nurse, the health centre, the dietician, the physiotherapist, social work and
domestic care. If it concerns intramural care, the midwife has contact with the
gynaecologist, the paediatrician, the nursing staff, maternity ward, neonatal ward and
intensive care unit (Crbas 1992).
In this paragraph, we will discuss the professional groups that are involved in care
during pregnancy or birth. In the Netherlands, midwives, (some) general practitioners,
gynaecologists and organised maternity care are involved.
90
15.2.2
General practitioners, like midwives, have the authority to handle pregnancies and
births. The number of general practitioners that are active in midwifery care is
decreasing; this is also due to the 'primate' of midwifery. The primate will be
discussed in paragraph 4.3. Only general practitioners that conduct both pregnancies
and births are called general practitioners active in midwifery care (Wiegers &
Hingstman 1999). General practitioners have to conduct at least ten deliveries a year,
to stay active in midwifery.
15.2.3
Gynaecologists
If the pregnancy is abnormal, the gynaecologist is the obvious person to deliver the
baby. Of course, gynaecologists have a broader range of tasks than just midwifery
care. About 40% of their total working hours is spent on midwifery care (Welling et
al. 1999).
15.2.4
Organised maternity care
Maternity care is the care for mother and child after the delivery. In the Netherlands,
maternity care is mostly provided at home, and it is one of the keystones of
midwifery in the Netherlands. There should be a medical reason for getting maternity
care provided in hospital (as well as a medical reason for delivering in hospital)
(Hessing-Wagner 1991).
Organised maternity care is provided by maternity centres, which are often merged
with home care organisations.
15.2.5
Division of tasks
In the Netherlands, there is a clear division between primary and secondary midwifery
care. It is important that women at a higher risk are referred to a gynaecologist in
time. It is also important that low-risk women are sent to primary care, because the
costs for primary care are lower than the costs for secondary care. Furthermore,
guidance in primary care prevents 'medicalisation' of the pregnancy and birth.
The midwifery risks selection involves the selection of pregnant women for primary
or secondary care or for an intermediate form. An intermediate form means: shared
care during the pregnancy and a medium- risk situation. Since 1998 there has been a
consensus on the risks. All professional groups support the midwifery list of
symptoms as it is recorded in the midwifery handbook.
In primary care, the midwife is responsible for the client. She is also responsible for
the referral of the client to secondary care. In secondary care, the gynaecologist takes
91
over responsibility. The one who treats or guides the woman is responsible. Even if
the gynaecologist has referred a woman back to the midwife, and something goes
wrong, then the midwife is responsible. The woman is after all under her supervision,
so the midwife has to check again to see if there are signs or symptoms for a new
referral.
As has already been said, general practitioners are also allowed to perform deliveries.
It has been estimated that in 1999 10.4% of all deliveries were conducted by general
practitioners that are active in midwifery and about 50% by gynaecologists. Home
deliveries are mainly conducted by midwives, hospital deliveries are mainly
conducted by gynaecologists.
15.2.6
Place of birth
In the Netherlands, there are four possible places where women can deliver their
babies. At home, in a clinic or in a polyclinic at the hospital, or at a special maternity
hotel.
One of the features of the Dutch system is the relatively great freedom of choice of
the clients.
Interest in home deliveries over the last few years has been quite stable. In the last
decade the percentage of home deliveries has stayed at approximately 30%. There are
two conditions for being able to deliver at home. It must be a normal delivery and the
woman has to be able to get to the hospital quickly (15 minutes), in an emergency
(SMV 2000).
For hospital deliveries there are two possibilities. A woman can have a clinical
delivery, in which case she stays in hospital for more than 24 hours; or a woman can
have a polyclinical delivery, in which case she goes home immediately after the
delivery (Hessing-Wagner 1991).
The polyclinical delivery is conducted by a midwife, because it is a normal delivery
and it is an alternative to the home delivery. But also pathological deliveries,
conducted by a gynaecologist, could be polyclinical, because women need to show
certain symptoms in order to get maternity care at the hospital (Hessing-Wagner
1991).
Giving birth in a special maternity hotel is called a moved home delivery. A woman
can only give birth in this hotel if she has no medical problems, because at the hotel
there is no medical equipment. The midwife conducts this delivery.
92
15.3
In this paragraph the number of midwives, general practitioners active in midwifery,

gynaecologists and maternity care are discussed.
15.3.1
Midwives
As of January 1st 2000 there were 1,578 practising midwives, of which 44 (2.8%)
were male.
Most of the midwives work independently in primary midwifery care (69%) in their
own practices. About 16% of midwives work in secondary care at the hospital and
247 (15%) midwives work as observers. They take over another midwifes practice if
she is ill or during holidays. 12% of midwives with their own practice work solo; 22%
work in a duo-practice and 66% in a group-practice (Hings tman 2000).
The density of midwives is the average number of women between the ages of 15 and
39 per one independent midwife. This means that there is one midwife for 2,069
women in their fertile years (Hingstman 2000).
15.3.2
Studies show that 16% of general practitioners are active in midwifery care, 22% just
deal with the first 12 weeks of the pregnancy and 61% conduct no pregnancies at all.
As of January 1st 1999 there were approximately 1,120 general practitioners active in
midwifery (Wiegers & Hingstman 1999).
Most of the time, general practitioners in the countryside are active in midwifery
(because there is no midwife). On the other hand, the number of general practitioners
active in midwifery in urbanised areas is almost zero. In those areas, midwives are
almost always available (ibid.).
15.3.3
Gynaecologists
In 1997 there were 613 gynaecologists working in Dutch hospitals. In general, they
work in general hospitals.
15.3.4
Organised maternity care
99% of maternity nurses are female. The intake of first-year students has decreased by
almost 12%, the total number of students has increased by 17%. As a result, the
number of qualified maternity nurses that enter the labour market on an annual basis,
dropped from 149 in 1993 to 51 in 1997 (Welling et al. 1999).
93
The commencement of a shorter course solved this problem, leading to a considerable

number of new students. In 1998, 395 students completed the course and in 1999, 260
students graduated (VWS 2000).
15.4
15.4.1
In the Netherlands, the 'Bismarck' model is used. The financing of this system takes
place via social insurance and is managed by legally set up privet organisations, that
have agreements with health care services on services and financing (Rutten & Van
Doorslaer 1999).
The Netherlands has a dual insurance system. There is a public system for people
below a certain level of income. These are mainly employees and small selfemployed persons, but also the ones claiming social secur ity (including the elderly).
This form of insurance is compulsory as laid down by the Sickness Fund Act (ZFW).
In the Netherlands, approximately 61% of the population is compulsorily insured by a
sickness fund.
Then there is a private system, for those who do not qualify for the ZFW. They
arrange contracts with a private insurer themselves. Furthermore, there is an insurance
for everyone, the Exceptional Medical Expenses Act (AWBZ), for such things as
nursing homes, or institutions for handicapped persons. The AWBZ is compulsory,
but employers pay the premiums for their employees (Boerma et al 1993; Van
Kemenade 1997).
Health care in the Netherlands is financed through premiums paid by insured people.
Most of the time, the employer also pays a part.
15.4.2
Contracts
Insurance companies arrange contracts with midwives. The role of the insurer is
changing more and more into an active purchasing agent for care. Midwives need to
negotiate more and more about the establishment where they work, implementation of
work and salaries.
Insurers judge whether there is a need for midwives or not in a certain area. They also
check to see if the midwife meets basic quality standards. Often the midwife and the
insurer make agreements about the quality of care that the midwife has to deliver.
This involves such things as the design of the practice, access, support (relief 24 hours
a day, seven days a week) and the hospitals where women can be referred to. Insurers
can refuse midwives if they want to. This way they can control the supply and
demand in midwifery care. The Dutch 'Mededingingsautoriteit' (authority that
94
regulates competition)(NMa) forbids agreements concerning the establishment.

According to this authority, there cannot be any agreements made that will decrease
the opportunities for competition. The primate that protects the midwives (see 4.3) is
therefore in conflict with the rules of the NMa and European legislation.
15.4.3
Reimbursement
The costs of midwifery care are financed through health insurance. Midwifery care is
free of charge and maternity care is partially reimbursed. This is applicable under
certain conditions. If a normal pregnancy and birth is expected, the woman is obliged
to be assisted by a midwife. Only in areas where no midwife is available, do sickness
funds reimburse midwifery costs for a general practitioner or a hospital. This is called
the primate of midwifery (Welling et al. 1999). The court has decided that the primate
as from January 1st 1999 should be lifted, but the State and the KNOV have appealed
against this. Some insurers have already deviated from the primate, even though there
has not been a verdict yet.
Privately insured clients can choose between a midwife or a general practitioner.
Private insurers often reimburse the costs of a polyclinical delivery. Socially insured
clients have to pay the extra costs of a polyclinical delivery without medical
problems, themselves.
Gynaecological care is the most expensive. In the case of a normal pregnancy and
birth, these costs are not reimbursed. Only if there are complications will the insurer
reimburse the costs a specialist (Hessing-Wagner 1991).
Socially insured clients have to pay out-of-pocket payments. The remaining costs of
up to a maximum of eight days of care are reimbursed by the sickness funds (Welling
et al. 1999). If the maternity centre cannot supply the care, the insured can get a
substitute payment (budget). A lot of private insurers give their insured client a free
choice between a budget and a reimbursement (De Boer 1994). Socially insured
clients do not have this choice.
15.4.4
Income
In 1999, midwives with independent free practices were expected to conduct an

average of 125 deliveries, including durante partu referred clients.
This average was far below the norm, which was 150 deliveries in that year. In the
year 2000 the Minister of the Health Department took some measures. The norm has
now been reduced from 150 to 120 deliveries. This means that a midwife can now
earn her income performing 120 deliveries a year. Negotiations about a further
reduction of the norm still continue. The insurer pays the midwife 677 per delivery.
95
Having paid 'practice-costs' and taxes, this leaves an independent midwife an annual
net income of about 30,151.
The tariffs in midwifery care, are fixed by the College Tariffs Health Care (CTG)
according to the Law Tariffs Health Care (WTG).
15.5
Training
15.5.1
To be admitted to a midwifery course, students need a high school diploma including

biology and science. They also need to be in good health (Crbas 1992).
Because there are more applications than places, there are numerus clauses for all four
midwifery schools (the first selection). The second selection procedure consists of an
interview between the candidate and 210 people.
15.5.2
Colleges
At the end of the course, the student must have realised a lot of goals, concerning the
following areas (Schoon 1998):
Actual midwifery activities
Prevention
Guidance/ communication
Managing a practice
Increasing and maintaining professional skills.
The following practicals have to be done: antenatal care (29 weeks), natal care (26
weeks), postnatal care (14 weeks), ultra-sound scan/ antenatal diagnostics (4 weeks),
incubator ward experience (3 weeks), gynaecological ward experience (3 weeks), and
pregnancy education (2 weeks).
The student must have performed a minimum of 40 deliveries in primary care and 20
deliveries in secondary care. Not only is the number of deliveries fixed but also the
minimal number of activities in antenatal, natal and postnatal care (Schoon 1998).
15.6
Developments
There are a lot of developments in midwifery care at the moment. Those

developments will lead to opportunities as well as threats.
96
15.6.1
Threats
The professional group of midwives indicates that there is a serious shortage of

midwives. Some midwifery practices have to close down because there is no adequate
substitution or replacement. Furthermore, there is increasing pressure of work, early
resignation of midwives and a stagnation of influx of new midwives (SMV 2000).
There is also a concentration of hospitals. This implies that the number of places
where secondary care is provided, is decreasing. This could result in secondary care
not being easily accessible anymore by primary care. If this happens, home deliveries
could be in danger (Smulders 2000).
Another problem could be the developments in the capacity of both general
practitioners active in midwifery and organised maternity care. The stopping of
general practitioners with midwifery and the shortage of maternity nurses will
increase the pressure of work for midwives. This could affect the quality of care.
15.6.2
Opportunities
There are possibilities for midwives to improve their position and to improve
midwifery care. Co-operation between midwives themselves and between midwives
and other professional groups could lead to a better redistribution of tasks. Then
midwives would get more time for essential tasks and so they could spend more time
on each client. However, this co-operation and the development of big
(multidisciplinary) group-practices could also lead to more stable working hours and
shift work for midwives.
District offices (which are being developed) could support practices with not only
quality, and professionalism, but also with purchasing, administration and other
organisational activities. Midwives will then be relieved of non-client based activities.
In this way, the imbalance between work and a private life could be dealt with.
15.7
Statistics
97
Year
1999
Inhabitants
Birth rate
2000
16,000,000
200,445*
Born alive
Stillborn
0.79%
Midwives
1,578
Births per midwife
120-130
Gynaecologists
>613

midwifery care
1,120
The perinatal mortality is: the number of deaths and stillborn from week 24 of the
pregnancy until 28 days after the delivery.
*CBS 2000
98
16.
Midwifery in Portugal
16.1
The midwife
16.1.1
In Portugal, midwifery is a medical-technical profession, which provides specific

care, education, counselling and family support. Midwives work is specifically
geared towards meeting the emotional, physical and social needs of the client. They
also have the capacity to identify gynaecological problems. In short, the tasks of a
midwife include:
1. Counselling (attn. conception, fertility, adolescence)
2. Antenatal check-ups
3. Preparation for different stages of labour
4. Normal delivery (incl. analgesia, perineal repair)
5. Postnatal care
6. Parental education (e.g. breastfeeding)
7. Family planning.
Formally, the gynaecologist is always responsible for the midwifery care provided to
pregnant women. But in practice, a midwife is partially able to take responsibility for
a normal pregnancy and birth independently. In fact, midwives conduct the actual
delivery process in about 50% of normal cases. If there are abnormalities, the
gynaecologist takes over.
The Portuguese profession of midwives is not protected by law. Nor are their tasks
and responsibilities. But they will be protected in the near future, due to a law with a
detailed job specification being developed right now.
16.1.2
History
There have been a lot of historical developments in the twentieth century, that have
influenced the Portuguese midwifery system.
In 1974 the political system changed to a democracy. Nursing careers changed after
the introduction of a basic law on the educational system in 1986. Expert nurses were
introduced in the law of 1991, which was revised in 1997 by the Technical University
System. Since then, midwives have had to have a degree in nursing.
99
Furthermore, they get access to the most efficient and technical up-to-date
methodologies. This has contributed to the fact that childbirth is now highly
'medicalised', and that the current practice is to use specific instruments. This is also
due to the hospital being the place of birth, while before the 1970s, deliveries took
place at home.
Maternity clinics with less than 500 deliveries were closed during the 1980s. The
consequence of this was a drastic reduction of perinatal and maternal mortality.
16.2
Several professional groups are active in midwifery care. In addition to the midwife
and the gynaecologist, the general practitioner, the paediatrician and the nurse take
part in antenatal, natal and/or postnatal care.
16.2.1
While the prevailing view on pregnancy and birth among midwives is natural, these
are highly 'medicalised' processes in Portugal. This is expressed in some features of
the Portuguese midwifery system.
16.2.2
Division of tasks
When a woman finds out she is pregnant, she goes to a midwife either in a hospital or
in a health centre. She can also ask to see a (private) gynaecologist. Midwives and
gynaecologists recognise each others role in midwifery care. Therefore, they can cooperate with each other without feeling competitive. Each professional knows what to
do in each phase of the pregnancy and birth and is responsible for his or her own
actions.
All deliveries should take place under the responsibility of a gynaecologist. However,
half the number of deliveries are actually conducted by midwives.
16.2.3
Place of birth
There is a law that determines that the delivery has to take place in a 'hospitalenvironment', with the result that almost all deliveries take place in hospital. Home
births occur only by accident. Gynaecologists usually influence the decision of the
parents to deliver their baby in a private maternity clinic.
16.3
In this paragraph the number of midwives, gynaecologists and other professionals

active in midwifery care are discussed.
100
16.3.1
Midwives
Of the 1,600 registered midwives in Portugal in 2000, 1,100 actively practiced

midwifery. This means an estimated number of two midwives per 1,000 fertile
women. Most of the midwives are female (1,550). The mean age averages 45 to 50
years old.
All midwives are employed in the public sector (hospitals) and the majority of
midwives have a second job in the private sector (maternity clinics). Due to the
excessive demand of midwives, they work about 70 hours per week.
16.3.2
Gynaecologists
There is no official registration of the number of gynaecologists. The Portuguese

Association of Midwives estimates this number to be at 700.
16.3.3
Others
There is no official data available on the number of general practitioners or

paediatricians who are active in midwifery care. In 1998, there were 37,747 nurses in
Portugal (3.8 per 1000 inhabitants). It is not clear, however, how many of these were
active in midwifery care.
16.4
16.4.1
Finance system
The organisation of health services is based on the key idea that the state is the
provider, the employer and the financing agency of health care. The Portuguese health
care system is characterised by three co-existing systems of health care coverage: the
National Health Service (NHS), special insurance schemes for certain professions,
and voluntary private health insurance schemes (European Observatory 2000).
The Ministry of Health is divided into four directorates: one for hospitals, one for
primary care, one for pharmaceuticals and one for safety and occupational health.
At a district level, regional health administrations or authorities (ARS) maintain
responsibility for the integration of services with the private sector and for the
location and administration of health centres (Van Kemenade 1997).
Portugal has an NHS (Servico Nacional de Suade: SNS), which is the responsibility of
the government and covers the whole population. The scheme provides old age and
disability pensions, cash sickness and maternity benefits, health cover, unemployment
benefits and family allowances (ibid.).
101
There is a complete network of primary care services, which is managed by district

officers. They are responsible for the population they serve and there is no internal
competition in the public sector. Primary care services make use of the private
sectors diagnostic services. The services are reimbursed through pre-established
prices. Total expenditure on the public health service is nationally determined and
governed (ibid.).
There is a significant private sector in both ambulatory and hospital care.
The SNS is financed predominantly through taxation, but also partly through
contributions from users. About 10% of the population has private insurance.
16.4.2
Benefit packages
The benefit package of the national health scheme consists of general practitioner
visits, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, hospital care, preventive care and some dental
care. Care for the chronically ill and the elderly is the responsibility of the family. The
use of co-payments has increased over the last few years and has been imposed on
several services. If the private sector is used in certain situations, the patient pays the
total bill outright and gets partially reimbursed by the SNS later (Van Kemenade
1997).
With regard to midwifery care, parents are entitled to all medical care, nursing care
and parenthood allowances (Dialoog met de burgers 2001).
16.4.3
Income
All midwives are paid a salary when employed in a hospital. The public sector has a
salary gradation system with of eight grades that vary from a basic salary of 18,000
to a maximum salary of 31,000 based on a 35-hour working week. A midwife earns
a fee for each service she performs, after normal service hours in the private sector.
This entails, for example, 400 for a delivery.
16.5
Training
16.5.1
In order to be admitted to a midwifery course, a student must possess a degree in

nursing. Besides that, two years of working experience as a professional nurse is
required.
102
16.5.2
Colleges
The training course takes another four semesters after a 4-year nursing course.
Examples of subjects that are dealt with during the course, are:
Anatomy
Physiology
Normal pregnancy and birth
Recognition of abnormalities.
A student has to complete 1,050 hours of theoretical education and 1,350 hours of
practical training before graduation. The practical training includes all facets of
pregnancy and birth: from health promotion to the delivery process; from perineal
repair to postnatal care.
About one hundred students follow the Technical University Education, regulated by
the government.
16.6
Developments
The Portuguese Association for Midwives is trying to expand midwives autonomy

and competencies and to extend their professional work to all the areas where they
think it is needed. By doing this, they encounter some threats as well as opportunities.
16.6.1
Threats
There is a heavy workload for midwives in Portugal; they have double jobs in both
the public hospitals and the private maternity clinics. This is because midwives are in
great demand. Moreover, the average age among midwives is high. So, the shortage
of midwives is getting worse and work pressure is ever increasing.
Midwifery care is highly 'medicalised'. Births mainly take place in hospital and
midwives are used to using specific instruments. Midwives do not have the authority
to decide on the guidance needed and the allocation of resources. These are all threats
to the goals set by the Association.
16.6.2
Opportunities
A first step in the improvement of the position of Portuguese midwives will be the
new law on tasks and responsibilities. The new regulation and full transposition of the
EU-directives will change the situation in the near future. The already existing
103
relational competence with other professionals plus their technical competence and
knowledge will help the midwives to improve the culture of co-operation and
communication. Within this culture, one should be able to define the midwives'
capabilities.
If this goal is accomplished, the Association predicts positive consequences for
midwives, since they will obtain:
1. Full capacity and responsibility in the vigilance of normal pregnancy
2. Full responsibility for a normal delivery
3. More influence on the normal functioning of health care institutions.
16.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
Births
Born alive
Stillborn
Midwives
Births per midwife
Gynaecologists
2000
9,800,000
116,691
116,038 (99.4%)
653 (0.6%)
0.56%
1100 (1600 registered)
53
ca 700

midwifery care
Definition of perinatal mortality: The number of babies born dead after 28 weeks of
pregnancy plus babies who die in their first week of life.
104
17.
Midwifery in Spain
The 17 regions in Spain all have a lot of autonomy with regard to their health care
policy. Therefore, there can be many differences between the regions. This chapter
describes the main features of the national midwifery system. Because of the regional
differences, the results in this chapter might not give a true picture of all the regions in
Spain1 .
17.1
The midwife
17.1.1
Since 1960, a law has regulated the professional competencies of Spanish midwives.
The European Union Midwives Directive 80/155/EEC applies to Spain too.
In short, the duties of Spanish midwives are:
1. Parental education
2. Antenatal care and follow-up of a normal pregnancy
3. To share the care of a high-risk pregnancy with the gynaecologist
4. To care for and to assist the woman during labour and to conduct normal
deliveries
5. To care for the new-born baby in the delivery room
6. Postnatal care at home, or in community clinics
7. To conduct breastfeeding groups, family planning, sex education, and menopause
education.
A midwife is able to take responsibility for a normal pregnancy and birth
independently. If there is an abnormal pregnancy or birth, the gynaecologist is
ultimately responsible.
17.1.2
History
From 1950 until1958 births took place at home; midwives were fully responsible for
the mother and baby.
1.
1 There has not been a final check of the description of the Spanish midwifery system (Chapter 17).
105
After 1958 births took place in maternity hospitals. Care for the woman has since then
been shared by midwives and obstetricians.
Since 1980 midwives have been much more involved in the reproductive aspects of
the womans health. They are involved in family planning, sexually transmitted
diseases and the menopause.
In 1994 a new midwifery-training curriculum started. This prepares the midwife to be
responsible for the care of the woman during the maternity process. The new training
course also prepares the midwife for working in hospitals and community settings.
Teaching methodology and research is also included now.
17.2
In the midwifery system in Spain, several professional groups are active. In antenatal
care, midwives, gynaecologists and general practitioners participate. Either a midwife
or a gynaecologist provides natal care and in postnatal care, paediatricians and nurses
are also involved.
17.2.1
In Spain, the prevailing view on pregnancy and birth is physiological. Both midwives
and society consider those processes to be natural. This is not always reflected in all
features of the midwifery system (see also paragraph 6.1).
17.2.2
Division of tasks
If a woman thinks she is pregnant, she can go to a general practitioner, who will refer
the woman to the midwife. The woman can also go directly to a midwife at the
Primary Health Care Centre.
If the pregnancy is abnormal, the woman will be referred to the gynaecologist.
If the pregnancy is normal, the midwife does the antenatal care and refers the woman
to the gynaecologist three times (three visits). If the pregnancy is abnormal, the
obstetrician does the antenatal care (more often than not in the hospital) and the
midwife deals with health education.
17.2.3
Place of birth
Most births take place in hospital. Less than 1% of all births take place at home. The
health insurer does not reimburse the home delivery. Childbirth can also take place at
a birth centre. There are four birth centres now in Spain, and this number is
increasing.
106
Midwives, gynaecologists and parents decide together where the delivery is going to
take place. But because home deliveries are not reimbursed, this is not really an
option.
17.3

will be discussed.
17.3.1
Midwives
In 2000, there were approximately 5,000 midwives in Spain. Most of them (90%) are
employed in the public sector and work in hospitals. The other midwives work in the
private sector. Less than 1% work in independent free practices. Most midwives are
between the age of 36 and 65 years old. There is a shortage of younger midwives,
because there was a period of nine years without any midwifery-training.
17.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 2000 there were about 5,000 gynaecologists in Spain.

17.3.3
There are no official figures about the number of general practitioners actively
involved in midwifery care. The figures vary depending on the region. But the general
practitioners are involved in antenatal care.
17.4
17.4.1
There were two historical periods in the Spanish health service. The first (1942-1977)
covered the Franco regime, with the growing importance of the social security model.
The second (1978-1991) was characterised by health reforms of the 1986 enactment
of the Ley General de Sanidad(General Health Law). The ultimate goal of the
Health Law was to form the basis for future developments in the National Health
Service, which would cover the entire population and would include the whole range
of health services. Thus, Spain provides compulsory health insurance for the entire
population, including 5% of the population covered by a public servants scheme and
0.9% covered by social benefits. Those excluded are mainly the wealthy and illegal
immigrants (Van Kemenade 1997).
Spain is divided into 17 regions, which all have a considerable degree of autonomy.
The National Health Service has been highly decentralised, including health
107
competence in seven of the autonomous communities. The National Health Service

has been formed by the overall health service of the central administration, which
operates through INSALUD (Instituto Nacional de la Salud), and the autonomous
regions, which operate their own Regional Health Services. The administrative
functions of the INSALUD have been decentralised to the autonomous regions
(CC.AA). The regions are responsible for health care in their area (ibid.).
A few regions have population-based budgets. Most regions have more risk-adjusted
budgets. Two regions have a totally different finance system. They collect taxes
themselves and have more money to spend.
Health care is mainly publicly financed (79%). The remaining 21% is mostly financed
directly by patients but also through private insurance schemes. The Spanish health
care system is dominated by a compulsory national health system (79%), funded by a
mix of general taxation (62%) and social insurance contributions (17%) (ibid.).
According to the 1997 National Health Survey, up to 8.9% of the Spanish population
had private health coverage through voluntary insurance in 1997, although survey
data probably tends to underestimate this number. Available data on private
expenditure suffered from a number of problems (European Observatory 2000).
Private insurance companies have the freedom to fix prices and premiums and each
insured person pays only for his/her own risk. About 99% of the population have only
public insurance, 10% have private insurance in addition to that provided by the state,
and 1% have only private insurance (Van Kemenade 1997).
17.4.2
Reimbursement
The following midwifery care is reimbursed: medical care during the pregnancy plus
medical care during and after the delivery, and in the case of pathology, hospital
admittance to a social security centre or to another approved centre (Dialoog met de
Burgers 2001).
17.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary for employment or paid per client or paid a fee- forservice. If the midwife works at the hospital, she is paid a salary. Her income is set by
trade unions. If the midwife works in the private sector, she is paid per client or fee
for service. Then her income is set by midwifery associations and the nursing college.
Midwives estimate their average income annually at about 21,868.
108
17.5
Training
17.5.1
To enrol on the course, students need to have completed a 3 year nursing university
course. Next year, this course will be shortened by one year. Candidates also need to
take the Spanish National Exam, because there are 5,000 candidates to cover 150
places for midwifery students.
17.5.2
Colleges
The training to become a midwife takes 2 years. Students have to complete 1,100
hours of theoretical education and 2,500 hours practical experience. Practical training
includes more than 100 antenatal examinations, more than 100 births, postnatal home
visits and parenting classes. Students are also educated about sexually transmitted
diseases, cancer prevention and the menopause.
During the training course, students study subjects like:
Maternity care (normal and abnormal)
Neonatology
Parental education
Gynaecology
Epidemiology
Demography
Anthropology
Health education
Legislation
Research.
Students get paid during their training. The government pays for the course, so the
government also determines where to invest the money. However, both hospitals and
universities are responsible for the course.
109
17.6
Developments
The purpose of the 'Associacio Catalana Llevadores' is to promote pregnancy and

birth as physiological processes. In order to achieve this, the Association wants to
promote womens health and to co-operate with womens groups. Midwives also need
to work together with gynaecologists, family doctors and nurses. The Association
aims to make developments in continuing education and in more evidence based
midwifery care. By means of these kinds of actions, the Association expects to be able
to protect the midwives position at a governmental level. However, they have to
resist some threats.
17.6.1
Threats
Women in Spain do not have a lot of options related to the place of birth, according to
the Association. Because home deliveries are not reimbursed by the social security,
parents are discouraged to choose for a home birth. Women need to be more actively
involved in decisionmaking during their pregnancy and delivery.
Faced with the fact that the number of Caesarean section and forceps deliveries is
high, we can conclude that childbirth is 'medicalised'. There are only a few hospitals
that make it possible for normal births to take place in normal surroundings (similar to
home).
There are just as many gynaecologists as there are midwives. This can cause
competition between the two professional groups. Sometimes, gynaecologists do not
refer a normal pregnant woman to a midwife.
17.6.2
Opportunities
According to the Association of Midwives, the low perinatal and maternal mortality
rates are positive aspects of the Spanish obstetric system. Moreover, the public
finance system covers the costs of all women giving birth in hospitals and getting
antenatal care at health centres.
Midwives promote preventive aspects of pregnancy, birth, postpartum and
breastfeeding. What midwives need to do now, is to promote physiological (normal)
births even more. They should create opportunities to counter the threats and to
actually achieve their goals.
110
17.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
Birth rate
2000
39,600,000
377,809
Born alive
Stillborn
Midwives
0.64%
5,000
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
5,000

midwifery care
According to the umbrella organisation the perinatal mortality rate is the number of
stillbirths and early neonatal deaths per 1000 total births.
111
18.
Midwifery in Sweden
18.1
The midwife
18.1.1
Traditionally, midwives in Sweden have had a strong and autonomous role in the
interface of reproductive health and public health. In the primary health care system
today, the domain of the Swedish midwife includes obstetrical and gynaecological
care of the woman throughout her reproductive life cycle (Wildmark et al. 1998).
According to national guidelines there are five main areas of practice for the midwife
in primary health care (ibid.):
1. Antenatal care
2. Parental education
3. Family planning (i.e. contraceptive counselling and prescriptions to women and
teenagers)
4. Health information and education
5. Taking Papanicolaou smears in cervical cancer screening programmes.
The national guidelines do not encompass all midwives duties, however, for a
midwife is also responsible for care in a normal pregnancy during the antenatal phase.
The midwife is able to identify abnormalities and to refer women directly to
gynaecologists when she deems it necessary, without first consulting another
physician.
In the natal phase, the midwife is accountable for certain tests, examinations,
treatments and normal delivery. During delivery the midwife assists the woman,
monitors everything and, if necessary, she performs the delivery operation with her
hands and using obstetrical forceps or a vacuum-cap. A midwife also participates in
examinations and treatments provided by doctors.
In the postnatal phase, the Swedish midwife is responsible for the care of new parents
and newborn babies in the maternity ward or at home.
A midwife is also accountable for the care of expectant and post-natal mothers,
newborn babies and also female patients with both commonly occurring and
complicated disorders that are treated within obstetrical and gynaecological care.
112
The Health and Medical Services Act and The Act on Professional Obligations govern
the midwifes duties. On the basis of these acts, a midwife must be able to initiate and
carry out measures aimed at improving health and preventing the occurrence of
illness; always with an ethical approach and in accordance with scientific
development and reliable experience within the midwifes speciality. In her
professional capacity, the midwife must follow and be able to apply the statutes,
administrative provisions and other rules that are relevant (Swedish Board of Health
and Welfare).
18.1.2
History
The profession of midwives has been protected by law since 1711 (Stockholm) and
1777 (Sweden). From 1998 onwards, midwives have been legally recognised in the
Law on Professionals in Health Care. A 'Description of Required Competence' from
1995 reflects the general recommendations made by the Swedish Board of Health and
Welfare with regard to the functions and activities of midwives.
Midwives have been responsible for their own work at a community level since early
1700, supervised by medical authorities. Around 1900 all municipalities were obliged
to employ a midwife. They had the right (from 1832) to use instruments such as
forceps and cranioclast. From 1910 to 1920 paediatric nurses were made responsible
for the care of infants older than ten days. From 1952 onwards, students had to be
registered nurses to be admitted to midwifery school. And since the 1970s, midwives
have been engaged in fertility regulations and have been given the right to prescribe
contraceptives. Since this time, nursing and midwifery-training have been offered at
university level.
18.2
18.2.1
Views on pregnancy and birth
In Sweden there is a natural approach to childbirth, yet with the constant presence of a
highly technological medical system at hand. This is reflected in some aspects of the
Swedish midwifery system.
Almost all women give birth in hospitals, and are routinely attended by nursemidwives. But an anaesthesiologist, a gynaecologist and a paediatrician are available
for about 95% of all births.
Swedens Caesarean section rate rose to 13.4% in 1998. The increased rate can
mainly be explained by a higher rate of nulliparas and deviations from clinical
guidelines; that is, the operations were not in accordance with evidence based
medicine. (Researchers have attributed this to the requests of women themselves who
are fearful of vaginal births for various reasons).
113
The vast majority of Swedish women receive pain medication when in labour. They
are encouraged to give birth in a position they find comfortable and they only rarely
lie on their backs to give birth (Devries et al 2001).
18.2.2
Division of tasks
Midwives provide most of the midwifery care. For women with normal pregnancies,
sometimes two visits to a physician are arranged too. One early on in the pregnancy,
to do an ultrasound test and to determine the time of delivery, and one nearer to the
time of delivery. Most of the time, the woman visits the gynaecologist only if her
pregnancy shows signs of complications, or if she requests it. If there are
abnormalities, the gynaecologist conducts the delivery.
In Sweden, the professional who sees the pregnant woman prenatally is not the same
as the one who sees her during the delivery. This is partly because the prenatal clinics
and the birthing hospital centres are spatially and administratively separate from one
another. It may also be influenced by the fact that Swedish midwives are not expected
to be available at any time of day or night to help a woman in labour (Devries et al.
2001).
Although midwives handle all normal deliveries, physicians frequently play a role. In
the year 2000, 75% of all deliveries took place under the responsibility of a midwife
and 12% were conducted by gynaecologists. The other 13% were conducted in cooperation with a midwife and a gynaecologist.
18.2.3
Place of birth
Almost all births in Sweden take place in hospital maternity care centres. Home births
in Sweden are rare. A midwife almost always attends the few women who do choose
to have a home birth. Parents are in fact free to choose the place of birth. However,
political decisions also play a determining role.
18.3
In this paragraph the number of midwives, gynaecologists and other professionals

active in midwifery care will be discussed.
18.3.1
Midwives
In the year 2000, approximately 7,100 midwives were active in Sweden of which 99%
worked in the public sector. About 50 midwives are male. The average age among
midwives is 47 years old.
114
In addition to working in obstetric and gynaecological divisions of hospitals, many

midwives in Sweden work in 'antenatal health care centres', run by the county
councils. These centres are located in the community and are mainly staffed by
midwives, with access to physicia ns on a regular basis. The ANHCs have traditionally
been named to reflect their primary function as antenatal clinics. But they also provide
contraceptive counselling, run adolescent clinics and take part in cervical cancer
screening (Wildmark et al 1998).
One percent of the midwives are employed in the private sector. Private clinics
perceive a need for more personal care, a softer approach, and more convenient
opening hours. But they do not differ significantly from government clinics. These
private clinics are also covered by national health insurance (Devries et al 2001).
There are only about fifteen midwives in Sweden who work independently in their
leisure-time.
18.3.2
Gynaecologists
There were 1,803 gynaecologists in Sweden in 2000. They play an important role in
midwifery care, especially in difficult cases (Epidemiologiskt Centrum,
Socialstyrelsen Stockholm).
18.3.3
Others
Very few general practitioners are active in midwifery care. Some practise midwifery
only in extremely rural areas, due to a lack of gynaecologists there.
In community based health care centres, paediatric nurses are involved in the
postnatal care of women and newborn babies.
18.4
18.4.1
Finance system
The Swedish national government is divided into two ministries and

authorities/boards. The ministries are primarily responsible for matters of policy. The
boards are in charge of implementing public policy according to current legal
legislation and regulations.
The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs (Socialdepartementet) deals with policy
matters and legislation concerning items such as the social insurance system, health
and medical care, social services and family policy. The National Board of Health and
Welfare (Socialstyrelsen) is the governments central advisory and supervisory
agency in the field of health services (Van Kemenade 1997).
115
Sweden has a nationally organised system of health care for the whole population.
The system is organised at county council level: there are 23 county councils and 3
large local authorities. The counc ils are responsible for the administration, financing
and delivery of care, both as an inpatient and ambulatory patient(ibid.).
The counties also operate a public dental service and services for the mentally ill.
They are organised into the Federation of County Councils which negotiates with the
government on political and economic issues, and with the trade unions regarding
salaries and working conditions of health care personnel.
The sources of revenue for health care are: taxation, including mainly proportional
income taxes as well as indirect taxes, the national insurance system, private
expenditures, i.e. out-of-pocket-payments and private insurance (Van Kemenade
1997).
The major part of the costs of health care is financed by income tax levied by each of
the 26 counties on their population (75%), like a universal public health insurance.
Other incomes for the counties are grants and payments for certain services from the
government, making up a total of 12%. The remaining 13% constitutes private
expenditure. The redistribution between the national government social insurance
system and the counties is of two types: the transfer of resources and the
reimbursement of providers (ibid.).
The social insurance system is centralised at a national level. Insurance is compulsory.
The main part of social insurance is financed by employers (80%), and the rest
through transfer payments by central government (ibid.).
18.4.2
All citizens are entitled to a benefit package and caring services. Besides primary care
and inpatient care, preventive care and dental care are also covered by the national
health insurance. Costs of health care are paid directly by the county councils innatura system, excluding the care for which an individual payment is required (Van
Kemenade 1997).
Parents are entitled to full care, concerning pregnancy and birth. This consists of
regular prenatal check- ups, childbirth in a hospital and postnatal care including home
visits. Working women have a right to paid sick leave before a child is born if the
pregnancy is difficult and up to one years parental leave after childbirth at 80 percent
of their salary (Devries et al 2001; Dialoog met de burgers 2001).
116
18.4.3
Income
Around 1900, midwives earned a small guaranteed income, part of it consisting of

food, if desired. The midwife could only charge families, if they could afford to pay.
At hospitals, midwives later became employees with fixed salaries. These salaries are
set by negotiations between trade unions and the employers.
Nowadays, the average income for the normal working midwife is approximately
2,183 per month (i.e. 26,196 annually). In big cities, the midwives earn more
money than midwives do in smaller towns.
18.5
Training
18.5.1
Midwives in Sweden must be registered nurses prior to becoming midwives.

Following completion of a 3- year nursing degree at university level and at least 6
months working experience as a nurse, an additional 1-year midwifery educational
course must be completed to qualify for a licence as a midwife (Wildmark et al 1998).
Therefore, a midwife in Sweden is also called a nurse- midwife.
18.5.2
Colleges
In midwifery education, the main subject area is reproductive health within a life
cycle perspective. This includes both obstetric and gynaecological knowledge
(Wildmark et al 1998). Some of the subjects dealt with during the course are:
Parental education
Care and supervision of a normal pregnancy
Delivery
Identification of abnormal conditions during the three phases (incl. the care they
must provide in the case of abnormalities)
Breastfeeding advice
Regulation of sexuality and fertility
Counselling advice on sexual matters.
117
There are 200 to 250 students who study midwifery on an annual basis. Before
graduation they must have completed approximately 10 weeks of antenatal, 15 weeks
of natal and 5 weeks of postnatal practical training.
The government is responsible for the training course and has set some general goals
in the Higher Education Act. But decisions concerning admission and curriculum
are left to each College/ University itself.
18.6
Developments
In the current situation there are many developments. As a result, new opportunities
and threats arise.
18.6.1
Threats
According to the Swedish Midwifes Association, there is a danger of 'medicalisation'.

This stands in the way of a more physiological and more natural approach to
childbirth.
A financial cut-back within the health care system is threatening the current
midwifery system. It also constitutes an obstacle to new midwives initiatives.
Another negative point, especially for women, is the poor continuity of caregivers.
The practitioner who sees the pregnant woman prenatally is not the same as the one
who sees her during delivery.
18.6.2
Opportunities
There is a common consensus among health care professionals that pregnancy and
birth are normal processes and not a disease. Moreover, it is said that good midwifery
is fundamental to achieving good public health. Midwifery can prevent unnecessary
medicalisation.
Two large maternal clinics (2000 deliveries each year) are being launched in
Stockholm at the end of this year. They will be managed by a head-midwife and only
healthy expectant mothers will be admitted. Gynaecologists will work as consultants
and only participate when they are called for. This way of organising midwifery care
will have a national and favourable impact on the position of midwives in Sweden.
Womens influences and their free choices must be strengthened in order to achieve
success in these kinds of initiatives, and to achieve good public health. Research on
evidence-based care will also serve these goals.
118
18.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
Births
Born alive
Stillborn
Midwives
2000
8,882,792
88,512
90,713
88,173 (99.6%)
90,441 (99.7%)
339 (0.4%)
272 (0.3%)
0.56%
0.32%
7,100 registered
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
midwifery care
1,803
Few
Definition of perinatal mortality: death of child after 28 weeks of gestation, within 28

days of birth.
119
19.
Midwifery in the United Kingdom
19.1
The midwife
19.1.1
The UKCC document Midwives Rules and Code of Practice (1998) makes full
reference to the ICM/FIGO/WHO agreed definition of a midwife (1992) and the
activities of a midwife as laid down in 80/155/EEC Article 4.
In the UK, a midwife is able to take responsibility of a woman experiencing normal
pregnancy and birth independently. In addition, a midwife is always present at a birth
even if there are problems. In cases of abnormality she will contact a gynaecologist
(who, in the UK is known as an obstetrician), who will then be responsible for the
management of the case. The responsibilities of the midwife and the registered
medical practitioner are inter-related and complementary and each practitioner is
accountable for his/her own practice.
The profession of midwifery has been protected in law since the Midwives Act of
1902.
19.1.2
History
Since the various Midwives Acts dating from 1902, midwifery has been very
regulated. In the first half of the 20th century the majority of births were at home ;
during the Second World War, women were sent away to give birth in country houses
and hospitals and they began to favour institutional natal care.
Following the late return of doctors from the army etc., the power and influence of the
medical profession began to grow. From 1960 onwards, there was an accelerated
trend towards institutionalised birth and, in 1970, the government took the final step
in hospitalising birth, recommending that sufficient facilities should be provided to
allow for 100% hospital delivery. The greater safety of hospital confinement for
mother and child justifies this objective (Campbell & MacFarlane 1987). It was
thought that technological developments would make hospital births cheaper and safer
(Essed & Zwartsenburg 1996). However, this led to more Cesarean sections etc.
By the mid-1970s there was a growing dissatisfaction about this situation and
increasingly militant and vociferous campaigning for better maternity care by both
women and midwives. In 1993 the report on Changing Childbirth promised a sea of
change in maternity care in the United Kingdom. The basic principle of this report
was choice, continuity (of care) and control of women, the pregnant woman being the
central figure in care, and the midwife being the leading professional for low-risk
pregnancies and birth. This policy change originated from the ideas of radical
120
midwives and feminist user groups who see pregnancy and birth as natural processes
and the midwife as an expert in this area. The recommendations of Changing
Childbirth have been put into practice to varying extents in more than 100 areas (Lee
1998).
19.2
When a woman thinks she is pregnant, she can go the midwife or a general
practitioner in the first instance. If the woman chooses midwifery care, she can stay
under the midwifes care until there are problems and the woman has to be referred to
the gynaecologist. If she goes to a general practitioner first, he will refer her to the
midwife or a gynaecologist. So the gynaecologist can also be the primary care
provider of midwifery care, and is not only involved in cases of abnormalities.
However there is an increasing trend for gynaecologists to concentrate on the care of
women with complications.
Midwives conducted 68.8% of all deliveries in 1999. This is the lowest figure ever. In
previous years this percentage was between 70-75%.
19.2.1
The midwifery system complies with the general view on pregnancy and birth.
Society sees those processes as not only natural, but also as a potential risk. The
woman can go to the midwife, as well as the gynaecologist. Midwives see pregnancy
and birth as natural processes, but they mainly work in medical environments.
19.2.2
Division of tasks
A midwife is always present at a birth, even if there are problems. In the case of a
difficult labour, the gynaecologist is ultimately responsible. The midwife continues to
care for the woman alongside the gynaecologist.
All general practitioners can diagnose pregnancy. General practitioners who are active
in maternity care are mainly involved in the antenatal phase. Very few are involved in
natal care or postnatal care.
19.2.3
Place of birth
Parents can choose to give birth in hospital, at home or at a birth centre. However, not
all parents receive sufficient information on which to base their decision.
During the 1980s the homebirth rate fell to less than 1%. This was due to medical and
government policies, which promoted the hospital as the place for birth, as the use of
technology increased.
121
Between 1987 and 1997 the homebirth rate increased by 1.53% to 2.23% of all births,
and is still rising.
19.3
19.3.1
Midwives
In the United Kingdom 90,378 midwives are registered and 33,291 of them actually
practise midwifery. Of the 33,291 midwives, there are 93 male midwives.
In 2000 51% of midwives worked part-time. Less than 1% work in independent
practices, 98% work in the public sector and 1-2% work in the private sector. If
midwives work in the public sector, they can work in hospitals, birth centres or in the
womens homes. The private sector includes private hospitals and independent
practices.
19.3.2
Gynaecologists
In 1999 there were 1,153 consultants and a further 924 in training posts under the
guidance of these gynaecologists.
19.3.3
There are general practitioners active in midwifery care, but mostly in the antenatal
phase. There is no information about the number of general practitioners involved in
maternity care.
19.4
Finance and Income
19.4.1
The National Health Service (NHS) came into operation in 1948 following the
provisions of the NHS Act of 1946. This Act was of crucial importance in establishing
the post-Second World War pattern of health service finance and provision in the
United Kingdom. It introduced the principle of collective responsibility by the state
for a comprehensive health service, which was to be made available to the entire
population to use whenever necessary. Freedom for user charges was a key feature of
this approach, which placed heavy emphasis on equality of access (European
Observatory 1999).
The NHS is subject to periodic reorganisations. At the apex of its structure is the
Department of Health (DOH), headed by the Secretary of State for Health. Each
county has its own Department of Health although there are close similarities in terms
of broad policy and organisation. Below the DOH are regional health authorities
122
(RHAs) with broad planning responsibilities. Below the RHAs are more local health
authorities, that direct the development of local health care, both hospital and
community-based (ibid.).
The NHS is financed mainly through central government general taxation together
with some national insurance contributions. In 1986-1997 93.7% of gross spending in
the NHS in England was gathered from these sources: 81.5% from the Consolidation
Fund, which is general taxation, and 12.2% from national insurance contributions.
The remainder of NHS finance (6.3%) was raised through user charges, mainly for
pharmaceutical prescriptions and dentistry, and through other miscellaneous sources.
Raising finance through general taxation means that there is a broad funding base,
covering all forms of income, capital and expenditure taxation.
In addition to general tax-based funding, there was an estimated 7,474 million of
private expenditure on health care in the United Kingdom in 1996, that constituted
14.6% of the total spending on health care in that year. Less than 11% of the
population had some form of private medical insurance (ibid.). In 1996 there were 25
private medical insurers offering coverage in the United Kingdom. Seven of these
were non-profit making, provident associations; the remaining 18 may be described as
'commercial insurers', although some of them are mutual societies owned by their
members.
Private medical insurance takes two main forms: (employment-based) company
insurance and individual insurance. The remainder is made up of voluntary employeepaid groups whereby professional associations or trade unions act as umbrella
organisations, but employees meet the costs of the premiums themselves (ibid.).
19.4.2
All care provided by the NHS is free. Pregnant women and new mothers are exempt
from charges for dentistry and prescribed medicines. Women do not need insurance
for midwifery care. But they can enclose insurance policies for luxurious midwifery
care.
19.4.3
Income
Midwives are either paid a salary if employed or paid by the client if independent.
Salaries are set by negotiations between the health unions and the Department of
Health every year, through a Pay Review Body for nursing, midwives, health visitors
and professions connected to medicine. Independent midwives set their own fees.
The average income annually for a midwife is about 29,700.
123
19.5
Training
19.5.1
The student must be at least 17.5 years on commencing the course and must have the
required educational qualifications including a science and either English or Welsh.
All courses are university based, and the educational requirements demanded by the
universities are higher than the basic professional entry requirements (UKCC 1998).
The total number of students admitted, varies according to the predictions of the
Department of Health on staffing needs.
19.5.2
Colleges
A midwifery-training course is no less than 3 years in duration, and each year consists
of 45 programmed weeks. If the student is already registered as a nurse, the course is
less than 18 months i.e. 78 programmed weeks (UKCC 1998).
There are 4,500 students accepted annually. They have about 2,500 hours theoretical
education and at least 2,500 hours practical experience.
The course enables the student to achieve the following results:
The appreciation of the influence of social, political and cultural factors in relation
to health care and advising on the promotion of health
The recognition of common factors which contribute to, and those which
adversely affect, the physical, emotional and social well-being of the mother and
baby, and the taking of appropriate action
The ability to take action under her independently, including the initiation of the
action of other disciplines, and to seek assistance when required
The ability to interpret and undertake care prescribed by a registered medical

practitioner
The use of relevant literature and research to get informed about the practice of
midwifery
An understanding of the requirements of legislation and ethical issues (ibid.)
The government funds the universities via regional health education boards, which
make an agreement with local universities for professional health education according
to predicted staffing needs.
124
19.6
Developments
There have been a lot of developments. The 'Association of Radical Midwives' tries to
resist the threats and to look for changes to strengthen the position of midwives.
19.6.1
Threats
Almost all births take place in hospital, resulting in an over-reliance on technology.

According to the Association of Radical Midwives, this is a threat to physiological
births and it is in conflict with the dominant midwifery view of pregnancy and birth as
natural events. Most midwives work in hospitals (more than 60%), and this can again
make it difficult to realise the midwifery view of pregnancy and birth. The remaining
community-based midwives (c. 37%) are often governed by hospital-based protocols.
There is a shortage of midwives and the fact that too much midwifery time is being
taken up with other activities compounds this problem.
There is no professional indemnity insurance for independent midwifery practice.
This discourages midwives from starting their own practices and is therefore bad for
the independence of midwives.
19.6.2
Opportunities
In the United Kingdom the midwifery profession is vocal and well organised. There is
a well-organised and powerful lay childbirth lobby that supports midwifery- led care.
There is a commitment to evidence-based practice and the further development of
knowledge through research.
There is some degree of understanding that women should have information and a
free choice at all levels and there are many attempts to turn this into reality.
125
19.7
Statistics
Year
1999
Inhabitants
59,500,000
Birth-rate
635,901
Born alive
632,531 (99.47%)
Stillborn
3,370 (0.53%)
0.82%
Midwives
33,291 (90,378 registered)
Births per midwife

Gynaecologists
2000
30
1,153

midwifery care
The definition of perinatal mortality is the number of stillborn and deaths after 24
completed weeks gestation and before 6 completed days per 1000 births (Royal
College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 2001).
126
20.
Summary and conclusions
The research shows that over the last decades many changes have taken place with
regard to midwifery in Europe. Some of these changes have had a positive effect on
the position of midwives, for example, the protection of professional groups by law.
From the 20th century onwards, the tasks and responsibilities have been protected in
almost all European countries. Future changes regarding the level of education and
initiatives for more independent pursuance of the profession (e.g. midwife- led units)
will contribute to a better position for midwives in some countries.
But other changes are putting pressure on the position of midwives. The most
important threats will be discussed in paragraph 20.1.
20.1
Threats
20.1.1
Trend towards 'medicalisation'
Since the 1960s, the general trend with respect to health care in Europe has been
'medicalisation'. For midwifery care this means that there is a movement from primary
to secondary care. The delivery does not take place at home anymore, but it takes
place in hospital. Interest in medical technology is also increasing. As a consequence
the physiological view on pregnancy and birth in some countries is being repressed or
dominated by a pathological view. In many European countries, pregnancy and birth
are no longer considered as natural processes, but as potential risks for both the
mother and child. In countries with this pathological view, the midwife has a limited
role and she is less independent.
20.1.2
Strong influence of gynaecologists
Gynaecologists are very important in midwifery care. In some countries they are the
obvious persons (primary care provider) for the women to turn to, also during her
normal pregnancy and birth. In these countries women do not usually have the choice
of a different provider. This is contrary to the midwives' pursuit for independence.
20.1.3
Midwife is not ultimately responsible
In some European countries, the midwife (almost) always works under the
responsibility and /or direct supervision of the gynaecologist. This situation can be
threatening for the independence of midwives.
127
20.1.4
Lack of influence
Up until now, midwives could not influence and convince politicians, gynaecologists
and society of the advantages of a physiological approach of pregnancy and birth.
This is partly due to the absence of evidence based research.
20.1.5
No identity of their own
In a number of countries, the profession of midwives is strongly connected with the

profession of nurses. As a consequence, midwives perform tasks of nurses and vice
versa. The fact that midwives do not have an identity of their own, limits the
possibilities of strengthening their position.
20.1.6
Only hospital birth covered
In some countries the health insurer or government only reimburses hospital births.
This is a strong financial incentive for parents to deliver in hospital.
20.1.7
Limited freedom of choice
In practice, parents often have no, or a limited freedom of choice with regard to both
their primary care provider and the place of bir th. The position of midwives is
threatened when parents are legally obliged to seek help from gynaecologists and/or
to visit hospitals to give birth.
Most of the above threats are connected. They maintain and enhance each other.
Because of these developments, the position of midwives as described in the EUdirectives, is being threatened.
20.2
Conditions
To maintain and strengthen the position of midwives, it is necessary that the health
care system fulfils some conditions.
I.
Strong professional body
In all European countries there should be a strong professional body, which can
propagate the physiological view and stimulate the professional group of midwives to
obtain a better position. The EMLC should attract the professional bodies that
represent the majority of midwives in their countries, in order to represent all
midwives in Europe.
128
II.
Agreement about the physiological view
Gynaecologists, midwives and society should support the view that pregnancy and
birth are natural processes in principle.
III.
Freedom of choice
Parents should be able to choose their primary care provider and the place of birth,
provided that parents have enough information with which to make a legitimate
choice.
IV.
Finance system linked to the physiological view
The finance system should be organised in such a way that it does not influence the
choices of parents and procedures of professionals through rules and regulations,
unless the system is in compliance with the physiological view.
V.
To promote evidence based research
Evidence based research is a method to persuade others (e.g. gynaecologists and

society) of the additional value of midwifery care. Furthermore, it can support the
upgrading of quality in the midwifery profession. It is advisable to introduce scientific
research as a fixed subject in the course. And it could be stimulated after the course,
by subsidising those who perform evidence based research in practice.
VI.
To improve the quality of care
To guarantee the quality of care, the midwifes course should be of a high level (e.g.
bachelor). To improve the quality of care, various methods should be used, such as
evaluation and post- graduate courses.
VII.
To improve the status of the profession
To supply enough midwives, it is important to make the profession attractive. This

can be realised through good salaries, favourable terms of employment and social
appreciation.
20.3
To continue
The purpose of this study is to make an inventory of the midwifery systems in all
fifteen countries of the European Union. Some recommendations for future research
and policies of the EMLC are presented here.
In the directives of the European Union, the definition and job description of the
WHO/FIGO are used. Officially, those apply to all midwives in Europe. In practice
129
however, the tasks of midwives often do not comply with these descriptions. As can
be seen, the EMLC has two options of views to represent; either all midwives should
be working according to these descriptions, or in every country all midwives should
be working in a way that fits the system.
The EMLC should make a choice between these two possibilities. She should first
take a stand on the content of the midwifery profession, before she can represent it at
a European level. The researchers recommend the EMLC to choose and actively
support the midwives with working according to the EU-directives. Because most of
the representatives of the umbrella organisations have expressed their wishes to do so,
it would also simplify comparisons between countries and it could strengthen the
position of midwives.
The study shows that the midwifery systems are difficult to compare, because of the
differences in history and culture. During the research it was also apparent that
linguistic problems and different interpretations of apparently simple definitions
hindered a comparison in horizontal terms. Still, the EMLC wishes to represent all
these different systems in the European Union. Therefore, it is necessary that the
EMLC has a certain amount of basic data.
In spite of all the efforts (desk research, interviews etc.) the basic data, like the
number of midwives per country and the total costs for midwifery care did not come
up. The researchers argue that the EMLC should encourage and support countries in
setting up registrations for this data. Before this is possible, the EMLC should develop
a view about which basic data it wishes to have. This also depends on the goals the
EMLC wishes to attain. After that, the EMLC should see to it that the data is
representative and up-to-date.
The researchers would like to emphasise research is a necessity in supporting the
midwives to develop their position within the health care systems. Together with the
establishment of strong national professional organisations for midwives, research
will help to convince and influence politicians, gynaecologists and society of the
advantages of a more physiological approach of pregnancy and birth. The results will
also help to convince midwives themselves at first.
In conclusion, the researchers believe that the goal of making an inventory in all EUmember states about their midwifery systems has been reached; a 'photo' has been
taken of every midwifery system. While some systems are brought into focus quite
well, other photos may appear to be somewhat vague. Still, thanks to all the efforts
put in by all participants, the EMLC will now be able to develop future policy in order
to strengthen midwives position on the basis of the descriptions and
recommendations given in this report.
130
Supplements
131
Supplement 1: Names of all participants

Researchers:
Ms. Josine Emons, Deloitte & Touche (The Netherlands)
Ms. Mandy Luiten, Deloitte & Touche (The Netherlands)
Working group:
Mrs. Dorthe Taxbl, Vice-president EMLC (Denmark)
Mrs. Rafal van Crimpen, Secretary EMLC (The Netherlands)
Mr. Jan van Gorp, Advisor EMLC (The Netherlands)
Mr. Rob Hartings, Senior Manager Deloitte & Touche (The Netherlands)
Ms. Suzanne van Uffelen, Senior Consultant Deloitte & Touche (The Netherlands)
Mr. Robert Eikelenboom, Senior Consultant Deloitte & Touche (The Netherlands)
Group meeting:
Mrs. Anna Monaghan, President EMLC (Ireland)
Mrs. Lisette Geerdens (Belgium)
Mrs. Marie-Nolle Babel-Remy (France)
Mrs. Ellen Grnberg (Germany)
Mrs. Anna Deltsidou (Greece)
Mr. Angelo Morese (Italy)
Mrs. Rita Roascio (Italy)
Mrs. Martine Welter (Luxembourg)
Mrs. Maria Alexandra Amaral (Portugal)
Mr. Vitor Varela (Portugal)
Mrs. Gloria Seguranyes (Spain)
132
Mrs. Deborah Hughes (United Kingdom)

Mrs. Marianne Mead (United Kingdom)
Remaining
Mrs. Hannah Rausch (Austria)
Mrs. Geertrui van Brempt (Belgium)
Mrs. Lillian Bondo (Denmark)
Mrs. Merja Kumpula (Finland)
Mrs. Anna Nordfjell (Sweden)
Preparation:
Mrs. A. van Geel, midwife (The Netherlands)
Mrs. B. van der Put, midwife (The Netherlands)
Mrs. A. Schoon, Amsterdam Education for midwives (The Netherlands)
Mrs. D. Shirratt, ICM (United Kingdom)
Mrs. A. van Teeffelen, KNOV (The Netherlands)
Deloitte Offices
Department Wirtschaftsprfungs- und Steuerberatungsgesellschaft (Austria)
Mr. John Menaa (Denmark)
Dr. Roland Rausch (Germany)
Mrs. Julie Vrachnie (Greece)
Mr. Marcello Romano (Italy)
Mr. Gary Baker (Sweden)
Mr. Frank Wilson (United Kingdom)
133
Supplement 2: Questionnaire
This research has been done by the EMLC and Deloitte & Touche to gain
insight into the midwifery systems in all European Union member states.
We kindly request you to fill in this questionnaire completely.
The questions refer to the situation in your own country.
Please specify your sources of information.
The information will only be used for this study. The information will be
used in preparation for the group meeting in The Netherlands on the 21st
and 22nd of June and all results will be presented in Barcelona on the 21st
and 22nd of September.
Please return the questionnaire no later than the 11th of May.
Instructions for filling in this questionnaire
Please fill in the facts from the year 2000, and if not available the most
recent numbers and information. Please specify the year.
Ring or tick the answers where appropriate.
Please do not use abbreviations.
134
The subjects that are discussed in this questionnaire are:

I.
Birth and death rates
II.
Midwifery
III.
Supply
IV.
Obstetric system
V.
Finance structure
VI.
Education
VII. Historical developments

VIII. Opportunities and threats
IX.
In conclusion
Personal data
Name umbrella organisation
Name contact
m/f
Profession
Organisation
Country
Email
Telephone
I. Birth and death rates

In this paragraph we are asking some general statistics about birth and death rates.
Please, fill in the numbers of the year 2000 (if not available please fill in the most
recent numbers and specify the year).
1. What is the total number of births?
..
135
2. What percentage is bornalive?
..
3. What is the definition of perinatal mortality?
..
..
..
..
4. What is the perinatal mortality rate?
....
II. Midwifery
In this paragraph we would like to know more about the functions of a midwife and
midwifery care.
5. Give the common definition of a midwife. .....
..
..
6. Give a brief description of the activities that a midwife practices in the
following phases, if applicable.
(a) Antenatal care.
..
..
..
..
(b) Natal care
..
..
..
..
136
(c) Postnatal care..

..
..
..
(d) Other...
..
..
7. Is a midwife able to care for a normal pregnancy or birth on her own
responsibility? Please ring the answer.
Yes totally
Yes partially
No
Not applicable
(a) Antenatal care
(b) Natal care
(c) Postnatal care
8. Is a midwife able to care for an abnormal (medium risk/high risk) pregnancy

birth on her own responsibility? Ring the answer.
Yes totally
Yes partially
No
or
Not applicable
(a) Antenatal care
(b) Natal care
(c) Postnatal care
9. What is the prevailing view on pregnancy and birth in general?

(a) Natural process
yes/no
(b) Pathological process yes/no

(c) Other,..
..
137
10.
What is the prevailing view among midwives on pregnancy and birth?
(a) Natural process
yes/no
(b) Pathological process yes/no

(c) Other,..
..
11.
Is the profession of midwives protected by law? yes/no

If yes, which law(s) and since when?..
..
12.
Are the functions and activities of midwives protected by law? yes/no

If yes, which law(s) and since when?.
....
III. Supply
In this paragraph we want to make an inventory about the number of people that are
working in midwifery care.
13.
How many midwives are available per 1000 fertile women?.
14.
How many midwives practice midwifery in your country?
15.
How many midwives are registered in your country?.
16.
How many of them are female?...
17.
Describe the age structure of the midwives.
..
..
18.
How are midwives employed?
(a) In independent free practice yes/no

If yes, what percentage?
138
(b) In the public sector
yes/no
If yes, what percentage?.

(c) In the private sector
yes/no
If yes, what percentage?.

19.
How many gynaecologists are there?......
20.
How many general practitioners or family doctors are active in midwifery

care?
IV. Obstetric system

In this paragraph we are going to ask you some questions about all professional
groups that are active in midwifery care.
21.
Which professional groups are active in midwifery care, in the different phases?
Ring all that apply.
(a) Antenatal care

1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
3. Paediatrician
4. General practitioner/ Family doctor
5. Organised maternity care
6. Others,..
(b) Natal care
1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
3. Paediatrician
139

6. Others,..
(c) Postnatal care
1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
3. Paediatrician
6. Others,..
22.
Who has the final responsibility in the different phases, in case of a normal
pregnancy and birth?
(a) Antenatal care

1. Midwife
2. Nurse
3. Nurse- midwife
4. Gynaecologist
5. Paediatrician
7. Others,..
(b) Natal care
1. Midwife
2. Nurse
3. Nurse- midwife
4. Gynaecologist
140
5. Paediatrician
8. Others,..
(c) Postnatal care
1. Midwife
2. Nurse
3. Nurse- midwife
4. Gynaecologist
5. Paediatrician
8. Others,..
23.
Who has the final responsibility in the different phases, in case of an abnormal
pregnancy and birth?
(a) Antenatal care

1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
3. Paediatrician
5. Others,..
(b) Natal care
1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
141
3. Paediatrician
6. Others,..
(c) Postnatal care
1. Midwife
2. Gynaecologist
3. Paediatrician
6. Others,..
24.
What percentage of deliveries took place under responsibility of a midwife in

the year 2000?
.
25.
What percentage of deliveries took place under responsibility of a

gynaecologist in the year 2000?
26.
What percentage of deliveries do midwives conduct?

.
27.
What percentage of deliveries do gynaecologists conduct?

.
28.
Do rules and legislation regulate the responsibilities? yes/no

If yes, which law(s) and since when?...
..
142
29.
Where do the deliveries take place? Ring all that apply.

(a) At home
(b) In the hospital
(c) In a maternity clinic
(d) Else,
30.
Who decides where the delivery takes place?

(a) Midwife
(b) Gynaecologists
(c) General practitioner/ Family doctor
(d) Parents
(e) Others,
31.
In which cases does the delivery take place at home? Ring all that apply.
(a) At the parents request
(b) In case of a normal pregnancy
(c) By accident
(d) Never
(e) Otherwise,...
32.
In which cases does the delivery take place at the hospital? Ring all that apply.
(a) Always
(b) At the parents request
(c) In case of an abnormal pregnancy
(d) Never
(e) Otherwise,...
143
33.
In which cases does the delivery take place at a maternity clinic? Ring all that
apply.
(a) Always
(b) At the parents request
(c) In case of a normal pregnancy
(d) Never
(e) Otherwise,...
34.
Where is the maternity care provided? More answers possible.

(a) Home
(b) Hospital
yes/no
yes/no
(c) Maternity clinic yes/no

35.
Who delivers this maternity care? More answers possible.

(a) Midwife
(b) Maternity nurse
(c) Community nurse
(d) Family
(e) Others,.
36.
How does one come under care of a midwife? (Describe the procedure of
reference)
..
..
37.
How does one come under care of a gynaecologist? (Describe the procedure of
reference)
..
..
144
V. Finance structure and income

In this paragraph we want you to describe your insurance system in general. But first
we will explain what we mean by finance structure.
Compulsory systems of finance are those under an obligatory public scheme. They
may be based on tax sources of various kinds or on statutory health insurance.
Statutory health insurance (also termed 'social' or 'public' health insurance) refers to
health insurance funded by compulsory payment of (usually) income-related
contributions by employers and employees. Public bodies or quasi-public bodies
usually administer compulsory systems, although there are some cases in which
private insurers may administer statutory insurance.
Voluntary systems are those in which finance is left to the discretion of the
individuals, either through direct, out-of-pocket payments or through voluntary
purchase of insurance, sometimes by employers on behalf of the individual. Voluntary
insurance is usually purchased from private insurance organisations, although in some
cases it may also be purchased from public or quasi-public bodies.
For most countries in the European Region, taxation, statutory health insurance or a
combination of the two, form the main sources of finance.
Please give a short explanation of your answers.
38.
What were the total costs for midwifery care in the year 2000?
Euro...
Local monetary unit..
39.
What percentage of health care is funded by the compulsory system?..
40.
How does the compulsory system finance health care?

(a) By taxation
(b) By social insurance premiums
(c) Both
If both, what percentage is financed by taxation?
And what percentage is financed by social insurance premiums?...
Please explain your answer..
145
41.
What percentage of health care is financed by the voluntary system?.

..
42.
How does the voluntary system finance health care?

(a) Through direct, out-of-pocket payments
(b) Through voluntary insurance
(c) Both
If both, what percentage is funded by direct payments?.
And what percentage is funded by voluntary insurance?
Please explain your answer..

..
43.
What are the most important legislations that are applicable on the health
insurance system and what are the purposes of these laws?
..
..
44.
Do midwives enter into contracts? yes/no

If yes, with whom, about what and how?.
..
45.
Do women need insurance for midwifery care? yes/no

If yes, go to question 46
If no, go to question 48
46.
What kind of midwifery care does the social insurer reimburse in the following
phases, if applicable?
(a) Antenatal care.
..
146
(b) Natal care

..
..
..
..
47. What kind of midwifery care does the private insurer reimburse in the following
phases, if applicable?
(a) Antenatal care.
..
..
(b) Natal care.
..
..
..
In case women can choose to which professional they go, without any restrains,
then there will be competition between professionals.
48.
Is there competition between midwives themselves?
yes/no
Explain your answer ...

.
..
49.
Is there competition between midwives and gynaecologists? yes/no

Explain your answer.....
147
50.
Is there competition between midwives and general practitioners? yes/no

Explain your answer....
..
..
51.
What legislation is applicable on competition in midwifery care and what are

the purposes of these laws?
..
..
..
52.
Is there co-operation between midwives?
yes/no
If yes, describe this co-operation

..
..
..
53.
Is there co-operation between midwives and gynaecologists? yes/no

If yes, describe this co-operation
..
..
54.
Is there co-operation between midwives and general practitioners? yes/no

If yes, describe this co-operation.
..
..
55.
How are midwives paid? Ring all that apply.

(a) Salaried employment
148
(b) Per client

(c) Fee for service
(d) Otherwise,...
56.
How is the income of midwives being set?..

..
..
57.
What legislation is applicable on midwives income and what is the purpose of

these laws?
..
..
58 . What is the average income of midwives annually?

Euro..
Local monetary unit.
VI. Education
In this section we would like to know something about the education to become a
midwife.
59.
What preliminary training is necessary?..

..
60.
What are the (remaining) admission requirements?.

..
61.
How long is the training period to become a midwife?

..
62.
Give a short description of the contents of the education. Describe for instance
the subjects that are dealt with.
149
..
..
63. Which practicals does a student have to do during the education, concerning the
following phases? And describe how many weeks and activities it takes to do
these practicals.
(a) Antenatal care.
..
(b) Natal care
..
..
64.
What is the total capacity of the education annually?..
65.
Who is responsible for the education?

(a) Hospital
(b) Institute
(c) Private
(d) Government
(e) Other,..
66.
What legislation is applicable on midwifes education and what are the

purposes of these laws?
..
..
VII. Historical developments

Give a brief account of the key factors influencing the midwifery system in your
country in the twentieth century.
150
67.
Please consider transformations regarding:
- Function/competencies
- Job responsibilities
- Technological possibilities
- Place of birth
- Supply
- Finance structure and reimbursement
- Income
- Education
If there is another subject that you think is relevant, please inform us about it.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
VIII. Opportunities and threats

In the current situation there can be many developments. As a result, new
opportunities and threats arise. To determine these opportunities and threats, it is
important to know the view and purposes of midwifery.
151
68.
What view does the umbrella organisation have on midwifery?
..
..
..
..
69.
What purposes does the umbrella organisation have?
..
..
..
..
70.
Describe three positive items of your obstetric system.
..
..
..
..
71.
Describe three negative points of your obstetric system.
..
..
..
..
72. Describe three items which, according to your umbrella organisation, should be
changed.
..
..
152
73.
If any changes will be taking place in the near future in the general health care
system in your country, what is the influence of these changes on the function
and position of midwives?
..
74.
If any changes will be taking place in the near future in the midwifery system
in your country, what is the influence of these changes on the function and
position of midwives?
..
..
..
..
IX. In conclusion
If you have missed any important subjects in this questionnaire, or you would like to
explain your answers further. Please write down your comments and any additional
information that you think is relevant.
..
..
..
Thank you very much for your co-operation and the efforts you made to fill out this
questionnaire.
Please return the questionnaire not later than May 11th 2001 to:
Deloitte & Touche Bakkenist
Mandy Luiten and Josine Emons
P.O. Box 336
3830 AJ Leusden
The Netherlands
153
Supplement 3: Ideal midwifery

During the group meeting in Amsterdam on the 21st and 22nd of June, there was a
discussion about what would be the ideal midwifery system according to the
midwives. What characteristics should an ideal midwifery system contain?
In chapter 20 it has been said that to maintain and strengthen the position of
midwives, it is necessary that the health care system fulfils some conditions. The
umbrella organisations agreed on those conditions.
Besides the conditions mentioned in chapter 20, the umbrella organisations also
named a number of other requirements that should be present in an ideal midwifery
system. Those will be described below.
v EU-directives
According to the umbrella organisations, all midwives in Europe should practice
according to the EU-directives 80/154/EEC and 80/155/EEC. They should do the
tasks and have responsibilities as laid down in the directives. The process of
pregnancy (and birth) has to be started by the midwife. Midwives have to take the
lead.
v Place of birth
The place of birth should meet the women's demand. They should not only be able to
give birth at home and in hospital, but also in midwife- managed maternity units.
v Self-employment and salary
Midwives should have the choice of being employed or independent.
v Number of midwives
On the basis of the amount of tasks and the time available, the number of midwives
needed has to be calculated and consequently be increased, to reduce the pressure of
work.
v Finance
Midwifery care should be publicly financed and it should be equally accessible to
everyone.
154
v Education
The education should at least be at bachelor- level and should contain subjects such as
evidence based research.
155
Supplement 4: Tables
Even though it is hard to compare the different midwifery systems in general and
some subjects specifically, because of the differences in historical developments and
cultures, it is nice to have an overall view. The tables present the results not per
country, but per subject.
While every midwifery system has its own characteristics and does not seem to match
the others, the countries seem to agree on the professional who is responsible for
midwifery care when the pregnancy and/ or birth shows signs of complications (table
2.2). In these cases the gynaecologist is always mentioned as the primary care
provider.
In all EU-member states the hospital is the main place of birth. And all umbrella
organisations support the view that pregnancy and birth are natural processes to begin
with, as is shown in table 3.
Looking at the tables, one should remember that not all concepts presented here are
defined in the same way in every country. For example, there are many different
definitions of the perinatal mortality rate.
156
Inhabitants
Births
Born alive
Stillborn
Austria
7,900,000
77,887
99.59%
0.41%
Belgium
10,100,000
114,276
99.30%
0.70%
Denmark
5,200,000
64,792 (1998)
Finland
5,100,000
57,345 (1998)
99.60% (1998)
0.4% (1998)
France
57,700,000
736,487 (1995)
99.30%
0.70%
Germany
82,000,000
770,744
99.60%
0.40%
Greece
10,400,000
101,491
Ireland
3,500,000
54,239
99.50% (1997)
Italy
57,200,000
525,428
99.60%
0.37%
400,000
5,596
99.70%
0.30%
The Netherlands
16,000,000
200,445
Portugal
9,800,000
116,691
99.40%
0.60%
Spain
39,600,000
377,809
Sweden
8,882,792
88,512
99.60%
0.40%
The United
Kingdom
59,500,000
635,901
99.47%
0.53%
Luxembourg
Table 1: Statistics 1999/2000 (part 1)
157
Midwives
Births per
midwife
Austria
1,550
50
Belgium
4,351
450
Denmark
3,500
880
3,500
Finland
1,770
584
1,950
France
15,027
4,674
Germany
15,000
15,000
24.6
590
2,300
Ireland
39,000 (incl
nurses)
81
Italy
14,500
12,000
Luxembourg
60-70
70-80
The Netherlands
1,578
120-130
>613
1,120
Portugal
1,100
53
ca 700
Spain
5,000
5,000
Sweden
8,504
1,803
33,291
30
2,176
5.0%
Greece
The United
Kingdom
Gynaecologists GP's active

in midwifery
1,153
Table 1: Statistics 1999/ 2000 (part 2)
158
Normal antenatal
Normal natal
Normal postnatal
Austria
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
Belgium
midwife
midwife
midwife
Denmark
midwife
midwife
midwife
Finland
general practitioner/
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
general practitioner/
gynaecologist
France
midwife
midwife
midwife
Germany
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
Greece
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Ireland
midwife
midwife
midwife
Italy
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
Luxembourg
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
midwife
midwife
midwife
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
Spain
midwife
midwife
midwife
Sweden
midwife
midwife
midwife
The United Kingdom
midwife
midwife
midwife
The Netherlands
Portugal
Table 2.1: The professional final responsible in normal case
159
Abnormal antenatal
Abnormal natal
Abnormal postnatal
Austria
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
Belgium
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Denmark
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Finland
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
France
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Germany
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Greece
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Ireland
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
midwife/
gynaecologist
Italy
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
Luxembourg
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
gynaecologist/
paediatrician
The Netherlands
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Portugal
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Spain
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Sweden
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
The United Kingdom
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
gynaecologist
Table 2.2: The professional final responsible in abnormal case
160
View society
View midwives
Main place of birth
Austria
Hospital/ Maternity clinic
Belgium
Hospital
Denmark
Hospital/ Maternity clinic
Finland
Hospital
France
N and P
N and P
Hospital
Germany
Hospital
Greece
Hospital
Ireland
N and P
N and P
Maternity clinic
Italy
Hospital
Luxembourg
N and P
Hospital
The Netherlands
Home/ Hospital
N and P
Hospital
Spain
Hospital
Sweden
Hospital
Hospital
Portugal
N and P
The
United Kingdom
N = Natural view
P = Potential pathological view
Table 3: View on pregnancy and birth and main place of birth
161
Main organisation of employment
Average
income
annually
Austria
Hospital (60%)
Hospital + self-employed (30%)
Belgium
Public hospital
17,000
Denmark
Public hospital
Public maternity clinic
33,500
Finland
Public hospital
Maternity clinic
26,910
France
Public hospital (60%)

Private hospital (25%)
Independent (15%)
23,739
Public hospital
26,610
Greece
Public hospital
Public maternity clinic
11,739
Ireland
Public hospital
Germany
Italy
Luxembourg
The Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden

Private sector (10%)
Independent (10%)
15,500
Public hospital
30,000
Independent (69%)
30,151

Private maternity clinic
24,500
21,868
Public hospital
Antenatal health care centres
26,000
Public hospital
29,700
Birth centres
Table 4: Main organisations of employment and annual income of midwives in
Europe.
The United Kingdom
162
Level
Duration
Austria
University
3 years
University entrance
qualification
Belgium
University
3 or 4 years
Secondary school diploma
Denmark
Higher
3.5 years
Student's degree + 9
months working experience
Finland
Higher
1.5 years
Nurse diploma + good state

of health + aptitude test
France
University
4 years
Baccalaureate
Higher
3 years
Diploma Realshule + good

state of health
112 weeks
National exams
Germany
Greece
Ireland
University
2 years
General nurse diploma +

working experience
Italy
University
3 years
High school diploma
Luxembourg
Higher
2 years
General nurse diploma
The Netherlands
Higher
4 years
High school diploma with

biology and chemistry
Portugal
University
88 weeks
Nurse diploma + 2 years

working experience
Spain
University
2 years
Nurse diploma + National

exam
Higher
1.5 years
Nurse diploma + 6 months

working experience
University
3 years
Higher educational level

incl. A science and English
+ age of 17
Sweden
The
United Kingdom
Table 5: Midwifery education in Europe (part 1).
163
Hours of practical Hours of theoretical

classes
classes
Austria
1.530
3.250
Belgium
1.025
1.575
Students (total)
750
ca. 300
Denmark
200
Finland
France
4.370
1.820
ca. 2.900
Germany
3.000
1.600
1.800
Greece
(70 weeks)
1.470
300
Ireland
2.574
1.014
280
Italy
3.800
1.600
700
Luxembourg
2.300
700
10
The Netherlands
3.560
3.160
700
Portugal
1.350
1.050
100
Spain
2.500
1.100
150
200-250
Sweden
The United
Kingdom
2.500
2.500
12.000
Table 5: Midwifery education in Europe (part 2).
164
165
Supplement 5: Literature
BDH. 2000. Information ber die Ausbildung zur Hebamme.
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Wetenschappelijke Vereniging
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Midwifery in Europe: An Inventory in Fifteen EU-member States

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Midwifery in Europe

An inventory in fifteen EU-member states

Under the authority of and

For more information please contact:

The European Midwives Liaison Committee (EMLC)

Rafael van Crimpen, secretary EMLC

Deloitte & Touche

Robert Eikelenboom, senior consultant Deloitte & Touche Bakkenist

4.1 Insurance systems

10. Midwifery in Germany

10.1 The midwife

11. Midwifery in Greece

11.1 The midwife

12. Midwifery in Ireland

12.1 The midwife

13. Midwifery in Italy

13.1 The midwife

14. Midwifery in Luxembourg

14.1 The midwife

15. Midwifery in the Netherlands

15.1 The midwife

16. Midwifery in Portugal

16.1 The midwife

17. Midwifery in Spain

17.1 The midwife

18. Midwifery in Sweden

18.1 The midwife

19. Midwifery in the United Kingdom

19.1 The midwife

20. Summary and conclusions

Supplement 1: Names of all participants

By means of desk research, the researchers tried to gather as much information as

6. To conduct spontaneous deliveries including an episiotomy when required and a

Social health insurance

Private health insurance

National system of (generally tax financed) health care

Compulsory health insurance for specific groups

Income- and risk related premiums

Financing through taxes

Employer/employee cost sharing

Annual budget negotiations

Statutory package of benefits

Free healthcare for all

Supplementary private insurance

Supplementary private insurance

Table 4.1: Health care financing systems

Tasks and responsibilities

The midwifery system

View on pregnancy and birth

Parents have a choice between giving birth in hospital, at home or in a maternity

In this paragraph the number of midwives, gynaecologists and general practitioners

In 2000, there were 590 gynaecologists in Austria.

Finance and income

General insurance system

ASVG (Allgemeines Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for all employees and some other

GSVG (Gewerbliches Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for the self-employed

BSVG (Bauern-Sozialversicherungsgesetz) for the self-employed in agriculture

B-KUVG (Beamten-, Kranken- und Unfallversicherungsgesetz) for civil servants