Titanium Alloys

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Titanium and its alloys

Subjects of interest
Introduction/Objectives
Extraction and melting of titanium
Alloying system & classification of titanium and its alloys
Commercial pure titanium, and near titanium alloys
+ titanium alloys
titanium alloys
Forming and casting of titanium alloys
Welding of titanium alloys
Properties of titanium alloys
Suranaree University of Technology
Tapany Udomphol
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Objectives
This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of
different methods of productions / heat treatments of
titanium alloys and the use of various types of cast and
wrought titanium alloys.
The influences of alloy composition, microstructure and
heat treatment on chemical and mechanical properties of
titanium alloys will be discussed in relation to its
applications.
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Titanium is named after the Titans, the

powerful sons of the earth in Greek mythology.
Titanium is the forth abundant metal on
earth crust (~ 0.86%) after aluminium, iron and
magnesium.
Not found in its free, pure metal form in
nature but as oxides, i.e., ilmenite (FeTiO3)
and rutile (TiO2).
homepage.mac.com
Found only in small amount in Thailand.
Titans
Have similar strength as

steel but with a weight nearly
half of steel.
Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
Tapany Udomphol mineral.galleries.com
Rutile (TiO2)
May-Aug 2007
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Introduction- Titanium and its alloys
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Physical properties of titanium

22
Crystal structure
Atomic diameter
Density (g.cm-3)
Melting point (oC)
(<882.5oC)
HCP
BCC (>882.5oC)
0.320
4.54
1667
HCP,BCC
Ti
Titanium
47.87
Experiences allotropic transformation ( ) at 882.5oC.

Highly react with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen.
Difficult to extract expensive.
Used mainly in wrought forms for advanced applications
where cost is not critical.
High strength and toughness.
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Advantages of titanium alloys

High corrosive resistance to
sea water and most corrosive
conditions
Density of selected metals
Nearly perfectly
nonmagnetic
Three times as Al and

higher than steel
www.daido.co.jp
Specific strength vs temperature

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Aerospace
Motorcycle
Used mainly in
aerospace, marine,
chemical, biomedical
applications and sports.
Sports
Turbine blades
National science centre, Scotland
www3.lehigh.edu
Hip-joint component
Shape memory alloy
Titanium cladded Guggenheim Bilbao museum,

May-Aug 2007
Spain at sunset.
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Applications of titanium alloys
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Shipment of mill products by

applications in Japan 2005
www.sumitomometals.co.jp
AEROSPACE
MEDICAL
Civil
Military
Space
Orthopaedic Implants
Bone Screws
Trauma Plates
Dental Fixtures
Surgical Instruments
INDUSTRIAL
SPECIALIST
Petrochemical
Offshore
Subsea
Metal Finishing
Pulp & Paper
General
Engineering
Body Jewellery
Ultrasonic Welding
Motor Racing
Components
Marine
Bicycle
Sports Equipment
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Applications of titanium alloys
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Extraction processes
- Kroll extraction process
Melting processes
- Electroslag Refining (ESR)
- Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR)
- Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
- Plasma Arc Melting (PAM)
- Induction Skull Melting
Casting processes
- Casting : investment casting, laser fabrication
Forming processes
- Forming process such as rolling, extrusion, forging.
Heat treatments
Tapany Udomphol
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Production of titanium alloys
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Extraction of titanium
Titanium ore rutile (TiO2) is converted into titanium sponge by
1) Passing Cl2 gas through charge the ore, resulting in colourless.
titanium tetrachloride TiCl4.
TiO2 + 2Cl 2 + C TiCl 4 + CO2
2) TiCl4 is purified by fractional distillation.
3) The liquid form of TiCl4 is reacted with either Mg or Na under an inert
(Ar) atmosphere to obtain titanium sponge while Mg or Na is
recycled.
2Mg + TiCl 2MgCl + Ti
(l )
Chlorination
TiO2
Coke
Mg
4(l )
TiCl4
2(l )
(s)
Mg
Distillation
MgCl2
Cl2
Titanium sponge
Ti sponge
production based
on Kroll process
www.toho-titanium.co.jp
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Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR)
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Melting of titanium alloys

- Process
Primary melting
Secondary melting
Pressing
Welding
Ingot
Briquette
Sponge and alloying elements are blended together and

then hydraulically pressed to produce blocks (briquette).
Revert or scrap can also be used.
The briquettes are welded together to produce first melt
electrode or stick.
The electrode is double or triple melted in the VAR furnace
to produce sound ingot.
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Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR)
lic

- melting
Electrode made from compacted

briquette of nominal alloy composition
is held in the VAR by a stub and first
melted in a water-cooled copper
crucible.
Vacuum vent
Furnace
Electrode
A molten metal pool is on the top of

the new ingot.
The melting variables such as
melting rate, molten pool depth, stirring,
contamination is carefully control to
obtain homogeneity and soundness
of ingots.
Cooling
water
Mould
Arc
Ingot
Cooling
water
VAR furnace
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Electroslag Refining (ESR)

The continuous billet serves as an
electrode where its end dips into the slag
pool heated by AC current.
Molten metal reacts with super heated slag
having composition adapted to the molten
alloy.
The intended molten metal drop down
through the slag to form metal pool and then
solidify to give ESR ingot.
The molten metal is refined and inclusions
are absorbed during the reaction.
Tapany Udomphol
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Plasma Arc Melting (PAM)
The metal is melted in a watercooled copper vessel (hearth)

using the heat source (plasma torch
or electron beam).
Plasma arc
source
Ingot
molten
pool
Melting
hearth
www.rti-intl.com
- Improved method over VAR
Ingot being
pulled down
The skull (solid Ti) is contacted

with the hearth and leave the molten
titanium alloy floating on the top,
preventing contamination from the
hearth.
High density inclusions are
separated on to the bottom of the
hearth.
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Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Material is fed through the hearth

and melted by heat source provided
by electron beam similar to PAM.
The floating metal is

on the top of the skull,
giving a sound ingot.
EBM ingot
www.antares.com.ua
Note: Used for melting of reactive materials

May-Aug
such as Ti, Ni, Ta, Zr.
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Induction Skull Melting

A water-cooled copper crucible is used to avoid contamination
of reactive materials.
Metal is charged inside the crucible by induction power source
applied by magnetic field.
The charge is melted and freeze along the bottom and wall,
producing a shell or skull with molten metal in it.
Revert or scrap can be used.
Low cost, high quality titanium alloy production.
Induction
coils
Molten metal
in the skull
www.dmgbm.com
Water-cooled
system
Charged metal
melted with ISM
Induction skull melting

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Allotropic
transformation
a3
Alloying elements
y
a2
a1
882.3
oC
phase
HCP structure
Alpha stabilisers
phase
BCC structure
Al, O, N
Beta stabilisers
Isomorphous: Mo, V,
W, Nb, Ta.
Eutectoid: Fe, Cr,
Cu, Ni, Co, Mn.
Neutrual
(a) stabilising
(b) Isomorphous
stabilising
(c) Eutectoid
stabilising
Zr, Si, Sn
Basic types of phase diagrams for titanium alloys

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Alloying system of titanium alloys
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Commercially pure (CP) titanium alpha

and near alpha titanium alloys
- Generally non-heat treatable and weldable
- Medium strength, good creep strength, good
corrosion resistance
Alpha-beta titanium alloys

- Heat treatable, good forming properties
- Medium to high strength, good creep strength
Beta titanium alloys

- Heat treatable and readily formable
- Very high strength, low ductility
Different crystal structures and properties allow
manipulation of heat treatments to produce different types
of alloy microstructures to suit the required mechanical
properties.
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Classification of titanium alloys
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Heat treatment is mainly applied to / and titanium alloys

due to the transformation (typically in the isomorphous
Ti alloy group).
Strength of annealed alloys increases
gradually and linearly with increasing alloy
contents.
Quenching from the phase field gives a
martensitic transformation with improved
strength (depending on composition).
For lowly alloyed Ti, rapid quenching from
the phase field gives maximum strength
at Mf.
For highly alloyed Ti, rapid quenching from
phase field gives lowest strength but after
ageing, the maximum strength is obtained.
Heat treatment diagram of
isomorphous titanium alloys
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Basic principal of heat treatment
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Microstructure contains HCP phase and can be divided into;
Commercially pure titanium alloys

Alpha titanium alloys
Near alpha titanium alloys
Characteristics:
Non-heat treatable
Weldable.
Medium strength
Good notch toughness
Good creep resistance at high
temperature.
Solute content
Phase diagram of
stabilised Ti alloy.
Tapany Udomphol
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Commercially pure (CP) titanium

and alpha/near alpha alloys
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Microstructure of commercially pure

(CP) titanium alloys
Purity 99.0-99.5%, HCP structure.
Main elements in unalloyed titanium are Fe and
interstitial elements such as C, O, N, H.
O content determines the grade and strength.
C, N, H present as impurities. H embrittlement.
Oxygen equivalent
100 x
HCP phase structure
%Oequiv = %O + 2.0% N + 0.67%C
250 x
HCP phase structure with
spheroidal particles due to
0.3% Fe as impurity
Tapany Udomphol
500 x
Hot-rolled structure
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Properties and typical applications of

commercially pure (CP) titanium alloys
Properties
Lower strength, depending on
contents of O, N.
Corrosion resistance to nitric acid,
moist chlorine.
0.2% Pd addition improves corrosion
resistance in HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4.
Less expensive
Plate and
frame heat
exchanger
Applications:
Airframes, heat exchangers,
chemicals, marine, surgical
implants.
Large structure used in bleaching
section of pulp and paper
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Compositions and applications of

commercially pure (CP) titanium alloys
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Alpha titanium alloy

stabilisers are more soluble in the phase and raise
the transus temperature.
Al and O are the main alloying elements, which
provide solid solution strengthening. O and N
present as impurities give interstitial hardening.
The amount of stabilisers should not exceed
9% in the aluminium equivalent to prevent
embrittlement due to ordering.
5-6% Al can lead to a finely dispersed, ordered
phase (2), which is coherent to lattice.
deleterious ductility.
Sn and Zr are also added in small amount to
stabilise the phase and give strength.
Aluminium equivalent
Solute content
Phase diagram of
stabilised Ti alloy
% Al equiv = Al + 13 Sn + 16 Zr + 10(O + C + 2 N ) 9%
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Microstructure
250 x
Ti-5%Al-2.5% Sn alloy in sheet form
Sn is added to improve ductility.

Spheroidal phase is due to 0.3%
Fe as impurity.
Homogeneous 2 precipitation on
dislocations in aged Ti 8%Al with
1780 ppm of O
>5-6% Al addition produces

coherent ordered 2 phase (Ti3Al)
embrittlement.
Co-planar dislocations are
produced early fatigue cracking.
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Properties
Applications:
Moderate strength.
Strength depends on O and Al
contents. (Al <5-6%).
Al also reduces its density.
Good oxidation resistance and
strength at 600 to 1100oF.
Readily weldable.
Aircraft engine compressor

blades, sheet-metal parts.
High pressure cryogenic
vessels at -423oC.
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Near-alpha titanium alloys

Small amounts of stabilisers (Mo,V) are added, giving
a microstructure of phase dispersed in the phase structure.
improved performance and efficiency.
Sn and Zr are added to compensate Al contents while
maintaining strength and ductility.
Show greater creep strength than fully Ti alloy up to 400oC.
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-Mo alloys are the most
commonly used for aerospace applications, i.e., airframe and
engine parts.
700 x
Duplex annealed Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V
Tapany Udomphol
Forged compressor disc made

from neat alloy IMI 685
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Heat treatment in CP and alpha titanium alloys

Treatment from the phase field
Annealing of CP Ti at high
temperature gives a HCP phase
structure, fig (a).
Quenching of CP Ti from the
phase field change the HCP
structure to the hexagonal
martensitic phase with
remained grains, fig (b).
(a) Annealed at 700oC/1h.
Air-cooling of CP Ti from the

phase field produces
Widmansttten plates, fig (c).
Note: This transformation contribute
to only little strength.
(b) Quenched from

phase field.
Microstructure of
CP Ti alloy.
(c) Air-cooled from

phase field.
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Heat-treated from + phase field

Alloys should contain high amount
of stabilisers without severe loss
of ductility.
Small amounts of Mo or V (beta
stabilisers) are added to promote the
response to heat-treatment.
The alloy is heated up to T to obtain
equal amount of and phases.
Pseudo-binary diagram for Ti-8%Al with

Mo and V addition
Air-cooling gives equiaxed primary

phase and Widmansttten
formed by nucleation and growth from
the phase, fig.
IMI679 Air-cooled
from + phase
field, having white
primary phase and
Widmansttten
Faster cooling transforms

into martensitic which gives
higher strength.
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Heat treatment in near titanium alloys
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Heat-treated from phase field
Quenching from the phase field
produces laths of martensitic ,
which are delineated by thin films
of phase.
Ageing causes precipitation of
fine phase dispersion.
0.5 m
(a) Near Ti (IMI 685) oil-quenched,
(b) quenched from phase field and
aged at 850oC
Air-cooling from the phase field

gives a basket weave structure of
Widmansttten phase delineated
by phase, fig (b).
(b) Near Ti
(IMI 685) aircooled from the
phase field
X 75
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Effects of cooling rate from phase field
in lamellar microstructure
Increasing cooling rate
(a) 1oC /min
(b) 100oC /min
(a) 8000oC /min
Effects of cooling rage from the beta phase field on lamellar

microstructure in Ti 6242 alloy
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Near alpha titanium alloys

Properties
Moderately high strength at RT and relatively good ductility (~15%).
High toughness and good creep strength at high temperatures.
Good weldability.
Good resistance to salt-water environment.
Applications:
Airframe and jet
engine parts.
Chemical compositions and typical applications

Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Alpha-beta titanium alloys contain both and .

stabilisers are used to give strength with 4-6%
stabilisers to allow the phase to retain at RT
after quenching from or + phase field.
Improved strength and formability in comparison
to -Ti alloys.
Ti-6Al-4V (IMI 318) is the most widely
commercially used.
Microstructure depends on chemical composition,
processing history and heat treatments, i.e.,
annealing, quenching and tempering.
Forged Ti-6-4 blades
Heat treatment can be done in corporation with

thermo-mechanical processes to achieve desired
microstructure/properties.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Annealing from or + phase field

Annealing from the phase
field ( annealed) causes a
transformation from to
microstructure containing
lamellar structure of similar
crystal orientation.
Annealing from the + phase

field (mill annealed) produces
microstructure approaching
equilibrium equiaxed primary
phase surrounding with retained
phase.
250 x
Annealed from phase field, showing
transformed phase or lamellar
(basket weaves) microstructure of
Ti-6Al-4V
Annealed from + phase field,

showing equiaxed grains (light)
with intergranular retained beta (dark)
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Air cooling provides intermediate cooling rates.

Air cooling from the phase field produces fine acicular ,
which is transformed from the phase by nucleation and growth.
Air cooling from the + phase field provides equiaxed
primary phase in a matrix of transformed phase (acicular).
250 x
250 x
Air-cooled from phase field giving
transformed phase (acicular)
Air-cooled from + phase field,

showing primary grains in a matrix of
transformed (acicular)
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Air cooling from and + phase field.
.c
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Heat treatment
Annealing from the and

+ phase field.
Air cooling from the and +
phase field.
Quenching from and + phase
fields.
Tempering of titanium martensite
Decomposition of metastable
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Quenching from phase field

The alloy experiences martensitic transformation when
quenched from the phase field passing through Ms.
Martensite consists of individual platelets which are
heavily twinned and have HCP crystal structure.
Rapid transformation increases
dislocation density
Increase hardness (strength)

but not as high as in steel.
500 x
Ti-6-4 alloy solution-heat-treated at
1066oC/30min and water quenched
Note: Following tempering and ageing at elevated temperature lead

to decomposition of martensite.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Quenching from phase field

Martensite of different crystal
structure.
Increasing solute,
(a)
(b)
(c)
If enough stabilisers
(a) Hexagonal lath, (b) hexagonal

lenticular , (c) orthorhombic
Possible reactions due to quenching from
the phase field
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Quenching from + phase field

Below Ms
Below transus but above Ms

Microstructure consists of primary
phase embedded in transformed
phase ( martensite).
Microstructure consists of
primary phase and small
amount of retained or
untransformed .
Martensite
Primary phase
500 x
Ti-6-4 alloy solution treated at 954oC
and then water quenched
Ti-6-4 alloy solution treated at 843oC

and then water quenched
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Decomposition of martensitic structure occurs when a quenched

alloy is subject to subsequent elevated temperature treatments.
Decomposition reaction depends upon martensite crystal structure
and alloy composition.
Decomposition of martensite
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Tempering of titanium martensite
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Retained obtained after quenching decomposes when
subjected to ageing at elevated temperatures. developing
high tensile strength.
The metastable is transformed into equilibrium phase
at high ageing temperatures due to difficulty in nucleating
HCP phase on BCC matrix.
Medium alloy content
100- 500oC
+ +
Concentrated alloys
200- 500oC
+1 +
o
> 500 C
+
Possible reactions
phase formation
phase separation
Equilibrium phase formation
isomorphous alloy phase diagram
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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phase
embrittlement
Appears as very fine dispersion particles after

metastable is isothermally aged at 100-500oC
Avoided by controlling ageing conditions, temp
(475oC), composition.
phase separation
Dense dispersion of
cuboids of phase
not significantly important
phase separation into two BCC phases (enrich)+1 (depleted)

occurs in high stabiliser containing alloy to prevent formation.
This phase will slowly transform into equilibrium phase
Equilibrium phase formation
strength
Equilibrium phase can form directly from

phase or indirectly from or 1.
Laths of
Widmansttten
Laths of Widmansttten
Finely dispersed particles
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Double solution treatments
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Lamellar, forged
Lamellar, annealed
bimodal, water quenching
bimodal, air cooling
fine globular
coarse globular
+
Ms
Ti-6Al
%V
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Microstructure vs heat treatment in

Ti-6Al-4V alloys
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Anisotropic properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloys

(a)
(b)
(a) Slip planes in HCP Ti

alloy and alignment of unit cell
showing strongly preferred
orientation.
(b) Fatigue endurance limit
of three different conditions
in Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2008
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Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Composition and applications of

+ titanium alloys
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Beta stabilisers are sufficiently added to retain a fully structure

(avoid martensite formation) when quenched from the phase field.
Beta alloys
Metastable
Stable
Ms
+
% Beta stabiliser
Molybdenum equivalent
Metastable alloys : Mo Eq. <25

Stable alloys
: Mo Eq. 25-40.
Moequiv % = 1.0Mo + 0.67V + 0.44W 0.28 Nb + 0.22Ta + 1.6Cr + ... 1.0 Al

Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
.c
Temperature
c u -tr a c k
Beta titanium alloys
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Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Heat treatment scheme for titanium alloys
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Most titanium alloys are

metastable and tend to transform into
(1) coarse platets after heat-treated
in the + phase field or
(2) phase precipitation after longterm ageing at elevated temperature.
annealed microstructure, CEZ (Ti-5Al2Sn-2Cr-4Mo-4Zr)- beta rich
This effect gives higher

strength to the alloy but
can cause embrittlement
and not desirable when
ductility is required.
(a) 690oC/8h+
650oC/8h.
(b) 500oC/8h+
725oC/24h.
(c) 725oC/24h.
Effect of pre-aging on microstructure of heavily stabilised alloys

Beta 21S (Ti-15Mo-2.6Nb-3Al-0.2Si)
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
titanium alloys
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.c
h a n g e Vi
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N
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c u -tr a c k
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Composition and applications of

titanium alloys
.c
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O
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N
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Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
titanium alloys
.c
.d o
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O
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O
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h a n g e Vi
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N
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to
Most of titanium products are mechanically deformed by

the following processes.
Forging
Sheet and ring rolling
Machining
Power metallurgy
Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Forming of titanium alloys
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HCP
BCC
Crystal structure and slip

systems in HCP and BCC
crystal structures
HCP Ti alloys
Deformation is limited on
available slip systems and
relies on twinning*
deformation at RT.
BCC Ti alloys
N no. of atoms per unit cell, CN Coordination number, P

Packing density, bmin/a minimal slip component.
Deformation relies on more

available slip systems with
quite limited twinning
deformation. hot-working.
Note: FCC metals have the most activated slip system most ductile.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Deformation of titanium alloys
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Ti alloys have much higher flow stress than Al alloys or steels.

requiring high forging pressure, capacity.
Near net shape is obtained using precision die forging.
Initial working is done about 150oC above the
beta transus temperature to about 28-38% strain,
depending on alloy types and prior heat treatments.
Subsequent deformation processes can be done in
the + region.
Titanium
forged golf
club
Forged Ti connecting rod and implant

prothesis
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Forging of titanium alloys
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Titanium alloy sheet is normally packrolled to avoid surface oxidation.

A group of titanium sheet blanks are sealed
with steel retort and rolled as a group.
Parting agent is filled between individual
blanks to prevent sheet bonding.
www.jfe-holdings.co.jp
Hot-rolled Ti clad steel plates used

in condenser in power station
After hot rolling, the sheets are extracted,

pickled and flattened for finishing process.
Titanium alloys are ring rolled to produce

large cylinders for fan casing or pressure
vessels.
Titanium ring rolling
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Rolling of titanium alloys
.c
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h a n g e Vi
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c u -tr a c k
N
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to
bu
lic
Machining of titanium alloys

Titanium and titanium alloys are relatively more difficult to
machine (especially Ti alloys) in comparison to steels and
aluminium alloys for all conventional methods such as milling,
turning, drilling etc.
Titaniums low thermal conductivity reduces heat dissipation at
metal-workpiece interface decreased tool life, welding or
galling at tool-workpiece interface.
Machining tools are critical carbide or ceramic toolings.
Avoid loss of surface integrity due to tool damage
dramatically reduce properties especially fatigue.
www.sstool.com
www.manufacturingcenter.com
Machined titanium parts -defence

satellites
May-Aug 2007
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Titanium PM parts are made

from pressing and sintering, giving
Blending of Ti sponge and master alloys.
near-net shape products.
CIPing at T > transtus upto 95% density.
Production of titanium powder is

quite difficult due to high reactivity HIPing to improve mechanical properties.
of titanium with oxygen.
expensive.
The whole process (atomisation,
pressing and sintering) requires
prevention from atmospheric
contamination.
http://doc.tms.org
Titanium powder (SEM)

(a) Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced

from CIPing and sintering of
blended CP sponge and ALV master alloy
Tapany Udomphol
(b) Same material after

HIPing, showing no
porosity
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Powder metallurgy of titanium alloys
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N
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to
Superplastic forming and diffusion

bonding of titanium alloys
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Produce complex and light-weight

components with good integrity and stiffness.
Expensive and
cannot be used for
critical load bearing
structures.
Reduce production steps.

Reduce the use of fasteners, i.e., rivets
eliminating stress concentrations.
Stop-off agent is used for bonding of regions of the sheet, followed

by pressurisation to separate unbonded regions of the sheet.
http://www.formtech.de/uk
SPF/DB process
SPF/DB structure
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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.c
Casting of titanium alloys

Titanium castings contribute to small amount of titanium
products recently used. There are several methods as follows;
Conventional casting
Investment casting
Vacuum casting
Note: Titanium castings are
normally near net shape products
with minimised metal waste, which
can occur during mechanical
processing and machining.
Casting processes
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Rammed graphite is used as the mould rather than sand

due to its minimal tendency to react with molten titanium.
Produce intricate shapes with good surface finish condition.
Rammed graphite casting made from CP Ti grade 2

Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Conventional casting
.c
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This process begins with

1) Duplicating a wax part from engineering drawing of the specific part.
2) Dipping in ceramic slurry until a shell is formed.
3) The wax is then melted out and the fired shell is filled with molten
metal to form a part near to the net shape of the drawing.
Most widely used for titanium castings
Cost effective
Precise dimensional control
http://www.pmmcastings.com/
Used for structural applications

requiring metallurgical integrity and
sports applications such as golf
heads.
www.aerospace-technology.com
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Investment casting
.c
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to
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O
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.c
h a n g e Vi
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N
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to
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Vacuum is applied for die

casting to reduce gas
entrapment during metal
injection and to decrease
porosity in the casting.
Reduce porosity in the castings

Provide high quality parts
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Vacuum die casting
.c
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N
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to
Material strength, creep resistance and fatigue properties

are the main properties usually required for applications of
titanium alloys.
Titanium alloys provide superior
specific yield strength (high strength
to weight ratio) than other alloys.
Specific proof stress of various

materials
Approaches to modify the properties of

titanium alloys
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Properties of titanium alloys
.c
lic
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to
Tensile strength of different Ti alloys

at a range of temperatures
Commercially pure Ti
Temperature, oF
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
.d o
Ti-6Al-4V(STA)
Strength and toughness of titanium alloys
.c
lic
k
c u -tr a c k
Tensile strength, ksi
.d o
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to
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O
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Properties of various Ti alloys

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Strength and toughness of titanium alloys
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Bimodal microstructure is more

resistant to fracture due to equaixed
phase giving higher strength.
Equiaxed phase is also more
resistant to nucleation of voids higher
ductility.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Microstructure and tensile properties of

titanium alloys
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Crack paths in the centre of fracture toughness Ti-6Al-4V specimens

(a) coarse lamellar and (b) fine lamellar
More torturous path in coarse lamellar microstructure leads to

higher energy dissipation during fracture higher toughness.
Tapany Udomphol
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Microstructure and fracture toughness

properties of titanium alloys
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Smaller equiaxed grains are more

beneficial to fatigue strength.
Crack nucleates within the lamellar
region more easily than in the equiaxed
phase region.
But crack propagation is more difficult in
the lamellar structure.
Crack initiation at lamellar

region in bi-modal
microstructure
Crack propagation paths in (a) lamellar and (b)

bi-modal structures
Tapany Udomphol
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Fatigue properties of titanium alloys
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annealed
Properties of annealed Ti-6Al-4V (forging)

Moderate tensile strength.
annealed has superior fatigue along platelets of .
+ annealed is more fatigue resistance due to
slower crack propagation rate to fatigue crack initiation.
better low cycle fatigue (high stress).
annealed
Duplex structure of 30% equiaxed and platelets

provides high temperature applications.
FCG curves for and +
annealed conditions
+
annealed
LCF of Ti-6Al-4V in
+ annealed and
annealed
Crack
propagation
path in
annealed Ti-6-4
annealed
Tapany Udomphol
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Fatigue properties of titanium alloys
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When fresh titanium is

exposed to environment
containing oxygen, it
will develop oxide films
which are
1)
2)
3)
4)
Stable
Tenacious
Inert
Self-healing or re-form
www.alba.no/ whytitanium/
Good corrosive resistance to salt water and marine, acids,

alkalis, natural waters and chemicals.
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Corrosion of titanium alloys
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and + titanium alloys are readily weldable.

titanium alloys are not readily weldable due to high amounts
of alloying element macro/micro segregation.
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding
Friction welding
www.sms-vt.com
Tapany Udomphol
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Welding of titanium alloys
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Arc is produced between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the

metals in the presence of shielding gas
(He, Ar).
Most widely used technique for titanium
welding.
Tungsten inert gas welding.
Require no vacuum
Lower operating cost
Provide relatively coarser weld structure
than those obtained from EBW and LBW.
High heat input relatively high distortion.
Note: Also called Tungsten Inert Gas welding

or TIG welding.
Tapany Udomphol
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Tungsten inert gas welding
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Electron beam is used as a heat source.

Vacuum and non-vacuum process clean.
Relatively high operating cost and equipment.
Multiple or single -pass arc welding
Low heat input minimum distortion
Electron
beam
Weld pool
Electron beam welding

Weld bead
ing
Weld n
tio
direc
Molten
metal
Cross section of weld
Mobile electron beam welding unit

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Electron beam welding
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Laser is used as a heat source.

www.twi.co.uk
Correct choice of shielding gas

Adequate shielding methods
Pre-cleaning (de-greasing)
Good joint surface quality
Advantages of laser beam welding
High productivity (nearly 10 times faster than TIG).
Low heat input and therefore low distortion.
Ease of automation for repeatability.
No need for filler wire, thus reducing costs.
www.synrad.com
Laser welding of titanium alloy

Tapany Udomphol
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Laser beam welding
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Friction welding is carried out by moving

one part in a linear reciprocating motion
to effect the heat at the joint.
High cost of welding machines.
Can use to join dissimilar metals.
Very small distortion.
Limited to non-round and non-complex component.
Weld structure obtained

from friction welding
Friction welding process

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Friction welding
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Titanium and titanium alloys are highly reactive to oxygen,

therefore care must be taken for titanium welding. Should be carried
out in vacuum or appropriate shielding gas such as Ar or He.
The main defects occur in titanium welding are;
Weld metal porosity

- Most frequent defects caused by gas bubbles
trapped between dendrites during solidification.
Macroscopic pore
Embrittlement
- Due to oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen contamination
at T> 500oC. need effective shielding.
Contamination cracking
- Due to iron contamination reducing corrosion
resistance, separate from steel fabrication.
Tapany Udomphol
200 m
Macroscopic pore observed in TIG

welding of beta titanium alloy
May-Aug 2007
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Defects in titanium welding
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Aeroengines
Automotive and road transport
Dental alloys
Electrochemical anodes
Geothermal plant
Marine
Military hardware
Offshore production tubulars
Airframes
Condensers
Desalination plant
Flue gas desulpherisation
Nuclear and environmental safety

Petrochemical refineries
Architectural
Cryogenic logging tools
Food, brewing and pharmaceutical
Jewellery manufacture
Metal extraction equipment
Offshore piping systems
Pulp and paper
Heat exchangers
Medical implants
Titanium implants
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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Applications of titanium alloys in summary
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Polmear, I.J., Light alloys: metallurgy of the light metals,

Third edition, 1995, Arnold, London, ISBN 0-340-63207 (pb).
Smith, W.F., Structure and properties of engineering
alloys, second edition, 1993, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-70112829-8.
Ltjering, G., Williams, J.C., Titanium, 2003, Springer,
ISBN 3-540-42990-5.
Leyens, C., Peters, M., Titanium and titanium alloys:
fundamentals and applications, 2003, WILEY-VCH,
Germany, ISBN 3-527-30534-3.
F.H. Froes, S.J. Mashl, V.S. Moxson, J.C. Hebeisen, and
V.A. Duz , The Technologies of Titanium Powder
Metallurgy, JOM, November, 2004, p. 46-48.
www.jhu.edu.
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
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References
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Titanium Alloys

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Titanium and its alloys

Suranaree University of Technology

Suranaree University of Technology

Titanium is named after the Titans, the

Found only in small amount in Thailand.

Have similar strength as

Suranaree University of Technology

Introduction- Titanium and its alloys

Physical properties of titanium

Experiences allotropic transformation ( ) at 882.5oC.

Advantages of titanium alloys

Density of selected metals

Three times as Al and

Specific strength vs temperature

National science centre, Scotland

Shape memory alloy

Suranaree University of Technology

Titanium cladded Guggenheim Bilbao museum,

Applications of titanium alloys

Shipment of mill products by

Suranaree University of Technology

Applications of titanium alloys

Production of titanium alloys

Suranaree University of Technology

Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR)

Melting of titanium alloys

Sponge and alloying elements are blended together and

Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR)

Melting of titanium alloys

Electrode made from compacted

A molten metal pool is on the top of

Electroslag Refining (ESR)

Suranaree University of Technology

Melting of titanium alloys

Plasma Arc Melting (PAM)

The metal is melted in a watercooled copper vessel (hearth)

- Improved method over VAR

Suranaree University of Technology

The skull (solid Ti) is contacted

Melting of titanium alloys

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Material is fed through the hearth

The floating metal is

Suranaree University of Technology

Note: Used for melting of reactive materials

Melting of titanium alloys

Induction Skull Melting

Induction skull melting

Melting of titanium alloys

Basic types of phase diagrams for titanium alloys

Alloying system of titanium alloys

Commercially pure (CP) titanium alpha

Alpha-beta titanium alloys

Beta titanium alloys

Classification of titanium alloys

Heat treatment is mainly applied to / and titanium alloys

Basic principal of heat treatment

Microstructure contains HCP phase and can be divided into;