Thermodynamic Limitations and Opportunities

MAKING MODERN LIVING POSSIBLE
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Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

for reaching high energy-efficient refrigeration,
heat pump and air conditioning systems
In the refrigeration systems industry, energy
consumption and energy efficiency are the subject
of ongoing debate. In this paper, the theoretical
limitations of the Carnot process, as well as the
more realistic theoretical approach of the vapour
compression refrigeration cycle are examined.
By comparing these theoretical processes to real

refrigeration systems, we can identify ways to improve
the energy efficiency of the vapour compression
cycle. And by evaluating data from existing
refrigeration systems, the energy efficiency of current
state-of-the-art systems can be assessed.
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Refrigeration processes
Often overlooked, the vapour compression refrigeration cycle deserves a reappraisal, and is therefore the focus of this paper. Energy-efficient as well
as economical, the vapour compression process is
widely used in refrigeration, heat pump and airconditioning systems. Other energy conversion
processes, such as sorption, magnetic and the Joule
processes are mainly applied in niche applications.
in heat pumps to provide heat above the ambient

temperature, or in air-conditioning systems to provide cooling at slightly below ambient temperatures. However, as definitions of energy-efficiency
vary slightly from application to application, in the
interests of consistency, this paper will use the
refrigeration system definition.
The basics of the vapour compression cycle remain

unchanged whether used in refrigeration systems
to provide cooling below the ambient temperature,
Evaluating the energy

efficiency of refrigeration
cycles
The Carnot cycle
The Coefficient of Performance (COP) is used to

evaluate the energy efficiency of the vapour compression refrigeration cycle. In a refrigeration system, COP expresses the relation between the refrigeration capacity QK (benefit) and the total power
P (effort) required to achieve refrigeration.
Q
COP = K

P
Although the COP has no upper limit, evaluating
the energy efficiency of a specific refrigeration system does require a theoretical limit.
t
QW
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
tW
Nicholas L. S Carnot expressed this limitation in the

Carnot cycle that he developed in the early 19th
century. According to the Carnot cycle, the heat
amount QK is withdrawn at a constant temperature
TK from the area to be refrigerated. And the heat
amount QW is rejected to the ambient at a constant
temperature TW. To do this, work (P) is required. The
energy balance is expressed by:
P = QW - QK
QW = W + QK
3
W
tK
QK
QK
S
Figure 1: The Carnot refrigeration cycle
The Carnot cycle, which is reversible, is a perfect

model for a refrigeration cycle that operates
between two fixed temperature levels because it
defines the maximum possible COP. The COPCarnot
of the reversible Carnot cycle depends on temperatures only.
The COPCarnot values are quite high for small differences between temperature TW and TK as shown in
Figure 2. But with large temperature differences
and low refrigeration temperatures, the COPCarnot
value drops significantly.
TK
COPCarnot =

T W - TK
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Figure 2: COP of Carnot cycle

As the reversed Carnot cycle assumes ideal processes, it is not applicable to real working systems.
Theoretical refrigeration
cycle
A system designed to model the ideal Carnot cycle

is shown in Figure 3.
QW
TW
3
CONDENSER
EXPANSION VALVE
COMPRESSOR
EVAPORATOR
TK
QK
2
p= C
s=C
h=C
p= C
T= C
h= C
s=C
p= C
T= C
C = CONSTANT
C = CONSTANT
0
p= C
3
4
PRESSURE p
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE T
ENTROPY s
ENTHALPY h
Figure 3: Theoretical single-stage vapour compression refrigeration cycle.

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In order to achieve heat addition and rejection at
constant temperatures, as defined by the Carnot
cycle, the process is placed in the two-phase region
of the refrigerant. Here, the refrigerant can maintain a constant temperature during phase change
by maintaining a constant pressure.
There are two major differences with this model
compared to the reversed Carnot cycle:
Due to high initial costs and increased maintenance requirements, the machine used for
the isentropic expansion of the refrigerant is
replaced by a simpler expansion device that
throttles the refrigerant isenthalpically from
high to low pressure. Because of the use of a
simpler expansion device, such as a thermostatic or electronic expansion valve, a capillary
tube to throttle the refrigerant, energy is
wasted that could be recovered by a more
complicated expansion machine. Current
expansion machines are economical in large
capacity refrigeration systems only.
For increased reliability, the compression process should take place outside the two-phase
region. Therefore, the temperature at point 2
in Figure 3 is normally higher than TW. Part of
the condenser has to be used for de-superheating and the heat rejection process at point 2
and 3 does not occur at a constant temperature
anymore.
Due to these two changes, the theoretical cycle is
no longer reversible.
As the corner points of the theoretical cycle depend
on the refrigerant properties, the COPt differs from
refrigerant to refrigerant.
The Carnot factor of the theoretical cycle is a measure of how close the cycle is, compared to the ideal
reversible Carnot process.
COPt

t =
=

COPCarnot

COPt
T0
TC - T0
Figure 4 illustrates the Carnot factor of the theoretical cycle for different refrigerants.
Figure 4: Carnot efficiency of the theoretical cycle with different refrigerants
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The theoretical single-stage cycle represents the
optimum that can be achieved in real systems similar to those shown in Figure 3. It does not indicate
how efficient a real system with a particular refrigerant will be, or which refrigerant should be applied
to achieve the highest efficiency.
Real refrigeration cycle
Real operating systems differ from the theoretical

cycle discussed in the previous section in many
ways (Figure 5). Any deviation from the theoretical
process causes irreversibilities within the system,
and each irreversibility lowers the COP of the system by requiring additional power input.
For energetic optimisation of the whole system, it

is useful to understand how these irreversibilities
are distributed throughout the system and which
components should be replaced or redesigned to
improve performance.
c, d
4
PRESSURE p
tW = CONSTANT
tK = CONSTANT
y
1
2
a
ENTHALPY h
Figure 5: Pressure-enthalpy of actual system and theoretical system operating between temperatures
TK and TW (Principle make new)
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Compared to the Carnot refrigeration cycle, the
real refrigeration cycle has the following losses:
a. Compression
In most cases, the component with the largest
loss is the compressor. This loss is due to motor
inefficiency, friction losses and irreversibilities
caused by pressure drops, mixing, and heat
transfer between the compressor and the surroundings.
The efficiency of the real compression process
compared to the ideal process is rated by the
isentropic compression efficiency is. Typical
values for smaller hermetic compressors are 0.5,
for larger semi-hermetic types 0.6, and for
higher capacity screw or centrifugal compressors, 0.7. The maximum values can be higher
than stated here, because compressors do not
always operate under optimal conditions.
Efforts to increase isentropic efficiency focus
on improving the efficiency of the electrical
motor. This is done not only for efficiency at the
nominal rating point, but for efficiency over the
entire operating range of the motor. Further
improvements can be realised by, for example,
minimising the pressure loss through the suction and discharge valve, or reducing mechanical losses in the compressors drive mechanism.
larger or more efficient heat exchanger, providing this is efficient in terms of both cost and
energy.
But even with an optimal evaporator, a certain
temperature difference is required as some
degree of refrigerant superheating at the evaporator outlet is required. In several applications,
such as residential air-conditioning units or heat
pumps, superheating limits the evaporation
temperature. The superheat should therefore
be as small and stable as possible.
c. Pressure losses
When a fluid runs through a pipe it loses pressure, which has to be compensated for by a
compressor. Larger pipes would reduce the
pressure loss, but might reduce the oil return
inside the system. Again, the ideal level must
take into account energy and economic factors,
and also oil return issues.
Besides minimising the above losses, the type of
refrigerant can have a significant impact on the
COP of the system.
Although this article only examines the influence
of the thermodynamic cycle on refrigeration
systems, other components also affect the total
energy consumption, such as fans, pumps and
defrost heaters.
b. Heat Exchangers
In heat exchangers, a temperature difference is
required to transfer heat into the evaporator
and out of the condenser. This lowers the evaporation temperature T0 below the ideal value
TK, and increases the condensation temperature
TC above the minimal value TW , thereby lowering the COP of the real cycle. The temperature
difference on both sides can be reduced by a
Efficiency values of existing

systems
In an attempt to document the efficiency of existing systems on the market, representative data for
four applications (Table 1) has been gathered.
Please note that there are more and, of course, less
efficient systems available. The COP values are compared to the COP of the ideal Carnot cycle, as well
as the COP of the theoretical cycle. In all cases, the
data is valid for operation at a nominal operating

point, while in reality other operating conditions
may apply.
Table 1: The COP and Carnot factor of the ideal
Carnot cycle, the theoretical cycle and available
refrigeration systems in different applications
Application
Refrigerant
tK
tW
theor
COPreal
real
Air-water heat
pump (1)
R290
2.0
35.0
9.34
7.61
0.81
3.2
0.34
Residential air
Conditioning
R410A
26.7
35.0
35.98
31.58
0.88
3.01
0.08
Cold room
refrigeration
R134a
5.0
32.0
10.30
8.91
0.87
1.85
0.18
Cold room
freezer
R404A
-18.0
32.0
5.10
3.58
0.70
1.12
0.22
COPCarnot COPtheor
For the heat pump, the COP definitions for heating systems are applied:
(1)(1)For
the heat pump, the COP definitions for heating systems are applied:
COP = QC/P and COPCarnot

T = tW / tTWK - tK = tK / tW - tK +1
COP = QC / P and COPCarnot = W /
= /
+1
T W - TK
T W - TK
6
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Seasonal efficiencies

The data in Table 1 shows that the COP of the theoretical cycle is still quite close to the ideal COP of
the Carnot cycle. However, the COP drops rapidly
with increasing temperature differences between
the cold and the warm side due to the losses discussed earlier. For some applications, the Carnot
factor of the real systems real is significantly below
the limit of the theoretical cycle theor. The high Carnot factor of the heat pump real shows that this
application has been improved significantly in
order to achieve a higher heating efficiency. For a
fair evaluation it should be noted that the values
of the real systems include the energy consumption of auxiliaries, in particular fans. Also, in reality,
lower supply temperatures than those given in the
table are required.
An interesting, simple evaluation proposed in

VDMA Einheitsblatt 24247 [1] can be used to compare different systems. Using four efficiency factors, it can support the designer in the evaluation
of the total efficiency of the system and the selection of components.
The above considerations regarding the efficiency

of a refrigeration system are based on the process,
the components and the refrigerant, assuming stationary operation under fixed conditions. At
present, in most cases refrigeration systems are
selected and compared at rated conditions. These
design conditions meet peak demand, while in reality most systems operate at lower loads. Although
its inefficient, the conventional way to deal with
varying refrigeration loads is on-off operation. Variable capacity systems, using continuous or step
control, can more closely match varying loads and
improve system efficiency.
To compare system efficiency, standards have been

developed that represent operating conditions for
various climatic regions over a year. One example,
the AHRI 210/240 [2] standard, defines a Seasonal
Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) and a Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) for unitary airconditioning and heat pump equipment. Both SEER
and HSPF are based on the efficiencies and capacities measured in up to five test conditions, each
using a typical load profile.
Fluctuating operating conditions over a period of

time, for example a whole year, can be assessed
more accurately by comparing equipment at representative reduced capacities, and by determining
a seasonal efficiency. For a refrigeration system,
this may lead to a design in which the highest efficiency has to be achieved in a certain range of part
load conditions, while efficiency at full load due
to low operational time is less important.
Another example is SEER for cooling, and the Seasonal Coefficient of Performance (SCOP) for heating
defined in prEN14825 [3] for air-conditioners, liquid
chillers and heat pumps. Both calculations are
based on four efficiencies in different operating
conditions. These efficiencies are weighted by four
factors that represent an average European climate
profile and an average building load.
Due to a large number of external influences, evaluating the seasonal efficiency of installed refrigeration, heat pump or air conditioning systems can
be a very complex process. For residential heat
pumps for example, the evaporating conditions
and the desired heating capacity depend on the
ambient temperature, which in turn affects the
condensation temperature. And depending on the
geographical location and season, the heat pump
will operate at higher, medium or lower ambient
temperatures at different periods of time.
Literature
[1] VDMA Einheitsblatt 24247-2: Energieeffizienz von Klteanlagen. Teil 2: Anforderungen an das Anla
genkonzept und die Komponenten (Entwurf). Verband Deutscher Maschinen- und Anlagenbau,
Frankfurt, Juli (2010)
[2] AHRI Standard 210/240: 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning & Air

Source Heat Pump Equipment. Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington,
USA (2008)
[3] prEN 14825:2010: Air conditioners, liquid chilling packages and heat pumps, with electrically
driven compressors, for space heating and cooling - Testing and rating at part load conditions (2010)
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MAKING MODERN LIVING POSSIBLE

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

By comparing these theoretical processes to real

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

in heat pumps to provide heat above the ambient

The basics of the vapour compression cycle remain

Evaluating the energy

The Coefficient of Performance (COP) is used to

Nicholas L. S Carnot expressed this limitation in the

Figure 1: The Carnot refrigeration cycle

The Carnot cycle, which is reversible, is a perfect

Produced by Danfoss A/S (RA-Marketing) , Oct 2010

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

Figure 2: COP of Carnot cycle

A system designed to model the ideal Carnot cycle

Figure 3: Theoretical single-stage vapour compression refrigeration cycle.

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

Figure 4: Carnot efficiency of the theoretical cycle with different refrigerants

Produced by Danfoss A/S (RA-Marketing) , Oct 2010

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

Real refrigeration cycle

Real operating systems differ from the theoretical

For energetic optimisation of the whole system, it

Produced by Danfoss A/S (RA-Marketing) , Oct 2010

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

Efficiency values of existing

data is valid for operation at a nominal operating

COP = QC/P and COPCarnot

Produced by Danfoss A/S (RA-Marketing) , Oct 2010

Thermodynamic limitations and opportunities

An interesting, simple evaluation proposed in

The above considerations regarding the efficiency

To compare system efficiency, standards have been

Fluctuating operating conditions over a period of

The Danfoss product range for the

We focus on our core business of making

a worldwide manufacturer with a leading

position in industrial, commercial and

systems that enhance performance and

supermarket refrigeration as well as air

reduce total life cycle costs the key to

conditioning and climate solutions.

Electronic Controls &

Produced by Danfoss A/S (RA-Marketing) , Oct 2010

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