Navigation Systems Level 3

Automatic Direction Finder

A. DESCRIPTION
One of the older types of radio navigation is the automatic direction finder (ADF) ornon-directional
beacon (NDB). The ADF receiver, a 'backup" system for the VHF equipment, can be used when line-ofsight transmission becomes unreliable or when there is no VOR equipment on the ground or in the aircraft. It
is used as a means of identifying positions, receiving low and medium frequency voice communications,
horning, tracking, and for navigation on instrument approach procedures.
The low/medium frequency navigation stations used by ADF include non-directional beacons, ILS radio
beacon locators, and commercial broadcast stations. Because commercial broadcast stations normally are
not used in navigation, this section will deal only with the non-directional beacon and ILS radio beacon.
A non-directional radio beacon (NDB) is classed according to its power output and usage:
1. the L radio beacon has a power of less than 50 watts (W),
2. the M classification of radio, beacon has a power of 50 watts up to 2,000 W;
3. the H radio beacon has a power output of 2,000 W or more;
4. the ILS radio beacon is a beacon which is placed at the same position as the outer marker of an ILS
system (or replaces the OM).
B. LIMITATIONS AND BENEFITS
Pilots using ADF should be aware of the following limitations:
Radio waves reflected by the ionosphere return to the earth 30 to 60 miles from the station and may cause
the ADF pointer to fluctuate. The twilight effect is most pronounced during the period just before and after
sunrise/sunset. Generally, the greater the distance from the station the greater the effect. The effect can be
minimized by averaging the fluctuation, by flying at a higher altitude, or by selecting a station with a lower
frequency (NDB transmissions on frequencies lower than 350 kHz have very little twilight effect).
Mountains or cliffs can reflect radio waves, producing a terrain effect. Furthermore, some of these slopes
may have magnetic deposits that cause indefinite indications. Pilots flying near mountains should use only
strong stations that give definite directional indications, and should not use stations obstructed by mountains.
Shorelines can refract or bend low frequency radio waves as they pass from land to water. Pilots flying over
water should not use an NDB signal that crosses over the shoreline to the aircraft at an angle less than 30.
The shoreline has little or no effect on radio waves reaching the aircraft at angles greater than 30.
When an electrical storm is nearby, the ADF needle points to the source of lightning rather than to the
selected station because the lighting sends out radio waves. The pilot should note the flashes and not use the
indications caused by them.
The ADF is subject to errors when the aircraft is banked. Bank error is present in all turns because the loop

antenna which rotates to sense the direction of the incoming signal is mounted so that its axis is parallel to the
normal axis of the aircraft. Bank error is a significant factor during NDB approaches.
While the ADF has drawbacks in special situations, the system does have some general advantages. Two of
these benefits are the low cost of installation of N DBs and their relatively low degree of maintenance.
Because of this, NDBs provide homing and navigational facilities in terminal areas and en route navigation on
low-level airways and air routes without VOR coverage. Through the installation of NDBs many smaller
airports are able to provide an instrument approach that otherwise would not be economically feasible.
The NDBs transmit in the frequency band of 200 to 415 kHz. The signal is nottransmitted in a line of sight as
VHF or Ui-IF, but rather follows the curvature of the earth; this permits reception at low altitudes over great
distances.
The ADF is used for primary navigation over long distances in remote areas of Canada.
C. ADF COMPONENTS
The NDB Control Panels figure, on the right, shows the major
ADF components except the receiving antenna, which on most
light aircraft is a length of wire running from an insulator on the
cabin to the vertical stabilizer.
1. RECEIVER: Controls on the ADF receiver permit the pilot to
tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation.
When tuning the receiver the pilot must positively identify the
station. The low or medium frequency radio beacons transmit a
signal with 1,020 Hertz (cycles per second [1Iz]) modification
keyed to provide continuous identification except during voice
communications. All air facilities radio beacons transmit a
continuous two- or three-unit identification in Morse code, except for ILS front course radio beacons which
normally transmit a continuous one letter identifier in Morse code. The signal is received, amplified, and
converted to audible voice or Morse code transmission. The signal also powers the bearing indicator.
Tuning the ADF- To tune the ADF receiver, the pilot should follow these steps:
a. turn the function knob to the RECEIVE mode. This turns the set on and selects the mode that provides
the best reception. Use the RECEIVE mode for tuning the ADF and for continuous listening when the
ADF fUnction is not required;
b. select the desired frequency band and adjust the volume until background noise is heard;
c. with the tuning controls, tune the desired frequency and then re-adjust voluirie for best listening level
and identify the station;
d. to operate the radio as an automatic direction finder, switch the function knob to ADF; and
e. the pointer on the bearing indicator shows the bearing to the station in relation to the nose of the
aircraft. A loop switch aids in checking the indicator for proper operation. Close the switch. The
pointer should move away from the bearing of the selected station. Then release the switch; the pointer
should return promptly to the bearing of the selected station. A sluggish return or no return indicates
malfunctioning of the equipment or a signal too weak to use.
2. CONTROL BOX - DIGITAL READOUT TYPE: Most modern aircraft have this type of control in the
cockpit. In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as a digital readout of numbers rather than tuning

a frequency band.
a) Function Selector (Mode Control). Allows selection of OFF, ADF, ANT or TEST Position.
ADF - Automatically determines bearing to selected station and displays it on the RMI. Uses sense
and loop antennae.
ANT - Reception of Radio signals using the sense antenna. Recommended for tuning.
TEST - Performs ADF system self test. RMI needle moves to 3150.
b) Frequency Selector Switches. Three concentric knobs, permit selection of operating frequency. Two
frequencies can be preselected. Only one can be used at a time. The transfer switch indicates the frequency in
use.
c) Selected Frequency Indicators. Provides a visual read-out of the frequencies selected. The numbers can
be printed on drums that rotate vertically or, in more modern sets, they arc displayed by light emitting diodes.
3. ANTENNAE: The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense antennae. The loop antenna in common
use today is a small flat antenna without moving parts. Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various
angles. The loop antenna senses the direction of the station by the strength of the signal on each coil but
cannot determine whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station. The sense antenna provides this latter
information, and also voice reception when the ADF function is not required.
4. BEARING INDICATOR: As mentioned above, the bearing
indicator (see Fixed Card Bearing Indicatorfigure, on the right)
displays the bearing to the station relative to the nose of the
aircraft. If the pilot is flying directly to the station, the bearing
indicator points to 0. An ADF with a fixed card bearing indicator
always represents the nose of the aircraft as 00 and the tail as
1800.

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Relative
bearing (see NDB
Bearingsfigure, on the
left) is the angle formed
by the intersection of a line drawn through the centerline of the
aircraft and a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station. This
angle is always measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
and is indicated directly by the pointer on the bearing indicator.

Magnetic hearing (see NIJB Bearingsfigure, on the let[) is the

angle formed by the intersection of a line drawn from the aircraft to
the radio station and a line drawn from the aircraft to magnetic
north The pilot calculates the magnetic bearing by adding the
relative bearing shown on the indicator to the magnetic heading of the aircraft. For example, if the magnetic
heading of the aircraft is 40 and the relative bearing 2 100, the magnetic bearing to the station is 2500.
Reciprocal bearing is the opposite of the magnetic bearing, obtained by adding or subtracting 180' from the
magnetic bearing. The pilot calculates it when tracking outbound and when plotting fixes.
D. ADF OPERATIONS

1. MONITORING: Since the ADF receiver normally has no system failure or "OFF warning flags to provide
the pilot with immediate indication of a beacon failure or receiver failure, the ADF audio must be
monitored. The "idents" should he monitored anytime the ADF is used as a sole means of en route
navigation. During the critical phases of approach, missed approach and holding, at least one pilot or
flight crew member shall aurally monitor the beacon "idents" unless the aircraft instruments
automatically advise the pilots of ADF or receiver, failure.
2. HOMING: One of the most common ADF uses is "homing to a station ". When using this procedure,
the pilot flies to a station by keeping the bearing indicator needle on 00 when using a fixed-card ADF
(See Homing to an NDBfigure, below right). The pilot should follow these steps:
a. tune the desired frequency and identify the station. Set the
function selector knob to ADF and note the relative bearing;
b. turn the aircraft toward the relative bearing until the bearing
indicator pointer is 00; and
c. continue flight to the station by maintaining a relative bearing
of 0.
The figure Homing to an NDB, on the right, shows that if the pilot
must change the magnetic heading to bold the aircraft on 0 the
aircraft is drilling due to a crosswind. If the pilot does not make
crosswind corrections, the aircraft flies a curved path to the station
while the bearing indicator pointer remains at zero. The aircraft
in position 2 must keep changing its heading to maintain the 0 relative bearing while flying to the station.
The bracketing method used here is basically the same as that explained elsewhere. The major difference is
that bracketing a VOR requires the pilot to bracket a radial identified by the TB needle, whereas bracketing
an ADF magnetic bearing requires the pilot to identify it by using both the bearing indicator and the heading
indicator.

Assume the pilot of the aircraft in

position 1 (seeBracketing an
NDB Magnetic Bearing figure,
on the right) desires to intercept
the 090 magnetic bearing to the
non-directional beacon. The pilot
then sets up an intercept angle of
30 which is shown by the 1200
heading of the aircraft. The ADF
pointer indicates 340. Because
the magnetic bearing equals the
magnetic heading of the aircraft
and the relative bearing, the pilot
adds 120' (the relative bearing)
and finds that the aircraft is on the
100' magnetic bearing.
NOTE:
l4henever the aircraft heading
and relative bearing equal
more than 360 the pilot
should subtract 360froni the
resulting figure. The pilot then.
Jblloiiv the rest of the
bracketing procedure.
3. TRACKING FROM A
STATION: A pilot can use ADF
to track from a station by
employing the principles of
---...----.-bracketing a magnetic bearing. The Tracking from an NDB figure, below left, illustrates an aircraft tracking
outbound from a station with a crosswind from the north. The reciprocal bearing is 090, and the pilot tracks
this bearing by flying the aircraft with 100 of wind correction. The pilot knows that the aircraft is tracking a
reciprocal bearing because the heading indicator (080) and relative bearing (190) equal the magnetic
bearing (270).
4. POSITION FIX BY ADF: The ADF receiver can help the pilot
to make a definite position fix by using two or more stations and the
process of triangulation. To determine the exact location of the
aircraft, the pilot should use these procedures:
locate two stations in the vicinity of the aircraft. Tune and identify
each;
set the function selector knob to ADF, then note the magnetic
heading of the aircraft as read on the heading of the aircraft as read
on the heading indicator. Continue to fly this heading and tune in the
stations previously identified, recording the relative bearing for each
station;
c. add the relative bearing of each station to the magnetic heading to obtain the magnetic bearing. Correct

the magnetic bearing for east-west variation to obtain the true bearing; and
F!! plot the reciprocal for each true bearing on the chart. The aircraft is located at the intersection of the
bearing lines (see Position Fix by NDB figure, on the right).
5. TIME COMPUTATION TO FLY TO A STATION:
Computing time to the station is basically the same for ADF as it is
for VOR (refer to Article 2.2.3. F (2)) therefore, a brief example is
sufficient here. The basic procedure is to:
a. turn the aircraft until the ADF pointer is either at 090s or
270s and note the time; and
b. fly a constant magnetic heading until the ADF pointer
indicates a bearing change of 100. Note the time again and
apply the following forniula:
(TIME IN SECONDS BETWEEN BEARING
CHANGE)/(DEGREES OF BEARING CHANGE) equals TIME TO STATION IN MINUTES.
For example, Wit takes 45 seconds to fly a bearing change of 10, the aircraft is:
45 / 10 = 4.5 min from the station.
To find distance to a station multiply time by distance covered in one minute using TAS or preferably G/S.
As with VOR procedures, a 100 bearing change is the simplest and easiest to use in making this calculation. If
the pointer moves so rapidly that a satisfactory time check cannot be obtained dining a 10 bearing change,
this rapid movement indicates that the aircraft is very close to the station.