The Keepers of Light
The Keepers of Light
The Keepers of Light
of Light
The Keepers
of Light
A History
& Working
Guide
To Early
Photographic
Processes
William Crawford
Dedication
For Francine and Charlie
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Part I
Photographic Syntax
17
Artistic Preferences
31
41
51
63
Nonsilver Processes
67
Naturalistic Photography
79
Pictorialism
85
97
Three Printmakers
1 05
Final Words
111
Part II
Technical Introduction
1 15
Materials and Techniques
117
Chemicals
1 29
Papers
135
1 45
Silver Processes
Salted Paper
151
Ambrotype
1 59
Ferric Processes
Cyanotype
1 63
1 67
Kalli type
1 77
Dichromate Processes
1 83
Gum Printing
1 99
213
Color Technique
Three-Color Printing
227
Photomechanical Techniques
235
Photogravure
243
Collotype
269
28 1
Woodburytype
285
Part I I I
Conservation and Restoration
293
Footnotes
303
Recommended Reading
307
Sources of Supply
31 1
Index
315
32 1
Introduction
Part I
Photographic Syntax
THE KEEPERS
OF LIGHT
(Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Centennial Gift of Landon Clay)
FIG. 2 .
ALBRECHT D U RER, The Flight into Egypt (detail), early 1 6th century .
The same syntactical system as Fig. 1 , but this time in a woodcut, a process that does not permit
lines nearly as fine as those in a metal-plate engraving.
(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston , Maria Antoinette Evans Fund)
T H E KEEPERS OF LIGHT
FIG . 3 . SCHOOL OF MANTEGNA, Four Women Dancing (detail), early 1 6th century .
Here the syntax consists almost entirely of straight Lines, applied after the outlines of the figures were
drawn. The effect is one of bas relief. The syntax describes volume but not surface texture.
what
photographers
can
communicate
FIG . 4
FIG. 5
10
FIG. 6
FIG. 7
11
FIG. 9
12
FIG. 1 0
FIG . 1 1
13
14
PHOTOGRAPHIC SYNTAX
15
16
Photogenic Drawing
FIG. 1 2
Portrait of Talbot taken 1 864 by John Moffat.
(Science Museum , London)
FIG. 1 3
Wood engraving from volume three of Louis
Figuier 's Les Merveilles de la Science , 1 86 7.
18
FIG. 1 4
FIG. 1 5
19
20
FIG. 1 6
21
22
The Calotype
23
conservators).
Many salted -paper prints have faded , generally
to tones of green -brown or yellow-brown , for the
most part because of having been fixed with an ex
hausted fixer or not sufficiently washed . During
the 1 840's, on Herschel's advice , washing was
generally considered complete when the drip
pings from the print no longer tasted sweet. This
turned out to be a regrettably invalid test. Some
earlier prints fixed with salt instead of with
thiosulfate have been observed to have faded to
pink and mauve colors , and some fixed with
potassiu m bromide to have taken on a yellow col
or i n the highlights . 2 2 Talbot noted that images fix
ed with potassium iodide would slowly begin to
fade on subsequent exposure to light until
"obliterated . . . to the appearance of a pale
yellow sheet of paper. "23 Developed -out calotype
negatives , and positives printed on calotype
paper and developed , usually have a slate-gray
color in the dense areas , while the light areas may
have turned gray-green or yellow-brown .
Although largely supplanted by albumen
papers during the 1 850's, salted-paper prints
were made at least through the early 1 860's ,
often from collodion negatives (albumen and col
lodion are described farther o n ) . The Pictorialists
revived the process in 1 890's.
The Daguerreotype
Talbot's technique was the fi rst successful
negative/positive method of photography, but for
more than a decade this approach to image
making took a back seat to the far more popular
direct -positive daguerreotype introduced by
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre . Daguerre had
already become famous in Paris and London back
in the early 1 820's as the creator , along with his
partner, Charles Bouton , of the Diorama, a kind of
highly illusional picture theater. The partners pro
duced Diorama pictures by a technique of paint
ing on both sides of a large transparent screen in
such a way that the appearance of the painted im
age could change in front of the viewer's eyes ,
depending on whether the screen was illuminated
24
FIG. 20
25
FIG. 22
FIG. 2 1
FIG . 23
A daguerreotype camera.
26
FIG. 24
FIG. 26
FIG . 2 5
T H E FI RST P ROCESSES
27
FIG. 2 7
28
FIG. 2 8
T H E FI RST PROCESSES
29
30
Artistic Preferences
32
result . " Yet the idea behind his use of the word is
similar to effet in the sense that success
depended , not on elaborate detail , but on the
ability to produce a unified , total composition . In
Neoclassical terms , it meant the ability to fix the
attention on the universal and the ideal. Undue
emphasis on "finish" was discouraged . In 1 7 8 2 ,
i n "Discourse Eleven , " Reynolds wrote :
Excellence in every part , and in every province of
our art , from the highest style of history [history
painting] down to the resemblances of still-life , will
depend on this power of extending the attention at
once to the whole , without which the g reatest
diligence is vain . . .
We may extend these observations even to what
seems to have but a single , and that an individual ,
object . The excellences of portrait-painting , and we
FIG . 29
ARTISTIC PREFERENCES
FIG. 3 0
33
Both these paintings are idealized representations, but there the resemblance ends. They are op
posites in terms of technical handling and illustrate opposite ideas of how a painting should look,
regardless of subject. Working in the "grand manner, " Reynolds stressed general composition and
the relationship of light and dark. The details are not "minutely discriminated " and not allowed to
distract the eye from the picture as a whole. Ingres cared far more for draftsmanship than Reynolds
ever did. His details are "finished " and demand attention. Ingres was not afraid to sacrifice strength of
effect to halftone and detail. His painting is harder to look at because there is more to look at.
Artists and critics responded to the daguerreotype, and to later processes, according to where they
stood on the prephotographic issue of effect versus halftone and detail. The issue was not restricted
to painting; it was picked up and echoed by photographers themselves. Until as late as the 1 93 0 's the
recurrent aesthetic debate among photographers was in large part a continuation of the much older
debate among painters: What should the artist-photographer emphasize: general relationships or
specific details?
34
ARTISTIC PREFERENCES
35
T H E KEEPERS OF LIGHT
36
FIG. 3 1
FIG. 3 2
Jones,
ARTISTIC PREFERENCES
FIG. 3 3
37
T H E KEEPERS O F LIGHT
38
ARTISTIC PREFERENCES
FIG. 3 4
'
CHARLES NEGRE, The Little Rag Picker, calo type or variant process/salted-paper print. The
negative was made sometime before May 1 85 1 .
(Courtesy , Andre Jammes, Paris)
39
40
FIG. 3 5
'
FIG . 3 6
Merveilles de la Science .
42
FIG. 37
Merveilles de la Science).
43
FIG. 3 9
FIG. 38
44
FIG. 4 1
American tintype
FIG. 40
An American ambrotype
FIG. 42
Sensitizing albumen paper by floating it on a
solution of silver nitrate.
45
FIG. 4 3
FIG. 44
46
THE KEEPERS
FIG. 45
OF LIGHT
The upper left and upper right pairs were each taken simultaneously and can be viewed stereo
scopically.
(International Musuem o f Photography/George Eastman House)
FIG. 46
47
48
FIG. 47
1 850's.
49
Syntactical Corrections :
Combination Printing
A tremendous advance in the capabilities of the
photographic syntax occurred during the 1 850's.
Nevertheless , the "gaps" or "blind spots" in the
syntax remained considerable . Writing in the Lon
don Quarterly Review in 1 85 7, Lady Elizabeth
Eastlake presented a list of some of the things
photography still could not do. 54
To begin with , photography could not give an
accurate monochromatic rendering of color . The
sensitive materials were more receptive to the
blue-and -violet end of the spectrum than to the
yellow-and-red end. "Thus it is , " she wrote , "that
the relation of one colour to another is found
changed and often reversed , the deepest blue be
ing altered from a dark mass into a light one, and
the most golden yellow from a light body into a
dark. "
Photography was also unable to record fully
both the shadows and the highlights of a contrasty
subject, and the way it reproduced tonal relation
ships was often far from what people thought they
had seen . Photography could not record both the
landscape and the sky in the same exposure: An
exposure sufficient for the former meant overex
posure for the latter.
Lady Eastla ke apparently did not have unlim
ited faith in technological progress , and she con
cluded that nothing could remedy the technical
defects she listed. She also concluded that the
more science was able to improve photography's
tractable defects , the more obvious the intrac
table ones would become.
The technical problems Lady Eastlake-and
many others-complained about were problems
of (in our terminology) camera syntax. The con
sensus was that, because o f the m , the photo
graphic image could not represent nature in a way
52
D E S C R I PT I O N O F COLO R PLAT E S
figure , top row from the left . Individual figures and groups
were photographed in the studio, following a sketch made
beforehand . The separate prints were then pasted together
and rephotographed. The coloring was done over a print
made from the resulting master negative .
1 4- 3 4 . THE PHOTOCLUB DE PARIS. These plates are
from the splendid photogravure albums published by the Club
to commemorate its annual salons. The dates refer to the year
of exhibition. Courtesy , Ars Libri, Boston . (See page 25 1 .)
Both these prints are quite dark , with details that emerge
from the shadows only after patient looking . The platinum
printing , done first , supplied the initial density and detail. The
gum printing and tinting gave color and additional depth .
While making these prints Steichen could not have been cer
tain of the result : He had to play with the printing technique
and accept its suggestions. The prints evolved in layers and
stages.
39.
JOSEPH KEI LEY. Indian Head, 1 898. Platinum print
developed with glyceri n . The Alfred Stieglitz CollectionfThe
Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . ( 3 3 . 43 . 1 87)
Keiley was the Photo-Secession's chief proponent of the
glycerin method. He first covered the exposed print with a
layer of glycerin, then brought out the image using brushes
dipped in different developers-each produced a different
color. (See page 7 7.)
10
1 1
12
13
Coin de rue
Men ton. 1 89 6
A L F R E D ST I E G LITZ
The Cardplayers, 1 894
F . BO ISSONAS
DRESSER
E.H.
de
SAINT-SENOCH
f'lelloyage. 1 894
Le Ponl, I 896
E n Eie. 1 894
S u r la roule, 1 89 7
ACH I L L E D A R N I S
H A N S WATZ I K
Un Tyrolien, 1 894
Michel, I 895
La berge inondee, 1 89 7
Soir d 'aulomne, 1 896
ACHILLE DARNIS
G . J . E N G L E B E RTS
E . J . C . PUYO
H E I N RICH KUHN
Crepuscu/e, I 89 7
Sommeil, I 8 9 6
35
36
1 894.
37
1 90 3 .
38
1 909.
39
1 898.
53
54
FIG. 4 8
55
56
S p i r i t of the Mother
FIG. 49
."l
Q)
Q)
.c
VJ
0
"
fQ)
-5
1 . Old Hag
2 . Bacchante
3 . Murder
4 . Repentance
5 . Idlers
6. Sirens
7 . Gamblers
8 . Complicity
9 . Disobedient Youth
1 0 . Sage
1 1 . Good Youth
1 2 . Religion
1 3 . Knowledge
1 4 . Mercy
1 5 . Mental Application
1 6 . Industry and Handcraft
1 7 . Married Life
The sequence for 1 3 through 1 7 is unclear. After all the figures were printed, the background was
begun. The two pillars and lions were printed first, then the archway, landscape, curtains and fringe.
FIG. 50
FIG. 5 1
(Courtesy , Buck/Lunn)
57
58
FIG. 52
FIG . 5 3
FIGS. 52-56
59
FIG. 5 5
FIG. 5 6
F I G . 54
60
61
FIG . 5 8
Composite Montage
FIG . 5 9
64
At Home,
by the l ight o f a n ordin ary l amp,
by ga sl ight, or by daylight, pri n t
m aking i s e a s y
With VE,LOX
paper.
room
R e qu i re s
and
d ar k
n o
renders
exqui s i tely
NE.PERA C H EM I CAL C O .
FIG. 60
Aristotype, 1 890 's . Gelatin silver chloride, print
ing-out "Aristotypie " paper was first manufac
tured by Paul Eduard Liesegang, of Dilsseldorf,
in 1 886. Others followed suit. After printing,
Aristotypes were usually toned in a solution of
potassium chloroplatinite. Sometimes a gold
chloride toning bath was used instead, and
sometimes both platinum and gold baths were
used. The prints are generally warm black to
blue-black in color, although brown tones were
possible. Aristotypes are often hard to tell apart
from platinum prints. If there is even the slightest
sheen in the highlights, the print is more Likely to
be an Aristotype.
Division
Fo r s a l e b y a ll
d e a l e rs
N c p e ra Par k ,
N . Y.
FIG. 6 1
Advertisement for Velox, 1 900. The Nepera
Chemical Company Later became part of East
man Kodak. Ve/ox prints are usually blue-black,
but the color varies according to the developer.
Sepia tones could be gained by adding potassi
um alum to the fixer or by bleaching the image
and then "redeveloping " it in sodium sulfide.
65
Nonsilver Processes
Cyanotype
FIG. 62
feathers, 1 845.
68
THE KEEPERS
OF LIGHT
Naturalistic Photography:
. . . no one but a vandal would print a landscape in
red , or in cyanotype.
NONSILVER PROCESSES
-
..J
'
FIG . 63
. 68
69
70
FIG . 64
71
FIG . 6 5
72
FIG. 66
73
FIG.
67
FIG.
68
74
FIG . 69
75
76
T H E KEEPERS O F LIGHT
Platinum Printing
FIG. 7 0 Platinum print. A Bertillon Measurement photograph (see Gernshei m , The History of Photogra
phy, p. 5 1 6) made for the New York Police Department in 1 908. The subject is Albert Johnson, alias
Albert Jones. Crime: dishonest employee. ( Rodger Kingston Collect ion)
FOR
WI LLIS
1 624
I LLUSTRATED
PAM P H L E T T O
FIG. 7 1
77
T H E KEEPERS O F LIGHT
78
FIG. 7 2
FIG . 7 3
Naturalistic Photography
80
FIG. 74
81
FIG . 7 5
Pond in Winter, 1 88 8 .
82
THE K E E P E R S OF LIGHT
. '
FIG. 7 6
83
PETER HENRY EMERSON , Photogravure from Wild Life on a Tidal Water, 1 890.
Pictorialism
86
Soft Focus
FIG. 7 7
PICTORIALISM
87
88
FIG .
78
PICTORIALISM
89
ST'ftC.rtN
/'P(('( ; V
FIG . 79
90
FIG. 80
Steichen 's annotation, written on the mount of
Fig. 79.
FIG. 8 1
PICTORIALISM
91
92
FIG. 83
PICTORIALISM
93
FIG. 84
94
FIG . 8 6
FIG . 85
PICTORIALISM
95
GRIFFIN'S
OIL-PIGMENT
MATERIALS
OIL
P!G
M E N T S : - S p e c i a l pigments
prepared b y the originators
o f oil printing.
for Complete L i s t
GRIFFIN'S
Kingsway, London, England
87
98
T H E KEEPERS OF LIGHT
FIG. 88
FIG.
90
FIG.
91
99
FIG. 8 9
FIG.
92
GERTRUDE KASEBIER , Girl in Gum print in black, possibly Sep ia platin um print fro m
Beret, glossy silver print , back printed from a copy negative of original negative.
ground lightened with white pig Fig. 90.
ment.
1 00
FIG.
95
FIG.
93
FIG.
94
Edward Steichen
101
Fig. 96 EDWARD STEICHEN , Steeplechase Day, Paris-After the Races, gum or possibly Artigue
print in black , negative made in 1 907 .
Steichen applied by hand a yellow tone-now badly faded-to the highlights in the center of the im
age. Walker Evans, who was fond of this print, called it "a blend of the Elysian and the moribund " (in
Louis Kronenberger, Quality, New York , 1 969, p. 1 82).
(The Metropolitan Museum o f Art , T h e Alfred Stieglitz Collection , 1 933)
1 02
1 03
FIG.
97
1 04
FIG . 9 8
WI LLIAM MORTENSEN , The Pit and the Pen dulum, bromoil transfer, 1 9 34.
Three Printmakers
1 06
FIG . 99
TH REE PRINTMAKERS
1 07
1 08
FIG. 1 00
TH REE PRINTMAKERS
Edward Weston
1 09
FIG.
101
1 10
THE KEEPERS
OF LIGHT
Final Words
Part II
1 14
The light is pretty good at this time, and we count only as far as thirty , when we cover the lens again
with the cap . Then we replace the slide in the shield , draw this out of the camera , and carry it back
into the shadowy realm where Cocytus flows in black nitrate of silver and Acheron stagnates in the
pool of hyposulphite , and invisible ghosts , trooping down from the world of day , cross a Styx of
dissolved sulphate of iron , and appear before the Rhadamanthus of that lurid Hades.
O LIVER W ENDELL H OLMES ,
Films are quite good these days . . . but the papers are still made only for the amateur and for the
average professional who doesn't care too much about quality and longevity . These papers lack
variety and, in themselves , any kind of real beauty. The photographer has never had the best
materials that could be made . Photography is still a new art, and in some people's minds it doesn't
compete , doesn't qualify. They think of it as an inferior, mechanical medium, because it isn't done
by the human hand . But, of course , the photographer deserves the best materials that could be
made , because what he is doing is something added , something new through which the human
spirit and mind can express themselves .
P AUL STRA N D ,
Technical Introduction
Negatives and
Printing Papers
Here is some basic background on the character
istics , or sensitometry , of photographic films and
papers. It is intended to help you review some of
the things you should already know-or be trying
to learn-about controlling films and papers and
also to introduce you to some of the problems in
making negatives suitable for printing with the
historical processes . For a more extensive ac
count of sensitometry and exposure and develop
ment controls, see Photographic Tone Control,
by Norman Sanders, published by Morgan &
Morgan , Inc.
The Characteristic Curve
1 .80
I
I
1 .50
....
>-
iii
z
w
0
1 .20
STRA I G H T L I N E
0.90
0.60
TOE
0.30
0.15
-' .,.
L---,.
0.0
0.30 0.60
I
I
./v
SHOULDER
..--
.._
T RA N S M I TIAN C E
(logarithm)
1 . 00
0.50
0.25
0. 1 25
0 . 063
0 .0 3 1
0.01 5
0.00
0.30
0.60
0.90
1 . 20
1 . 50
1 . 80
I/"
./
BASE-PLUS-FOG
I
0.90
1 .20
1 . 50
1 .80
2.10
2.40
D E N S ITY
(percentage)
2.70 3.00
EXPOS U R E
FIG . 1 02
FIG. 1 03
Characteristic curve .
1 18
1 .80
I
I
1 .50
>fUi
z
w
0
0.90
TOE
0.30
0.0
IL--'
0. 2 11
0.30
0 0
hfs:c-
0 . 1 5 .---
0.21
0.30
- - -
I 1 " " v.
}
./
I
I
0.60
y
r
STRA I G H T L I N E
1 .20
S H O LDER
0.30
0.30 0.60
0.90
1 .20
1 .50
1 .80
2.10
2.40
2. 70 3.00
EXPOS U R E
F I G . 1 04
1 19
2.10
1 .80
1 .50
1 .20
,..___
----
v / ----c---/ / /
12 MIN.
8 MIN.
1
6 MIN.
0.90
0.60
0.30
0.15
0.0
':2
-&
0.30
0.60
0.90
1 .20
1 .50
1 .80
2.10
2.40
2.70
3.00
EXPOS U R E
2.10
F I G . 1 05
1 .50
1 .20
>>Ul
z
w
0
I/
0.90
D E N S ITY R A N G E
0
0.60
1 rff
0.30
0 . 1 5 F=-0.0
0.60
----
8 MIN.
/ ./
/
,
D E N ITY R A N G E
0.60
.L
H I G H LI G HTS
S H ADOWS
0.30
12 MIN.
0.90
1 .20
1 .50
1 .80
2.10
2.40
2.70 3.00
E X PO S U R E
FIG. 1 06
Density Range
2.10
H l G H-c
1 .80
b l d
Nrn sT S BJ E T
1 .50
1 .20
>>Ul
z
w
0
0.90
,-,1
D E N S ITY R A N G E
1 5
0.60
c-v
/ /rT
I
I//
0.15
/v
0.30
0.60
0.90
or
.I
H I G H L I G H TS
S H ADOWS
':2
6 MIN.
D E N S I TY R A N G E
....- -----
0.30
0.0
,.
8 MIN.
1 .20
1 .50
1 .80
2.10
2.40
2.70
3.00
EXPOS U R E
F I G . 1 07
1 20
Highest
Contrast
0
1
2
3
4
5
Density Range of
Suitable Negative
1 . 40 and higher
l . 20 to 1 . 40
l . OO to 1 . 20
0 . 80 to 1 . 00
0 . 60 to 0 . 80
0 . 60 and lower
Log Exposure
Range of Paper
1 . 40 to
1 . 1 5 to
0 . 9 5 to
0 . 80 to
0.65 to
0 . 50 to
1 . 70
1 . 40
1.15
0.95
0 . 80
0.65
The meaning o f the right column, Log Exposure Range o f Paper, is explained i n the text.
121
N O . 2 STEP TABLET
Step Number
Density
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0.05
0.20
0.35
0 . 50
0.65
0 . 80
0.95
1.10
1 .25
1 . 40
1 .55
1 . 70
1 .85
2 .00
2. 1 5
2 . 30
2 .45
2 . 60
2.75
2 . 90
3 . 05
FIG. 1 08
a.a
1 .a
LO N G EXPOS U R E R A N G E ---
FIG. 1 09
1 22
en
z
w
0
z
0
>=
()
u..
w
a:
STA N DA R D C O M M E RC I A L
PA P E R
1 .0 t------+-r--+--;
1
EXPOSU R E R A N G E
FIG. 1 1 2
FIG. 1 1 0
FIG. 1 1 1
No . 2 Step Tablet
printed on a short
exposure range paper.
1 23
Ranges
of
Historical
I I
S E M I MAITE
MAITE
Papers .
0.0
1 .0
SCALE I N DEX = 1 .3
2.0
FIG. 1 1 3
RE FLECTED
LIGHT
D I F F U S E (SCAIT E R E D)
R E F L ECTA N C E
R E FLECT E D
LIGHT
FIG. 1 14
1 24
Making Enlarged
Duplicate Negatives
Except for carbro and bromoil , a l l the processes
described in this book are contact processes and
require negatives (or sometimes positives) the
same size as the final print. Technically, the best
negative for this pu rpose is an original large
format negative developed to the right density
range for the chosen printing process . If you use a
camera with a negative size smaller than your i n
tended print size , such as a 3 5 m m camera , you
will have to make an enlarged duplicate negative
using one of the following methods :
Koda k Professional
Direct
FIG. 1 1 5
1 25
1 26
Potassium ferricyanide . . . . . . .
3 7. 5 grams
Water to make total volume . . . . 500 ml
STOCK SOLUTION B
grams
ml
1 27
Chemicals
Buying Chemicals
When you begin work with h istorical processes
the first , and often most frustrating , step is to find
a source for chemicals. If you live near a college or
university there will usually be a laboratory supply
department i n the chemistry building where you
can pick up supplies , or you can look i n the back
of this book for the address of a chemical supply
house near you (for certai n hard to -find or espe
cially expensive items you will probably need to
use this list) .
Many chemical suppliers prefer not to sell to i n
dividuals. There a r e several reasons. Although
suppliers a re not legally liable for i nj u ries that
result from the use of their products-as long as
the product was labeled with appropriate warn
ings and otherwise properly represented-they
are concerned about chemicals gettin g into the
hands of children or being used for illicit purposes .
Also , and perhaps more to the point , suppliers do
not care for the clerical nuisance of processing
small orders . If you find that a supplier is unwilling
to sell to you as a n individual , use the name of
your educational or business affi liation .
When buying a n expensive chemica l , check
prices from a number of suppliers . Quotations
can vary considerably and it pays to shop arou n d .
FIG. 1 1 6
Ohaus triple-beam balance.
Scales
It will be necessary to have a small and accurate
scale for weighing out chemicals. One of the best
scales for photographic use is the Ohaus Series
7 00 metric triple-beam balance shown i n Figure
1 1 6 . It has a single pan to hold the chemical and a
capacity range from 0. 1 gram to 6 1 0 grams. You
FIG. 1 1 7
Pelouze R - 4 7 .
1 30
Preparing Solutions
General Rules . Treat a l l chemicals as if they were
poisonous-in sufficient quantities , most are.
. . . Always read the warnings and directions
given on the label . . . . Store chemicals beyond
the reach of children . . . . Wash your hands after
handling chemicals . . . . Clean spilled chemicals
immediately from the worktable.
Keep the caps on chemical bottles screwed
down tight. Some chemicals are deliquescent
they a bsorb water from the air (sodium hydroxide
and ferric ammonium citrate are examples) . If left
in half -closed bottles , deliquescent chemicals can
pick up weight in the form of additional water
molecules , and this makes accurate weighing i m
possib le . Deliquescent chemicals m a y a l s o form a
hard crust if left expose d . Other chemicals are ef
florescent-they lose their normal water content
when exposed to the air. Stil l other chemicals
fume or evaporate . Loose caps on acid bottles can
allow the escape of unsafe , corrosive fumes .
When mixing solutions, follow the temperature
instructions given with the formu la . Most , but not
all , chemicals show increased solubiiity with in
creased water temperatu re . I n many cases a
chemical will d issolve only g radual ly when mixed
at the solution's working temperature but will
dissolve quickly when the water is warmer. Some
chemicals liberate heat when dissolved , showing
what is known as an exothermic reaction (ferric
chloride and sodium hydroxide are exa mples).
Such chemicals should be dissolved in cool water.
Other chemicals are endothermic , absorbing h eat
when dissolved , which cools the solution (crystal
line sodium thiosu lfate-"hypo" -is an example
of the latter).
Always dissolve chemicals in the order l isted in
the formula . The best policy is to wait u ntil each
chemical has dissolved before adding the next .
CHEMICALS
Formulas Given in Parts . I n older photo
graphic texts , formu las are sometimes given in
parts . Simply convert the formula i nto equivalent
u nits of g rams and milliliters , or ounces and fluid
ounces . A formula that calls for "7 parts silver
nitrate and 60 parts water" could be rewritten as
" 7 grams silver nitrate and 60 ml wate r , " or as "7
ounces silver n itrate and 60 fluid ounces water . "
Percentage Solutions . Sometimes t h e
amount o f a chemical called for i n a particular for
m u l a is too s m a l l t o be weighed accurately. I n
such cases a percentage stock solution is mad e ,
from which a few milliliters ( m l ) or a few drops are
used at a tim e . Percentage solutions are always
prepared using compatible u nits : either grams
dissolved in milliliters or i n cubic centimeters ( 1 ml
1 . 0000 2 7 cc; 1 cc of pure water at maximum
density weighs a bout 1 g ra m ) , or ounces dis
solved in fluid ounces.
The rule when making percentage solutions is
to dissolve the chemical in less than the total
volume of water, then add water to bring the total
volume to 1 00 units or whatever multiple of 1 00
you may need . To make a 2 % solution , for exa m
ple, dissolve 2 g rams (or , i f liquid , 2 ml) o f the
chemical in about 90 ml of wate r , then add water
as necessary to bring the total volume to 1 00 ml .
The following are both 1 0 % solutions : 5 g rams
dissolved in water to make 50 m l ; 20 g rams
dissolved in water to make 200 ml .
Percentage by Weight. Sometimes chemicals
are sold in solution and the percentage is given by
weight. For example , a 2 5 % - by -weight solution
weighing , say , 8 grams would contain 2 grams of
the actual chemica l . Two g rams is 25 % of 8
g rams. To weigh out a chemical from a perce n
tage solution given b y weight, take t h e nu mber of
g rams you need and mu ltiply this by the product
of the percent (written as a whole number) divided
into 1 00 .
=
131
FIG. 1 1 8
How to fold filter paper.
1 32
ing the paper into the fu nnel , wet the inside of the
funnel with tap water or distilled water-which
ever was used to make the solution being filtere d .
T h e n place t h e paper in t h e funnel . A "fast" filter
paper like Whatman No. 4 is appropriate for most
photographic filtering . A filter pump (see Figure
2 2 8) makes the job of filtering solutions faster and
easier.
CHEMICALS
pH Scale
I ntensity
I 0 ,000,000 -
1 , 000, 000
1 00, 000
p H d e g rees
13
SOD I U M
HYOROX I O E
1 2 TR I - SOD.
SODIUM
PHOS P H AT E
CARBONATE
A M MON I A
1 0 ,000
1 33
1 00
w
z
:i
<t
:.:
...J
<t
SO D I U M
BICAR BONATE
10
N E U TR A L
D I ST.
WAT E R
<t
10
1 00
BO R I C
1 , 000
1 0,000
1 00, 000
OXAL I C
1 , 000, 000
SULFU R I C
H Y D R O C H LO R I C
1 0, 000, 000
A c h a n g e of o n e d e g ree p H
a m o u n t s to a t e n - f o l d c h a n g e
of i n t e n s i ty o f t h e a c i d o r
a l k a l i n e react i o n .
FIG. 1 1 9 pH values.
1 34
Papers
, B E AT E R R O L L
B A C K FA L L
B E AT E R T U B
B E D P L AT E
F LY B A R S
1 36
FIG. 1 2 1
Unbeaten cotton fibers .
FIG. 1 22
Cotton fibers after beati n g .
PAPERS
yellow and disintegrates with age a s the lignin
breaks down into acid by-products .
Two processes are used for production of
chemical wood pulps. The sulfate pulping tech
nique is an alkaline process that is mainly used
with coniferous wood because it can dissolve out
thick coniferous resins . In this process , wood
chips are dumped into a vertical boiler and cook
ed under pressure in a solution containing sodium
sulfate and other chemicals. This produces a pulp
used to make sturdy papers of the kraft type.
Beca use the process does not completely dissolve
out the ligni n , it is not possible to bleach the pu l p .
T h e brown paper that eventually results is used for
wrapping and containers , and for paper bags.
I n the second method , the acid sulfite process ,
the wood chips are boiled in a solution containing
calcium or magnesium bisulfite and sulfur diox
ide. At the end of this chemical treatment the pulp
is passed through a screening device that removes
any l a rge fi bers or incompletely processed
bundles of fibers . Unlike sulfate pulps , sulfite
pulps can be bleached , and this is usually the next
step . Bleaching whitens the pulp and further
refi nes it by removing residues of noncellulose
matter, some of which can be harmfu l to the paper
if allowed to remain . After bleaching , the pulp
undergoes the beating process described above
for rag pulps . Sulfite pulp is used in most book
papers . Stationery and ledger papers and the less
FIG. 1 23
Design of a mechanical pulper .
137
1 38
FIG. 1 24
Mold papermaking mach i n e .
PAPERS
by its contact with the screen . Sometimes this pat
tern shows itself only on close examination , and
sometimes it is quite distinct . The felt side of the
paper has a less mechanical , more random tex
ture . On watermarked paper, the side on which
the watermark reads correctly is the felt side.
Watermarks are often a nuisance in photographic
work because they can show up in the final print .
On some papers the wire side appears smoother
than the felt side ; on other papers just the o p
posite . If t h e paper has been calendered t o a
smooth surface it will often be difficult to tell the
two sides apart , but as soon as the paper is put in
water and the cellulose fibers begin to swel l the
difference may become obvious. This is the case
with hot-pressed Strathmore Artist Drawing
paper. Strathmore papers are not watermarked ,
but the large single sheets carry a corner -sta mp
that reads correctly on the felt side . Paper bound
in pads has the felt side on top .
When a sheet of paper dries after soaking in
water it will usually show a rougher texture than
when new . This is important to remember when
you buy paper, because it means that the texture
of the paper you examine in the store will be
smoother than the texture of the final print. If you
print on the wire side of the paper , it is possible
that after the print dries its surface will have a
decided mechanical textu re . This is often a subtle
point, and you will have to decide for yourself
whether the textu re detracts from the quality of
the print.
Machine and Cross Direction . The machine
direction , or grain direction, of paper is the direc
tion in which the paper moved through the Four
drinier papermaking machine in manufacture .
Because of the tension of the web , the cellulose
fibers tend to line up in that direction . As a result,
the paper has different characteristics in the
machine direction than in the direction at right
angles , the cross direction . Paper generally has
higher folding endurance when folded parallel to
the machine direction , and also tears more easily
and uniformly parallel to the machine direction .
Books are manufactured (or should be manufac
tured) so that t h e machine direction of t h e paper i s
parallel t o t h e s p i n e o f t h e book.
1 39
1 40
Problems of Permanance
The presence of acid is the main factor leading to
the deterioration of paper. Acid can come from
several sou rces . Sulfur dioxide from a polluted at
mosphere can be absorbed by the paper and con
verted into su lfuric aci d . The noncellu lose materi
als found in poorly refined chemical wood pulp
141
PAPERS
stir the contents and measure the p H with the
mete r .
Another-but less accurate-method i s to
dampen the paper with distilled or de-ionized
water and wrap it around a sheet of color-indicator
p H paper, such as Hydrion Short Range Pape r .
Press t h e combination together between two
sheets of glass , or other chemically inert surfaces ,
and after one hour compare the color of the pH
paper with the color chart that came with it.
Archivist's Pen kits for pH testing are also
available. These are felt-tipped pens that contain
an indicator solution and can be applied directly to
paper moistened first with distilled or d e - ionized
water. Archivist's Pens are available from the
Talas Division of Technical Library Services , 1 04
Fifth Avenue, New York , New York 1 00 1 1 .
The pH figu res given below are mostly the
results of cold extraction tests made on paper
samples by the Conservation Department of the
Fogg Museum at Harvard University . Other
samples of the same papers might produce dif
ferent readings .
Rives BFK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pH 6 . 1 -6.2
(The pH of BFK, according to the distributor,
averages about 5. 5).
pH 6 . 5
Fabriano Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rives (white) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pH 6 . 2
pH 4 . 6
Arches Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glassine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p H 4 . 6
Fabriano (hot pressed) . . . . . . . . . p H 6 . 3
Fabriano Italia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pH 5 . 9
Mohawk Superfine Cover . . . . . . . pH 8 . 8
Olde White Permalife Bristol . . . . . pH 7 . 6
Permalife Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p H 8 . 1
pH 5.1
Strathmore Artist Drawing . . . . . .
Strathmore Museum Mounting Board . p H 6 . 3
Crane's Kid Finish AS 8 1 1 1 (according to the manufacturer) . . . . . . . . p H 5 .0-5 .2
Strathmore Artist Watercolor
(according to the manufacturer) . . . "acid -free"
Strathmore Artist Print (according to
the manufacturer) . . . . . . . . . . . "acid -free"
.
1 42
PAPERS
water containing 2 5 ml of formalin . Use this at
about 1 8 C (65 F) and soak the paper for 1
minute . Hang it in a well -ventilated area to dry .
Because the formalin evaporates , i t is not believed
that treating paper in it produces any long -term
harmful effects (as cou l d treatment in potassium
a lu m , the hardener recommended in many sizing
formulas) .
Starch Sizing . Dissolve Argo starch (or other
corn starch) , available in grocery and super
markets , in
1 43
Sensitizing Paper
It is not difficult to apply a sensitive coating to a
sheet of paper, but it does take some practice .
Often , the first attempt results in disaste r , but the
knack comes quickly on the second or third try .
Paper is sensitized by brushing on the sensitizing
solution or by floating the paper on the solution in
a tray. Of the two methods , brushing is usually the
most efficient and economica l .
Brush Coating. In addition t o a wide , flat artist's
brush , or a Japanese brush (Figure 1 2 6), you will
need a wooden board or a sheet of stiff cardboard
somewhat larger than the paper to be sensitize d .
T r i m t h e p a p e r , if possible , t o a size a b o u t five
centimeters (two inches) or more larger on a l l
sides t h a n t h e actual area t o be sensitized . Use
pushpins to fasten the paper by its corners to the
board . If the sensitizing solution is expensive
plati n u m , for example-first outline the area for
sensitizing with guide marks as shown i n Figure
1 2 5 . With a n inexpensive sensitizer, or when
you want to include the brush strokes the m
selves as part o f t h e image , y o u c a n j u dge the
a rea by eye , coating a space larger than the neg
ative and then trimming the paper as required .
When brushing on the solution , use only as
much as necessary to cover the su rface of the
paper. Do not flood it. If you start with too much
solution , puddles can form that may then be i m
possible t o smooth o u t f o r a u niform coatin g. How
much sensitizer you need will depend o n the pro
cess and on the area to be covered , and also on
the a mount of sizi ng the paper contains. Poorly
sized papers require greater amounts of sensitizer
because they tend to a bsorb it before it can be
spread across the surface . As a rule , a 2 0x 2 5 cm
PUSH PIN
GUIDE
M A R KS
N EGATIVE
FIG. 1 25
Guide marks for sensitizin g . Make them outside
the image area.
1 46
FIG. 1 2 7 , 1 2 8
147
U LTRAVIO LET
...J
a:i
a:
CJ
..J
w
>-
<
a:
0
o
w
a:
I N FRARED
1 00 % -
z
0
(/)
:i
FIG . 1 29
Tray sensitizing .
(/)
z
<
a:
G LASS
2MM THICK
50%
TRA N S M I TTED
ABSORBED
....
I
200
0%
D
D
KEY
iii
I
300
I
400
I
500
I
600
700
I
800
FIG. 1 30
(/)
w
I
500 ---------
275 WATT R40 S U N LA M P
SPECTRA L POWER D ISTRI BUTION
.... 400 l---l--+-----+------+---1-----+--
<
::;
z 300 1---1-----+-ll--+---l--I
;::
200 1--1----1-.1.__-l------l--l---I
(/)
1 00 1---i-.-+-11--+-m+----1----1..._....--1
.
o i......-..._.L..._.L...aJ.
.
-1--......_
..J _..-!,
a:
()
:i
600
WAV ELENGTH IN N A N O M ETERS
FIG. 1 3 1
1 48
300
400
500
600
700
N A N O M ET E R S
FIG. 1 32
Spectral radiation of a Sylvania BL black light
fluorescent tube .
FIG. 1 3 3
Contact printing fra m e . A N o . 2 Step Tablet is
next to the negative .
1 49
1 50
Increase Exposure
Decrease Exposure
Highlight
Increase Exposure
Decrease Exposure
Density
(multiply original
(multiply original
Density
(multiply original
(multiply original
Difference
exposure by)
exposure by)
Difference
exposure by)
exposure by)
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0. 1 0
0. 1 1
0. 1 2
0. 1 3
0. 1 4
0. 1 5
0. 1 6
0. 1 7
0. 1 8
0. 1 9
0.20
0. 2 1
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.3 1
0.32
1.12
1.15
1.17
1 . 20
1 .23
1.26
1 . 29
1 .32
1 .35
1 .38
1 .4 1
1 . 44
1 . 48
1 .5 1
1 . 55
1 . 58
1 . 62
1 . 66
1 . 70
1 . 74
1 . 78
1 . 82
1 . 86
1 . 90
1 . 95
2 . 00
2 . 04
2 . 09
0 . 89
0. 8 7
0.85
0 . 83
0.81
0.79
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7 1
0 . 69
0 . 68
0 . 66
0 . 64
0 . 63
0.61
0 . 60
0.58
0.57
0.56
0.55
0 . 54
0.52
0.51
0 . 50
0 . 49
0 . 48
0.33
0 . 34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.4 1
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0 . 50
0. 5 1
0.52
0.53
0 . 54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0 . 60
2. 1 4
2. 1 9
2 . 24
2 . 29
2 . 34
2 . 40
2 . 45
2.51
2.57
2.63
2 . 69
2.75
2.82
2 . 88
2 . 95
3.02
3 . 09
3. 1 6
3.24
3.31
3 . 39
3.47
3.55
3.63
3.7 1
3 . 80
3 . 89
4 . 00
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.4 1
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.35
0 . 34
0.33
0.32
0.32
0. 3 1
0 . 30
0.29
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.27
0.26
0.26
0.25
1 34
Salted Paper
PRINTING LIGHT
.,
' -!, \. \,
N EGATIVE
AS A RESULT O F T H E MASKING EFFECT, THE S H A DOW VALUES ARE
NOT LOST THROUGH OVEREXPOSURE AS PRINTING CONTINUES. THEY
A R E KEPT, BUT I N COMPRESSED FORM. THEIR CONTRAST (SEPARA
ION) DECREASES.
z
0
,.
#'
, ""'
,.,. ,,.
SHADOWS
a:
EXPOS U R E R A N G E
FIG . 1 3 5
Self-masking in salted paper.
HHEAEeguli HOOU
I
BE L I K E WITHOUT
MASKING. NOTE THAT
MASKING I N C R EASES T H E
EXPOSURE RANGE.
1 52
Water . . . . . . . . . . .
Gelatin . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium citrate . . . . .
Ammonium chloride .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . 280 ml
2 grams
. . . . .
. . . . .
6 grams
. . . . .
6 grams
Water . . . . . . . . . .
Starch . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium citrate . . . .
Ammonium chloride
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. 280 ml
5 grams
.
.
6 grams
.
6 grams
Sensitizing
Sensitize the paper by brushing on one or two
even coats of silver n itrate (refer to Fig u re 1 2 6).
Carry out sensitizing under tungsten light and
heat -dry the paper , or j ust let it dry in the dark.
SIL VER N ITRATE SOLUTION
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 20 ml
Chlorinated lime (calcium
hypochlorite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JO grams
Sodium sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 grams
.
SALTED PAPER
There are several ways to preserve sensitized
paper for longer periods of time . One is to add
citric acid to the silver nitrate solution-but this
makes the paper more difficult to ton e . Another is
to store the paper in a dry place between sheets of
blotting paper treated with sodium carbonate .
Soak each sheet of blotting paper in a 1 0 % sol u
tion o f sodiu m carbonate (sodium carbonate 50
grams ; water to make 500 m l ). Dry them thor
oughly. Store each sheet of d ry sensitized paper
between two sheets of blotting pape r . You can use
the blotting paper repeatedly without retreat
ment. A third way is to wash the paper i n water for
several minutes after sensitizing . This removes
the free silver nitrate and makes the paper less
prone to spoiling -but also less sensitive. This can
be corrected somewhat by fuming the paper be
fore use , as described below.
F u m i n g . The paper is ready for printing as soon
as it is dry after sensitizing . Most of the old text
books on printing suggest that , before printing ,
the paper should be fumed with ammonia to i n
crease its printing speed and contrast . I have
fou nd that fuming actually makes l ittle difference
with salted paper (except in the case of washed
paper , described in the paragraph above). Ap
parently its effect on albumen paper was g reater.
The shadows of a finished salt print , sensitized in
the normal way and subjected to fuming , are only
slightly darker than the shadows of an unfumed
p r i n t . The difference is not sign ifica n t . The
highlights print the same whether fu med or not .
1 53
Printing
Print out the paper in a contact-printing frame i n
sunlight or u n d e r any artificial ultraviolet source .
The paper will begin to darken very quickly , then
seem to slow down .
If the sensitized paper is not d ry , it can cause
stains on negatives . With proper care this will not
happen , but if you are worried a bout a n ir
replaceable negative , sandwich a sheet of clear
acetate between it and the paper during the ex
posure.
The nature of the printing light and the overall
exposure time affect print contrast to some
degree . Artificial light sources with high u ltraviolet
output will print rapidly, but with lower effective
contrast than sources less rich in ultraviolet.
About the q u ickest - p rintin g , l owest -contrast
source is summer sunlight. When printing on sun
ny days , u nless the negative is especially contras
ty (has a long density range) you may find it best to
turn the printing frame away from the sun and face
it toward the north sky for a slower but more con
trasty printing . Negatives low in contrast should
generally be printed this way .
To check the progress of printing , take the pri n
ting frame into the shade, or away from t h e a r
tificial light. Unhinge o n e side of t h e back. Peel the
edge of the print away from the negative , taking
care not to fog the paper by exposure to bright
light or disturb its registration with the negative .
The printing -out image should be allowed to go
rather deep . The highlights should be a good deal
darker than the tone desired i n the final print. The
shadows may even start to acquire a bronzed ,
metallic sheen .
The best way to learn to judge the exposure is
by placing a Kodak No. 2 Step Tablet along the
edge of the negative during printing . Right after
the exposure , make a mark on the lightest step
printed out under the tablet that shows the first
tone j ust preceptibly darker than the white of the
paper. This lightest tone will be lost when the print
is washed , toned , and fixed . I n the processed
print, the lightest tone may have dropped five
steps down the tablet from the lightest tone before
1 54
FIG. 1 3 6
SALTED PAPER
in the water its tone will lighten and shift toward
red .
Toning
If the print is put directly into the fixer after
washing , its color when finished will be a reddish
brow n . This is not u nattractive , but toning with
gold makes possible a variety of colors , from red
dish brown t o purple-brown or blue-brown . Gold
toning is thought to increase the permanence of
the image by attaching gold molecules to the less
stable silver molecules .
FIG. 1 3 7
1 55
SILVER PROCESSES
1 56
Water (3 8 C or 1 00 F) . . . . . . . 400 ml
3 grams
Borax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gold chloride ( 1 % solution) . . . . .
6 ml
Dissolve the borax in hot water first, then add the
gold.
Allow the bath to cool to approximately 2 1 C
( 7 0 F) for use . Prepare it a bout an hour before
use and store in a brown bottle . The borax makes
the toner mildly alkaline and stabilizes it to prevent
spontaneous precipitation of the gold in contact
with the organic matter in the paper. The borax
bath will keep but with use will require the addition
of gold. Wait an hour before use after adding
more gol d .
Toning time varies from a bout 6 t o 1 2 minutes ,
depending on the tone desired . The tone of the
print becomes colder as toning proceeds . It is dif
ficult to j u dge the final tone until the print is actu a l
ly fixed and dried . W h e n salted prints dry , their
color becomes colder. I n order to see how the
time in the toning bath affects print color, print out
a scale of tones under a step tablet and then slice it
up into fou r narrow strips. Place them in the toning
bath togethe r , then take one out every three or
fou r minutes . Mark each one carefu lly and, after
fixing and washing , mount them for reference .
The fol l owing is an acid bath , but with a silver
solvent-ammonium thiocyanate-which acce l
erates its action . For t h e same toning tim e , i t gives
considerably colder tones than the borax toning
bath . Six minutes in the thiocyanate bath is
enough to give the print almost blue-gray tones .
T H IOCYANATE TONING BATH
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ammonium thiocyanate . .
Tartaric acid . . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium chloride . . . . . . . .
Gold chloride ( 1 % solution)
Water to make total volume .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 400 ml
. 1 2. 5 grams
.
1
gram
.
2. 5 grams
. 1 0 ml
. 500 ml
Contrast Control
There is rea lly no way to get around the need for a
long -density - range , fully developed negative for
salted paper printing , but a certain amount of con -
SALTED PAPER
trast control during printing is possible. The effect
of exposure time on the contrast of the print has
a l ready been note d . I n addition , potassi u m
dich romate a d d e d t o t h e salting solution w i l l i n
crease contrast . Make up a solution o f
Potassium dichromate . . . . . . . .
2 grams
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ml
.
P. O.P.
The term P. O. P. (for printing-out paper) came i n
t o u s e in t h e early 1 890's t o distinguish t h e gelatin
1 57
Ambrotype
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 75 ml
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 grams
.
20 drops
1 0 drops
1 60
OPEN TOP
5 1h "
UJ '
e 1
(/) I
G LASS F R O N T
(.!) I
B E N T G LASS R O D
4" x5"
G LASS
PLATE
FIG. 1 3 8
Sensitizing box and plate holder.
161
AMBROTYPE
FIG. 1 3 9 Ambrotype , Sir John Herd, Derby Hall, Liverpool, 1 8 50's. 1 0 1/4
(Rodger Kingston Collection)
1 2 114 inches .
1 62
SILVER PROCESSES
Cyanotype
Sensitizing
Instructions usually call for preparing the sen
sitizer from two stock solutions , on the assump
tion that separate solutions keep better. For one
time use , however, the two chemicals can be dis
solved in water together.
SOLUTION A
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 64
Printing
Cyanotype is fairly slow . With a fu lly developed
negative , an exposure of as much as 3 0 minutes
CYANOTYPE
paper away from the negative. Then examine the
image .
As in the salted paper process , it is a good prac
tice to place a Kodak No. 2 Step Tablet next to the
edge of the negative during printing . After the ex
posure , but before washing the print, look at the
steps printe d -out under the tablet: Make a mark
on the first step that shows a tone darker than the
sensitized paper itself. After washing , the lightest
tone in the final print will be a bout five or so steps
down the tablet from this original lightest printi n g
o u t tone. Do s o m e tests t o fin d o u t exactly h ow
many steps of the tablet are normally lost after
washing . Remember this number. Then use the
tablet as a guide for exposing the image. Place
1 65
See Figures 1 40 , 1 4 1 .
Washing . Wash the print for about 5 minutes in
running water at approximately 2 0 C (68 F) .
This will clear the highlights. Too l ittle washing will
leave soluble ferric salts in the image, which in
turn will cause fading on exposure to light. (Even
properly washed cyanotypes can fade slightl y , but
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 66
Toning
M o s t s e r i o u s w r i t e rs o n c y a n ot y p e h a v e
discouraged toning on the grounds that the colors
are u npredictable and u nstable. Formulas calling
for the direct toning of the image in ammonia or
ferrous sulfate , for example , give fugitive tones.
On preliminary observation , the two formulas
below seem to produce stable tones .
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 68
Sensitizing
The best sensitizing brush is about 5cm (2 i n . )
wide . It h a s been said that t h e brush must not con
tain meta l , but it is all right if it does as long as the
sensitizer does not come into contact with the
metal pa rts . It is more important that the brush
does not itself a bsorb , and thus waste , the sen
sitizer . Its only role is to push the sensitizer over
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ml
gram
grams
. 55 ml
. 1 gram
. 1 5 grams
. 0. 3 gram
Solution 3
Distilled water,
at about 3 8 C (1 00 F) . . . . . . . 50
Potassium chloroplatinite
(K2PtC/4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0
ml
grams
soft prints
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 drops
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 drops
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 drops
1 69
FIG. 1 42
Figures 1 4 2 through 1 44 are platinum prints
by the author.
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 70
Printing
171
Graininess
Sometimes the potassiu m chlorate in Solution 2
reacts with the sizing of the paper a n d produces
grainy prints . The more chlorate , the more notice
able the grain . This can often be corrected by
substituting hydrogen peroxide for the chlorate .
For a trial , mix one drop of 3 % hydrogen perox
ide with 2 2 drops of Solution 1 and 24 drops of
Solution 3 .
Color
Warm tones are possible by heating the devel
oper , by adding mercuric chloride , or both .
H OT D EVELOPER: Heat the developer in an u n
chipped enamelware saucepan or a Pyrex double
boiler (which is then permanently retired from
kitchen use) . The developer can be h eated a l l the
way up to the boiling point; the color of the prints
becomes increasingly warmer as the developer
temperature rises .
High developing temperatures also increase
printing spee d . When using a hot developer, give
the print less than normal exposure and be sure to
develop both the test strip and the final print at the
same temperature. Hot developer also tends to
reduce image contrast , and you may fin d it
necessary to use more Solution 2 for a negative of
FIG. 1 43
1 72
FERRIC PROCESSES
Contrast Controls
A platinum sensitizer prepared with no chlorate
gives very low contrast . Even less contrast is
Glycerin Development
Local modifications of tone and color a re possi
b l e , with some degree of contro l , throug h brush
development with g lyceri n .
First , coat a sheet o f g lass with glycerin a n d lay
the exposed print on top . Cover the print with an
even coating of glycerin and develop it locally by
using a brush charged with the developer. The
glycerin slows the action of the developer and
keeps it from spreading . You can slow the
developer even more by first diluting it with an
equal volume of g lyceri n , or acceleate develop
ment in chosen areas by blotting u p the g lycerin
from the face of the print before applying the
brus h .
Control over image color is possible by using
two developers , one with and one without mer
cury . Use two brushes or, if only one is available ,
rinse it each time you switch developers . Stop
development by placing the print under a fairly
vigorous stream of wate r , and then transfer it to
the clearing baths . Do not use a developer con
taining g lycerin at a temperature much a bove
60 o c ( 1 40 F) .
Joseph T . Keiley a n d Alfred Stieglitz together
worked out improvements on the glycerin pro
cess . Keiley used the technique quite successfully
in a series of portraits of American Indians . Some
of these portraits are now in the Stieglitz Collec
tion of the Metropolitan Museum in N ew York .
But Paul L. Anderson , who for many years was a
leading teacher of photographic tech niques (see
the list of recommended readings) , wrote that
whenever he used glycerin the final step was
"generally to place the print face down in the ash
can . " The moral is that the results of glycerin work
1 73
Uranium Toning
A platinum print can be toned to a variety of colors
by the use of a single uranium toning formula . The
color depends on how long the print has been
cleared before toning and on the number of prints
already passed through the toning bath . The bath
is i n two parts .
URAN IUM TONING BATH
Solution A
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 ml
1 . 3 grams
Uranium (uranyl) nitrate . . . . . . .
7 ml
Glacial acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . .
or
3. 6 ml
Hydrochloric acid
Solution B
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 ml
1 . 3 grams
Potassium ferricyanide . . . . . . . .
7 ml
Glacial acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . .
or
3. 6 ml
Hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . .
Mix the two solutions together in equal parts right
before use. Add and thoroughly dissolve a piece
of sodium sulfite about the size of a pea.
FIG.
1 44
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 74
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 7. 0 ml
Sensitizing Solution 3 . . . . . . . . . 32 drops
( 1 . 6 ml)
4. 7 ml
Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finish with a 30-minute wash .
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gold chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 ml
1 gram
Intensification
Here is an intensification procedu re to increase
image contrast . It works best with prints with ful l
highlight detail b u t weak shadows . Prepare the
solution immediately before use .
INTENSIFIER
Distilled water . . . . . . . .
Gallic acid . . . . . . . . . .
Silver nitrate (dissolve the
first in a few ml of water)
Glacial acetic acid . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
silver
. . . . .
. . . . .
. 200
.
1
.
.
ml
gram
0. 35 gram
20
drops
Palladium Printing
The sensitizi ng and printing procedu res for
palladium are vi rtually identical to those for
platinum . Palladium is a slightly less expensive
meta l and g ives permanent brown -tone prints in a
plain oxalate developer, used cold . Solution 1 is
the same as for platinum . Solution 2 might best be
prepared with double the amount of potassium
chlorate , because for contrast control palladium
Distilled water at 3 8 C (1 00 F) . . . 40 ml
Palladium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 grams
Sodium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 5 grams
Potassium dichromate should not be used with
palladium for increased contrast . It will bleach the
imag e . Palladium does not respond to hydrogen
peroxide as a contrast agent.
Platinum and palladium solutions can be mixed
together. I n this way the platinum supply can be
stretched by the addition of the less expensive
meta l . Prepare the stock solutions separately and
combine them drop by drop when mixing the ac
tual sensitize r , varying the proportion as you see
fit but keeping the total number of drops constant
as called for in Solution 3. I ncreased palladium
will warm the image color and reduce contrast, re-
1 75
Combination Printing
The least expensive and probably the most effec
tive after -treatment for a platinum or palladium
print is to sensitize it for gum and print the same
negative again in register (see the chapter on Gum
Printing). This can enrich the shadows tremen
dously , and it opens the possibility of adding
another color to the image.
If you experiment with combining cyanotype
and platinum or palladium , print the cyanotype
image last . The potassiu m oxalate developer will
bleach a cyanotyp e .
Kallitype
Method One
Commonly known as the vandyke or brownprint,
this is the simplest kallitype technique. It has the
1 78
FERRIC PROCESSES
Solution A
33
Distilled water
Ferric ammonium citrate . . . . . . . 9
ml
grams
Solution B
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 ml
Tartaric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 5 grams
Solution C
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 ml
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 8 grams
After all three solutions have dissolved, combine
the ferric ammonium citrate and the tartaric acid
solutions (Solutions A and B) and then slowly add
the silver nitrate (Solution C) while stirring.
KALLITYPE
1 79
FERRIC PROCESSES
1 80
Method Two
The following is probably the most common
kallitype formula . It requires ferric oxalate for the
sensitizer (for sources of this chemica l , see the
chapter on platinum), plus a developer and clear
ing bath , in addition to the fixer.
Sensitizing a n d Printing. Prepare the sen
sitizer as follows and allow it to ripen for several
days before use .
THE SENSITIZER
Distilled water, at 3 8 C (J 00 F)
Oxalic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferric oxalate . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. 4 7 ml
. 0. 5 gram
. 7. 8 grams
. 3 . 1 grams
Water, at 38 C (J 00 F) . . . . . . . . 500 ml
24 grams
Borax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 grams
Sodium potassium tartrate . . . . . .
FOR SEPIA TON ES
Water, 3 8 C (J 00 F) . . . . . . . . . 500 ml
Sodium potassium tartrate . . . . . .
24 grams
NOT E : This last bath can be used at room
temperature, but then develop the print for 1 0
minutes instead of 5.
Add from 5 to 20 drops of a 1 0 % potassium
d i c h r o m a t e s o l u t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p e r as
necessary for contrast control . I ncreasing the
dich romate increases contrast .
Clearing and Fixing . Clear the print in the
following bath at a bout 20 C (68 F) for 5
minutes .
CLEARING BA TH
Water
500 ml
Potassium oxalate . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 grams
Water, at 3 8 C (J 00 F) . . . . . . . . 500 ml
Borax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 grams
Sodium potassium tartrate
(Rochelle Salts) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 6 grams
Di chroma t ed Colloids
p h o t o g r a p h y are gelatin , g u m a ra b i c , a n d
albumen .
The chemical reaction raises the melting point
of the colloid and reduces its tendency to absorb
water. If the water is hot enough , though , the col
loid will eventually dissolve.
BAC K I N G PAPER
H I G H LI G HTS
SHADOWS
FIG. 1 47
Cross sections showing how carbon printing
works .
1 84
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
Sensitizing
The sensitizer is potassium dichromate or a m
monium dichromate . Using t h e latter, t h e standard
concentration for average negatives intended for
carbon printing is about 3 % . For exampl e :
Ammonium dichromate . . . . . . . . .
6 grams
Water to make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 ml
The concentration of the sensitizing solution con
trols printing contrast . Lower concentrations of
dich romate , down to about 1 % , increase contrast
but decrease sensitivity . Higher concentrations ,
up to about 6 % , decrease contrast but increase
sensitivity . A 6 % solution is 3 -to -4 times more
sensitive than a 1 % solutio n .
I dentical concentrations o f t h e two dichro
mates do not produce identical printing character
istics : A 3 . 5 % potassium dichromate sensitizer
actua l ly has the same sensitivity , contrast , and
keeping qualities as a 2 . 5 % ammonium dichro
mate sensitizer.
Before sensitizin g , cut the tissue to a size at least
equal to that of the negative plus the mask. Flatten
the tissue by holding it under water at a tempera
ture of 20 C (68 F). As soon as the tissue
becomes limp , drain it and then immerse it, pig
ment side u p , in a tray filled with sensitizer , also at
20 C (68 F). Agitate as necessary to keep the
tissue covered by the solution and brush away any
bubbles that form on the surface . After 2 min utes ,
hang the tissue in the dark to dry or-better
place it pig ment side down on a sheet of glass ,
squeegee the excess sensitizer from the back, and
then hang it to dry . As the tissue dries it will begin
to curl inward . When this happens , take the tissue
down and pin it by the corners to a stiff sheet of
cardboard , pigment side u p , so that it will dry flat
for use . It is safe to handle the tissue under tun g
sten light when dry , b u t protect i t from daylight
and ultraviolet sources.
Tissue sensitized in th is way will dry slowly . It
will take several h o u rs to dry if placed in front of a
fan , longer if merely hung in the dark in a reason
ably airy or ventilated space . Too much h eat dur
ing the drying can melt the coating or cause reticu -
1 85
Printing
Trim the transfer
paper slightly larger than the tissue and soak it
face down in water at 2 0 C (68 F) for about 1 5
minutes . Avoiding bubbles, immerse it so that the
gelatin side remains under water . Begin soaking
the transfer paper before making the exposure, so
that it will be ready when the exposure is com
plete d .
Exposur e . Expose t h e tissue in contact with the
negative to any u ltraviolet light sou rce . The ex
posure with a single carbon arc placed 3 8cm ( 1 5
i n . ) from the printing fra me is generally less than 2
minutes for a normal carbon negative and a 3 %
sensitizer. Use test strips, masked to prevent frills.
(Figure 1 48 . )
In single-transfer printing the image will be
reversed from left to right when transferred to the
final support . To make sure the final print has the
correct orientation , expose the tissue in contact
with the base side of the negative. Make sure the
contact frame is tight, or is made to press tight with
a l ittle extra padding . When glass-plate negatives
were in use , a double-transfer tech nique was
necessary because the image would be u nsharp if
printed from a reversed n egative with the
Preparing Transfer Paper.
N EG AT I V E
( B A S E S I D E U P)
S E N S IT I Z E D T I S S U E
FIG. 1 48
Negative , mask , and tissue.
1 86
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
FIG. 1 49
Bring tissue and transfer paper together under
wate r . Remove them together.
FIG. 1 5 1
Place tissue and transfer paper between news
print a n d glass plates .
FIG. 1 50
Squeegee tissue and transfer paper into firm
contact .
1 87
Car bro
I N WAT E R
F I G . 1 52
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
1 88
M AT E R I A L S F O R T H E
The
OZOTYPE
PROC ESS
new
SENSITIZING SOLUTION
in 4-oz. and 8-oz. bottles
PIGMENT PLASTER
CUT SIZES
GEO. MURPHY
NEW YORK
FIG. 1 53
An ad from The Photo -Miniature, May 1 90 1 .
1 89
Water, at 3 8 C (1 00 F) . . . . . . . . . 500 ml
Sodium thiosulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00 grams
Wash prints for 30 minutes-less if resin -coated .
Prints may be used at once or dried and used at
a later date . If the print has dried , soak it in water at
2 0 C (68 F) for 1 5 minutes before use . This
softens the gelatin and (in the case of non-resi n
coated papers) allows t h e paper fibers t o expand
uniformly , preventing distortion of the image .
1 90
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
Nontransfer Method
It is possible to develop the carbon image right on
the bromide print without transfe r . This works
well and is worth a try . If you use this metho d , be
sure to fix the bromide first in fresh nonhardening
fixer and then wash it thoroughly to make sure all
fixer is removed .
Soak the bromide in water at about 2 4 C
( 7 5 F) a n d then squeegee t h e sensitized tissue
Carbon tissue
Transfer paper
Potassiu m or ammonium dichromate
Two sheets of plate g lass
Newsprint
Sodium bisulfite or potassium metabisulfite
Rubber squeegee
191
Outline of Carbro
1 . Prepare the bromide print.
2. Place the bromide print on plate glass , face
u p ; cover it with water.
3. Sensitize the carbon tissue 2 -to - 3 minutes at
1 2 . 5 C (55 F) ; squeegee it into face -to
face contact with the bromide ; leave in con
tact for 1 5 minutes .
4 . Soak transfer paper in water at 20 C (68 F)
for 1 5 minutes .
5 . Place the bromide-and -tissue combination
in water at 2 0 C (68 F); peel off the tissue
backing .
6 . Squeegee the tissue i n contact with the trans
fer paper; leave them in contact for 20 minutes.
7 . Place the combination in water 3 7 . 5 40 . 5 ( 1 00 - 1 05 F) ; separate ; develop
the imag e .
8 . Place in cold water-no warmer than 1 8 C
(65 F)-for 5 minutes .
9 . Drain and dry .
Possible Faults
The most frequent problem is frilling of the edge
of the image during development on the transfer
paper. This can happen if the water used for
1 92
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
Three-Color Carbro
I n the three -color carbro process , three bromide
prints are made (from three different color
sepa rati o n n e g a tives) and transfe r r e d on to
yellow, magenta , and cyan carbon tissues . The
three tissues are in turn transferred in registration
onto a single support to produce a ful l -color print.
Th ree -color carbro and the earlier th ree -color
carbon methods were the first commercially prac
tical techniques for making permanent color
prints . A primitive form of three -color carbon was
patented in 1 8 6 8 by one of the pioneers of color
photography , Louis Ducos du Hauron ; but the
tech nique did not become widespread until car
bro was introduced at the end of the Fi rst World
War . It was taken up chiefly by professional
photogra phers and photofinishers . Three-color
carbro fell completely into disuse when carbon
tissues became unavailable in the 1 9 60's. The
rebirth of the process is due to Dr. Robert F . Green
of Gallery 6 1 4 .
Color Separation . The Three -Color Printing
chapter describes the theory and tech nique of
making color -separation negatives di rectly in the
camera or from color transparencies . The instruc
tions below cover the printing of the bromides
from the separation negatives and the production
of the three-color carbro print . If you are not
fa miliar with color -separation negatives , have a
look now at the chapter on Three -Color Printing .
1 93
O ri g i n a l S u bj ect
o r Color T r a n s p a re n c y
Red F i l t e r
G re e n F i l t e r
Blue Fi lter
N eg a t i ve
N eg a t i v e
N e g a t i ve
B ro m i d e P r i n t
Bromide Print
Brom i d e P r i n t
Cyan Tissue
M ag e n t a T i s s u e
P l a s t i c Fo i l
P l a s t i c Fo i l
P l a s t i c Fo i l
'
'
'
'
S i n g l e-Tra n s f e r M et h od
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Do u b l e-Tra n s f e r M e t h od
(3rd p r i n t i n g ) Cyan
(3rd p r i n t i n g ) Ye l l ow
(2nd p r i n t i n g ) M ag e n t a
( 1 st p r i n t i n g ) C y a n
'
'
Final
Tem p o ra ry
S u p port
S u p p ort
'
F i n al
S u p po rt
1 94
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
1 95
Time Chart
The following time chart gives a schedule that will
allow you to process a l l three tissues-from sen
sitizing through development-in a little more
than an hour. It assumes that the bromide prints
are coming straight from the wash after fixing .
If you are using dry prints , do this first : Place the
red -filter bromide in the soaking -water and start
your clock. At 6 minutes , place the green -filter
bromide in the water . At 1 2 minutes , place the
blue -filter bromide in the water. Wait 3 minutes ,
then set the clock back to 0 and begin the chart se
quence .
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
1 96
Cut tissues and foils to size, scrub foils, set up trays, cool sensitizer to 1 2. 5 C (55 F).
Time
Red-Filter Bromide
Green-Filter Bromide
Cyan Tissue
Magenta Tissue
Yellow Tissue
min.
min.
5 0 min.
7 0 min.
11
min.
1 1 0 min.
1 3 0 min.
19
min.
25
min.
31
min .
53
min.
59
min.
65
min.
The times given are for the start of each step and allow enough time before the start of the next step.
Developing times, however, may overlap.
1 97
Water (cold) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 00 ml
Gelatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 grams
Allow the gelatin to swell for about 1 0 minutes,
then add
Water to make total volume . . . . . . . 500 ml
Heat the solution to dissolve the gelatin, then cool
to 2 1 -2 7 C (70 - 80 F) for use.
Soak the transfer paper carrying the transferred
yellow image in water at 1 5 . 5C (60 F) for 1 5
min utes , then place it face up on a sheet of glass
and squeegee it into contact with the glass . Coat it
with a un iform layer of the gelatin solution ; break
any bubb les on the surface . Take the foil with the
magenta image and lower it over the yellow i m
age, one e n d first . S l i d e t h e foil until t h e images
are in register. Squeegee them together. Turn the
combination over . Place newsprint over the
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
1 98
Possible Faults
Dr. Green describes common fau lts and their
probable causes .
Gum Printing
T H E I N SO L U B L E G U M I N A R EAS N OT I N C O N TACT W I T H T H E P A P E R
W I L L F L A K E O F F D U R I N G D E V E L O P M ENT.
FIG. 1 5 5
The surface of a gum print before development.
200
2.
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
GUM PRINTING
than the coating brush . For very large prints you
will want correspondingly wider brushes .
Every brush that comes into contact with the
combined gum and dich romate solutions should
be washed thoroughly after use to keep it from
becoming clotted with insoluble g u m .
Pigments . Th ree types of pigment c a n be used
for g u m p r i n ti n g : tra n s pa rent waterco l o rs ,
gouach e , and tempera "poster colors . " Trans
parent watercolors are traditionally the favored
medium . Gouache is really only transparent color
to which a wh ite pigment has been added . This is
20 1
202
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
Gum Solution
The gum solution is made from gum arabic, also
called gum acacia because it is harvested from the
GUM PRINTING
exudations of the bark of the acacia tree . (In
Africa , elephants scratch their backs on acacia
trees . This reduces the number of acacia trees . )
Dissolved in water a t a high enough concentra
tion , the gum forms a viscous colloidal flui d . You
can buy gum arabic from chemical supply h ouses
and from most art stores . One manufacturer is
Permanent Pigments, 2 7 00 Highland Avenue,
Cincin nati , Ohio 4 5 2 1 2 . G u m arabic comes in
granular or, more commonly , in powdered form .
Both are suitable for gum printin g .
N o matter how it is treate d , gum arabic dis
solves slowly . The standard method is to weigh
out the gum (see formula below) and place it on
several folds of cheesecloth . Wrap the corners of
the cheesecloth around the gum and tie it up with
a piece of string to form a bag. Set the bag in a
wide- mouthed jar filled with water at room tem
perature a n d leave i t u ntil t h e g u m d issolves .
Under normal conditions this will take a bout a
day . Keep the jar capped . When removing the
bag , allow the remaining fluid to drip back into the
solution and then gently squeeze the bag to force
out the rest . If you squeeze too hard some of the
dirt and insoluble matter caught in the cheese
cloth may be forced out, as well . Afterwards ,
throw the bag away .
If you are in a hu rry you can grind the gum into
solution , a bit at a time , using a mortar and pestle
or a similar a rrangement . This may take half an
h o u r , but then you can use the gum right away . If
you use this method, you will notice that after a
while dirt and insoluble material will sink to the
bottom of the storage container. Filter it out with
cheesecloth .
Do not use hot water to force the gum to dis
solve more rapidly. A g u m solution prepared with
hot water has less viscosity (for any given conce n
tration) t h a n a solution prepa red with c o l d water.
The loss of viscosity allows the pigment to pene
trate the paper and stain . According to the Perma
nent Pigments Company, gum dissolved in hot
water also produces a less soluble coating .
The gum solution will sour unless it contains a
preservative , becoming thi n , more acidic, and
less solu ble. Gum that has sou red has an obvious
odor. The gum solution will keep for a short time if
203
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 ml
Gum arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70 grams
Add several drops of formalin or 0. 5 gram mer
curic chloride dissolved first in 5 ml of hot water.
The Sensitizer
The sensitizer is a satu rated solution of either
potassiu m dich romate or ammonium dichro
mate . (Sodium dichromate can also be used , but it
has generally been ignored because its deliques
cence makes it difficult to weigh accurately . ) Am
monium dichromate gives greater sensitivity for
the same concentration than potassium dich ro
mate does . The speed depends on the solubility of
the dich romate (in other words , on the number of
dichromate ions that can be put into solution) and
FIG. 1 5 7
STEPHEN LIVICK, multiple gum print , 1 9 74.
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
204
GUM PRINTING
paper, and with gentle, long strokes , using j ust the
tips of the hairs , smooth out the coating .
Work quickly so that the gum does not begin to
set before the coating is even . A slight uneven
ness is inevitable, but the coating will blend
together fu rther as it dries and any minor ir
regularities will wash away during development.
Keep in mind that the coating must not be too
thick and that it should be as even as possible .
Also , never brush the paper for longer than it
takes for the coati n g to become reasonably
smooth a n d su rfa ce - d ry . The entire coating
operation should not take more than about 4 5
seconds for a 2 0x 2 5 cm ( 8x 1 0 i n . ) p r i n t .
Brushing longer than this can a brade t h e paper's
su rfa ce and break down the sizing , possi bly
resulting in pigment -stained highlights .
You c a n sensitize paper under tungsten light,
but protect it from daylight and other u ltraviolet
sou rces . Hang it to dry in the dark in front of a fan ,
o r dry i t more quickly with a hot plate o r hair dryer.
Be careful -too much heat can partly insolubilize
the coatin g . I n my experience temperatures
around 3 8 C ( 1 00 F) or even higher for several
minutes have no ill effect and shorten drying time
considerably .
Because of the dark reaction the coating will
slowly become insoluble, even if not exposed to
light. For this reason it is generally best to use
paper soon after it is dry . Heat and humidity in
crease the rate at which the dark reaction takes
place . Paper stored in normal temperature and
humidity will not remain in good condition for
more than a day or so, but when sealed in a plastic
bag after drying and refrigerated and protected
from light, it should keep for several weeks .
Printing
Expose the paper to u ltraviolet light in contact
with the negative . Gum requires less exposure
than do the ferric (except for kallitype) or silver
printing -out tech niques described in previous
chapters . With potassium dich romate as the sen
sitizer , a 2 7 5 -watt sunlamp 3 8cm ( 1 5 i n . ) from
the printing frame will give an exposure time of
205
206
FIG. 1 58
Gum print showing the effect of forced development with brush and water jet.
GUM PRINTING
lies face up in j ust enough water to cover its sur
face . The layer of water helps blend the edges
along the treated areas and softens the physical
effect , especially of the water jet. When you have
determined the resistance of the print's surface ,
you may decide to work on it directly , without the
superficial cushion of water. Whether you use a
brush or a stream of water or both , first give the
print a chance to develop automatically. Forced
development cannot give as delicate a rendition
of tones as is possible when the print is left to
develop by itself.
Manipulations of this sort will allow you to use a
greater-than - normal proportion of pigment to
gum in the coating , and thus increase the density
and contrast possible from each printing . This is
because the shadows can receive more pigment
than usual since the highlights will be forced clean
with the brush or the water jet. Remember that the
extra pigment may make necessary fairly harsh
use of the brush in order to clear the highlights ,
a n d that this can destroy detail or harm the paper's
protective surface sizing .
After development, hang the print to dry or dry
it with heat. The latter method is faster, but if done
unevenly or too rapidly the paper may shrink too
much or not un iformly and then be i mpossible to
register for multiple printing . Gentle heat will do
the j o b .
Clearing . T h e print m a y have a yellow or
orange sensitizer stain . The stain often makes it
difficult to judge the true color of the print. You
can clear the print i n a 5 % solution of potassiu m
metabisulfite or sodium bisulfite . A l u m i s often
mistakenly recommended but should not be used
because it threatens print permanence .
The clearing treatment weakens the su rface of
the wet print. For this reason it is best to d ry the
print first before clearing . Clear prints one at a
time . For a mu ltiple print , postpone clearing until
after the last printing and development.
Follow the clearing bath with a short wash in
cold water.
Additional spot reduction can sometimes be
done with a brush by working on the surface of the
print as it lies softened in the clearing bath . As the
print dries , the coating will sink into the surface of
207
Multiple Printing
The image from a single gum printing is often dis
appointingly wea k . There may be cases , especi a l
ly w h e n using gouache or with brush develop
ment, when the graphic or color effects desired re
quire only one printing . But multiple printing is
necessary in order to gain the full photographic
tonal scale of which the process is capable.
Multiple printing consists of recoating a dried
print and then exposing it again in register
beneath the negative . The process can be re
peated any nu mber of times.
You can get an idea of the effect of multiple
printing by placing a Kodak No. 2 Step Tablet
along the edge of a negative during the exposure.
After development the tablet will show a certain
number of steps , depending on exposure time
and manner of development. Examination of the
scale will probably show that the steps correspo n
d i n g t o the shadow tones i n t h e negative l a c k con
trast and that only a few steps of the sca le are well
separated . Next time you coat and print the im
age, lay the tablet back in place , but partly cover it
lengthwise with an opaque sheet of paper , cover
ing a strip a bout 6mm ( 1/4 in.) wide . This will let
you compare the effect of the second printing to
that of the first. Most likely you will see that after
the second printing the overal l density has i n
creased , t h e separation of tones in t h e shadows
has begun to i mprove , and that the steps a re more
distinct. Each time you recoat and expose the i m
age, cover a b i t more of t h e step tablet. This is an
excellent way to learn exactly what happens to the
tonal scale when you make a multiple print.
Contrast Control . It is possible to control the
effect of each subsequent printing on the tonal
scal e .
F o r instance , y o u c a n increase t h e shadow d e n
sity-without changing the highlights-simply b y
decreasing t h e exposure time so that o n l y the
shadows have a chance to become insoluble. This
is the standard practice in multiple printing if your
highlights show correct tone after the first ex
posu re .
208
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
_J
209
GUM PRINTING
I N G RE D I E N T S I N S E N S ITIVE COATI N G
INCR EASE
DECREASE
Pigment :
Sensitizer:
Gum:
Registration
210
2.
GUM PRINTING
18
21 1
10
14
16
212
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
214
215
Water, at about 52 C (1 25 F) . .
Sodium thiosulfate . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium sulfite (desiccated) . . . .
Sodium bisulfite . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cold water to make . . . . . . . . . .
.
500 ml
240 grams
.
.
1 0 grams
2 5 grams
.
. 1 , 000 ml
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
750 ml
1 0 ml
28 % Acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper (cupric) sulfate . . . . . . . .
3 0 grams
Potassium bromide . . . . . . . . . .
3 0 grams
Potassium dichromate . . . . . . . .
2 grams
Water to make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 , 000 ml
For use, add 1 part stock solution to 3 parts
water. Make up a fresh working solution for each
print and use it at about 20 C (68 F).
216
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
Inking Equipment
Brushes . For many decades the Sinclair Com
pany in Great Britain supplied a line of brushes for
inking prints . The Sinclair brushes have been dis
continued , but inking brushes based on the origi
nal design are now manufactured in the United
States . They are available from Robert Gumpper,
Ch ristian Street , B r i d g ewate r , C o n n ecticut
0 6 7 5 2 . Write for details. Other brush suppliers
are : L Reusch & Co . , 2 Lister Avenue, Newark,
New Jersey 07 1 05 ; and Stoddard Manufactur
ing , Icknield Way , Letchworth Garden City , Hert
fordshire , England SG6 4AH .
Figures 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 show the original brush
designs. The large brush , called a Mortimer in
honor of its inventor and traditionally made from
hog hair, is used for the first inking of the print. It is
actually a modified form of stencil brush and can
be made without too much trouble by cutting a
FIG.
161
217
FIG. 1 62
I
FIG. 1 63
218
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
FIG. 1 64
219
FIG.
1 65
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
220
H O P P I N G ACT I O N
2.
Inking a Print
FIG. 1 66
FIG. 1 67
FIG. 1 68
Bleached bromide.
3.
22 1
FIG. 1 69
FIG. 1 7 1
FIG. 1 70
FIG. 1 72
222
FIG. 1 7 3
FIG. 1 74
223
1 75
FIG.
1 76
Transfer
224
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
ETC H I N G P R ESS
R I V ETS O R BO LTS H O L D T H E M ET A L
P L A T E S TOG ET H E R. DO N OT R U N
THIS E N D U N D E R THE CYLI N D ER.
,- - - - - -1
: :s:: i
1 1
--+
...J P R ESS B E D
'\.
DETA I L OF A B O V E
P R ESS B L A N KET
M ETAL P LATE
B LOTT I N G P A P E R
I N K E D M A T R I X (FACE DOWN)
TRANSFER PAPER
B LOTT I N G PAPER
M ETAL PLATE
P R ESS BED
FIG.
1 77
--
R E G I STRAT I O N L I N ES,
DRAWN IN P E N C I L.
--
BACK OF M A T R I X
I
TRANSFER PAPER
FIG. 1 78
225
226
DICHROMATE PROCESSES
228
D E S C R I PT I O N O F COLO R PLATES
40.
43.
mercury , 1 9 7 3 .
PAUL STRAND . Rebecca, sepia platinum ,
October 1 9 20. Museum of Fine Arts , Boston .
Strand's printmaking , with its low tones and
slightly solarized shadows, was inspired by
Stieglitz's post-Photo -Secession portraits . Its
44.
46, 47
50.
Mold -infected gelatin silver print , acidic
cellophane tape.
Plates 46-50, courtesy of David Kolody.
40
1 9 75.
41
1 860.
42
1 9 74.
43
1 9 73.
44
1 920.
45
47
46
49
48
50
(See page 228)
SU BTRACT I V E P R I M A R I ES
W H ITE L I G H T
PA P E B
WHITE LIGHT
Y E L LOW
W H ITE L I G H T
PA P E R
THREE-COLOR PRINTING
229
230
COLOR TECHNIQUE
THREE-COLOR PRINTING
23 1
FIG. 1 80
232
COLOR TECHNIQUE
Filter
Red
Green
Blue
3 !13
3 !13
5 !4
4 J!2
4 J!2
THREE-COLOR PRINTING
233
...
-:"1!"'
ftc.";$.' ;:_
--""-'t..
"-
;-J=.....,._""-:: _ _
"
FIG. 1 8 1
236
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 1 83
FIG. 1 82
237
FIG. 1 84
FIG. 1 85
238
PHOTO.MECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 1 86 HIPPOLYTE FIZEAU , print from an etched daguerreotype of cutout figures , early 1 840's.
See Fig . 59.
(New York Public Library)
239
FIGS. 1 87- 1 88
FIG. 1 89
Porte de la Bibliotheque, Louvre, aquatint copied
from a daguerreotype for Excursions Daguer
riennes.
240
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 1 90
24 1
242
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 1 9 1 Vue d 'une Cour a Tunis, albumen print and a handmade lithographic copy with figures added .
Both appeared in Pierre Tremaux's Parallele des Edifices Anciens et Modernes de Continent African,
early 1 860's.
Photogravure
FIG. 1 92
FIG. 1 93
244
PHOTO.MECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
'
(
FIG. 1 94 TALBOT, Grass from the South of France, 1 850's. This print was made without a veil or
aquatint grain .
(New York Public Library)
PHOTOGRAVURE
FIG. 1 95
245
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
246
graphic News:
Photogravure
FIG.
1 96
PHOTOGRAVORE
247
................................................................................................................
----
-
--
-
-
-
----
FIG. 1 97
248
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
Print Quality
PA P E R
COPPER CYLI N D ER
FIG. 1 98
Rotogravure press.
PHOTOGRAVURE
249
FIG. 1 99 PETER H ENRY EMERSO N , The Black Pool, near Hoddesdon, photogravure in "naturalistic"
tones , 1 88 7 .
250
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG.
200
PHOTOG RAVORE
251
The Technique of
Hand Photogravure
FIG. 20 1
252
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 202
PHOTOGRAVURE
FIG.
203
FIG.
253
204
254
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
Sodium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glacial acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 0 grams
1 0 ml
16"
D O O R O P E N S D O WN
FIG. 205
255
PHOTOG RAVORE
FIG. 206
GRAIN
U N DERCUTI I N G
/ ,......,
,_....,
CO PPE Rf
T H E C O P P E R W I L L U N D E RCUT D U R I N G ETC H I N G IF T H E G R A I N
I S T O O F I N E.
SHOULDER
U N D E RCUT A R EA
COPPER
U N D E RCUTI I N G D ESTROYS T H E " S H O U LDER," SO THAT TOO
M U C H I N K I S R E M O V E D F R O M T H E S H A DOWS D U R I N G W I P I NG:
I N T H E P R I N T T H E S H A DOWS W I L L B E TOO LIG HT.
FIG.
207
256
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
P I G M E N T P A P E R ( R E S I ST)
I H:tllll
====
r.===
::::;i 6 M M ( V
==
I N .)
MASK
POSITIVE
FIG . 208
FIG. 208, 209, 2 1 0
PHOTOGRAVORE
PIGMENT PAPER
(G ELAT I N S I D E U P)
257
t=======- M A S K E D A R E A
A F T E R EXPOS U R E , T R I M T H E P A P E R A R O U N D T H E O U TS I D E E D G E 0
T H E M A S K , AS S H O W N H E R E .
FIG. 209
---
- - - - - -- - ---- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
--
C U T P LATE H E R E
-AFTE R ETC H I N G .
PIGMENT PAPER
( PA P E R S I D E U P)
C O P P E R PLATE
D U R I N G LAYDOW N , C E N T E R THE PA P E R O N THE PLATE.
FIG. 2 1 0
258
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 2 1 1
PHOTOG RAVURE
Drain this into the sink, then put the plate in a fresh
3 : 1 alcohol solution for 4 minutes with frequent
agitation . Pour off the solution and flood the plate
with straight alcohol , leaving it in this new solution
for about 1 minute , with agitation . The purpose of
the alcohol is to displace the water in the resist, so
that it will dry more uniformly and rapidly.
Afterward , set the plate on edge to dry in a cur
rent of air at about 2 1 C (70 F). Turn it over
periodically to let the high side become the low
side . Drying with heat is not recommended
because it can shrink the resist, making it pull
from the plate . The plate will be ready for etching
in about two hours , depending on the humidity in
the drying area .
Before etching , coat the back of the plate and
the borders a rou n d the i mage with liquid
asphaltum , thinned if necessary with paint thin
ner. This will protect t hem in the etching baths.
You will not need to coat the back if photoen
graving copper is used . If you want a straight
border around the image , apply the asphaltum
with a ruling pen and straightedge and then fill in
with a brush . Use a pointed brush to fill any
pinholes in the resist.
259
Principles of Etching
FIG.
212
260
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
SINGLE-BATH ETCHING
26 1
PHOTOGRAVURE
(Specific
gravity)
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
( 1 . 444)
( 1 .430)
( 1 . 420)
( 1 . 408)
( 1 . 396)
( 1 . 385)
( 1 . 3 73)
( 1 . 3 60)
( 1 . 34 7)
1 08
1 48
1 93
238
283
333
380
430
480
ml
ml
ml
ml
ml
ml
ml
ml
ml
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
262
FIG. 2 1 4
Etching a plate .
ETCHING SCHEDULE
45 Baume: Agitate the plate in this bath until
the deepest shadows are penetrated and
etching starts . The copper will darken as it
begins to etch-each step of the tonal scale
darkening in turn. When the shadows begin to
etch , transfer to the 43 Bau me bath . If etching
does not begin in the 4 5 Baume bath within
about 4 or 5 minutes , transfer to the 43
Baume bath .
43 Baume: Depending on the exposure
given the resist, most of the etching will take
place in this bath . The plate should remain in it
as long as the tones continue to come in at ap
proximately even intervals. The time in this
bath usually averages 1 0 minutes . When the
penetration of higher steps begins to slow
down , transfer to the 4 1 Baume bath .
41
The removal of
copper during etching proceeds to the side as
well as downward , with undercutting of the grain
in the shadows as a possible result. (Figure 207).
Undercutting is most likely to occur on fine
grained plates . Such plates should be sent
through the etching baths rather rapidly , bring
ing in the middle and lighter tones soon enough
to prevent undercutting the shadows. Plates with
a coarse grain can stand considerably more
etching .
The effect of undercutting is a reversal , or
lightening , of the shadow tones-because the
wiping rag drags the ink out of the shadow
pockets . The problem is greatest when deep
shadow values cover broad areas of the plate.
Grain Size and Etching Time .
PHOTOGRAVURE
263
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 liter
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 5 gram
Potassium cyanide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 5 gram
.
great care .
B E V E L T H E E D G ES O F T H E C O M PLETED P LATE B E F O R E P R I N T I N G :
P U S H T H E F I L E FORWA R D AT T H E S A M E T I M E AS Y O U P U S H IT D O W N .
FIG. 2 1 5
Beveling .
264
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
PHOTOG RAVURE
265
FIG. 2 1 6
266
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG . 2 1 9
FIG. 2 1 7
FIG. 2 1 8
267
PHOTOG RAVURE
Steel Facing
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 8 liters
Ammonium ferrous sulfate . . . . . . . 800 grams
R E CT I F I E R
VAT
FIG. 220
268
solution .
Keep the plating bath covered with a plastic film
to prevent oxidation when it is not in use . Let the
sediment settle to the bottom and remain undis
turbed . From time to time decant the solution,
clean out the vat, and bring the solution back to
level by adding more ferrous salt and water accor
ding to the formulas given. Dry the steel plate and
cover it with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) or asphal
tum to prevent rust between use.
The printing plate must be perfectly clean be
fore being faced. First, solder the copper or brass
hanger to the back of the plate . Then clean the ink
from the plate with a brush and a 5 % solution of
sodium hydroxide and a little whiting. This can be
heated to boiling and used hot if necessary . After
wards, rinse the plate in water, dip it for several
seconds in a 5 % hydrochloric acid solution , then
Collotype
History
FIG.
221
270
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 222
COLLOTYPE
271
FIG. 2 2 3
272
COLLOTYPE
O R I G I N A L STA T E
FIG.
R ET I C U LA T E D A N D SWO L L E N
273
DRIED
224 Cross section o f reticulated gelatin (The British Journal of Photography, August 1 2 , 1 94 9 ,
p . 3 7 2) .
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
274
FIG. 226
PLUG
H EAT I N G COI LS
H EA T I N G T A P E
FIG . 225
SNAKE TAPE
A L O N G BOTIOM
OF OVEN
275
COLLOTYPE
20 ml
FIG. 2 2 7
276
FILTER PUMP
FIG. 228
1 gram
25 ml
COLLOTYPE
277
FIG. 2 2 9
FIG. 230
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
278
Printing
Paper. Smooth papers are best for collotype . A
hot-pressed or a coated paper will pick up all or
most of the ink from the plate after an impression,
while textured papers leave some ink behind . Any
smooth -surfaced paper used for offset printing ,
such as Warren's Cameo Dull, will print well with
collotype .
Presses . A special press is not necessary for
collotype work. You can use a typographic proof
ing press or a lithographic press. On an ex
perimental basis, you can make do with a sturdy
flat surface , a rubber roller, and your own
muscles.
In all cases it is important to give the plate a
uniform support with no dirt or grit underneath
that could cause the glass to crack when pressure
is applied . You can fix the plate firmly to the bed of
a press with plaster of Paris or set it down on
several sheets of blotting paper, dampened so
that the plate will not slip.
The scraper on a lithographic press tends to
wear down the gelati n ; so adj ust it carefully to the
minimum pressure necessary.
Dampening the Plates for Printing . If you ex
amine the collotype plate at this stage under about
Bx magnification , you will see the reticulation pat
tern . The coating now consists of hardened gela
tin along the reticulation lines and unhardened
gelatin in the little bubbles in between . The
hardened gelatin will not absorb water (except for
a very small amount) and, by remaining dry , will
accept a greasy lithographic ink. The unhardened
gelatin will absorb water and repel the ink. The
plate is dampened with a solution of glycerin and
water.
279
COLLOTYPE
G LASS I N K I N G S L A B
A F T E R F I RST ROLLI N G
FIG. 2 3 2
I N K PATC H
L I T H O G RA P H I C R O L L E R
c tS
g :J
ROLLER A N D SLAB
COVERED WITH
PARALLEL LI N ES O F I N K.
FIG. 23 1
280
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
Other Photomechanical
Process
Here are brief descriptions of three historically im
portant processes.
Photogalvanography
S H A DOWS
H I G H L I G H TS
G E LAT I N
FIG. 2 3 3
282
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 234
283
FIG. 2 3 5
284
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
Fig . 236
Woodburytype
FIG. 2 3 7
286
PHOTOMECHANICAL TECHNIQUES
FIG. 238
Museum
of
Photography/George
Eastman
FIG. 2 3 9
Museum
of
Photography/George
Eastman
287
WOODBU RYTVPE
FIG. 240
Woodburytype Printers
288
Technical Problems
FIG. 242
FIG. 24 1
WOODBU RYTYPE
FIG. 243
Modifications
289
FIG. 244
Part III
Conservation and
Restoration
Mounting and storage o f any image o n paper
come under the category of conservation . The
materials and methods used should protect the
artwork against chemical contamination and
against physical damage . The science of photo
graphic conservation has received much overdue
attention in the last several decades. Even so , it is
still an imperfect science , and its procedures have
to be revised constantly as new information
comes to light. The basic principles , however, are
firmly set. They include proper fixing and washing
of the image , the use of acid -free papers and
adhesives, control of humidity and temperature in
the storage and display areas , and protection
against atmospheric pollution and ultraviolet
radiation .
O V E R MAT
Mounting
r- - - - ,
DI
'
I 'L
_ . :
- - -
FIG. 245
I
I
294
Distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50 ml
Wheat starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 grams
Thymol (saturated solution) . . . . . . 1 0 drops
295
Restoration
Restoration is a delicate art learned only through
practice . It should be thought of as a last resort.
While its techniques can often halt, slow down , or
even reverse, the deterioration of an image , their
effects can be difficult to predict and their applica
tion always carries the risk that the image will suf
fer even further damage .
For the inexperienced , the best plan in caring
for a valuable photograph or other work of art in
need of repair is to consult a competent profes
sional. Before any attempt is made to clean or
restore it, a valuable item should first be copied
photographically so that there will at least be a
record of the image in case of damage.
Daguerreotypes
FIG. 246
296
FIG. 2 4 7
FIG. 248
297
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formalin (3 7 % formaldehyde
solution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium carbonate
(monohydrated) . . . . . . . . . .
Water to make a total volume of .
. . . 250 ml
. . .
5 ml
. . .
3 grams
. . . 500 ml
Silver Prints
298
THE KEEPERS
OF LIGHT
299
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 ml
Hydrogen peroxide (3 % ) . . . . . . . . . . . 60 ml
Ammonia solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 ml
(1 part 28 % ammonia to 9 parts water)
Water to make total volume . . . . . . . . . 500 ml
Mix this just before use. The solution produces
gas, so do not put it in a stoppered bottle.
Mold
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00 ml
Sodium sulfide (anhydrous) . . . . . .
2 grams
For use, dilute 1 part of the stock solution with 9
parts of water. The diluted solution will not keep
longer than a week; the stock solution not longer
than 3 months.
FIG . 2 4 9
3 00
Removing Stains
FIG. 250
30 1
Footnotes
304
305
FOOTNOTES
1 1 6Eugene
Ostroff,
"Etching,
Engraving ,
and
Photog
1 966.
122America and Alfred Stieglitz, New York, 1 934, p . 83.
1 23See the text accompanying the Da Capo edition .
1 24Poitevin was not the first to ink a plate in this way . Paul
Pretsch had described a similar method in British Patent No.
2373 ( 1 854).
1 2 5" Alphonse Louis Poitevin and His Work , " Penrose 's
Recommended Reading
ABNEY, W .
Instruction in Photography. 11 th e d .
ANDERSO N , PAUL L.
"Special Printing Processes, " in Henny,
Keith , and Beverly Dudley. Handbook
of Photography. New York ; Whit
tlesey House , 1939.
T h e Technique of Pictorial Photog
raphy . New York: J . B. Lippincott ,
1939. Originally published as Pictorial
Photography, Its Principles and
Practice . New York: J . B. Lippincott,
19 17.
Anderson was t h e authority on
historical and nonsilver printing
methods. "Special Printing Process " in
particular is an excellent source of in
formation.
BROTHERS, A.
Photogra p h y : Its H i story, Pro
cesses, Apparatus, and Materials.
BURBA N K, W . H .
Photographic Printing Methods. 3rd
DUCHOCHOIS, P . C .
TISSANDIER, GASTON
A H i s t o r y a n d H a n d bo o k o f
Photography. N e w York: Scovil l ,
1892.
Good source of formulas.
1 87 7 .
TOWLER , JOHN
EATON , GEORGE T .
Photographic
The
2nd ed.
Morgan &
Chemistry.
H a s t i n g s - o n H u ds o n :
Morgan, 1 96 5 .
Excellent and readable introduction to
photographic chemistry.
JONES, BERNARD EDWARD
WADE, KENT E.
Alternative Photographic Pro
cesses. Dobbs Ferry : Morgan &
Morgan, 1 97 8 .
JONES, CHAPMAN
An Introduction to the Science and
Practice of Photography. 2nd ed.
The
KOSAR, JAROMIR
LIETZE, ERNEST
Modern
Heliographic
Processes.
1927.
The second and third editions ( 1 930,
1 938) are the best for historical
processes.
WALL, E . J .
Dictionary
of
Photography.
Adams, 1896.
Excellent source on nineteenth-century
technique.
308
Photographic Emulsions
Ambrotype
BAKER, T . THORNE
ANDERSO N , PAUL L.
"Hand Sensitized Palladium Paper, "
American
Photography ,
32:
457 ( 1 938).
Emulsions.
London:
Arno, 1 973.
BURGESS, N . G .
The Ambrotype Manual. N e w York:
D . Burgess, 1 856.
The Photography and Ambrotype
Manual. New York: Hubbard, Burgess,
1 86 1 .
Paper
ESTABROOKE, EDWARD
The Ferrotype and How to Make It.
T h e Silver Sunbeam.
Story
of
Papermaking.
New
Salted Paper
STRAUSS, VICTOR
Cyanotype
BROWN, GEORGE E.
Ferric and Heliographic Processes.
TENNANT, JOHN A.
"Platinotype Processes , " T h e Photo
Miniature , October, 1899.
"Platinotype
Modifications , "
The
CLERC , LOUIS-PHILIPPE
Photography, Theory and Practice.
THOMSO N , JAMES
"A Silver-Platinum Printing Paper,"
American Photography, November,
1 9 1 5 , p. 630.
WALL, E.J .
'The Platinotype
188 7 .
CLERC , LOUISPHILIPPE
Photography , Theory and Practice.
KOSAR, JAROMI R
Light-Sensitive Systems. New York:
TENNANT, JOHN A.
'The Blue Print and its Variations , "
The Photo-Miniature . January , 1900.
Process, British
Journal of Photography 49, pp. 53 1 ,
5 7 0 , 6 1 2 , 630 ( 1902).
WALL, E.J . , and
FRAN KLIN I . JORDAN
Photographic Facts and Formulas.
RECOMMEN D E D READING
WARREN , W . J .
A Handbook o f the Platinotype Pro
cess of Photographic Printing . Lon
March 1 5 , 1880.
309
GREEN , ROBERT, M . D .
Carbro , Carbon. 2 n d e d . rev . Fort
Wayne, Indiana : Gallery 6 1 4, 1 975.
WAUGH , F.A.
"G u m - Bi c h romate Printing , " The
Photo-Miniature, January, 1 90 1 .
MARTON , A.M.
WHIPPLE, LEYLAND
Manuscript on gum and three-color gum
printing at the George Eastman House,
Rochester, New York.
A N e w Treatise on t h e Modern
Methods of Carbon Printing . Bloo m
ingto n : 1 905.
Information on making carbon tissue.
NEWENS, FRANK R .
T h e Technique of Color Photogra
phy, Boston : American Photographic
Publishing Co . , 1 93 1 .
Kallitype
BROWN , GEORGE E.
Ferric and Heliographic Processes.
AJ - 5 .
TENNANT, JOHN A.
'The Carbon Process , " The Photo
Miniature, No. 1 7 , 1900.
HAWKINS, G . L .
WALL. E.J .
Practical
Color
Photography.
Carbon a n d Carbro
ANDERSO N , PAUL L.
"Special Printing Processes," in Henny,
Keith , and Beverly Dudley. Handbook
of Photography. New York: Whittle
sey H ouse , 1 939.
BURTON , W . K .
Practical Guide t o Photographic and
Photomechanical Printing . London:
DUNN , CARLTON E.
3rd ed.
Boston : American Photographic Pub
lishing Co . , 1940.
Natural
Color
Processes.
Printing. London :
Greenwood & Co . , 1 933.
Pigment
Henry
MAYER , EMIL
B r o m o i l Pri n t i n g a n d Bromoil
Transfer. Boston : American Photo
ANDERSON, PAUL L.
"Special Printing Processes," in Henny,
Keith , and Beverly Dudley. Handbook
of Photography. New York: Whittlesey
House, 1 939.
Gum Printing
ANDERSO N , PAUL L.
"Special Printing Processes," in Henny,
Keith , and Beverly Dudley. Handbook
of Photography. New York : Whittle
sey House, 1 9 3 9 .
MASKELL, ALFRED , a n d
ROBERT DEMACHY
T h e Photo-Aquatint, or t h e Gum
Bichromate Process . 2nd ed. Lon
Three-Color Printing
HUNT, R . W . G .
T h e Reprod uction of C o l o r in
Photography, Printing , and Tele
vision. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley
THE KEEPERS
310
The History of
OF LIGHT
Journal o f the Photographic Society,
LILIEU , OTTO M.
Photomechanical Printing
1 85 6 , pp. 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 .
JUSSIM, ESTELLE
Visual Communication and the
Graphic Arts: Photographic Tech
nologies in the Nineteenth Century .
The
Photogravure
Handbook.
Chicago:
BROTHERS, A.
Photogra p h y : Its H istory , Pro
cesses, Apparatus, and Materials.
1 89 2 . pp.
BENNETT, COLIN N .
Elements of Photogravure. 2 n d ed.
SCHNAUSS, JULIUS
Collotype and Photo-Lithography
Practically Elaborated . London : I liffe
WILKINSO N , W.T.
Scovill,
CARTWRIGHT, H . MILLS
Photogravure . Boston : The Ameri
can Photographic Publishing Co . ,
1 939.
This is the most useful book for the
student of photogravure.
Photo-Engraving, Photo-Litho,
Collotype , and Photogravure. Lon
don , 1 894.
WILSON , T .
The Practice of Collotype . Boston:
American Photographic Publishing
Co. , 1 935.
By far the best reference on collotype.
DENISO N , H ERBERT
A Treatise on Photogravure . Lon
don , Iliffe & Sons, 1 89 5 . Reprinted ,
Rochester, New York: Visual Studies
Workshop Press , 1 974.
KRAFT, JAMES N .
A n H istorical and Practical Investi
gation of Photogravure. Unpublished
vation Associatio n , 1 97 3 .
DOLLOFF, FRANCIS, and
ROY PERKINSON
How to Care for Works of Art on
Paper. Boston : Museum of Fine Arts,
1 97 1 .
OSTROFF, E.
Conserving and Restoring Photo
graphic Collections. American Asso
Care
of
Gravure Heliographique
Nashville :
American Association for State and
Local History , 1 977. Distributed by
Morgan & Morgan .
Contains useful information and basic
bibliography.
BORCOMA N , JAMES
WILHELM , HENRY
P r e s e r v a t i o n o f C o n t e m p o r a ry
Photographic Materials . East Street
Mackay, 1 956.
Collotype
BURTON , W . K .
Photogravure
Photogalvanography
HAN NAVY, JOHN
Roger Fenton . Bosto n : David Godine ,
1 97 6 .
Sources of Supply
ALABAMA
COLORADO
VWR Scientific
ARIZONA
VWR Scientific
2 7 7 5 Pacific Drive
Norcross 3007 1
404 I 449- 5050
HAWAII
VWR Scientific
4040 Dahlia St .
Denver 80207
303 I 399-8220
P . O . Box 9697
Honolulu 96820
808 I 84 7 1 36 1
C O N N ECTICUT
ILLINOIS
30 Maynard Street
Meriden 06450
203 I 2 3 5 - 7989
CALIFORNIA
DELAWARE
VWR Scientific
P . O . Box 1 39 1
San Diego 92 1 1 2
7 1 4 1 262-07 1 1
VWR Scientific
P . O . Box 3200
Rincon Annex
San Francisco 94 1 1 9
4 1 5 I 469-0 1 00
FLORIDA
7 5 2 4 Currency Drive
Orlando 3280 1
305 I 859-82 8 1
Fisher Scientific Company
2 3 7 5 Pratt Boulevard
Elk Grove Village 60007
3 1 2 I 439- 2500
Technical Industrial Products
Wilkens-Anderson Co.
VWR Scientific
1 8095 Mt . Shay
Fountain Valley 9 2 708
7 1 4 1 963-67 6 1
2 2 2 5 Martin Avenue
San Francisco 95050
408 I 249-0660
4 1 0 W . Peachtree Street , N . W .
Atlanta 30308
404 I 52 1 - 1 700
312
I N DIANA
Mallinckrodt Laboratory
Harvard University
1 2 Oxford Street
Cambridge
6 1 7 I 495-40 1 1
83 Cordier Street
I rvington 07 1 1 1
20 1 I 926-0333
2 1 2 I 228-8920
MICH IGAN
KENTUCKY
62 1 Celeste Street
New Orleans 70 1 23
504 I 524-0475
MARYLAND
1 07 2 7 Tucker Road
Beltsville 20705
30 1 / 93 7 - 5950
VWR Scientific
25 Commercial Street
Medford 02 1 5 5
6 1 7 I 39 1 -0090
Curtin Matheson Scientific Co.
P . O . Box 250
Everett 02 1 49
6 1 7 I 389-7000
VWR Scientific
46 1 Riverside Avenue
Medford 02 1 55
6 1 7 I 39 1 -6 1 1 0
2 2 1 8 University Avenu e , S . E .
Minneapolis 5 54 1 4
6 1 2 / 3 78- 1 1 1 0
Leriab Supply Co.
3 1 60 Terrace Street
Kansas City 64 1 1 1
8 1 6 I 56 1 -8780
Curtin Matheson Scientific Co.
1 1 5 2 6 Adie Road
Maryland H eights 63043
3 1 4 I 8 7 2 - 8 1 00
NEW J ERSEY
3 5 7 Hamburg Turnpike
Wayne 07470
2 0 1 I 2 7 8 - 3 300
Macalaster Bicknell of N.J. , Inc.
35 Stern Avenue
Springfield 0708 1
2 0 1 I 3 7 6 - 7050
SGA Scientific Inc.
7 3 5 Broad Street
Bloomfield 07003
201 I 748-6600
2 1 2 I 267 -945 1
Seidler Chemical & Supply Co.
1 6 Orange Street
Newark 07 1 02
2 0 1 I 622 -4495
Fisher Scientific Company
52 Fadem Road
Springfield 0708 1
2 0 1 I 3 7 9 - 1 400
NEW MEXICO
VWR Scientific
67 Howard Street
Albany 1 2 207
58 1 I 434- 1 747
Ashland Chemical Co.
3 Broad Street
Binghamton 1 3902
607 I 7 2 3 - 5 4 5 5
44 1 W. 3 7th Street
New York 1 00 1 8
2 1 2 I 563-2684
SOURCES OF SUPPLY
Kem Chemical
87 1 River Road
N. Tonawanda 1 4 1 20
7 1 6 1 692- 1 350
VWR Scientific
40 Greenleaf Street
Rochester 1 4609
7 1 6 1 288-588 1
OKLAH OMA
RHODE ISLAND
2 6 7 Plain Street
Providence 02950
40 1 / 83 1 -4 1 00
VWR Scientific
OHIO
1 2 1 0 1 Centron Place
Cincinnati 45246
5 1 3 1 67 1 - 1 200
Curtin Matheson Scientific Co.
4 5 4 0 Willow Parkway
Cleveland 44 1 25
2 1 6/883-2424
VWR Scientific
2 0 4 2 Camara Avenue
Columbus 43207
6 1 4 / 445-82 8 1
Sargent- Welch Scientific Co.
TENNESSEE
9 3 6 E . 3rd Street
Chattanooga 3740 1
6 1 5 1 267- 1 1 6 1
Nashville Surgical Supply Co.
3 3 3 2 Powell Avenue
Nashville 3 7 202
6 1 5 I 2 5 5 -460 1
TEXAS
313
P . O . Box 7 3 1 6
Philadelphia 1 9 1 0 1
2 1 5 1 748-8600
Para Scientific Co.
3 5 3 1 Lancaster Avenue
Philadelphia 1 9 1 04
2 1 5 I 2 2 2 -5655
59 1 5 Peeler Street
Dallas 7 5 2 3 5
2 1 4 / 3 5 7 -938 1
Capitol Scientific
7 2 30 Mykawa Road
Houston 7 6 1 33
7 1 3 I 64 1 -068 1
VWR Scientific
VWR Scientific
314
VIRGINIA
General Medical
3 1 9 Mill Street N . E .
Vienna 2 2 1 80
703 I 938-3500
General Medical Scientific
8 7 4 1 Landmark Road
P . O . Box 26509
Richmond 2 3 2 6 1
804 I 264-2862
Fisher Scientific Company
Seaboard Building
3 600 West Broad Street
Richmond 2 3 2 30
804 I 359- 1 30 1
WEST VIRGINIA
Prelser Scientific
VWR Scientific
EDMONTO N , ALBERTA
1 2 1 Express Street
Plainview , New York 1 1 803
5 1 6 I 433-6262
5 6 1 4 Fenwick Street
Halifax
902 I 429- 3806
MONTREAL, QUEBEC
80 J utland Road
Toronto 550
4 1 6 1 252-5 1 5 1
VANCOUVER , B . C .
WESTO N . ONTARIO
Drake Brothers
CANADA
W I N N I PEG. MANITOBA
5 3 5 Marjorie Street
204 1 7 7 4 - 1 945
P . O . Box 1 59
Beverly , Massachusetts 0 1 9 1 5
6 1 7 I 922 -0768
2098 Pike Street
San Leandro, California 945 7 7
4 1 5 I 352-4077
1 500 Stanley Street
Suite 405
Montreal 1 1 0 , Quebec
5 1 4 1 845 -9280
Here is a
number of
this book,
chemicals.
quest their
P . O . Box 5 1 05
Missoula, Montana 59806
Index
316
INDEX
ToulouseLautrec, Henri , 1 02
Velox printing paper, 64
Vogel, Hermann Wilhel m , 1 05
Von Hubl, Arthur, 7 6 , 88
Von Struck , Franz, 98
Walker, Todd , 2 7 1
Watzek, Hans, 99
waxed-paper process, 38
Wedgwood , Thomas, 1 9
Weston , Edward , 8 7 , 9 7 , 1 09- 1 1 0
wet plate , see collodion
Wey , Francis , 38, 90
Whistler, James Abbott McNeil l , 92
317
Wilkie, Davi d , 1 2
Willis , Willia m , 7 6
Wilso n , Edward , 7 9
Wilso n , George Washingto n , 1 3
Winogrand, Garry , 1 4
Wollaston , William Hyde, 1 8
Woodbury , Walter Bently, 2 84 ,
2 8 5 - 289
Woodbury , Walter E., 285
Woodburygravure , 289
Woodburytype , 2 8 5 -289
wood engraving , 2 4 1
Youn g , Thomas, 2 2 7
318
Flatter no man , but spare not generous praise to really good work.
P ETER H ENRY EMERSON
Ounces
16
1
0.0625
Grams
Kilograms
7000
437.5
453.6
28.35
0 . 0648
0.4536
0.02835
1 5. 4 3
1 5430
0.03527
35.27
2 . 205
Grains
0 . 00 1
1
1 000
Quarts
4
1
0.25
Ounces
(Fluid)
1 . 057
Cubic
Centimeters
1 024
256
8
1 28
32
1
0. 2642
Drams
(Fluid)
0. 1 2 5
0.0338 1
33. 8 1
3785
946. 3
29.57
3.697
0. 2 705
270.5
1 000
Liters
3. 785
0 . 9463
0.02957
0.003697
0 . 00 1
1
CONVERSION FACTO RS
Grains per 3 2 fluid oz multiplied by
0 . 06847
Ounces per 3 2 fluid oz multiplied by 2 9 . 9 6
Pounds p e r 32 fluid o z multiplied by 4 7 9 . 3
multiplied by
multiplied by
multiplied by
1 4 . 60
0.03338
0 . 002086
T emperoture
Conversion
Scale
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES