Direction Finding PDF

Contents
Articles
Direction finding
Radio direction finder
Adcock antenna
14
Non-directional beacon
15
High-frequency direction finding
21
Signals intelligence
27
Avalanche transceiver
42
Triangulation
46
Phased array
51
Amateur radio direction finding
59
References
Article Sources and Contributors
68
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
69
Article Licenses
License
71
Direction finding
Direction finding
Direction finding (DF), or radio direction
finding (RDF), refers to the measurement
of the direction from which a received
signal was transmitted. This can refer to
radio or other forms of wireless
communication. By combining the direction
information from two or more suitably
spaced receivers (or a single mobile
receiver), the source of a transmission may
be located in space via triangulation. Radio
direction finding is used in the navigation of
ships and aircraft, to locate emergency
transmitters for search and rescue, for
tracking wildlife, and to locate illegal or
interfering transmitters.
Radiotriangulation scheme
RDF systems can be used with any radio

source, although the size of the receiver antennas are a function of the wavelength of the signal - very long
wavelengths (low frequencies) require very large antennas, and are generally used only on ground-based systems.
These wavelengths are nevertheless very useful for marine radio navigation as they can travel very long distances
"over the horizon", which is valuable for ships when the line-of-sight may be only a few tens of kilometres. For
aerial use, where the horizon may extend to hundreds of kilometres, higher frequencies can be used, allowing the use
of much smaller antennas. An automatic direction finder, which could be tuned to radio beacons called
non-directional beacons or commercial AM radio broadcasters, was until recently, a feature of most aircraft, but is
now being phased out
For the military, RDF is a key component of signals intelligence systems and methodologies. The ability to locate
the position of an enemy broadcaster has been invaluable since World War I, and played a key role in World War II's
Battle of the Atlantic. It is estimated that the UK's advanced "huff-duff" systems were directly or indirectly
responsible for 24% of all U-Boats sunk during the war. Modern systems often used phased array antennas to allow
rapid beamforming for highly accurate results, and are part of a larger electronic warfare suite.
Several distinct generations of RDF systems have been used over time, following the development of new
electronics. Early systems used mechanically rotated antennas that compared signal strengths, and several electronic
versions of the same concept followed. Modern systems use the comparison of phase or doppler techniques which
are generally simpler to automate. Early British radar sets were referred to as RDF, which is often stated was a
deception. In fact, the Chain Home systems used large RDF receivers to determine directions. Later radar systems
generally used a single antenna for broadcast and reception, and determined direction from the direction the antenna
was facing.
Direction finding
Antennas
Direction finding requires an antenna that is directional (more sensitive in certain directions than in others). Many
antenna designs exhibit this property. For example, a Yagi antenna has quite pronounced directionality, so the source
of a transmission can be determined simply by pointing it in the direction where the maximum signal level is
obtained. However, to establish direction to great accuracy requires more sophisticated technique.
A simple form of directional antenna is the loop aerial. This consists of
an open loop of wire on an insulating former, or a metal ring that forms
the antenna elements itself, where the diameter of the loop is a tenth of
a wavelength or smaller at the target frequency. Such an antenna will
be least sensitive to signals that are normal to its face and most
responsive to those meeting edge-on. This is caused by the phase
output of the transmitting beacon. The phase changing phase causes a
difference between the voltages induced on either side of the loop at
any instant. Turning the loop face on will not induce any current flow.
The crossed-loops DF antenna atop the mast of a
Simply turning the antenna to obtain minimum signal will establish
tug boat
two possible directions from which the signal could be emanating. The
NULL is used, as small angular deflections of the loop aerial near its
null positions produce larger changes in current than similar angular changes near the loops max positions. For this
reason, a null position of the loop aerial is used.
To resolve the two direction possibilities, a sense antenna is used, the sense aerial has no directional properties but
has the same sensitivity as the loop aerial. By adding the steady signal from the sense aerial to the alternating signal
from the loop signal as it rotates, there is now only one position as the loop rotates 360 at which there is zero
current. This acts as a phase ref point, allowing the correct null point to be identified, thus removing the 180
ambiguity. A dipole antenna exhibits similar properties, and is the basis for the Yagi antenna, which is familiar as the
common VHF or UHF television aerial. For much higher frequencies still, parabolic antennas can be used, which are
highly directional, focusing received signals from a very narrow angle to a receiving element at the centre.
More sophisticated techniques such as phased arrays are generally used for highly accurate direction finding systems
called goniometers such as are used in signals intelligence (SIGINT). A helicopter based DF system was designed by
ESL Incorporated for the U.S. Government as early as 1972.
See also: Radio direction finder
Direction finding
Single channel DF
Single-channel DF refers to the use of a multi-antenna array with a
single channel radio receiver. This approach to DF obviously offers
some advantages and drawbacks. Since it only uses one receiver,
mobility and lower power consumption are obvious benefits but
without the ability to look at each antenna simultaneously (which
would be the case if one were to use multiple receivers, also known as
N-channel DF) more complex operations need to occur at the antenna
in order to present the signal to the receiver.
The two main categories that a single channel DF algorithm falls into
are amplitude comparison and phase comparison. Some algorithms can
be hybrids of the two.
Pseudo-doppler DF technique
The RDF antenna on this B-17F is located in the

prominent teardrop housing under the nose.
The pseudo-doppler technique is a phase based DF method that

produces a bearing estimate on the received signal by measuring the
doppler shift induced on the signal by sampling around the elements of a circular array. The original method used a
single antenna that physically moved in a circle but the modern approach uses a multi-antenna circular array with
each antenna sampled in succession.
Watson-Watt / Adcock antenna array

Main article: Adcock antenna
The Watson-Watt technique uses two Adcock antenna pairs to perform an amplitude comparison on the incoming
signal. An Adcock antenna pair is a pair of monopole or dipole antennas that takes the vector difference of the
received signal at each antenna so that there is only one output from the pair of antennas. Two of these pairs are
co-located but perpendicularly oriented to produce what can be referred to as the N-S (North-South) and E-W
(East-West) signals that will then be passed to the receiver. In the receiver, the bearing angle can then be computed
by taking the arctangent of the ratio of the N-S to E-W signal.
Correlative interferometer
The basic principle of the correlative interferometer consists in comparing the measured phase differences with the
phase differences obtained for a DF antenna system of known configuration at a known wave angle (reference data
set). The comparison is made for different azimuth values of the reference data set, the bearing is obtained from the
data for which the correlation coefficient is at a maximum. In case the DF antenna elements have a directional
antenna pattern, the amplitude may be included in the comparison.
Direction finding
Usage
Radio navigation
Radio direction finding, Radio direction finder, or RDF was once the
primary aviation navigational aid. (Range and Direction Finding was
the abbreviation used to describe the predecessor to Radar.) Beacons
were used to mark "airways" intersections and to define departure and
approach procedures. Since the signal transmitted contains no
information about bearing or distance, these beacons are referred to as
non-directional beacons, or NDB in the aviation world. Starting in the
1950s, these beacons were generally replaced by the VOR system, in
which the bearing to the navigational aid is measured from the signal
itself; therefore no specialized antenna with moving parts is required.
Due to relatively low purchase, maintenance and calibration cost,
NDB's are still used to mark locations of smaller aerodromes and
important helicopter landing sites.
A portable, battery operated GT-302 Accumatic

automatic direction finder for marine use
Further information: Non-directional beacon

Similar beacons located in coastal areas are also used for maritime radio navigation, as almost every ship is (was)
equipped with a direction finder (Appleyard 1988). Very few maritime radio navigation beacons remain active today
(2008) as ships have abandoned navigation via RDF in favor of GPS navigation.
In the United Kingdom a radio direction finding service is available on 121.5MHz and 243.0MHz to aircraft pilots
who are in distress or are experiencing difficulties. The service is based on a number of radio DF units located at
civil and military airports and certain HM Coastguard stations. These stations can obtain a "fix" of the aircraft and
transmit it by radio to the pilot.
Location of illegal, secret or hostile transmitters - SIGINT

See also: High frequency direction finding and SIGINT
In WW2 considerable effort was expended on identifying secret transmitters in the United Kingdom (UK) by
direction finding. The work was undertaken by the Radio Security Service (RSS also MI8). Initially three U Adcock
HF DF stations were set up in 1939 by the General Post Office. With the declaration of war, MI5 and RSS developed
this into a larger network. One of the problems with providing coverage of an area the size of the UK was installing
sufficient DF stations to cover the entire area to receive skywave signals reflected back from the ionised layers in the
upper atmosphere. Even with the expanded network, some areas were not adequately covered and for this reason up
to 1700 voluntary interceptors (radio amateurs) were recruited to detect illicit transmissions by ground wave. In
addition to the fixed stations, RSS ran a fleet of mobile DF vehicles around the UK. If a transmitter was identified by
the fixed DF stations or voluntary interceptors, the mobile units were sent to the area to home in on the source. The
mobile units were HF Adcock systems.
By 1941 only a couple of illicit transmitters had been identified in the UK; these were German agents that had been
'turned' and were transmitting under MI5 control. Many illicit transmissions had been logged emanating from
German agents in occupied and neutral countries in Europe. The traffic became a valuable source of intelligence, so
the control of RSS was subsequently passed to MI6 who were responsible for secret intelligence originating from
outside the UK. The direction finding and interception operation increased in volume and importance until 1945.
The HF Adcock stations consisted of four 10m vertical antennas surrounding a small wooden operators hut
containing a receiver and a radio-goniometer which was adjusted to obtain the bearing. MF stations were also used
which used four guyed 30m lattice tower antennas. In 1941 RSS began experimenting with Spaced Loop direction
Direction finding
finders, developed by the Marconi company and the UK National Physical Laboratories. These consisted of two
parallel loops 1 to 2m square on the ends of a rotatable 3 to 8m beam. The angle of the beam was combined with
results from a radiogoniometer to provide a bearing. The bearing obtained was considerably sharper than that
obtained with the U Adcock system, but there were ambiguities which prevented the installation of 7 proposed S.L
DF systems. The operator of an SL system was in a metal underground tank below the antennas. Seven underground
tanks were installed, but only two SL systems were installed at Wymondham, Norfolk and Weaverthorp in
Yorkshire. Problems were encountered resulting in the remaining five underground tanks being fitted with Adcock
systems. The rotating SL antenna was turned by hand which meant successive measurements were a lot slower than
turning the dial of a goniometer.
Another experimental spaced loop station was built near Aberdeen in 1942 for the Air Ministry with a
semi-underground concrete bunker. This, too, was abandoned because of operating difficulties. By 1944 a mobile
version of the spaced loop had been developed and was used by RSS in France following the D-Day invasion of
Normandy.
The US military used a shore based version of the spaced loop DF in WW2 called "DAB". The loops were placed at
the ends of a beam, all of which was located inside a wooden hut with the electronics in a large cabinet with cathode
ray tube display at the centre of the beam and everything being supported on a central axis. The beam was rotated
manually by the operator.
The Royal Navy introduced a variation on the shore based HF DF stations in 1944 to track U-boats in the North
Atlantic. They built groups of five DF stations, so that bearings from individual stations in the group could be
combined and a mean taken. Four such groups were built in Britain at Ford End, Essex, Goonhavern, Cornwall,
Anstruther and Bowermadden in the Scottish Highlands. Groups were also built in Iceland, Nova Scotia and
Jamaica. The anticipated improvements were not realised but later statistical work improved the system and the
Goonhavern and Ford End groups continued to be used during the Cold War. The Royal Navy also deployed
direction finding equipment on ships tasked to anti-submarine warfare in order to try to locate German submarines,
e.g. Captain class frigates were fitted with a medium frequency direction finding antenna (MF/DF) (the antenna was
fitted in front of the bridge) and high frequency direction finding (HF/DF, "Huffduff") Type FH 4 antenna (the
antenna was fitted on top of the mainmast).[1]
Arguably the most comprehensive reference on WW2 wireless direction finding was written by Roland Keen who
was head of the engineering department of RSS at Hanslope Park. The DF systems mentioned here are described in
detail in his exhaustive treatment of the subject in the 1947 edition of his book "Wireless Direction Finding".
At the end of WW2 a number of RSS DF stations continued to operate into the cold war under the control of GCHQ
the British SIGINT organisation.
Most direction finding effort within the UK now (2009) is directed towards locating unauthorised 'pirate' FM
broadcast radio transmissions. A network of remotely operated VHF direction finders are used mainly located
around the major cities. The transmissions from mobile telephone handsets are also located by a form of direction
finding using the comparative signal strength at the surrounding local 'cell' receivers. This technique is often offered
as evidence in UK criminal prosecutions and, almost certainly, for SIGINT purposes.
Direction finding
Emergency aid
Main article: Radio direction finder
There are many forms of radio transmitters designed to transmit as a beacon in the event of an emergency, which are
widely deployed on civil aircraft. Modern emergency beacons transmit a unique identification signal that can aid in
finding the exact location of the transmitter.
Avalanche rescue
Avalanche transceivers operate on a standard 457kHz, and are designed to help locate people and equipment buried
by avalanches. Since the power of the beacon is so low the directionality of the radio signal is dominated by small
scale field effects and can be quite complicated to locate.
Wildlife tracking
Location of radio-tagged animals by triangulation is a widely applied research technique for studying the movement
of animals. The technique was first used in the early 1960s, when the technology used in radio transmitters and
batteries made them small enough to attach to wild animals, and is now widely deployed for a variety of wildlife
studies. Most tracking of wild animals that have been affixed with radio transmitter equipment is done by a field
researcher using a handheld radio direction finding device. When the researcher wants to locate a particular animal,
the location of the animal can be triangulated by determining the direction to the transmitter from several locations.
Reconnaissance
Phased arrays and other advanced antenna techniques are utilized to track launches of rocket systems and their
resulting trajectories. These systems can be used for defensive purposes and also to gain intelligence on operation of
missiles belonging to other nations. These same techniques are used for detection and tracking of conventional
aircraft.
Sport
Main article: Amateur Radio Direction Finding
Events hosted by groups and organizations that involve the use of radio direction finding skills to locate transmitters
at unknown locations have been popular since the end of World War II. Many of these events were first promoted in
order to practice the use of radio direction finding techniques for disaster response and civil defense purposes, or to
practice locating the source of radio frequency interference. The most popular form of the sport, worldwide, is
known as Amateur Radio Direction Finding or by its international abbreviation ARDF. Another form of the activity,
known as "transmitter hunting", "mobile T-hunting" or "fox hunting" takes place in a larger geographic area, such as
the metropolitan area of a large city, and most participants travel in motor vehicles while attempting to locate one or
more radio transmitters with radio direction finding techniques.
Direction finding
References
Notes
[1] Elliott (1972), p. 264
Sources
Elliott, Peter (1972). "The Lend-Lease Captains". Warship International (International Naval Research
Organization) (3): 255.
Appleyard, S.F.; Linford, R.S. and Yarwood, P.J. (1988). Marine Electronic Navigation (2nd Edition). Routledge
& Kegan Paul. pp.6869. ISBN0-7102-1271-2.
Radio Direction Finding Applications Literature (http://www.rdfproducts.com/ap_index.htm) (RDF Products)
Why You Can't Track Your Stolen GPS (http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1735091,00.
html?) Time (magazine) April 28, 2008

A radio direction finder (RDF) is a device for finding the direction to
a radio source. The basic idea is to use two or more measurements of
the same signal, and then use slight differences between the
measurements to determine the direction of the source. Several distinct
Amelia Earhart's Lockheed Model 10 Electra
generations of RDF systems have been used over time, following the
with
the circular RDF aerial visible above the
development of new electronics. Early systems used mechanically
cockpit
rotated antennas that compared signal strengths in different directions,
and several electronic versions of the same concept followed. Modern
systems use the comparison of phase or doppler techniques which are generally simpler to automate.
RDF systems can be used with any radio source, although the size of the receiver antennas are a function of the
wavelength of the signal - very long wavelengths (low frequencies) require very large antennas, and are generally
used only on ground-based systems. These wavelengths are nevertheless very useful for marine navigation as they
can travel very long distances and "over the horizon", which is valuable for ships when the line-of-site may be only a
few tens of kilometres. For aerial use, where the horizon may extend to hundreds of kilometres, higher frequencies
can be used, allowing the use of much smaller antennas. An automatic direction finder, often tuned to commercial
AM radio broadcasters, is a feature of almost all modern aircraft.
For the military, RDF systems are a key component of signals intelligence systems and methodologies. The ability to
locate the position of an enemy broadcaster has been invaluable since World War I, and play a key role in World
War II's Battle of the Atlantic. It is estimated that the UK's advanced "huff-duff" systems were directly or indirectly
responsible for 24% of all U-Boats sunk during the war. Modern systems often used phased array antennas to allow
rapid beam shaping for highly accurate results. These are generally integrated into a wider electronic warfare suite.
Early British radar sets were referred to as RDF, which is often stated was a deception. In fact, the Chain Home
systems used separate omni-directional broadcasters and large RDF receivers - in effect, the Chain Home system was
performing RDF on its own signals. Later radar systems generally used a single antenna for broadcast and reception,
and determined direction from the direction the antenna was facing.
History
Early mechanical systems
The earliest experiments in RDF were carried out in 1888 when Heinrich Hertz discovered the directionality of an
open loop of wire used as an antenna. When the antenna was aligned so it pointed at the signal it produced maximum
gain, and produced zero signal when "face on". This meant there was always an ambiguity in the location of the
signal, it would produce the same output if the signal was in front or back of the antenna. Later experimenters also
used dipole antennas, which worked in the opposite sense, reaching maximum gain at right angles and zero when
aligned. RDF systems using mechanically swung loop or dipole antennas were common by the turn of the 20th
century. Prominent examples were patented by John Stone Stone in 1902 (U.S. Patent 716,134) and Lee de Forest in
1904 (U.S. Patent 771,819), among many other examples. These systems generally shared the limitation that they
were very large, and were generally found only in ground-based installations, or short-range examples on ships.
Bellini-Tosi
A key improvement in the RDF concept was introduced by Ettore Bellini and Alessandro Tosi in 1909 (U.S. Patent
943,960). Their system used two such antennas, typically triangular loops, arranged at right angles. The signals from
the antennas were sent into coils wrapped around a wooden frame about the size of a pop can, where the signals were
re-created in the area between the coils. A separate loop antenna located in this area could then be used to hunt for
the direction, without moving the main antennas. This made RDF so much more practical that it was soon being used
for navigation on a wide scale, often as the first form of aerial navigation available, with ground stations homing in
on the aircraft's radio set. Bellini-Tosi direction finders were widespread from the 1920s into the 1950s.
Early RDF systems were useful largely for long wave signals. These signals are able to travel very long distances,
which made them useful for long-range navigation. However, when the same technique was being applied to higher
frequencies, unexpected difficulties arose due to the reflection of high frequency signals from the ionosphere. The
RDF station might now receive the same signal from two or more locations, especially during the day, which caused
serious problems trying to determine the location. This led to the 1919 introduction of the Adcock antenna (UK
Patent 130,490), which consisted of four separate monopole antennas instead of two loops, eliminating the horizontal
components and thus filtering out the "sky waves" being reflected down from the ionosphere. Adcock antennas were
widely used with Bellini-Tosi detectors from the 1920s on.
The US Army Air Corps in 1931 tested a primitive radio compass that used commercial stations as the beacon.[1]
Huff-duff
A major improvement in the RDF technique was introduced by Robert Watson-Watt as part of his experiments to
locate lightning strikes as a method to indicate the direction of thunderstorms to sailors and airmen. He had long
worked with conventional RDF systems, but these were difficult to use with the fleeting signals from the lightning.
He had early on suggested the use of an oscilloscope to display these near instantly, but was unable to find one while
working at the Met Office. When the office was moved, his new location at a radio research station provided him
with both an Adcock antenna and a suitable oscilloscope, and he presented his new system in 1926.
In spite of the system being presented publicly, and widely used, its impact on the art of RDF seems to be strangely
subdued. Development was limited until the mid-1930s, when the various British forces began widespread
development and deployment of these "high-frequency direction finding", or "huff-duff" systems. The Germans had
developed a method of broadcasting short messages under 30 seconds, less that the 60 seconds that a trained
Bellini-Tosi operator would need to determine the direction. However, this was useless against huff-duff systems,
which located the signal with reasonable accuracy in seconds. The Germans did not become aware of this problem
until the middle of the war, and did not take any serious steps to address it until 1944. By that time huff-duff had
helped in about one-quarter of all successful attacks on the U-boat fleet.
Post-war systems
Several developments in electronics during and after the war led to greatly improved methods of comparing the
phase of signals. In addition, the phase-locked loop (PLL) allowed for easy tuning in of signals, which wouldn't drift.
Finally, improved vacuum tubes and the introduction of the transistor allowed much higher frequencies to be used
economically, with led to widespread use of VHF and UHF signals. All of these changes led to new methods of
RDF, and much more widespread use.
In particular, the ability to compare the phase of signals led to phase-comparison RDF, which is perhaps the most
widely used technique today. In this system the loop antenna is replaced with a single square-shaped ferrite core,
with loops wound around two perpendicular sides. Signals from the loops are sent into a phase comparison circuit,
who's output phase directly indicates the direction of the signal. By sending this to any manner of display, and
locking the signal using PLL, the direction to the broadcaster can be continuously displayed. Operation consists
solely of tuning in the station, and is so automatic that these systems are normally referred to as automatic direction
finder.
Other systems have been developed where more accuracy is required. pseudo-doppler radio direction finder systems
use a series of small dipole antennas arranged in a ring and use electronic switching to rapidly select pairs of dipoles
to feed into the receiver. The resulting signal is processed and produces an audio tone, who's frequency is dependant
on the direction of the signal. Doppler RDF systems have widely replaced the huff-duff system for location of
fleeting signals, as it does not require an oscilloscope.
Operation
Radio Direction Finding works by comparing the signal strength of a
directional antenna pointing in different directions. At first, this system
was used by land and marine-based radio operators, using a simple
rotatable loop antenna linked to a degree indicator. This system was
later adopted for both ships and aircraft, and was widely used in the
1930s and 1940s. On pre-World War II aircraft, RDF antennas are easy
to identify as the circular loops mounted above or below the fuselage.
Later loop antenna designs were enclosed in an aerodynamic,
teardrop-shaped fairing. In ships and small boats, RDF receivers first
employed large metal loop antennas, similar to aircraft, but usually
mounted atop a portable battery-powered receiver.
In use, the RDF operator would first tune the receiver to the correct
frequency, then manually turn the loop, either listening or watching an
S meter to determine the direction of the null (the direction at which a
given signal is weakest) of a long wave (LW) or medium wave (AM)
World War II US Navy high frequency radio
broadcast beacon or station (listening for the null is easier than
direction finder
listening for a peak signal, and normally produces a more accurate
result). This null was symmetrical, and thus identified both the correct degree heading marked on the radio's compass
rose as well as its 180-degree opposite. While this information provided a baseline from the station to the ship or
aircraft, the navigator still needed to know beforehand if he was to the east or west of the station in order to avoid
plotting a course 180-degrees in the wrong direction. By taking bearings to two or more broadcast stations and
plotting the intersecting bearings, the navigator could locate the relative position of his ship or aircraft.
Later, RDF sets were equipped with rotatable ferrite loopstick antennas, which made the sets more portable and less
bulky. Some were later partially automated by means of a motorized antenna (ADF). A key breakthrough was the
introduction of a secondary vertical whip or 'sense' antenna that substantiated the correct bearing and allowed the
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navigator to avoid plotting a bearings 180 degrees opposite the actual heading. After World War II, there were many
small and large firms making direction finding equipment for mariners, including Apelco, Aqua Guide, Bendix,
Gladding (and its marine division, Pearce-Simpson), Ray Jefferson, Raytheon, and Sperry. By the 1960s, many of
these radios were actually made by Japanese electronics manufacturers, such as Panasonic, Fuji Onkyo, and Koden
Electronics Co., Ltd. In aircraft equipment, Bendix and Sperry-Rand were two of the larger manufacturers of RDF
radios and navigation instruments.
Usage in maritime and aircraft navigation

Radio transmitters for air and sea navigation are known as beacons and are the
radio equivalent to a lighthouse. The transmitter sends a Morse Code
transmission on a Long wave (150 400kHz) or Medium wave (520
1720kHz) frequency incorporating the station's identifier that is used to confirm
the station and its operational status. Since these radio signals are broadcast in all
directions (omnidirectional) during the day, the signal itself does not include
direction information, and these beacons are therefore referred to as
non-directional beacons, or NDBs.
As the commercial medium wave broadcast band lies within the frequency
capability of most RDF units, these stations and their transmitters can also be
used for navigational fixes. While these commercial radio stations can be useful
due to their high power and location near major cities, there may be several miles
between the location of the station and its transmitter, which can reduce the
accuracy of the 'fix' when approaching the broadcast city. A second factor is that
some AM radio stations are omnidirectional during the day, and switch to a
reduced power, directional signal at night.
Historic advertisement for Kolster

radio compass
RDF was once the primary form of aircraft and marine navigation. Strings of beacons formed "airways" from airport
to airport, while marine NDBs and commercial AM broadcast stations provided navigational assistance to small
watercraft approaching a landfall. In the United States, commercial AM radio stations were required to broadcast
their station identifier once per hour for use by pilots and mariners as an aid to navigation. In the 1950s, aviation
NDBs were augmented by the VOR system, in which the direction to the beacon can be extracted from the signal
itself, hence the distinction with non-directional beacons. Use of marine NDBs was largerly supplanted in North
America by the development of LORAN in the 1970s.
Today many NDBs have been decommissioned in favor of faster and far more accurate GPS navigational systems.
However the low cost of ADF and RDF systems, and the continued existence of AM broadcast stations (as well as
navigational beacons in countries outside North America) has allowed these devices to continue to function,
primarily for use in small boats, as an adjunct or backup to GPS.
Automatic direction finder (ADF)

An automatic direction finder (ADF) is a marine or aircraft radio-navigation instrument that automatically and
continuously displays the relative bearing from the ship or aircraft to a suitable radio station. ADF receivers are
normally tuned to aviation or marine NDBs operating in the LW band between 190 535kHz. Like RDF units, most
ADF receivers can also receive medium wave (AM) broadcast stations, though as mentioned, these are less reliable
for navigational purposes.
The operator tunes the ADF receiver to the correct frequency and verifies the identity of the beacon by listening to
the Morse code signal transmitted by the NDB. On marine ADF receivers, the motorized ferrite-bar antenna atop the
unit (or remotely mounted on the masthead) would rotate and lock when reaching the null of the desired station. A
11
centerline on the antenna unit moving atop a compass rose indicated in degrees the bearing of the station. On
aviation ADFs, the unit automatically moves a compass-like pointer (RMI) to show the direction of the beacon. The
pilot may use this pointer to home directly towards the beacon, or may also use the magnetic compass and calculate
the direction from the beacon (the radial) at which their aircraft is located.
Unlike the RDF, the ADF operates without direct intervention, and continuously displays the direction of the tuned
beacon. Initially, all ADF receivers, both marine and aircraft versions, contained a rotating loop or ferrite loopstick
aerial driven by a motor which was controlled by the receiver. Like the RDF, a sense antenna verified the correct
direction from its 180-degree opposite.
More modern aviation ADFs contain a small array of fixed aerials and use electronic sensors to deduce the direction
using the strength and phase of the signals from each aerial. The electronic sensors listen for the trough that occurs
when the antenna is at right angles to the signal, and provide the heading to the station using a direction indicator. In
flight, the ADF's RMI or direction indicator will always point to the broadcast station regardless of aircraft heading,
however a banked attitude can have a slight effect on the reading, the needle will still generally indicate towards the
beacon, however it suffers from DIP error where the needle dips down in the direction of the turn.Wikipedia:Please
clarify Such receivers can be used to determine current position, track inbound and outbound flight path, and
intercept a desired bearing. These procedures are also used to execute holding patterns and non-precision instrument
approaches.
Typical NDB services ranges

Class of NDB Transmission Power Effective Range
Locator
below 25 watts
15 NM
MH
below 50 watts
25 NM
50 to 1,999 watts
50 NM
HH
2,000+ watts
75 NM
Station passage
As an aircraft nears an NDB station, the ADF becomes increasingly sensitive, small lateral deviations result in large
deflections of the needle which sometimes shows erratic left/right oscillations. Ideally, as the aircraft overflies the
beacon, the needle swings rapidly from directly ahead to directly behind. This indicates station passage and provides
an accurate position fix for the navigator. Less accurate station passage, passing slightly to one side or another, is
shown by slower (but still rapid) swinging of the needle. The time interval from the first indications of station
proximity to positive station passage varies with altitude a few moments at low levels to several minutes at high
altitude.
Homing
The ADF may be used to home in on a station. Homing is flying the aircraft on the heading required to keep the
needle pointing directly to the 0 (straight ahead) position. To home into a station, tune the station, identify the
Morse code signal, then turn the aircraft to bring the ADF azimuth needle to the 0 position. Turn to keep the ADF
heading indicator pointing directly ahead. Homing is regarded as poor piloting technique because the aircraft may be
blown significantly or dangerously off-course by a cross-wind, and will have to fly further and for longer than the
direct track.
12
Tracking
The ADF may also be used to track a desired course using an ADF and allowing for winds aloft, winds which may
blow the aircraft off-course. Good pilotage technique has the pilot calculate a correction angle that exactly balances
the expected crosswind. As the flight progresses, the pilot monitors the direction to or from the NDB using the ADF,
adjusts the correction as required. A direct track will yield the shortest distance and time to the ADF location.
Radio-magnetic indicator (RMI)

A radio-magnetic indicator (RMI) is an alternate ADF display
providing more information than a standard ADF. While the ADF
shows relative angle of the transmitter with respect to the aircraft, an
RMI display incorporates a compass card, actuated by the aircraft's
compass system, and permits the operator to read the magnetic bearing
to or from the transmitting station, without resorting to arithmetic.
Most RMI incorporate two direction needles. Often one needle (thin or
single-barred) is connected to an ADF and the other (generally the
thicker, double-barred needle) is connected to a VOR. Using multiple
indicators, a navigator can accurately fix the position of their aircraft
without requiring station passage. There is great variation between
models, and the operator must take care that their selection displays
information from the appropriate ADF and VOR.
An aircraft RMI
Notes
[1] "Broadcast Station Can Guide Flyer", April 1931, Popular Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8ycDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA54&
dq=Popular+ Science+ 1931+ plane& hl=en& ei=AQUHTY_IEtOhnQeK35jlDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=8&
ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=Popular Science 1931 plane& f=true)
References
Boffa P. D., Sistemi per la radionavigazione, ed. Siderea, 1985

V. Piazzi, Sistemi radioelettrici di navigazione, vol V, A.A.
R. Trebbi, Strumenti e navigazione, ed. Aviabooks
F. Francescotti, Avionica, ed. Aviolibri
Alessandro Tosi, Il radiogoniometro Bellini-Tosi alla esposizione di storia della scienza in Firenze, Taranto, A.
Dragone & C., 1929
Alessandro Tosi, L' enciclopedia italiana e radiosistema a radiogoniometro, Pisa : Pacini Mariotti, 1932
Alessandro Tosi, Contributo della marina all'avvento del radiogoniometro, Roma, E. Pinci, 1929
Apparati R.T. di bordo e radiogoniometro, Ministero dell'Aeronautica Ispettorato Scuole, Roma, 1937
Impiego pratico del radiogoniometro d. F. M. 3 sulle navi mercantili, Ministero delle Poste e delle
telecomunicazioni, Roma, Ist. Poligr. Dello Stato, 1950
Musella, Francesco, Il radiogoniometro ed il radiofaro nella navigazione, Roma, Ist. Poligr. Dello Stato, 1934
Radiogoniometro Marconi per uso di bordo, tipo 11 F, Roma, tip. Radio, 1926
Catalogo illustrato per radiogoniometro p 57 n campale, Siemens S. A., Ministero della guerra, Direzione
superiore del servizio studi ed esperimenti del Genio,Milano,Tip. L. Toffaloni, 1942
Istruzioni per l'uso dell'alimentatore Tf. 109 per radiogoniometro e ricevitore, a cura della Siemens, Ministero
dell'aeronautica, Ufficio centrale delle telecomunicazioni e dell'assistenza del volo, Milano, 1941

Catalogo illustrato per impianto radiogoniometro E 393 N., : Siemens S. n., Ministero della guerra. Direzione
superiore del servizio studi ed esperimenti del genio, Milano, tip. L. Toffaloni, 1942
21: Il radiogoniometro Marconi per stazioni terrestri : tipo 12 A, Roma, Ufficio Marconi, 1923
Tosi, A., Il radiosistema Bellini-Tosi a radiogoniometro : l'ultima fase, Taranto, Arti Grafiche Dragone, 1930
23: Radiogoniometro Marconi per aeromobili : tipo 14 : codice Airder,Roma, Ufficio Marconi, e Genova,
Officine radiotelegrafiche Marconi, 1923
Il radiogoniometro e la radiotelegrafia direttiva, Ufficio Marconi, Roma, Tip. Unione Ed., 1920
Radiogoniometro Marconi per uso di bordo : Descrizione, funzionamento, manutenzione, impiego nella condotta
della navigazione, Genova : Tip. Radio, 1923
Radiogoniometro Marconi r : G. M. 3. Istruzioni per l'uso e la manutenzione del segnale d'allarme automatico
senza regolaggio tipo s. F. R, Roma : Ist. Profess. G. Marconi, 1950
Radiogoniometro Marconi r : G. M. 3. Istruzioni per l'uso e la manutenzione del segnale d'allarme automatico
senza regolaggio tipo s. F. R, Roma, Ist. Professionale di Radiotelegrafia G. Marconi, 1949
Radiogoniometro indicatore di rotta tipo P 63 N : descrizione ed istruzioni per l'uso, Ministero dell'aeronautica,
Divisione generale delle costruzioni e degli approvvigionamenti, Milano, Toffaloni, 1941
Impiego pratico del radiogoniometro D.F.M.3 sulle navi mercantili, Ministero delle Comunicazioni, Direzione
generale delle poste e dei telegrafi, Roma, Ist. Poligr. Stato, 1932
Vincenzo Nastro, Gabriella Messina, "Navigazione radiogoniometrica", in Navigazione aerea, Milano, Hoepli,
2002, pp.213262. ISBN 88-203-2942-5
External links
Flash based radio-magnetic indicator (RMI) simulator (http://www.luizmonteiro.com/Learning_RMI_Sim_1.
aspx)
13
Adcock antenna
14
Adcock antenna
The Adcock antenna is an antenna (British English aerial) array
consisting of four equidistant vertical elements which can be used to
transmit or receive directional radio waves.
The Adcock array was invented and patented by British engineer Frank
Adcock in 1919 as British Patent No. 130,490, and has been used for a
variety of applications, both civilian and military, ever since.[1]
Although originally conceived for receiving Low Frequency (LF)
waves, it has also been used for transmitting, and has since been
adapted for use at much higher frequencies, up to Ultra High
Frequency (UHF).
Adcock radio range ground station. Hundreds of

these stations were deployed around the U.S.
alone.
In the early 1930s, the Adcock antenna (transmitting in the LF/MF bands) became a key feature of the newly created
radio navigation system for aviation. The Low Frequency radio range (LFR) network, which consisted of hundreds
of Adcock antenna arrays, defined the airways used by aircraft for instrument flying. The LFR remained as the main
aerial navigation technology until it was replaced by the VOR system in the 1950s and 1960s.
The Adcock antenna array has been widely used commercially, and implemented in vertical antenna heights ranging
from over 130 feet (40 meters) in the LFR network, to as small as 5 inches (13cm) in tactical direction finding
applications (receiving in the UHF band).
Radio direction finding

Frank Adcock originally used the antenna as a receiving antenna, to
find the azmuthal direction a radio signal was coming from in order to
find the location of the radio transmitter; a process called radio
direction finding.
Prior to Adcock's invention, engineers had been using loop antennas to
achieve directional sensitivity. They discovered that due to
atmospheric disturbances and reflections, the detected signals included
significant components of electromagnetic interference and distortions:
horizontally polarized radiation contaminating the signal of interest
and reducing the accuracy of the measurement.
Adcockwho was serving as an Army officer in the British
Diagram from Adcock's 1919 patent, depicting a
Expeditionary Force in wartime France at the time he filed his
four-element monopole antenna array; active
antenna segments are marked in red.
inventionsolved this problem by replacing the loop antennas with
symmetrically inter-connected pairs of vertical monopole or dipole
antennas of equal length. This created the equivalent of square loops, but without their horizontal members, thus
eliminating sensitivity to much of the horizontally polarized distortion. The same principles remain valid today, and
the Adcock antenna array and its variants are still used for radio direction finding.
Adcock antenna
15
Low Frequency radio range

Main article: Low Frequency radio range
In the late 1920s, the Adcock antenna was adopted for aerial navigation, in what became known as the Low
Frequency radio range (LFR), or the "Adcock radio range". Hundreds of transmitting stations, each consisting of
four or five Adcock antenna towers,[2] were constructed around the U.S. and elsewhere.
The result was a network of electronic airways, which allowed pilots to navigate at night and in poor visibility, under
virtually all weather conditions. The LFR remained as the main aerial navigation system in the U.S. and other
countries until the 1950s, when it was replaced by VHF-based VOR technology. By the 1980s all LFR stations were
decommissioned.
References
[1] (Note: The patent lawyer's name appears as inventor, with "F. Adcock" in parentheses, since Lt. Adcock, RE was serving in wartime France
at the time.)
[2] A fifth tower was often added in the center of the square for voice transmissions.
A non-directional (radio) beacon (NDB) is a radio transmitter at a
known location, used as an aviation or marine navigational aid. As the
name implies, the signal transmitted does not include inherent
directional information, in contrast to other navigational aids such as
low frequency radio range, VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and
TACAN. NDB signals follow the curvature of the Earth, so they can be
received at much greater distances at lower altitudes, a major
advantage over VOR. However, NDB signals are also affected more by
atmospheric conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and
electrical storms, particularly at long range.
NDBs used for aviation are standardised by ICAO Annex 10 which
specifies that NDBs be operated on a frequency between 190kHz and
1750kHz, although normally all NDBs in North America operate
between 190kHz and 535kHz. Each NDB is identified by a one, two,
or three-letter Morse code callsign. In Canada, privately owned NDB
identifiers consist of one letter and one number. North American NDBs
are categorized by power output, with low power rated at less than 50
watts, medium from 50 W to 2,000 W and high being over 2,000 W.
Automatic direction finder equipment
Radio Tower of NKR Leimen-Ochsenbach,

Germany
NDB navigation consists of two parts the automatic direction finder

(or ADF) equipment on the aircraft that detects an NDB's signal, and the NDB transmitter. The ADF can also locate
transmitters in the standard AM medium wave broadcast band (530kHz to 1700kHz at 10kHz increments in the
Americas, 531kHz to 1602kHz at 9kHz increments in the rest of the world).
ADF equipment determines the direction to the NDB station relative to

the aircraft. This may be displayed on a relative bearing indicator
(RBI). This display looks like a compass card with a needle
superimposed, except that the card is fixed with the 0 degree position
corresponding to the centreline of the aircraft. In order to track toward
an NDB (with no wind) the aircraft is flown so that the needle points to
the 0 degree position, the aircraft will then fly directly to the NDB.
Similarly, the aircraft will track directly away from the NDB if the
needle is maintained on the 180 degree mark. With a crosswind, the
needle must be maintained to the left or right of the 0 or 180 position
by an amount corresponding to the drift due to the crosswind. (Aircraft
Heading +/- ADF needle degrees off nose or tail = Bearing to or from
NDB station).
16
This symbol denotes an NDB on an aeronautical

chart. A hollow square superimposed on this
symbol indicates a co-located DME installation.
The formula to determine the compass heading to an NDB station (in a

no wind situation) is to take the relative bearing between the aircraft
and the station, and add the magnetic heading of the aircraft; if the total is greater than 360 degrees, then 360 must be
subtracted. This gives the magnetic bearing that must be flown: (RB + MH)%360 = MB.
When tracking to or from an NDB, it is also usual that the aircraft track on a specific bearing. To do this it is
necessary to correlate the RBI reading with the compass heading. Having determined the drift, the aircraft must be
flown so that the compass heading is the required bearing adjusted for drift at the same time as the RBI reading is 0
or 180 adjusted for drift. An NDB may also be used to locate a position along the aircraft track. When the needle
reaches an RBI reading corresponding to the required bearing then the aircraft is at the position. However, using a
separate RBI and compass, this requires considerable mental calculation to determine the appropriate relative
bearing.
To simplify this task a compass card is added to the RBI to form a "Radio Magnetic Indicator" (RMI). The ADF
needle is then referenced immediately to the aircraft heading, which reduces the necessity for mental calculation.
The principles of ADFs are not limited to NDB usage; such systems are also used to detect the locations of broadcast
signals for many other purposes, such as finding emergency beacons.
17
Use of non-directional beacons

Airways
A bearing is a line passing through the station that points in a specific
direction, such as 270 degrees (due West). NDB bearings provide a
charted, consistent method for defining paths aircraft can fly. In this
fashion, NDBs can, like VORs, define "airways" in the sky. Aircraft
follow these pre-defined routes to complete a flight plan. Airways are
numbered and standardized on charts; colored airways are used for low
to medium frequency stations like the NDB and are charted in brown
on sectional charts. Green and red airways are plotted east and west
while amber and blue airways are plotted north and south. There is
only one colored airway left in the continental United States. It is
located off the coast of North Carolina and is called G13 or Green 13.
Alaska is the only other state in the United States to make use of the
colored airway systems. Pilots follow these routes by tracking radials
across various navigation stations, and turning at some. While most
airways in the United States are based on VORs, NDB airways are
common elsewhere, especially in the developing world and in lightly
populated areas of developed countries, like the Canadian Arctic, since
they can have a long range and are much less expensive to operate than
VORs.
NDB transmitter at 49 12.35' N, 2 13.20' W.

Callsign JW 'Jersey West'. 329.0 kHz.
All standard airways are plotted on aeronautical charts, such as U.S. sectional charts, issued by the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Fixes
NDBs have long been used by aircraft navigators, and previously mariners, to help obtain a fix of their geographic
location on the surface of the Earth. Fixes are computed by extending lines through known navigational reference
points until they intersect. For visual reference points, the angles of these lines can be determined by compass; the
bearings of NDB radio signals are found using RDF equipment.
Plotting fixes in this manner allow crews to determine their position. This usage is important in situations where
other navigational equipment, such as VORs with distance measuring equipment (DME), have failed. In marine
navigation, NDBs may still be useful should GPS reception fail.
18
Determining distance from an NDB station

To determine the distance in relation to an NDB station in nautical miles, the pilot uses this simple method:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Turns the aircraft so that the station is directly off one of the wingtips.
Flies that heading, timing how long it takes to cross a specific number of NDB bearings.
Uses the formula: Time to station = 60 x number of minutes flown / degrees of bearing change
Uses the flight computer to calculate the distance the aircraft is from the station; time * speed = distance
NDB approaches
A runway equipped with NDB or VOR (or both) as the only navigation aid is called a non-precision approach
runway; if it is equipped with ILS it is called a precision approach runway.
Instrument landing systems

NDBs are most commonly used as markers or "locators" for an instrument landing system (ILS) approach or
standard approach. NDBs may designate the starting area for an ILS approach or a path to follow for a standard
terminal arrival procedure, or STAR. In the United States, an NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon
in the ILS approach (called a locator outer marker, or LOM); in Canada, low-powered NDBs have replaced marker
beacons entirely. Marker beacons on ILS approaches are now being phased out worldwide with DME ranges used
instead to delineate the different segments of the approach. German Navy U-boats during World War II were
equipped with a Telefunken Spez 2113S homing beacon. This transmitter could operate on 100kHz to 1500kHz
with a power of 150W. It was used to send the submarine's location to other submarines or aircraft, which were
equipped with DF receivers and loop antennas.
Technical
NDBs typically operate in the frequency range from 190 kHz to
535kHz (although they are allocated frequencies from 190 to
1750kHz) and transmit a carrier modulated by either 400 or 1020Hz.
NDBs can also be co-located with a DME in a similar installation for
the ILS as the outer marker, only in this case, they function as the inner
marker. NDB owners are mostly governmental agencies and airport
authorities.
NDB radiators are vertically polarised. NDB antennas are usually too
short for resonance at the frequency they operate typically perhaps
20m length compared to a wavelength around 1000m. Therefore they
require a suitable matching network that may consist of an inductor
and a capacitor to "tune" the antenna. Vertical NDB antennas may also
have a 'top hat', which is an umbrella-like structure designed to add
loading at the end and improve its radiating efficiency. Usually a
ground plane or counterpoise is connected underneath the antenna.
One of the wooden poles of NDB HDL at

Plankstadt, Germany
Other information transmitted by an NDB

Apart from Morse Code Identity of either 400Hz or 1020Hz, the NDB may broadcast:
Automatic Terminal Information Service or ATIS
19
Automatic Weather Information Service, or AWIS, or, in an

emergency i.e. Air-Ground-Air Communication failure, an Air
Traffic Controller using a Press-To-Talk (PTT) function, may
modulate the carrier with voice. The pilot uses their ADF receiver to
hear instructions from the Tower.
Ferrite antenna for non-directional beacon
(NDB), frequency 255 - 526.5 kHz
Automated Weather Observation System or AWOS

Automated Surface Observation System or ASOS
Meteorological Information Broadcast or VOLMET
Transcribed Weather Broadcast or TWEB
PIP monitoring. If an NDB has a problem, e.g. lower than normal power output, failure of mains power or
standby transmitter is in operation, the NDB may be programmed to transmit an extra 'PIP' (a Morse dot), to alert
pilots and others that the beacon may be unreliable for navigation.
Common adverse effects

Navigation using an ADF to track NDBs is subject to several common effects:
Night effect: radio waves reflected back by the ionosphere can cause signal strength fluctuations 30 to 60 nautical
miles (54 to 108km) from the transmitter, especially just before sunrise and just after sunset (more common on
frequencies above 350kHz)
Terrain effect: high terrain like mountains and cliffs can reflect radio waves, giving erroneous readings;
magnetic deposits can also cause erroneous readings
Electrical effect: electrical storms, and sometimes also electrical interference (from a ground-based source or
from a source within the aircraft) can cause the ADF needle to deflect towards the electrical source
Shoreline effect: low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a shoreline, especially if they are close to
parallel to it
Bank effect: when the aircraft is banked, the needle reading will be offset
While pilots study these effects during initial training, trying to compensate for them in flight is very difficult;
instead, pilots generally simply choose a heading that seems to average out any fluctuations.
Radio-navigation aids must keep a certain degree of accuracy, given by international standards, FAA, ICAO, etc.; to
assure this is the case, Flight inspection organizations periodically check critical parameters with properly equipped
aircraft to calibrate and certify NDB precision.
Monitoring NDBs
Besides their use in aircraft navigation, NDBs are also popular
with long-distance radio enthusiasts ("DXers"). Because NDBs are
generally low-power (usually 25 watts, some can be up to 5kW),
they normally cannot be heard over long distances, but favorable
conditions in the ionosphere can allow NDB signals to travel much
farther than normal. Because of this, radio DXers interested in
picking up distant signals enjoy listening to faraway NDBs. Also,
since the band allocated to NDBs is free of broadcast stations and
A PFC QSL card from an NDB
their associated interference, and because most NDBs do little more than transmit their Morse Code callsign, they are
very easy to identify, making NDB monitoring an active niche within the DXing hobby.
In North America, the NDB band is from 190 to 435kHz and from 510 to 530kHz. In Europe, there is a longwave
broadcasting band from 150 to 280kHz, so the European NDB band is from 280kHz to 530kHz with a gap between
495 and 505kHz because 500 kHz was the international maritime distress (emergency) frequency.
The beacons that are between 510kHz and 530kHz can sometimes be heard on AM radios that can tune below the
beginning of the AM broadcast band. (For example, the "HEH" beacon in Newark, Ohio at 524kHz is within the
bandwidth of most AM radios, the "OS" beacon in Columbus, Ohio at 515kHz and the "YWA" beacon in
Petawawa, Ontario, Canada at 516kHz can also be heard on some AM radios). Some beacons can also be heard on
530kHz, although from the adjacent frequencies such as "LYQ" at 529kHz in Manchester, Tennessee but for the
most part, reception of NDBs requires a radio receiver that can receive frequencies below 530kHz (the longwave
band). A NDB in Miramichi, New Brunswick once operated at 530kHz as "F9" but had later moved to 520kHz.
Most so-called "shortwave" radios also include mediumwave and longwave, and they can usually receive all
frequencies from 150kHz to 30MHz, which makes them ideal for listening to NDBs. Whilst this type of receiver is
adequate for reception of local beacons, specialized techniques (receiver preselectors, noise limiters and filters) are
required for the reception of very weak signals from remote beacons.
The best time to hear NDBs that are very far away (i.e. that are "DX") is the last three hours before sunrise.
Reception of NDBs is also usually best during the fall and winter because during the spring and summer, there is
more atmospheric noise on the LF and MF bands.
References
Further reading
International Civil Aviation Organization (2000). Annex 10 Aeronautical Telecommunications, Vol. I (Radio
Navigation Aids) (5th ed.).
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (2004). Aeronautical Information Manual, 1-1-2. (http://www.faa.gov/
ATpubs/AIM/)
Remington, S., KH6SR (19871989). "On the Art of NDB DXing" (http://lwca.org/library/articles/kh6sr/
index.htm). The Longwave Club of America. Retrieved 2008-01-06. Wikipedia:Link rot
Appleyard, S.F.; Linford, R.S. and Yarwood, P.J. (1988). Marine Electronic Navigation (2nd Edition). Routledge
& Kegan Paul. pp.6869. ISBN0-7102-1271-2.
Godfrey Manning (December 2007). "Sky High: ADF and NDBs". Radio User (PW Publishing Ltd) 2 (12): 25.
ISSN 1748-8117 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1748-8117).
Godfrey Manning (January 2008). "Sky High: NDB/ADF". Radio User (PW Publishing Ltd) 3 (1): 2425. ISSN
1748-8117 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1748-8117).
Richard Gosnell (April 2008). "An Introduction to Non Directional Beacons". Radio User (PW Publishing Ltd) 3
(4): 2829. ISSN 1748-8117 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1748-8117).
Robert Connolly (August 2009). "NDB DXing Understanding the basics". Radio User (PW Publishing Ltd) 4
(8): 4042. ISSN 1748-8117 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1748-8117).
Instrument Procedures Handbook FAA-H-8261-1A. FAA. 2007. pp.560.
20
External links
List of navigation aids from airnav.com (http://www.airnav.com/navaids/)
A list of navigation aids with entries missing from the above (http://worldaerodata.com/)
UK Navaids Gallery with detailed Technical Descriptions of their operation (http://www.trevord.com/navaids/
)
Flash-based ADF instrument simulator (http://www.luizmonteiro.com/Learning_ADF_Sim.aspx)
Large selection of beacon related resources at the NDB List Website (http://www.ndblist.info/)
The NDB List Radiobeacon Photo Gallery (http://www.ndblist.info/ndbphotos/beaconpics.htm)
On The art of NDB DXing (http://pe2bz.philpem.me.uk/Comm/- ELF-VLF/- ELF-Theory/Antenna-Theory/Vlf-11101-NDB-Dxing/)

High-frequency direction finding, usually known by
its abbreviation HF/DF or nickname huff-duff, is the
common name for a type of radio direction finding
(RDF) employed especially during World War II. It
was used primarily to catch enemy radios while they
transmitted, although it was also used to locate friendly
aircraft as a navigation aid. The basic technique
remains in use to this day as one of the fundamental
disciplines of signals intelligence, or "SIGINT",
although this is typically incorporated into a larger suite
of radio systems and radars instead of being a
stand-alone system.
The name is something of a misnomer, as the technique
works at any frequency. A more accurate term would
be "high-speed direction finding", as the primary
difference between huff-duff and previous systems was
its ability to locate the source of the signal almost
instantly. To do this, huff-duff used a set of antennas to
FH4 "Huff-duff" equipment on the museum ship HMSBelfast
receive the same signal in slightly different locations or
angles, and then used the slight differences in the signal to display the bearing to the transmitter on an oscilloscope
display. Earlier systems used a mechanically rotated antenna (or solenoid) and an operator listening for peaks or
nulls in the signal, which took considerable time to determine. Huff-duff's speed allowed it to catch fleeting signals,
like those from the German U-Boat fleet.
The system was initially developed by Robert Watson-Watt starting in 1926, although many of the practical elements
were not developed until the late 1930s. Huff-duff units were in very high demand, and there was considerable
inter-service rivalry involved in their distribution. An early use was by the RAF Fighter Command as part of the
Dowding system of interception control, and ground-based units were also widely used to feed information to the
Admiralty to locate U-Boats. By 1942/43 smaller units were widely available and became common fixtures on most
Royal Navy ships. It is estimated that huff-duff contributed directly or indirectly to 24% of all U-Boats sunk during
the war.[1]
21

The basic concept is also known by several alternate names, including Cathode-Ray Direction Finding (CRDF),
Twin Path DF, and for its inventor, Watson-Watt DF or Adcock/Watson-Watt when the antenna is considered.
History
Before huff-duff
Radio direction finding was a widely-used technique even before World War I, used for both naval and aerial
navigation. The basic concept used a loop antenna, in its most basic form simply a circular loop of wire who's
circumference is decided by the frequency range of the signals to be detected. When the loop is aligned at right
angles to the signal, the signal in the two halves of the loop cancels out, producing a sudden drop in output known as
a "null".
Early DF systems used a loop antenna that could be mechanically rotated. The operator would tune in a known radio
station and then rotate the antenna until the signal disappeared. This meant that the antenna was now at right angles
to the broadcaster, although it could be on either side of the antenna. By taking several such measurements, or using
some other form of navigational information to eliminate one of the ambiguous directions, the bearing to the
broadcaster could be determined.
In 1907 an improvement was introduced by Ettore Bellini and Alessandro Tosi that greatly simplified the DF system
in some setups. The single loop antenna was replaced by two antennas, arranged at right angles. The output of each
was sent to its own looped wire, or as they are referred to in this system, a "field coil". Two coils, one for each
antenna, are arranged close together at right angles. The signals from the two antennas generated a magnetic field in
the space between the coils, which was picked up by a rotating solenoid, the "search coil". The maximum signal was
generated when the search coil was aligned with the magnetic field from the field coils, which was at the angle of the
signal in relation to the antennas. This eliminated any need for the antennas to move. The Bellini-Tosi goniometer
(B-T) was widely used on ships, although mechanical systems tended to be used on aircraft as they were normally
smaller.[2]
All of these devices took time to operate. Normally the radio operator would first use conventional radio tuners to
find the signal in question, either using the DF antenna(s) or on a separate non-directional antenna. Once tuned, the
operator rotated the antennas or goniometer looking for peaks or nulls in the signal. This normally took some time,
with the rough location being found by spinning the control rapidly, and then "hunting" for the angle with
increasingly small movements. With periodic signals like Morse code, or signals on the fringe of reception, this was
a difficult process. Fix times on the order of one minute were commonly quoted.[2]
Some work on automating the B-T system was carried out just prior to the opening of the war, especially by French
engineers Maurice Deloraine and Henri Busignies, working in the French division of the US's ITT Corporation.
Their system motorized the search coil as well as a circular display card, which rotated in sync. A lamp on the
display card was tied to the output of the goniometer, and flashed whether it was in the right direction. When
spinning quickly, about 120 RPM, the flashes merged into a single (wandering) dot that indicated the direction. The
team left France just in time in 1940 to continue the development in the US, while destroying all of their work in the
French office.[3]
Watson-Watt
It had long been known that lightning gives off radio signals due to the ionization of the air as it is heated. The signal
is across many frequencies, but is particularly strong in the longwave spectrum, which was one of the primarily radio
frequencies for long-range naval communications. Robert Watt (the "Watson" was not added until 1942) had
demonstrated that measurements of these radio signals could be used to track thunderstorms and provide useful
long-range warning for pilots and ships. In some experiments he was able to detect thunderstorms over Africa, 2,500
kilometres (1,600mi) away.[4]
22

However, the lightning strikes lasted such a short time that traditional RDF systems using loop antennas could not
determine the bearing before they vanished. All that could be determined was an average location the produced the
best signal over a long period, incorporating the signal of many strikes.[4] In 1916 Watt proposed that a cathode ray
tube (CRT) could be used as an indicating element instead of mechanical systems,[5] but did not have the ability to
test this.
Watt worked at the RAF's Met Office in Aldershot, but in 1924 they decided to return the location to use for the
RAF. In July 1924 Watt moved to a new location at Ditton Park near Slough. This site already hosted the National
Physical Laboratory (NPL) Radio Section research site. Watt was involved in the Atmospherics branch, basic studies
in the propagation of radio signals through the atmosphere, while the NPL were involved in Field Strength
Measurements and Direction Finding Investigations. NPL had two devices used in these studies that would prove
critical to the development of huff-duff, an Adcock antenna and a modern oscilloscope.[4]
The Adcock antenna is an arrangement of four masts that act as two loop antennas arranged at right angles. By
comparing the signals received on the two virtual loops, the direction to the signal can be determined using existing
RDF techniques. Researchers had set up the antenna in 1919 but had been neglecting it in favour of smaller designs.
These were found to have very poor performance due to the electrical characteristics of the Slough area, which made
it difficult to determine if a signal was being received on a straight line or down from the sky. Smith-Rose and
Barfield turned their attention back to the Adcock antenna, which had no horizontal component and thus filtered out
the "skywaves". In a series of follow-up experiments they were able to accurately determine the location of
transmitters around the country.[6]
It was Watt's continuing desire to capture the location of individual lightning strikes that led to the final major
developments in the basic huff-duff system. The lab had recently taken delivery of a WE-224 oscilloscope from Bell
Labs, which provided easy hook-up and had a long-lasting phosphor. Working with Herd, in 1926 Watt added an
amplifier to each to the two arms of the antenna, and sent those signals into the X and Y channels of the
oscilloscope. As hoped, the radio signal produced a pattern on the screen that indicated the location of the strike, and
the long-lasting phosphor gave the operator ample time to measure it before the display faded.[4][]
Watt and Herd wrote an extensive paper on the system in 1926, referring to it as "An instantaneous direct-reading
radiogoniometer" and stating that it could be used to determine the direction of signals lasting as little as 0.001
second.[7] The paper describes the device in depth, and goes on to explain how it could be used to improve radio
direction finding and navigation. In spite of this public demonstration, and films showing it being used to locate
lightning, the concept apparently remained unknown outside the UK, This allowed it to be developed into practical
form in secret.
Battle of Britain
Main article: Pip-squeak
During the rush to install the Chain Home (CH) radar systems prior to the Battle of Britain, CH stations were located
as far forward as possible, along the shoreline, in order to provide maximum warning time. This meant that the
inland areas over the British Isles did not have radar coverage, relying instead on the newly formed Royal Observer
Corps (ROC) for visual tracking in this area. While the ROC were able to provide information on large raids, fighters
were too small and too high to be positively identified. As the entire Dowding system of air control relied on ground
direction, some solution to locating their own fighters was needed.
The expedient solution to this was the use huff-duff stations to tune in on the fighter's radios. Every Sector Control,
in charge of a selection of fighter squadrons, was equipped with a huff-duff receiver, along with two other
sub-stations located at distant points, about 30 miles (48km) away. These stations would listen for broadcasts from
the fighters, compare the angles to triangulate their location, and then relay that information to the control rooms.[8]
Comparing the positions of the enemy reported by the ROC and the fighters from the huff-duff systems, the Sector
Commanders could easily direct the fighters to intercept the enemy.
23
24
To aid in this process, a system known as "pip-squeak" was installed on some of the fighters, at least two per section
(with up to four sections per squadron). Pip-squeak automatically sent out a steady tone for 14 seconds every minute,
offering ample time for the huff-duff operators to track the signal.[9] It had the drawback of tying up the aircraft's
radio while broadcasting its DF signal.
The need for DF sets was so acute that the Air Ministry initially was unable to supply the numbers requested by
Hugh Dowding, commander of RAF Fighter Command. In simulated battles during 1938 the system was
demonstrated to be so useful that the Ministry responded by providing Bellini-Tosi systems with the promise that
CRT versions would replace them as soon as possible. This could be accomplished in the field, simply by connecting
the existing antennas to a new receiver set. By 1940 these were in place at all 29 Fighter Command "sectors", and
were a major part of the system that won the battle.
Battle of the Atlantic

Along with sonar ("ASDIC"), intelligence from breaking German
codes and radar, "Huff-Duff" was a valuable part of the Allies' armoury
in detecting German U-boats and commerce raiders during the Battle
of the Atlantic.
"Super Duff" equipment on the museum ship

HMSBelfast
Aware of the danger presented by normal RDF techniques, the

Kriegsmarine developed a system for very short messages. This
consisted of short number sequences for common terms like "weather
report" and "convoy location", along with descriptions of the format of
the following information so that additional descriptions would not be
needed in the message. The resulting "kurzsignale" was then encoded
with the Enigma machine and then transmitted as rapidly as possible,
with times on the order of 20 seconds being typical.[10] This would
make conventional RDF techniques essentially useless for tracking
these signals accurately, but nowhere near short enough to avoid
detection by huff-duff.
The ability to locate U-boats far out to sea was of immense interest to
the Royal Navy, who competed with the Air Force for huff-duff sets. They developed a system to detect the high
frequency radios used by the U-Boats - this is why the name contains "high-frequency". At first, the system consisted
of a number of shore stations in the British Isles and North Atlantic, who would coordinate their interceptions to
determine locations. One advantage of the system was that it located the boats directly, so there was no need to
intercept the content of the message. This was important as the U-Boats encrypted the messages using an Enigma
machine, which could not be deciphered at that time.
The distances involved in locating U-boats in the Atlantic from shore-based DF stations were so great that DF
accuracy was relatively inefficient and in 1944 a new strategy was developed by Naval Intelligence where localized
groups of 5 shore-based DF stations were built so that the bearings from each of the five stations could be averaged
to gain a more reliable bearing. Four such groups were set up in Britain at Ford End in Essex, Anstruther in Fife,
Bower in the Scottish Highlands and Goonhavern in Cornwall. It was intended that other groups would be set up in
Iceland, Nova Scotia and JamaicaConfirmation needed. Simple averaging was found to be ineffective and later statistical
methods were used. Operators were also asked to grade the reliability of their readings so that poor and variable ones
were given less importance than those that appeared stable and well defined. Several of these df groups continued
into the 1970s as part of the Composite Signals Organisation.
Ground-based systems were used because there were severe technical problems operating on ships, mainly due to the
effects of the superstructure on the wavefront of arriving radio signals. However, these problems were overcome

under the technical leadership of the Polish engineer Wacaw Struszyski, working at the Admiralty Signal
Establishment.[11] As ships were equipped, a complex measurement series was carried out to determine these effects,
and cards were supplied to the operators to show the required corrections at various frequencies.
By 1942 the availability of the cathode ray tubes, originally limited, improved and was no longer a limit on the
number of huff-duff sets that could be produced. At the same time, improved sets were introduced that included
continuously motor-driven tuning, to scan the likely frequencies to pick up and sound an automatic alarm when any
transmissions were detected. Operators could then rapidly fine tune the signal before it disappeared. These sets were
installed on convoy escort ships, enabling them to get much more accurate triangulation fixes on U-boats
transmitting from over the horizon, beyond the range of radar. This allowed hunter-killer ships and aircraft to be
dispatched at high speed in the direction of the U-boat, which could be illuminated by radar if still on the surface and
by ASDIC if it had dived.
Description
The basic concept of the huff-duff system is to send the signal from two aerials into the X and Y channels of an
oscilloscope. Normally the Y channel would represent north/south for ground stations, or in the case of the ship, be
aligned with the ship's heading fore/aft. The X channel thereby represents either east-west, or port/starboard.
The deflection of the spot on the oscilloscope display is a direct indication of the instantaneous phase and strength of
the radio signal. Since radio signals consist of waves, the signal varies in phase at a very rapid rate. If one considers
the signal received on one channel, say Y, the dot will move up and down, so rapidly that it would appear to be a
straight vertical line, extending equal distances from the center of the display. When the second channel is added,
tuned to the same signal, the dot will move in both the X and Y directions at the same time, causing the line to
become diagonal. However, the radio signal has a finite wavelength, so as it travels through the antenna loops, the
relative phase that meets each part of the antenna changes. This causes the line to be deflected into an ellipse or
Lissajous curve, depending on the relative phases. The curve is rotated so that its major axis lies along the bearing of
the signal. In the case of a signal to the north-east, the result would be an ellipse lying along the 45/225-degree line
on the display.[12] Since the phase is changing while the display is drawing, the resulting displayed shape includes
"blurring" that needed to be accounted for.[13]
This leaves the problem of determining whether the signal is north-east or south-west, as the ellipse is equally long
on both sides of the display centre-point. To solve this problem a separate aerial, the "sense aerial", was added to this
mix. This was an omnidirectional aerial located a fixed distance from the loops about 1/2 of a wavelength away.
When this signal was mixed in, the opposite-phase signal from this aerial would strongly suppress the signal when
the phase is in the direction of the sense aerial. This signal was sent into the brightness channel, or Z-axis, of the
oscilloscope, causing the display to disappear when the signals were out of phase. By connecting the sense aerial to
one of the loops, say the north-south channel, the display would be strongly suppressed when it was on the lower
half of the display, indicating that the signal is somewhere to the north. At this point the only possible bearing is the
north-east one.[14]
The signals received by the antennas is very small and at high frequency, so they are first individually amplified in
twin radio receivers. This requires the two receivers to be extremely well calibrated in order that one does not
amplify more than the other and thereby change the output signal. For instance, if the amplifier on the north/south
antenna is slightly more powerful, the dot will not move along the 45 degree line, but perhaps the 30 degree line. To
ensure the two amplifiers were equal, most set-ups included a "test loop" which generated a directional test signal
that could be used to tune the system.[15]
For shipboard systems, the ship's superstructure presented a serious cause of interference, especially in phase, as the
signals moved around the various metal obstructions. To address this, ships were anchored while a second ship
broadcast a test signal from about one mile away, and the resulting signals were recorded on a calibration sheet. The
broadcast ship would then move to another location and repeat the calibration. The calibration was different for
25

different wavelengths, which required considerable amounts of work to build up a complete set of sheets for each
ship.[16]
Naval units, notably the common HF4 set, included a rotating plastic plate with a line, the "cursor", used to help
measure the angle. This could be difficult if the tips of the ellipse did not reach the edge of the display, or went off it.
By aligning the cursor with the peaks at either end, this became simple. Hash marks on either side of the cursor
allowed measurement of the width of the display, and use that to determine the amount of blurring.
References
Citations
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Bauer 2004, p.1.

Bauer 2007, p.2.
"Le HF/DF (ou Huff-Duff) : Une Invention Franaise" (http:/ / communaute. openesub. org/ gazette/ article. php3?id_article=638)
Bauer 2007, p.4.
"Robert Watson-Watt" (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=n--ivouMng8C& pg=PA1280), Biographical Dictionary of the History of
Technology, p. 1280.
[6] Gardiner 1962, Radio Research at Ditton Park II.
[7] R. A. Watt and J. F. Herd, "An instantaneous direct-reading radiogoniometer" (http:/ / digital. nls. uk/ scientists/ pageturner.
cfm?id=75132036), Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Volume 64 (February 1926), pp. 611-622.
[8] "High-frequency direction finding" (http:/ / www. battleofbritain1940. net/ document-14. html)
[9] , p.106.
[10] Dirk Rijmenants, "Kurzsignalen on German U-boats" (http:/ / users. telenet. be/ d. rijmenants/ en/ kurzsignale. htm), Cipher Machines and
Cryptology
[11] Bauer 2007, p.7.
[12] Bauer 2007, p.6.
[13] Bauer 2007, pp.6-7.
[14] Bauer 2007, pp.14-15.
[15] Bauer 2007, p.16.
[16] Bauer 2007, pp.17-19.
Bibliography
Arthur Bauer, "HF/DF An Allied Weapon against German U-Boats 1939-1945" (http://aobauer.home.xs4all.nl/
HFDF1998.pdf), December 2004
G. Gardiner, "History of Radio Research at Ditton Park" (http://www.dittonpark-archive.rl.ac.uk/histarticles.
html), Radio Research Organization Newsletter, Number 10 (15 February 1962)
Kathleen Broome Williams (1996-10-01). Secret Weapon: U.S. High-Frequency Direction Finding in the Battle
of the Atlantic. Naval Inst Pr. ISBN1-55750-935-2.
Arthur O. Bauer. "HF/DF An Allied Weapon against German U-Boats 19391945" (http://www.xs4all.nl/
~aobauer/HFDF1998.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2008-01-26.: A paper on the technology and practice of the HF/DF
systems used by the Royal Navy against U-Boats in World War II
26
27
Further reading
Patrick Beesly (1978). Very Special Intelligence: The story of the Admiralty's Operational Intelligence Center in
World War II. Spere. ISBN0-7221-1539-3.
deRosa, L.A. "Direction Finding". In J.A. Biyd, D.B. Harris, D.D. King & H.W. Welch, Jr. Electronic
Countermeasures. Los Altos, CA: Peninsula Publishing. ISBN0-932146-00-7.
External links
HF/DF - Royal Navy High Frequency Radio Direction Finding, WW2 (http://www.naval-history.net/
xGM-Tech-HFDF.htm)
Huff-Duff simulator demo (http://www.youtube.com/embed/eYGvAm8MMvQ)
"Sigint" redirects here. For other uses, see Sigint (disambiguation).
Signals intelligence (often contracted to SIGINT) is
intelligence-gathering by interception of signals, whether between
people ("communications intelligence"COMINT) or from electronic
signals not directly used in communication ("electronic
intelligence"ELINT), or a combination of the two. As sensitive
information is often encrypted, signals intelligence often involves the
use of cryptanalysis. Also, traffic analysisthe study of who is
signaling whom and in what quantitycan often produce valuable
information, even when the messages themselves cannot be decrypted.
As a means of collecting intelligence, signals intelligence is a subset of
intelligence collection management, which, in turn, is a subset of
intelligence cycle management.
RAF Menwith Hill, a large site in the United

Kingdom, part of ECHELON and the UKUSA
Agreement. (2005)
History
For more details on this topic, see Signals intelligence in modern
history.
The last German message intercepted by the

British during World War II, signaling Germany's
unconditional surrender
Intercepting written but encrypted communications, and extracting

information, probably did not lag long after the development of
writing. A simple encryption system, for example, is the Caesar cipher.
Electronic interception appeared as early as 1900, during the Boer
Wars. The Boers had captured some British radios, and, since the
British were the only people transmitting at the time, no special
interpretation of the signals was necessary.
28
Unit 8200 (the SIGINT unit of the Israeli

Intelligence Corps) base on Mount Avital, Golan
Heights
Signals intelligence work can be dangerous even in peacetime.

Numerous peacetime international incidents involving the loss of life,
including the USS Liberty incident, USS Pueblo (AGER-2) incident,
and the shooting down of Flight 60528, occurred during signals
intelligence missions.
In the United States, there has been legal controversy over what signal
intelligence can be used for and how much freedom the National
Security Agency has to use signal intelligence. Therefore, the
government has recently changed how it uses and collects certain types
of data, specifically phone records. President Barack Obama has asked
lawyers and his national security team to look at the tactics that are
being used by the NSA. President Obama made a speech on January
17, 2014 where he defended the national security measures, including
the NSA, and their intentions for keeping the country safe through
surveillance. He said that it is difficult to determine where the line
should be drawn between what is too much surveillance and how much
is needed for national security because technology is ever changing
and evolving, therefore, the laws cannot keep up with the rapid
advancements.
A52 Oste, an Oste class ELINT (Electronic

signals intelligence) and reconnaissance ship, of
the German Navy
Satellite ground station of the Dutch Nationale

SIGINT Organisatie (NSO) (2012)
However, President Obama did make some changes to the national

security laws and how much data can be legally collected and
surveyed. The first thing that was added, was more presidential directive and oversight so that privacy and basic
rights are not violated. The president would look over requests on behalf of American citizens to make sure that their
personal privacy is not violated by the data that is being requested. Secondly, surveillance tactics and procedures are
becoming more public, including over 40 rulings of the FISC that have been declassified. Thirdly, further protections
are being placed on activities that are justified under Section 702, such as the ability to retain, search and use data
collected in investigations, which allows the NSA to monitor and intercept interaction of targets overseas. Finally,
national security letters, which are secret requests for information that the FBI uses in their investigations, are
becoming less secretive. The secrecy of the information requested will not be definite and will terminate after a set
time if future secrecy is not required. Concerning the bulk surveillance of Americans phone records, President
Obama also ordered a transition from bulk surveillance under Section 215 to a new policy that will eliminate
un-necessary bulk collection of metadata.
The details of this transition are still being worked out. One of the proposals being investigated is an outside third
party source holding the bulk metadata, where the NSA would then need to ask permission to access the data if it is
relevant to national security. President Obama emphasized that the government is not spying on ordinary citizens,
but rather working to keep America safe.
More technical definitions of SIGINT and its branches

In the United States and other nations involved with NATO, signals intelligence is defined as:
A category of intelligence comprising either individually or in combination all communications intelligence
(COMINT), electronic intelligence (ELINT), and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence, however
transmitted.
Intelligence derived from communications, electronic, and foreign instrumentation signals.
The JCS definition may overemphasize "foreign instrumentation signals". That part should be considered in
combination with measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT), which is closely linked to foreign
instrumentation such as telemetry or radio navigation. An ELINT sensor may find a radar, and then cue (i.e., guide) a
COMINT sensor for listening in on the talk between the radar and its remote users. A nonspecific SIGINT sensor
can cue a Frequency Domain MASINT sensor that can help identify the purpose of the signal. If MASINT cannot
identify the signal, then the intelligence organization may task an IMINT aircraft or satellite to take a picture of the
source, so photo interpreters can try to understand its functions.
Being a broad field, SIGINT has many sub-disciplines. The two main ones are communications intelligence
(COMINT) and electronic intelligence (ELINT). There are, however, some techniques that can apply to either
branch, as well as to assist FISINT or MASINT.
Disciplines shared across the branches

Targeting
A collection system has to know to look for a particular signal. "System", in this context, has several nuances.
Targeting is an output of the process of developing collection requirements:
"1. An intelligence need considered in the allocation of intelligence resources. Within the Department of
Defense, these collection requirements fulfill the essential elements of information and other intelligence
needs of a commander, or an agency.
"2. An established intelligence need, validated against the appropriate allocation of intelligence resources (as a
requirement) to fulfill the essential elements of information and other intelligence needs of an intelligence
consumer."
Need for multiple, coordinated receivers

First, atmospheric conditions, sunspots, the target's transmission schedule and antenna characteristics, and other
factors create uncertainty that a given signal intercept sensor will be able to "hear" the signal of interest, even with a
geographically fixed target and an opponent making no attempt to evade interception. Basic countermeasures against
interception include frequent changing of radio frequency, polarization, and other transmission characteristics. An
intercept aircraft could not get off the ground if it had to carry antennas and receivers for every possible frequency
and signal type to deal with such countermeasures.
Second, locating the transmitter's position is usually part of SIGINT. Triangulation and more sophisticated radio
location techniques, such as time of arrival methods, require multiple receiving points at different locations. These
receivers send location-relevant information to a central point, or perhaps to a distributed system in which all
participate, such that the information can be correlated and a location computed.
29
Intercept management
Modern SIGINT systems, therefore, have substantial communications among intercept platforms. Even if some
platforms are clandestine, there is a broadcast of information telling them where and how to look for signals. A
United States targeting system under development in the late 1990s, PSTS, constantly sends out information that
helps the interceptors properly aim their antennas and tune their receivers. Larger intercept aircraft, such as the EP-3
or RC-135, have the on-board capability to do some target analysis and planning, but others, such as the RC-12
GUARDRAIL, are completely under ground direction. GUARDRAIL aircraft are fairly small, and usually work in
units of three to cover a tactical SIGINT requirement, where the larger aircraft tend to be assigned strategic/national
missions.
Before the detailed process of targeting begins, someone has to decide there is a value in collecting information
about something. While it would be possible to direct signals intelligence collection at a major sports event, the
systems would capture a great deal of noise, news signals, and perhaps announcements in the stadium. If, however,
an anti-terrorist organization believed that a small group would be trying to coordinate their efforts, using
short-range unlicensed radios, at the event, SIGINT targeting of radios of that type would be reasonable. Targeting
would not know where in the stadium the radios might be, or the exact frequency they are using; those are the
functions of subsequent steps such as signal detection and direction finding.
Once the decision to target is made, the various interception points need to cooperate, since resources are limited.
Knowing what interception equipment to use becomes easier when a target country buys its radars and radios from
known manufacturers, or is given them as military aid. National intelligence services keep libraries of devices
manufactured by their own country and others, and then use a variety of techniques to learn what equipment is
acquired by a given country.
Knowledge of physics and electronic engineering further narrows the problem of what types of equipment might be
in use. An intelligence aircraft flying well outside the borders of another country will listen for long-range search
radars, not short-range fire control radars that would be used by a mobile air defense. Soldiers scouting the front
lines of another army know that the other side will be using radios that must be portable and not have huge antennas.
Signal detection
Even if a signal is human communications (e.g., a radio), the intelligence collection specialists have to know it
exists. If the targeting function described above learns that a country has a radar that operates in a certain frequency
range, the first step is to use a sensitive receiver, with one or more antennas that listen in every direction, to find an
area where such a radar is operating. Once the radar is known to be in the area, the next step is to find its location.
If operators know the probable frequencies of transmissions of interest,
they may use a set of receivers, preset to the frequencies of interest.
These are the frequency (horizontal axis) versus power (vertical axis)
produced at the transmitter, before any filtering of signals that do not
add to the information being transmitted. Received energy on a
particular frequency may start a recorder, and alert a human to listen to
the signals if they are intelligible (i.e., COMINT). If the frequency is
Simplified spectrum analyzer display of
not known, the operators may look for power on primary or sideband
superheterodyned, amplitude modulated signals.
frequencies using a spectrum analyzer. Information from the spectrum
analyzer is then used to tune receivers to signals of interest. For example, in this simplified spectrum, the actual
information is at 800kHz and 1.2MHz.
30
31
Real-world transmitters and receivers usually are directional. In the
figure to the left, assume that each display is connected to a spectrum
analyzer connected to a directional antenna aimed in the indicated
direction.
Countermeasures to interception
Hypothetical displays from four spectrum

analyzers connected to directional antennas. The
transmitter is at bearing 090 degrees.
Spread-spectrum
communications
is
an
electronic
counter-countermeasures (ECCM) technique to defeat looking for
particular frequencies. Spectrum analysis can be used in a different
ECCM way to identify frequencies not being jammed or not in use.
Direction-finding
Main article: Direction finding
The earliest, and still common, means of direction finding is to use directional antennas as goniometers, so that a line
can be drawn from the receiver through the position of the signal of interest. (See HF/DF.) Knowing the compass
bearing, from a single point, to the transmitter does not locate it. Where the bearings from multiple points, using
goniometry, are plotted on a map, the transmitter will be located at the point where the bearings intersect. This is the
simplest case; a target may try to confuse listeners by having multiple transmitters, giving the same signal from
different locations, switching on and off in a pattern known to their user but apparently random to the listener.
Individual directional antennas have to be manually or automatically turned to find the signal direction, which may
be too slow when the signal is of short duration. One alternative is the Wullenweber array technique. In this method,
several concentric rings of antenna elements simultaneously receive the signal, so that the best bearing will ideally
be clearly on a single antenna or a small set. Wullenweber arrays for high-frequency signals are enormous, referred
to as "elephant cages" by their users.
An alternative to tunable directional antennas, or large omnidirectional arrays such as the Wullenweber, is to
measure the time of arrival of the signal at multiple points, using GPS or a similar method to have precise time
synchronization. Receivers can be on ground stations, ships, aircraft, or satellites, giving great flexibility.
Modern anti-radiation missiles can home in on and attack transmitters; military antennas are rarely a safe distance
from the user of the transmitter.
Traffic analysis
Main article: Traffic analysis
When locations are known, usage patterns may emerge, from which inferences may be drawn. Traffic analysis is the
discipline of drawing patterns from information flow among a set of senders and receivers, whether those senders
and receivers are designated by location determined through direction finding, by addressee and sender
identifications in the message, or even MASINT techniques for "fingerprinting" transmitters or operators. Message
content, other than the sender and receiver, is not necessary to do traffic analysis, although more information can be
helpful.
For example, if a certain type of radio is known to be used only by tank units, even if the position is not precisely
determined by direction finding, it may be assumed that a tank unit is in the general area of the signal. Of course, the
owner of the transmitter can assume someone is listening, so might set up tank radios in an area where he wants the
other side to believe he has actual tanks. As part of Operation Quicksilver, part of the deception plan for the invasion
of Europe at the Battle of Normandy, radio transmissions simulated the headquarters and subordinate units of the
fictitious First United States Army Group (FUSAG), commanded by George S. Patton, to make the German defense
think that the main invasion was to come at another location. In like manner, fake radio transmissions from Japanese
aircraft carriers, before the Battle of Pearl Harbor, were made from Japanese local waters, while the attacking ships
moved under strict radio silence.
Traffic analysis need not focus on human communications. For example, if the sequence of a radar signal, followed
by an exchange of targeting data and a confirmation, followed by observation of artillery fire, this may identify an
automated counterbattery system. A radio signal that triggers navigational beacons could be a landing aid system for
an airstrip or helicopter pad that is intended to be low-profile.
Patterns do emerge. Knowing a radio signal, with certain characteristics, originating from a fixed headquarters may
be strongly suggestive that a particular unit will soon move out of its regular base. The contents of the message need
not be known to infer the movement.
There is an art as well as science of traffic analysis. Expert analysts develop a sense for what is real and what is
deceptive. Harry Kidder, for example, was one of the star cryptanalysts of World War II, a star hidden behind the
secret curtain of SIGINT.
Electronic Order of Battle

Generating an Electronic order of battle (EOB) requires identifying SIGINT emitters in an area of interest,
determining their geographic location or range of mobility, characterizing their signals, and, where possible,
determining their role in the broader organizational order of battle. EOB covers both COMINT and ELINT. The
Defense Intelligence Agency maintains an EOB by location. The Joint Spectrum Center (JSC) of the Defense
Information Systems Agency supplements this location database with five more technical databases:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
FRRS: Frequency Resource Record System

BEI: Background Environment Information
SCS: Spectrum Certification System
EC/S: Equipment Characteristics/Space
TACDB: platform lists, sorted by nomenclature, which contain links to the C-E equipment complement of
each platform, with links to the parametric data for each piece of equipment, military unit lists and their
subordinate units with equipment used by each unit.
32
33
For example, several voice transmitters

might be identified as the command net (i.e.,
top commander and direct reports) in a tank
battalion or tank-heavy task force. Another
set of transmitters might identify the logistic
net for that same unit. An inventory of
ELINT sources might identify the mediumand long-range counter-artillery radars in a
given area.
Signals intelligence units will identify
changes in the EOB, which might indicate
enemy unit movement, changes in command
relationships, and increases or decreases in
capability.
Using the COMINT gathering method
enables the intelligence officer to produce
an electronic order of battle by traffic
analysis and content analysis among several
enemy units. For example, if the following
messages were intercepted:
EOB and related data flow
1. U1 from U2, requesting permission to

proceed to checkpoint X.
2. U2 from U1, approved. please report at arrival.
3. (20 minutes later) U1 from U2, all vehicles have arrived to checkpoint X.
This sequence shows that there are two units in the battlefield, unit 1 is mobile, while unit 2 is in a higher
hierarchical level, perhaps a command post. One can also understand that unit 1 moved from one point to another
which are distant from each 20 minutes with a vehicle. If these are regular reports over a period of time, they might
reveal a patrol pattern. Direction-finding and radiofrequency MASINT could help confirm that the traffic is not
deception.
The EOB buildup process is divided as following:
Signal separation
Measurements optimization
Data Fusion
Networks build-up
Separation of the intercepted spectrum and the signals intercepted from each sensors must take place in an extremely
small period of time, in order to separate the deferent signals to different transmitters in the battlefield. The
complexity of the separation process depends on the complexity of the transmission methods (e.g., hopping or time
division multiple access (TDMA)).
By gathering and clustering data from each sensor, the measurements of the direction of signals can be optimized
and get much more accurate than the basic measurements of a standard direction finding sensor. By calculating
larger samples of the sensor's output data in near real-time, together with historical information of signals, better
results are achieved.
Data fusion correlates data samples from different frequencies from the same sensor, "same" being confirmed by
direction finding or radiofrequency MASINT. If an emitter is mobile, direction finding, other than discovering a
repetitive pattern of movement, is of limited value in determining if a sensor is unique. MASINT then becomes more
informative, as individual transmitters and antennas may have unique side lobes, unintentional radiation, pulse
timing, etc.
Network build-up, or analysis of emitters (communication transmitters) in a target region over a sufficient period of
time, enables creation of the communications flows of a battlefield.
COMINT
"COMINT" redirects here. It is not to be confused with COMINTERN.
For the fifth episode of the first season of the television series The Americans, see COMINT (The Americans).
COMINT (Communications Intelligence) is a sub-category of signals intelligence that engages in dealing with
messages or voice information derived from the interception of foreign communications. It should be noted that
COMINT is commonly referred to as SIGINT, which can cause confusion when talking about the broader
intelligence disciplines. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff defines it as "Technical information and intelligence derived
from foreign communications by other than the intended recipients".
COMINT, which is defined to be communications among people, will reveal some or all of the following:
1. Who is transmitting
2. Where they are located, and, if the transmitter is moving, the report may give a plot of the signal against location
3.
4.
5.
6.
If known, the organizational function of the transmitter

The time and duration of transmission, and the schedule if it is a periodic transmission
The frequencies and other technical characteristics of their transmission
If the transmission is encrypted or not, and if it can be decrypted. If it is possible to intercept either an originally
transmitted cleartext or obtain it through cryptanalysis, the language of the communication and a translation
(when needed).
7. The addresses, if the signal is not a general broadcast and if addresses are retrievable from the message. These
stations may also be COMINT (e.g., a confirmation of the message or a response message), ELINT (e.g., a
navigation beacon being activated) or both. Rather than, or in addition to, an address or other identifier, there may
be information on the location and signal characteristics of the responder.
Voice interception
A basic COMINT technique is to listen for voice communications, usually over radio but possibly "leaking" from
telephones or from wiretaps. If the voice communications are encrypted, the encryption first must be solved through
a process of introelectric diagram in order to listen to the conversation, although traffic analysis (q.v.) may give
information simply because one station is sending to another in a radial pattern. It is important to check for various
cross sections of conversation. It is equally important to make sure that you have the correct x pattern in relation to
the a2 pattern.Wikipedia:Please clarify These can be found by using the signals intelligence set given to all Naval
communications officers and enlisted personnel with direct access to signals intelligence
communications.Wikipedia:Please clarifyWikipedia:Citation needed
Obviously, the interceptor must understand the language being spoken. In the Second World War, the United States
used volunteer communicators known as code talkers, who used languages such as Navajo, Comanche and Choctaw,
which would be understood by few people, even in the U.S., who did not grow up speaking the language. Even
within these uncommon languages, the code talkers used specialized codes, so a "butterfly" might be a specific
Japanese aircraft. British forces made more limited use of Welsh speakers for the additional protection.
While modern electronic encryption does away with the need for armies to use obscure languages, it is certainly
possible that guerrilla groups might use rare dialects that few outside their ethnic group would understand.
34
Text interception
Not all communication is in voice. Morse code interception was once very important, but Morse code telegraphy is
now obsolete in the western world, although possibly used by special operations forces. Such forces, however, now
have portable cryptographic equipment. Morse code is still used by military forces of former Soviet Union countries.
Specialists scan radio frequencies for character sequences (e.g., electronic mail) and facsimile.
Signaling channel interception

A given digital communications link can carry thousands or millions of voice communications, especially in
developed countries. Without addressing the legality of such actions, the problem of identifying which channel
contains which conversation becomes much simpler when the first thing intercepted is the signaling channel that
carries information to set up telephone calls. In civilian and many military use, this channel will carry messages in
Signaling System 7 protocols.
Retrospective analysis of telephone calls can be made from call detail records (CDR) used for billing the calls.
Monitoring friendly communications

More a part of communications security than
true intelligence collection, SIGINT units still
may have the responsibility of monitoring one's
own communications or other electronic
emissions, to avoid providing intelligence to the
enemy. For example, a security monitor may
hear an individual transmitting inappropriate
information over an unencrypted radio network,
DNI depiction of a NRO SIGINT satellite obtaining data on Western Europe
or simply one that is not authorized for the type
of information being given. If immediately
calling attention to the violation would not create an even greater security risk, the monitor will call out one of the
BEADWINDOW codes used by Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, and other
nations working under their procedures. Standard BEADWINDOW codes (e.g., "BEADWINDOW 2") include:
1. Position: (e.g., disclosing, in an insecure or inappropriate way, "Friendly or enemy position, movement or
intended movement, position, course, speed, altitude or destination or any air, sea or ground element, unit or
force."
2. Capabilities: "Friendly or enemy capabilities or limitations. Force compositions or significant casualties to
special equipment, weapons systems, sensors, units or personnel. Percentages of fuel or ammunition remaining."
3. Operations: "Friendly or enemy operation intentions progress, or results. Operational or logistic intentions;
mission participants flying programmes; mission situation reports; results of friendly or enemy operations; assault
objectives."
4. Electronic warfare (EW): "Friendly or enemy electronic warfare (EW) or emanations control (EMCON)
intentions, progress, or results. Intention to employ electronic countermeasures (ECM); results of friendly or
enemy ECM; ECM objectives; results of friendly or enemy electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM); results
of electronic support measures/tactical SIGINT (ESM); present or intended EMCON policy; equipment affected
by EMCON policy."
5. Friendly or enemy key personnel: "Movement or identity of friendly or enemy officers, visitors, commanders;
movement of key maintenance personnel indicating equipment limitations."
6. Communications security (COMSEC): "Friendly or enemy COMSEC breaches. Linkage of codes or
codewords with plain language; compromise of changing frequencies or linkage with line number/circuit
35
designators; linkage of changing call signs with previous call signs or units; compromise of encrypted/classified
call signs; incorrect authentication procedure."
7. Wrong circuit: "Inappropriate transmission. Information requested, transmitted or about to be transmitted which
should not be passed on the subject circuit because it either requires greater security protection or it is not
appropriate to the purpose for which the circuit is provided."
8. Other codes as appropriate for the situation may be defined by the commander.
In WWII, for example, the Japanese Navy made possible the interception and death of the Combined Fleet
commander, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, by BEADWINDOW 5 and 7 violations. They identified a key person's
movement over a low-security cryptosystem.
Electronic signals intelligence

Electronic signals intelligence (ELINT) refers to intelligence-gathering by use of electronic sensors. Its primary
focus lies on non-communications signals intelligence. The Joint Chiefs of Staff define it as "Technical and
geolocation intelligence derived from foreign noncommunications electromagnetic radiations emanating from other
than nuclear detonations or radioactive sources."
Signal identification is performed by analyzing the collected parameters of a specific signal, and either matching it to
known criteria, or recording it as a possible new emitter. ELINT data are usually highly classified, and are protected
as such.
The data gathered are typically pertinent to the electronics of an opponent's defense network, especially the
electronic parts such as radars, surface-to-air missile systems, aircraft, etc. ELINT can be used to detect ships and
aircraft by their radar and other electromagnetic radiation; commanders have to make choices between not using
radar (EMCON), intermittently using it, or using it and expecting to avoid defenses. ELINT can be collected from
ground stations near the opponent's territory, ships off their coast, aircraft near or in their airspace, or by satellite.
Complementary relationship to COMINT

Combining other sources of information and ELINT allows traffic analysis to be performed on electronic emissions
which contain human encoded messages. The method of analysis differs from SIGINT in that any human encoded
message which is in the electronic transmission is not analyzed during ELINT. What is of interest is the type of
electronic transmission and its location. For example, during the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II, Ultra
COMINT was not always available because Bletchley Park was not always able to read the U-boat Enigma traffic.
But "Huff-Duff" (High Frequency Direction Finder) was still able to find where the U-boats were by analysis of
radio transmissions and the positions through triangulation from the direction located by two or more Huff-Duff
systems. The Admiralty was able to use this information to plot courses which took convoys away from high
concentrations of U-boats.
Yet other ELINT disciplines include intercepting and analyzing enemy weapons control signals, or the Identification,
friend or foe responses from transponders in aircraft used to distinguish enemy craft from friendly ones.
Role in air warfare

A very common area of ELINT is intercepting radars and learning their locations and operating procedures.
Attacking forces may be able to avoid the coverage of certain radars, or, knowing their characteristics, electronic
warfare units may jam radars or send them deceptive signals. Confusing a radar electronically is called a "soft kill",
but military units will also send specialized missiles at radars, or bomb them, to get a "hard kill". Some modern air to
air missiles also have radar homing guidance systems, particularly for use against large airborne radars.
Knowing where each surface-to-air missile and anti-aircraft artillery system is and its type means that air raids can
be plotted to avoid the most heavily defended areas and to fly on a flight profile which will give the aircraft the best
36
chance of evading ground fire and fighter patrols. It also allows for the jamming or spoofing of the enemy's defense
network (see electronic warfare). Good electronic intelligence can be very important to stealth operations; stealth
aircraft are not totally undetectable and need to know which areas to avoid. Similarly, conventional aircraft need to
know where fixed or semi-mobile air defense systems are so that they can shut them down or fly around them.
ELINT and ESM

Electronic Support Measures (ESM) are really ELINT techniques, but the term is used in the specific context of
tactical warfare. ESM give the information needed for Electronic Attack (EA) such as jamming. EA is also called
Electronic Counter-Measures. ESM provides information needed for Electronic Counter-Counter Measures
(ECCM), such as understanding a spoofing or jamming mode so one can change one's radar characteristics to avoid
them.
ELINT for meaconing

Meaconing is the combined intelligence and electronic warfare of learning the characteristics of enemy navigation
aids, such as radio beacons, and retransmitting them with incorrect information.
Foreign instrumentation signals intelligence

Main article: FISINT
FISINT (Foreign instrumentation signals intelligence) is a sub-category of SIGINT, monitoring primarily non-human
communication. Foreign instrumentation signals include (but not limited to) telemetry (TELINT), tracking systems,
and video data links. TELINT is an important part of national means of technical verification for arms control.
Counter-ELINT
Still at the research level are techniques that can only be described as counter-ELINT, which would be part of a
SEAD campaign. It may be informative to compare and contrast counter-ELINT with ECCM.
SIGINT versus MASINT

Main article: Measurement and signature intelligence
37
Signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence

(MASINT) are closely, and sometimes confusingly, related. The
signals intelligence disciplines of communications and electronic
intelligence focus on the information in those signals themselves, as
with COMINT detecting the speech in a voice communication or
ELINT measuring the frequency, pulse repetition rate, and other
characteristics of a radar.
MASINT also works with collected signals, but is more of an analysis
discipline. There are, however, unique MASINT sensors, typically
working in different regions or domains of the electromagnetic
spectrum, such as infrared or magnetic fields. While NSA and other
agencies have MASINT groups, the Central MASINT Office is in the
Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA).
Where COMINT and ELINT focus on the intentionally transmitted
part of the signal, MASINT focuses on unintentionally transmitted
A model of a German SAR-Lupe reconnaissance
satellite inside a Russian Cosmos-3M rocket.
information. For example, a given radar antenna will have sidelobes
emanating from other than the direction in which the main antenna is
aimed. The RADINT (radar intelligence) discipline involves learning to recognize a radar both by its primary signal,
captured by ELINT, and its sidelobes, perhaps captured by the main ELINT sensor, or, more likely, a sensor aimed
at the sides of the radio antenna.
MASINT associated with COMINT might involve the detection of common background sounds expected with
human voice communications. For example, if a given radio signal comes from a radio used in a tank, if the
interceptor does not hear engine noise or higher voice frequency than the voice modulation usually uses, even though
the voice conversation is meaningful, MASINT might suggest it is a deception, not coming from a real tank.
See HF/DF for a discussion of SIGINT-captured information with a MASINT flavor, such as determining the
frequency to which a receiver is tuned, from detecting the frequency of the beat frequency oscillator of the
superheterodyne receiver.
Defensive signals intelligence

There are a number of ways that a person or organization can defend against signals intelligence. There is a delicate
balance between the level of protection and the actual threat, as expressed in the clichs about "tinfoil hats".
One must begin by defining the threat. It is considerably more difficult to defend against detection that one is
signaling, as opposed to defending against an opponent discovering the content of the transmitted message.
Appropriate encryption can protect against content interception, but protecting against signal detection, especially
with a capable opponent, requires measures to make the signal hard to detect which can also make it difficult for
the intended recipient to receive the signal. Any defensive program needs to consider the nature of the threat and the
capabilities of the opponent.
38
Strong and well-managed encryption

Encryption is central to the defense. The encryption process is vulnerable if the cryptographic keys are not strong
and protected, and, on computers, if the cleartext is not deleted when not needed.
Appropriate transmission security

When using radio transmitters, use directional antennas that have as little "spillover" into sidelobes as possible. If it
is most important to hide the location of a transmitter, the minimum is to cable the antennas as far as possible away
from the transmitter proper. In many circumstances, aiming the antenna upward to a satellite will help hide its
location.
The amount of total transmission power needs to be minimized, and the power preferably should be split into
multiple and changing frequencies using spread spectrum techniques. If possible, avoid transmitting when hostile
SIGINT satellites or monitoring aircraft are overhead.
If in an urban area, avoid using regular commercial power to transmit. There are ways in which the signal can "leak"
into power and ground lines. The adversary may cut electrical power for a few seconds, which will tell him there is a
line-operated transmitter if the transmission stops, and that there is a battery-powered transmitter if it continues. If
these power cuts are targeted at a large number of small locations in quick succession (e.g. individual city blocks)
during transmissions then the approximate location of line-powered transmitters can be detected, particularly when
used in conjunction with other RDF methods.
Use highly variable transmission schedules and vary frequencies if technically possible. Try to avoid transmitting
from exactly the same location twice, because any previous RDF attempts will have noted the approximate
transmitter co-ordinates, which can be quickly refined if the same location is used repeatedly.
Also see low probability of intercept radar.
Appropriate receiving security

If Operation RAFTER-style intercept is a threat, protect against this form of unintentional radiation MASINT by
using optoisolators or other shielded techniques (e.g., waveguides) to bring in the radio frequency received signal,
and shield the local oscillator and intermediate frequency stages in the superheterodyne receiver. This technique
should be far less effective against the new generation of software-defined radio.
Unintentional radiation on power or ground circuits is a threat here as well; use appropriate TEMPEST or other
techniques.
Protection against compromising emanations

There are risks that electronic, acoustic, or other information could "leak" from a computer system or other
electronic communications devices.
The risk
Understanding details of the risks requires a substantial knowledge of electronics, but a simple example might serve.
Many people have put a radio receiver near a computer, to listen to music as they work, and discovered that the radio
suffered clicks, squeals, and other interference. These interfering signals are radiating from various parts of the
computer, especially its display but often also from the power and grounding system. TEMPEST is the name for one
family of protective measures against an opponent intercepting these emanations and extracting sensitive information
from them.
While not strictly within the scope of protecting against "leakage", a place where sensitive information is processed
or discussed needs protection against hidden microphones, wiretaps, and other "bugging". Sometimes, an electronic
sweep to verify TEMPEST compliance reveals the presence of hidden transmitters. Again, there is probably more
39
suspicion than reality in most cases. A member of a crime organization, in the middle of a nasty divorce, or a foreign
intelligence agent might have reason to worry, but, even with the serious questions about warrantless surveillance in
the US and other countries, there is little reason for someone to go to the risk and expense of illegal surveillance on
an ordinary citizen. TEMPEST is usually associated with direct electromagnetic radiation from the device, either
free-space or through power and ground lines. TEMPEST generically talks about acoustic isolation, but that is fairly
easily solved through physical security and noise damping, as well as searches for microphones.
There are several threats that have not been officially defined in the unclassified literature. Nevertheless, there are
some informed guesses:
NONSTOP is a threat that involves some type of coupling of compromising RF energy from a classified system,
which "leaks" into an independent RF-transmitting or -recording device such as cell phones, PDAs, pager, alarm
systems. Commercial AM/FM radios are not considered a risk.
HIJACK is a similar threat of coupling, but to some type of digital computer or related equipment.
TEAPOT is a very different vulnerability, which appears to apply to incidental audio modulation of the
backscatter from an RF, typically microwave, directed into the secure area. A passive resonant cavity bug of this
type was discovered in a Great Seal of the United States presented by the USSR, but containing a resonant cavity
with a wall that moved with sound in the room, thus imposing frequency modulation onto the backscattered
signal.
Mitigation and countermeasures
The word TEMPEST itself, and its meaning, are unclassified. Some of the techniques for measuring the compliance
of a piece of equipment, or whether it is actually emitting compromising emanations, are classified. A good deal of
the information has come into public view either through Freedom of Information Act queries, books talking about
interception techniques, inferences drawn from partially released documents, and straightforward thinking by
electronic engineers. Some documents released fully or partially under FOIA:
1. Red/Black Installation Guidance
2. Specification for Shielded Enclosures
3. Specification for Shielded Enclosures (partially redacted)
A number of individuals have made a hobby of ferreting out TEMPEST and related information, and firms in the
broader-than-TEMPEST business of technical surveillance counter-measures (TSCM) also reveal concepts.
Protection against side channel attacks and covert channels

A side channel attack is an unintentional vulnerability of an encryption device, not related to the encryption
algorithm. Potential vulnerabilities include different processing and thus transmission speeds for blocks of plaintext
with certain statistical characteristics, changes in power consumption, or compromising emanations.
Covert channels are deliberate means to elude communications security. They send out an unauthorized signal by
stealing bandwidth from a legitimate, often encrypted channel. One low-bandwidth method would be to send
information by varying the inter-block transmission times. A steganographic covert channel might use the low-order
bit of pixels in a graphic image, perhaps not even consecutive pixels, in a manner that would not be obvious to a
person looking at the graphic.
40
References
Further reading
Bamford, James, Body of Secrets: How America's NSA and Britain's GCHQ eavesdrop on the world (Century,
London, 2001)
West, Nigel, The SIGINT Secrets: The Signals Intelligence War, 1900 to Today (William Morrow, New York,
1988)
J. A. Biyd, D. B. Harris, D. D. King & H. W. Welch, Jr. (Editors) (1979). Electronic Countermeasures. Los Altos,
CA: Peninsula Publishing (1961). ISBN0-932146-00-7.
Gannon, Paul (2007) [2006], Colossus: Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN978 1
84354 331 2
Jgiaas, Aadu, Disturbing soviet transmissions in August 1991 (http://www.okupatsioon.ee/en/lists/
47-aadu-jogisoo), Museum of Occupations, retrieved 25 June 2013
Bolton, Matt (December 2011), The Tallinn Cables: A Glimpse into Tallin's Secret History of Espionage (http://
www.hot.ee/aasa/LPL_1211.pdf), Lonely Planet Magazine, retrieved 25 June 2013
External links
Part I of IV Articles On Evolution of Army Signal Corps COMINT and SIGINT into NSA (http://www.
armysignalocs.com/index_jan_14.html)
NSA's overview of SIGINT (http://www.nsa.gov/sigint/)
USAF Pamphlet on sources of intelligence (http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/usaf/afpam14-210/part16.htm)
German WWII SIGINT/COMINT (http://fykse.dnsalias.com/radio/dok/german_sigint.pdf)
Intelligence Programs and Systems (http://www.fas.org/irp/program/index.html)
The U.S. Intelligence Community by Jeffrey T. Richelson (http://books.google.ca/books?id=BaeJNdRySPoC)
Secrets of Signals Intelligence During the Cold War and Beyond by Matthew Aid et. al. (http://books.google.
ca/books?id=KaR5O4PKNAoC)
Maritime SIGINT Architecture Technical Standards Handbook (http://www.tscmplus.com/sigintarchmsh.pdf)
41
42
Avalanche transceivers or avalanche beacon are a class of active
radio beacon transceivers operating at 457kHz and specialized for the
purpose of finding people or equipment buried under snow. When the
owner sets out on a skiing descent, the transceiver is activated, causing
the device to emit a low-power pulsed beacon signal during the trip.
Following an avalanche, and if the holder of the transceiver is safe and
has not themselves been caught by the avalanche, they may switch the
transceiver from transmit into receive mode, allowing use as a radio
direction finding device to search for signals coming from other skiers'
transmitter beacons who may be trapped. A 457kHz beacon is an
active device that requires batteries. A ski suit may also contain a
passive RECCO transponder sewn into the clothing.
Digital avalanche transceiver with LED display
Early avalanche beacons transmitted at 2.275kHz (2275 Hz). In 1986,

the international frequency standard of 457kHz was adopted, and this remains the standard today. Many companies
manufacture beacons that comply with this standard.
An avalanche beacon is not considered a preventive measure against possible avalanche burial, but rather it is a way
to reduce the amount of time buried.
History
In 1968, Dr. John Lawton invented the first effective avalanche transceiver at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in
Buffalo, New York, with the first units being sold in 1971 under the Skadi brand name. This unit, functioning at
2.275kHz, converted the radio frequency to a simple tone audible to the human ear. By following the tone to where
it was loudest, the beacon operator could use it to locate the buried beacon by using a grid searching technique.
In 1986, IKAR adopted the frequency of 457kHz. In 1996 ASTM adopted the 457kHz standard.
The following are the currently accepted international standards for Avalanche Transceivers operating on the
457kHz frequency.
457kHz, frequency tolerance 80Hz

200 hours transmitting at +10C (assumed inside protective clothing)
1 hours receiving at 10C (assumed handheld)
operation from 20C to +45C
carrier keying (pulse period) 1000300 ms
Now that the frequency 457kHz had become an international standard, and the problems of range had been
discussed and analyzed, everyone was most interested in ease of use. With a new generation of entirely automatic
apparatuses existing on the market containing a microprocessor that analyzed the beacon's signals or pulses to
determine both the direction and distance of the victim, a new digital age was born. In 1997, the first digital beacon
was introduced at the Winter Outdoor Retailer show by Backcountry Access under the brand name "Tracker". The
Tracker DTS soon became the most widely used beacon in North America, and is still sold and used by many
backcountry enthusiasts. Today, consumers have a wide range of choices for digital beacons from companies like
Ortovox, Arva, Pieps, Mammut, and Backcountry Access. Although beacon technology is constantly evolving and
improving, practicing and being familiar with your beacon remains the most important aspect for performing timely
rescues and preventing avalanche fatalities.
Types of beacons
There are two types of avalanche beacons: digital and analog. They
both adhere to the international standard as described above, and only
differ in the method(s) used to indicate to the user where the buried
beacon is located. Most beacons currently being sold are digital,
because of their enhanced ease of use and higher recovery rates.
Analog
The original avalanche beacon was an analog beacon which
transmitted the pulsed signal as an audible tone to the user. The tone
gets louder when the user is closer to the transmitting beacon. These
beacons have also been augmented with LEDs that provide a visual
indication of signal strength, and earpieces to increase the ability of the
listener to hear the tone.
Digital
Digital transceivers take the strength of the signal and the emitted
Digital avalanche transceiver with LCD display
dipole flux pattern and compute distance and direction to the buried
transceiver.[1] In order to calculate the emitted dipole flux pattern, a digital transceiver must have at least two
antennas, although most modern transceivers have three. The digital beacons will then indicate the direction to the
victim's beacon as an arrow on the display, and provide audio cues such as varying pitch or frequency. Most low- to
mid-range beacons have a segmented arrow capable of pointing in five to eight forward directions only, displaying a
'U-Turn' indicator if the user is traveling away from the victim. Higher end beacons such as the Mammut Pulse
Barryvox and Arva Link are equipped with a digital compass and free-flowing arrow, facilitating more exact
direction finding, even rotating to maintain direction between pulses of the transmitting beacon (a feature that is
impossible without a digital compass or sophisticated accelerometer). In addition, many higher end beacons can
point to victims 360, including behind the user if the user is moving in the wrong direction. Many digital beacons
are also capable of being used in analog mode for more advanced rescuers, or to enhance reception range.
W-Link
Several high-end digital beacons are also equipped with a secondary "supplementary" frequency referred to as
W-Link. This frequency broadcasts additional details to other transceivers capable of receiving the W-Link signal.
Advertised brand-independent features of W-Link include:
The ability to resolve multiple, complex burial situations by better differentiating individual transceivers
More reliable estimation of the number of burials
More reliable and quicker marking/unmarking of victims (i.e. forcing the transceiver to ignore an already found
victim)
More reliable selection of victim search, as the closest victim may not be the easiest to recover
Ability to transmit and receive additional data including wearer's vital signs or identification
43
Vitals Detection
Beacons transmitting on the W-Link frequency send a specific device code to assist in isolating and pinpointing
multiple signals, and facilitate all of the above features. Certain beacons like the Mammut Pulse Barryvox also
detect micro-movements in the user, including the minuscule movement generated by a heart beat. These beacons
will transmit this information across the W-Link frequency, so that any user with another W-Link capable
transceiver can determine whether or not a buried victim is alive, and formulate rescue triage based on that situation.
The idea behind this is that if everyone in a group is wearing a vitals-capable W-Link transceiver and some group
members are buried in an avalanche, the remaining group members will be able to determine which of the buried
victims are still alive, and focus rescue efforts on those members.
To compensate for group members without vitals-capable beacons (including lower-end beacons without W-Link
and W-Link capable beacons without vitals detection), the rescuer's W-Link beacon will often display two indicators
on the display for each victim. One indicator shows that a victim's beacon is transmitting on the W-Link frequency
while another shows that the victim is moving. This helps mitigate the potential risk of mis-categorizing an alive
victim as dead because their beacon is not transmitting vitals data, and thus the rescuer does not see the "alive"
indicator on their transceiver.
Controversies of W-Link
As a universal rule, W-Link capable transceivers do not display personally identifiable characteristics of the buried
victims, although they are capable of doing this. This is to eliminate conflicts of interest in rescue situations where a
rescuer may choose to save one person before (or instead of) another, even if another person is closer or easier to
rescue. By not identifying any buried victims, the rescuer is not left with a decision of which person to save, and are
spared the moral implications and consequences of his or her choices. Critics of the W-Link system, especially of the
vitals-detecting transceivers, argue that even without offering personally identifiable information, the W-Link
transceivers still present moral implications, and complicate rescue efforts because these transceivers will distinguish
between W-Link capable and incapable victims with an indicator on the display, further segregating victims with a
vitals-data capable beacons. Critics argue that this leads to an unfair distribution of rescue resources and personnel to
persons with higher-end or newer transceivers, and deprives everyone of an equal chance for rescue. For this reason
transceiver manufacturer Arva Equipment has elected to omit received vitals data from being displayed on their Link
transceiver, although the beacon does transmit them. A scenario that W-Link critics will use to exemplify their point
is as follows:
A four-person group goes on a backcountry tour into avalanche terrain. A husband and his wife are both
equipped with the same W-Link, vitals-sensing transceiver. They just met the other two group members
the day before. One of them has a basic digital beacon, and the other has a modern, digital W-Link
beacon that does not transmit vitals data. Along their tour, three of the group members are caught in an
avalanche, leaving only the husband to rescue them. He quickly activates his transceiver and it gets a
lock on all three victims. The display shows two beacons 10 and 12 meters directly in front of him, one
with W-Link signal and one with regular signal only. It also shows one beacon 33 meters behind him
transmitting W-Link and vitals data saying the victim is alive.
In this scenario, it is clear to distinguish between all three victims even though the transceiver does not display their
names; his wife is 33 meters behind him, while the other two people he just met are much closer, and close together,
as well. The moral implications are that the man will either choose to save his wife, likely at the expense of the other
two group members' lives, or he will rescue one or both of the other group members, allowing his wife to die. In a
rescue situation without the additional information, a competent rescuer would triage and initially rescue the two
closer victims. If the husband chooses this path, he will have to live with the knowledge that he could have saved his
wife but choose not to, for the rest of his life.
44
Frequencies and Technical Information

The W-Link frequency in use varies based on geographical location. Currently the frequencies are 869.8MHz in
Region A and 916-926MHz in Region B. Region A consists of the majority of the European Union, Sweden,
Norway, Greenland, Iceland, and other countries in that vicinity. Region B consists of Canada and the United States.
W-Link frequencies are not permitted for use in Russia, China, India, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and other
various countries in Asia and Eastern Europe. Users may disable W-Link capabilities on their individual beacon
when traveling to these countries, although switching between Regions B and A may require servicing by an
authorized retailer.
Search Techniques
Main article: Avalanche rescue
Due to the highly directional nature of the 457kHz signal at the ranges common for avalanche burial (and the range
specified in the standards), there have been many techniques developed to search for buried beacons. Good beacon
search abilities are considered a required skill for recreational backcountry skiers, mountaineers as well as avalanche
professionals such as ski guides, ski patrollers, search and rescue volunteers and professionals. Recreationalists and
professionals alike take part in drills, practice and scenarios as a regular part of avalanche skills training.
The burial of a single beacon may involve search using one of several methods:
Grid search
Induction search
Circle method
These search methods are adapted and extrapolated to scenarios where there is more than one burial.
References
[1] ISSW 2000
45
Triangulation
46
Triangulation
This article is about measurement by the use of triangles. For other uses, see Triangulation (disambiguation).
In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of
determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from
known points at either end of a fixed baseline, rather than measuring
distances to the point directly (trilateration). The point can then be
fixed as the third point of a triangle with one known side and two
known angles.
Triangulation can also refer to the accurate surveying of systems of
very large triangles, called triangulation networks. This followed
from the work of Willebrord Snell in 161517, who showed how a
point could be located from the angles subtended from three known
points, but measured at the new unknown point rather than the
previously fixed points, a problem called resectioning. Surveying error
is minimized if a mesh of triangles at the largest appropriate scale is
established first. Points inside the triangles can all then be accurately
located with reference to it. Such triangulation methods were used for
accurate large-scale land surveying until the rise of global navigation
satellite systems in the 1980s.
Triangulation of Kodiak Island in 1929.
Applications
Optical 3d measuring systems use this principle as well in order to determine the spatial dimensions and the
geometry of an item. Basically, the configuration consists of two sensors observing the item. One of the sensors is
typically a digital camera device, and the other one can also be a camera or a light projector. The projection centers
of the sensors and the considered point on the objects surface define a (spatial) triangle. Within this triangle, the
distance between the sensors is the base b and must be known. By determining the angles between the projection
rays of the sensors and the basis, the intersection point, and thus the 3d coordinate, is calculated from the triangular
relations.
Distance to a point by measuring two fixed angles
Triangulation
47
The coordinates and distance to a point

can be found by calculating the length of
one side of a triangle, given
measurements of angles and sides of the
triangle formed by that point and two
other known reference points.
The following formulae apply in flat or
Euclidean geometry. They become
inaccurate
if
distances
become
appreciable compared to the curvature of
the Earth, but can be replaced with more
complicated results derived using
spherical trigonometry.
Triangulation may be used to calculate the coordinates and distance from the shore to
the ship. The observer at A measures the angle between the shore and the ship, and
the observer at B does likewise for . With the length l or the coordinates of A and B
known, then the law of sines can be applied to find the coordinates of the ship at C
and the distance d.
Calculation
Therefore
Using the trigonometric identities tan

=sin/cos and sin(+)
=sincos+cossin, this is
equivalent to:
From this, it is easy to determine the

distance of the unknown point from either observation point, its north/south and east/west offsets from the
observation point, and finally its full coordinates.
Triangulation
48
History
Triangulation today is used for many purposes, including surveying,
navigation, metrology, astrometry, binocular vision, model rocketry
and gun direction of weapons.
The use of triangles to estimate distances goes back to antiquity. In the
6th century BC the Greek philosopher Thales is recorded as using
similar triangles to estimate the height of the pyramids by measuring
the length of their shadows and that of his own at the same moment,
and comparing the ratios to his height (intercept theorem);[1] and to
have estimated the distances to ships at sea as seen from a clifftop, by
measuring the horizontal distance traversed by the line-of-sight for a
known fall, and scaling up to the height of the whole cliff.[2] Such
techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem
57 of the Rhind papyrus, a thousand years earlier, defines the seqt or
seked as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, i.e. the reciprocal of
gradients as measured today. The slopes and angles were measured
using a sighting rod that the Greeks called a dioptra, the forerunner of
the Arabic alidade. A detailed contemporary collection of constructions
for the determination of lengths from a distance using this instrument is
known, the Dioptra of Hero of Alexandria (c. 1070 AD), which
survived in Arabic translation; but the knowledge became lost in
Europe. In China, Pei Xiu (224271) identified "measuring right
angles and acute angles" as the fifth of his six principles for accurate
map-making, necessary to accurately establish distances;[3] while Liu
Hui (c. 263) gives a version of the calculation above, for measuring
perpendicular distances to inaccessible places.[4][5]
Liu Hui (c. 263), How to measure the height of a

sea island. Illustration from an edition of 1726
In the field, triangulation methods were apparently not used by the

Roman specialist land surveyors, the agromensores; but were
introduced into medieval Spain through Arabic treatises on the
astrolabe, such as that by Ibn al-Saffar (d. 1035).[6] Abu Rayhan Biruni
(d. 1048) also introduced triangulation techniques to measure the size
of the Earth and the distances between various places. Simplified
Roman techniques then seem to have co-existed with more
sophisticated techniques used by professional surveyors. But it was
rare for such methods to be translated into Latin (a manual on
Geometry, the eleventh century Geomatria incerti auctoris is a rare
exception), and such techniques appear to have percolated only slowly
Gemma Frisius's 1533 proposal to use
triangulation for mapmaking
into the rest of Europe. Increased awareness and use of such techniques
in Spain may be attested by the medieval Jacob's staff, used
specifically for measuring angles, which dates from about 1300; and the appearance of accurately surveyed
coastlines in the Portolan charts, the earliest of which that survives is dated 1296.
Triangulation
Gemma Frisius and triangulation for mapmaking

On land, the cartographer Gemma Frisius proposed using triangulation
to accurately position far-away places for map-making in his 1533
pamphlet Libellus de Locorum describendorum ratione (Booklet
concerning a way of describing places), which he bound in as an
appendix in a new edition of Peter Apian's best-selling 1524
Cosmographica. This became very influential, and the technique
spread across Germany, Austria and the Netherlands. The astronomer
Tycho Brahe applied the method in Scandinavia, completing a detailed
triangulation in 1579 of the island of Hven, where his observatory was
Nineteenth-century triangulation network for the
based, with reference to key landmarks on both sides of the resund,
triangulation of Rhineland-Hesse
producing an estate plan of the island in 1584.[7] In England Frisius's
method was included in the growing number of books on surveying
which appeared from the middle of the century onwards, including William Cuningham's Cosmographical Glasse
(1559), Valentine Leigh's Treatise of Measuring All Kinds of Lands (1562), William Bourne's Rules of Navigation
(1571), Thomas Digges's Geometrical Practise named Pantometria (1571), and John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue
(1607). It has been suggested that Christopher Saxton may have used rough-and-ready triangulation to place features
in his county maps of the 1570s; but others suppose that, having obtained rough bearings to features from key
vantage points, he may have estimated the distances to them simply by guesswork.[8]
Willebrord Snell and modern triangulation networks

The modern systematic use of triangulation networks stems from the work of the Dutch mathematician Willebrord
Snell, who in 1615 surveyed the distance from Alkmaar to Bergen op Zoom, approximately 70 miles (110
kilometres), using a chain of quadrangles containing 33 triangles in all. The two towns were separated by one degree
on the meridian, so from his measurement he was able to calculate a value for the circumference of the earth a feat
celebrated in the title of his book Eratosthenes Batavus (The Dutch Eratosthenes), published in 1617. Snell
calculated how the planar formulae could be corrected to allow for the curvature of the earth. He also showed how to
resection, or calculate, the position of a point inside a triangle using the angles cast between the vertices at the
unknown point. These could be measured much more accurately than bearings of the vertices, which depended on a
compass. This established the key idea of surveying a large-scale primary network of control points first, and then
locating secondary subsidiary points later, within that primary network.
Snell's methods were taken up by Jean Picard who in 166970 surveyed one degree of latitude along the Paris
Meridian using a chain of thirteen triangles stretching north from Paris to the clocktower of Sourdon, near Amiens.
Thanks to improvements in instruments and accuracy, Picard's is rated as the first reasonably accurate measurement
of the radius of the earth. Over the next century this work was extended most notably by the Cassini family: between
1683 and 1718 Jean-Dominique Cassini and his son Jacques Cassini surveyed the whole of the Paris meridian from
Dunkirk to Perpignan; and between 1733 and 1740 Jacques and his son Csar Cassini undertook the first
triangulation of the whole country, including a re-surveying of the meridian arc, leading to the publication in 1745 of
the first map of France constructed on rigorous principles.
Triangulation methods were by now well established for local mapmaking, but it was only towards the end of the
18th century that other countries began to establish detailed triangulation network surveys to map whole countries.
The Principal Triangulation of Great Britain was begun by the Ordnance Survey in 1783, though not completed until
1853; and the Great Trigonometric Survey of India, which ultimately named and mapped Mount Everest and the
other Himalayan peaks, was begun in 1801. For the Napoleonic French state, the French triangulation was extended
by Jean Joseph Tranchot into the German Rhineland from 1801, subsequently completed after 1815 by the Prussian
49
Triangulation
general Karl von Mffling. Meanwhile, the famous mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss was entrusted from 1821 to
1825 with the triangulation of the kingdom of Hanover, for which he developed the method of least squares to find
the best fit solution for problems of large systems of simultaneous equations given more real-world measurements
than unknowns.
Today, large-scale triangulation networks for positioning have largely been superseded by the Global navigation
satellite systems established since the 1980s. But many of the control points for the earlier surveys still survive as
valued historical features in the landscape, such as the concrete triangulation pillars set up for retriangulation of
Great Britain (19361962), or the triangulation points set up for the Struve Geodetic Arc (18161855), now
scheduled as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
References
[1] I, 27
[2] Proclus, In Euclidem
[3] Joseph Needham (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei:
Caves Books Ltd. pp. 539540
[4] Liu Hui, The Sea Island Mathematical Manual
[5] Kurt Vogel (1983; 1997), A Surveying Problem Travels from China to Paris (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=AG2XBCmxYcUC&
pg=PA6& lpg=PA6& source=web& ots=dFLpU3z6ri& sig=Aa-wiZAq2PEBsgmrW_9Bn44TB08& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result&
resnum=1& ct=result#PPA1,M1), in Yvonne Dold-Samplonius (ed.), From China to Paris, Proceedings of a conference held July, 1997,
Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut, Oberwolfach, Germany. ISBN 3-515-08223-9.
[6] Donald Routledge Hill (1984), A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, London: Croom Helm & La Salle, Illinois: Open
Court. ISBN 0-87548-422-0. pp. 119122
[7] Michael Jones (2004), " Tycho Brahe, Cartography and Landscape in 16th Century Scandinavia (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=_tsvf51Z4ocC& pg=PA210& lpg=PA210& dq=portolan+ triangulation& source=web& ots=ZrtTrVrU11&
sig=iUMgeFF6fXDdfFStUWPLRyI5OOw& hl=en)", in Hannes Palang (ed), European Rural Landscapes: Persistence and Change in a
Globalising Environment, p.210
[8] Martin and Jean Norgate (2003), Saxton's Hampshire: Surveying (http:/ / www. geog. port. ac. uk/ webmap/ hantsmap/ hantsmap/ saxton1/
sax1svy1. htm), University of Portsmouth
Further reading
Bagrow, L. (1964) History of Cartography; revised and enlarged by R.A. Skelton. Harvard University Press.
Crone, G.R. (1978 [1953]) Maps and their Makers: An Introduction to the History of Cartography (5th ed).
Tooley, R.V. & Bricker, C. (1969) A History of Cartography: 2500 Years of Maps and Mapmakers
Keay, J. (2000) The Great Arc: The Dramatic Tale of How India Was Mapped and Everest Was Named. London:
Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-257062-9.
Murdin, P. (2009) Full Meridian of Glory: Perilous Adventures in the Competition to Measure the Earth.
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-75533-5.
50
Phased array
51
Phased array
This article is about general theory and electromagnetic phased array. For the ultrasonic and medical imaging
application, see phased array ultrasonics. For the optical application, see phased-array optics.
In antenna theory, a phased array is an array of antennas in which the
relative phases of the respective signals feeding the antennas are varied
in such a way that the effective radiation pattern of the array is
reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed in undesired
directions.[1]
An antenna array is a group of multiple active antennas coupled to a
common source or load to produce a directive radiation pattern.
Usually, the spatial relationship of the individual antennas also
contributes to the directivity of the antenna array. Use of the term
"active antennas" is intended to describe elements whose energy output
is modified due to the presence of a source of energy in the element
(other than the mere signal energy which passes through the circuit) or
an element in which the energy output from a source of energy is
controlled by the signal input. One common application of this is with
a standard multiband television antenna, which has multiple elements
coupled together.
Principle of operation of phased array (PA). The

PA probe consists of many small elements, each
of which can be pulsed separately. In the figure
the element on the right is pulsed first, and emits
an energy wave that spreads out like a ripple on a
pond (largest semicircle). The second to right
element is pulsed next, and emits a ripple that is
slightly smaller than the first because it was
started later. The process continues down the line
until all the elements have been pulsed. The
multiple waves add up to one single wave front
travelling at a set angle. In other words, the beam
angle can be set just by programming the pulse
timings.
History
Phased array transmission was originally developed in 1905 by Nobel
laureate Karl Ferdinand Braun who demonstrated enhanced
transmission of radio waves in one direction.[2][3] During World War
II, Nobel laureate Luis Alvarez used phased array transmission in a
rapidly steerable radar system for "ground-controlled approach", a
system to aid in the landing of aircraft. At the same time, the GEMA in
Germany built the PESA Mammut 1.[4] It was later adapted for radio
astronomy leading to Nobel Prizes for Physics for Antony Hewish and
Martin Ryle after several large phased arrays were developed at the
University of Cambridge. The design is also used in radar, and is
generalized in interferometric radio antennas. In 2007, DARPA
researchers announced a 16 element phased array integrated with all
necessary circuits to send at 3050GHz on a single silicon chip for
military purposes.[5]
PAVE PAWS passive electronically scanned

array radar in Alaska
Usage
The relative amplitudes ofand constructive and destructive
interference effects amongthe signals radiated by the individual
antennas determine the effective radiation pattern of the array. A
phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern, or to scan
RAF Fylingdales active electronically scanned

array
Phased array
52
rapidly in azimuth or elevation. Simultaneous electrical scanning in

both azimuth and elevation was first demonstrated in a phased array
antenna at Hughes Aircraft Company, Culver City, California in
1957.[6]
The phased array is used for instance in optical communication as a
wavelength-selective splitter.
For information about active as well as passive phased array radars, see
also active electronically scanned array.
Cobra Dane passive electronically scanned array
Broadcasting
In broadcast engineering, it is required that phased arrays be used by
many AM broadcast radio stations to enhance signal strength and
therefore coverage in the city of license, while minimizing interference
to other areas. Due to the differences between daytime and nighttime
ionospheric propagation at mediumwave frequencies, it is common for
AM broadcast stations to change between day (groundwave) and night
(skywave) radiation patterns by switching the phase and power levels
supplied to the individual antenna elements (mast radiators) daily at
sunrise and sunset. More modest phased array longwire antenna
systems may be employed by private radio enthusiasts to receive
longwave, mediumwave (AM) and shortwave radio broadcasts from
great distances.
BMEWS & PAVE PAWS Radars
On VHF, phased arrays are used extensively for FM broadcasting.

These greatly increase the antenna gain, magnifying the emitted RF
energy toward the horizon, which in turn greatly increases a station's
broadcast range. In these situations, the distance to each element from
the transmitter is identical, or is one (or other integer) wavelength
apart. Phasing the array such that the lower elements are slightly
delayed (by making the distance to them longer) causes a downward
beam tilt, which is very useful if the antenna is quite high on a radio
tower.
Mammut phased array radar World War II
Other phasing adjustments can increase the downward radiation in the

far field without tilting the main lobe, creating null fill to compensate for extremely high mountaintop locations, or
decrease it in the near field, to prevent excessive exposure to those workers or even nearby homeowners on the
ground. The latter effect is also achieved by half-wave spacing inserting additional elements halfway between
existing elements with full-wave spacing. This phasing achieves roughly the same horizontal gain as the full-wave
spacing; that is, a five-element full-wave-spaced array equals a nine- or ten-element half-wave-spaced array.
Naval usage
Phased array radar systems are also used by warships of many navies. Because of the rapidity with which the beam
can be steered, phased array radars allow a warship to use one radar system for surface detection and tracking
(finding ships), air detection and tracking (finding aircraft and missiles) and missile uplink capabilities. Before using
these systems, each surface-to-air missile in flight required a dedicated fire-control radar, which meant that ships
could only engage a small number of simultaneous targets. Phased array systems can be used to control missiles
Phased array
53
during the mid-course phase of the missile's flight. During the terminal portion of the flight, continuous-wave fire
control directors provide the final guidance to the target. Because the radar beam is electronically steered, phased
array systems can direct radar beams fast enough to maintain a fire control quality track on many targets
simultaneously while also controlling several in-flight missiles. The AN/SPY-1 phased array radar, part of the Aegis
combat system deployed on modern U.S. cruisers and destroyers, "is able to perform search, track and missile
guidance functions simultaneously with a capability of over 100 targets." Likewise, the Thales Herakles phased array
multi-function radar on board the Formidable class frigates of the Republic of Singapore Navy has a track capacity
of 200 targets and is able to achieve automatic target detection, confirmation and track initiation in a single scan,
while simultaneously providing mid-course guidance updates to the MBDA Aster missiles launched from the ship.
The German Navy and the Royal Dutch Navy have developed the Active Phased Array Radar System (APAR).
See also: Active Electronically Scanned Array, Aegis combat
system and AN/SPY-1
Phased arrays are used in naval sonar, in active (transmit and receive)
and passive (receive only) and hull-mounted and towed array sonar.
Space probe communication

The MESSENGER spacecraft is a mission to the planet Mercury
(arrival 18 March 2011). This spacecraft is the first deep-space mission
to use a phased-array antenna for communications. The radiating
elements are linearly-polarized, slotted waveguides. The antenna,
which uses the X band, uses 26 radiative elements but can gracefully
downgrade.[7]
Active Phased Array Radar mounted on top of
Sachsen class frigate F220 Hamburg's
superstructure of the German Navy.
Phased array
54
Weather research usage

The National Severe Storms Laboratory has been using a SPY-1A
phased array antenna, provided by the US Navy, for weather research
at its Norman, Oklahoma facility since April 23, 2003. It is hoped that
research will lead to a better understanding of thunderstorms and
tornadoes, eventually leading to increased warning times and enhanced
prediction of tornadoes. Current project participants include the
National Severe Storms Laboratory and National Weather Service
Radar Operations Center, Lockheed Martin, United States Navy,
University of Oklahoma School of Meteorology, School of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, and Atmospheric Radar Research Center,
Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education, the Federal Aviation
Administration, and Basic Commerce and Industries [8]. The project
includes research and development, future technology transfer and
potential deployment of the system throughout the United States. It is
expected to take 10 to 15 years to complete and initial construction was
approximately $25 million.[9]
AN/SPY-1A radar installation at NSSL, Norman,
Oklahoma. The round dome primarily provides
weather protection.
Optics
Within the visible or infrared spectrum of electromagnetic waves it is

possible to construct optical phased arrays. They are used in
wavelength multiplexers and filters for telecommunication purposes,[10] laser beam steering, and holography.
Synthetic array heterodyne detection is an efficient method for multiplexing an entire phased array onto a single
element photodetector.
Radio-frequency identification (RFID)

Recently, phased array antennas have been included in RFID systems to significantly boost the reading capability of
passive UHF tags passing from 9m (30ft) to 180m (600 ft).[11]
Human-machine interfaces (HMI)

A phased array of acoustic transducers, denominated airborne ultrasound tactile display (AUTD), was developed at
the University of Tokyo's Shinoda Lab to induce tactile feedback.[12] This system was demonstrated to enable a user
to interactively manipulate virtual holographic objects.[13]
Mathematical perspective and formulas

A phased array is an example of N-slit diffraction. It may also be viewed as the coherent addition of N line sources.
Since each individual antenna acts as a slit, emitting radio waves, their diffraction pattern can be calculated by
adding the phase shift to the fringing term.
We will begin from the N-slit diffraction pattern derived on the diffraction formalism page.
Now, adding a term to the
fringe effect in the second term yields:
Phased array
55
Taking the square of the wave function gives us the intensity of the wave.
Now space the emitters a distance
apart. This distance is chosen for simplicity of calculation but can be
adjusted as any scalar fraction of the wavelength.
As sine achieves its maximum at , we set the numerator of the second term = 1.
Thus as N gets large, the term will be dominated by the

that setting
term. As sine can oscillate between 1 and 1, we can see
will send the maximum energy on an angle given by
Additionally, we can see that if we wish to adjust the angle at which the maximum energy is emitted, we need only
to adjust the phase shift between successive antennas. Indeed the phase shift corresponds to the negative angle of
maximum signal.
A similar calculation will show that the denominator is minimized by the same factor.
Different types of phased arrays

Main article: Beamforming
There are two main types of beamformers. These are time domain beamformers and frequency domain beamformers.
A graduated attenuation window is sometimes applied across the face of the array to improve side-lobe suppression
performance, in addition to the phase shift.
Time domain beamformer works by introducing time delays. The basic operation is called "delay and sum". It delays
the incoming signal from each array element by a certain amount of time, and then adds them together. The most
common kind of time domain beam former is serpentine waveguide. Active phase array uses individual delay lines
that are switched on and off. Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters vary the phase delay using the strength of a magnetic
field.
There are two different types of frequency domain beamformers.
The first type separates the different frequency components that are present in the received signal into multiple
frequency bins (using either an Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) or a filterbank). When different delay and sum
beamformers are applied to each frequency bin, the result is that the main lobe simultaneously points in multiple
different directions at each of the different frequencies. This can be an advantage for communication links, and is
Phased array
used with the SPS-48 radar.
The other type of frequency domain beamformer makes use of Spatial Frequency. Discrete samples are taken from
each of the individual array elements. The samples are processed using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The
DFT introduces multiple different discrete phase shifts during processing. The outputs of the DFT are individual
channels that correspond with evenly spaced beams formed simultaneously. A 1-dimensional DFT produces a fan of
different beams. A 2-dimensional DFT produces beams with a pineapple configuration.
These techniques are used to create two kinds of phase array.
Dynamic - an array of variable phase shifters are used to move the beam
Fixed - the beam position is stationary with respect to the array face and the whole antenna is moved
There are two further sub-categories that modify the kind of dynamic array or fixed array.
Active - amplifiers or processors in each phase shifter element
Passive - large central amplifier with attenuating phase shifters
Dynamic Phased Array

Each array element incorporates an adjustable phase shifter that are collectively used to move the beam with respect
to the array face.
Dynamic phase array require no physical movement to aim the beam. The beam is moved electronically. This can
produce antenna motion fast enough to use a small pencil-beam to simultaneously track multiple targets while
searching for new targets using just one radar set (track while search).
As an example, an antenna with a 2 degree beam with a pulse rate of 1kHz will require approximately 16 seconds to
cover an entire a hemisphere consisting of 16,000 pointing positions. This configuration provides 6 opportunities to
detect a Mach 3 vehicle over a range of 100km (62mi), which is suitable for military applications.
The position of mechanically steered antennas can be predicted, which can be used to create electronic
countermeasures that interfere with radar operation. The flexibility resulting from phase array operation allows
beams to be aimed at random locations, which eliminates this vulnerability. This is also desirable for military
applications.
Fixed Phase Array

Fixed phase array antennas are typically used to create an antenna with a more desirable form factor than the
conventional parabolic reflector or cassegrain reflector. Fixed phased array radar incorporate fixed phase shifters.
This kind of phase array is physically moved during the track and scan process. There are two configurations.
Multiple frequencies with a delay-line
Multiple adjacent beams
The SPS-48 radar uses multiple transmit frequencies with a serpentine delay line along the left side of the array to
produce vertical fan of stacked beams. Each frequency experiences a different phase shift as it propagates down the
serpentine delay line, which forms different beams. A filter bank is used to split apart the individual receive beams.
The antenna is mechanically rotated.
Semi-active radar homing uses monopulse radar that relies on a fixed phase array to produce multiple adjacent
beams that measure angle errors. This form factor is suitable for gimbal mounting in missile seekers.
56
Phased array
Active Phase Array

Active phased arrays elements incorporate transmit amplification with phase shift in each antenna element (or group
of elements). Each element also includes receive pre-amplification. The phase shifter setting is the same for transmit
and receive.
Active phase array do not require phase reset after the end of the transmit pulse, which is compatible with Doppler
radar and Pulse-Doppler radar.
Passive Phase Array

Passive phased arrays typically use large amplifiers that produce all of the microwave transmit signal for the
antenna. Phase shifters typically consist of waveguide elements that contain phase shifters controlled by magnetic
field, voltage gradient, or equivalent technology.
The phase shift process used with passive phase array typically puts the receive beam and transmit beam into
diagonally opposite quadrants. The sign of the phase shift must be inverted after the transmit pulse is finished and
before the receive period begins to place the receive beam into the same location as the transmit beam. That requires
a phase impulse that degrades sub-clutter visibility performance on Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar. As an
example, Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters must be changed after transmit pulse quench and before receiver
processing starts to align transmit and receive beams. That impulse introduces FM noise that degrades clutter
performance.
Passive phase array is used with AEGIS.
References
[1] Definition of Phased Array (http:/ / glossary. its. bldrdoc. gov/ fs-1037/ dir-027/ _3979. htm). Accessed April 27, 2006.
[2] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1909/ braun-lecture. pdf Braun's Nobel Prize lecture. The phased array section is on
pages 239-240.
[3] "Die Strassburger Versuche ber gerichtete drahtlose Telegraphie" (The Strassburg experiments on directed wireless telegraphy),
Elektrotechnische und Polytechnische Rundschau (Electrical technology and polytechnic review [a weekly]), (1 November 1905). This article
is summarized (in German) in: Adolf Prasch, ed., Die Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Drahtlosen Telegraphie [Progress in the field of
wireless telegraphy] (Stuttgart, Germany: Ferdinand Enke, 1906), vol. 4, pages 184-185 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ZAAMAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA184#v=onepage& q& f=false).
[4] http:/ / www. 100jahreradar. de/ index. html?/ gdr_5_deutschefunkmesstechnikim2wk. html Mamut1 first early warning PESA Radar
[5] Worlds Most Complex Silicon Phased Array Chip Developed at UC San Diego (http:/ / ucsdnews. ucsd. edu/ newsrel/ science/
10-07PhasedArrayChipDK-L. asp) in UCSD News (reviewed 02. November 2007)
[6] See Joseph Spradley, A Volumetric Electrically Scanned Two-Dimensional Microwave Antenna Array, IRE National Convention Record,
Part I - Antennas and Propagation; Microwaves, New York: The Institute of Radio Engineers, 1958, 204-212.
[7] Phased-Array Antenna for the MESSENGER Deep Space Mission (http:/ / www. jhuapl. edu/ messenger/ the_mission/ publications/
Wallis_Cheng. 2001. pdf)
[8] http:/ / www. bcisse. com/
[9] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. PAR Backgrounder (http:/ / www. norman. noaa. gov/ publicaffairs/ backgrounders/
backgrounder_par. html). Accessed April 6, 2006.
[10] P. D. Trinh, S. Yegnanarayanan, F. Coppinger and B. Jalali Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Phased-Array Wavelength Multi/Demultiplexer with
Extremely Low-Polarization Sensitivity (http:/ / www. ee. ucla. edu/ ~oecs/ comp_pub/ intr_opt/ Optics23. pdf), IEEE Photonics Technology
Letters, Vol. 9, No. 7, July 1997
[11] RFID Radio (http:/ / www. rfidradio. com/ ?p=25)
[12] SIGGRAPH 2008, Airborne Ultrasound Tactile Display
[13] (http:/ / www. alab. t. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ ~siggraph/ 09/ TouchableHolography/ SIGGRAPH09-TH. html) SIGGRAPH 2009, Touchable
holography
57
Phased array
External links
Radar Research and Development - Phased Array Radar (http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/par/)National Severe
Storms Laboratory
Shipboard Phased Array Radars (http://www.harpoonhq.com/waypoint/articles/Article_044.pdf)
NASA Report: MMICs For Multiple Scanning Beam Antennas for Space Applications (http://ntrs.nasa.gov/
archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19870018450_1987018450.pdf)
Principle of Phased Array (http://www.radartutorial.eu/06.antennas/an14.en.html) @ www.radartutorial.eu
'Phased Array' microphone system of Tony Faulkner (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/
TonyFaulknerPhasedArray06.htm)
Software tool to predict the radiation pattern of an antenna array (http://antennaarraycalculator.blogspot.com.
es/p/calculator.html)
58
59

A German competitor on a 2-metre band ARDF course.

Highest governing body International Amateur Radio Union
First played
1950s, in northern and eastern Europe

Characteristics
Contact
Non-contact
Team members
Individual
Mixed gender
Separate categories
Type
Outdoor
Presence
Amateur radio direction finding (ARDF, also known as radio orienteering and radiosport) is an amateur racing
sport that combines radio direction finding with the map and compass skills of orienteering. It is a timed race in
which individual competitors use a topographic map, a magnetic compass and radio direction finding apparatus to
navigate through diverse wooded terrain while searching for radio transmitters. The rules of the sport and
international competitions are organized by the International Amateur Radio Union. The sport has been most popular
in Eastern Europe, Russia, and China, where it was often used in the physical education programs in schools.
ARDF events use radio frequencies on either the two-meter or eighty-meter amateur radio bands. These two bands
were chosen because of their universal availability to amateur radio licensees in all countries. The radio equipment
carried by competitors on a course must be capable of receiving the signal being transmitted by the five transmitters
and useful for radio direction finding, including a radio receiver, attenuator, and directional antenna. Most equipment
designs integrate all three components into one handheld device.
History
The sport originated in Northern
Europe and Eastern Europe in the late
1950s. Amateur radio was widely
promoted in the schools of Northern
and Eastern Europe as a modern
scientific and technical activity. Most
medium to large cities hosted one or
more amateur radio clubs at which
members could congregate and learn
about the technology and operation of
Nations that have participated in major international competitions since the first European
radio equipment. One of the activities
Championship in 1961
that schools and radio clubs promoted
was radio direction finding, an activity that had important civil defense applications during the Cold War. As few
individuals in Europe had personal automobiles at the time, most of this radio direction finding activity took place on
foot, in parks, natural areas, or school campuses. The sport of orienteering, popular in its native Scandinavia, had
begun to spread to more and more countries throughout Europe, including the nations of the Eastern Bloc. As
orienteering became more popular and orienteering maps became more widely available, it was only natural to
combine the two activities and hold radio direction finding events on orienteering maps.
Interest in this kind of on-foot radio direction finding activity using detailed topographic maps for navigation spread
throughout Scandinavia, Eastern and Central Europe, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China. Formal
rules for the sport were first proposed in England and Denmark in the 1950s.[1] The first European Championship in
the sport was held in 1961 in Stockholm, Sweden. Four additional international championships were held in Europe
in the 1960s, and three more were held in the 1970s. The first World Championship was held in 1980 in Cetniewo,
Poland, where competitors from eleven European and Asian countries participated. World Championships have been
generally held in even-numbered years since 1984, although there was no World Championship in 1996, and there
was a World Championship in 1997. Asian nations began sending national teams to international events in 1980, and
teams from nations in Oceania and North America began competing in the 1990s. Athletes from twenty-six nations
attended the 2000 World Championship in Nanjing, China, the first to be held outside of Europe.Wikipedia:Link
rot[2]
60
As the sport grew in the 1960s and 1970s, each nation devised its own set of
rules and regulations. The need for more clearly defined and consistent rules for
international competitions led to the formation of an ARDF working group by
the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) in the late 1970s. The first
ARDF event to use the new standardized rules was the 1980 World
Championship. These rules have been revised and updated over the years,
increasing the number of gender and age categories into which competitors are
classified, as well as formalizing the start and finish line procedures.[3] While
some variations exist, these standardized rules have since been used worldwide
for ARDF competitions, and the IARU has become the principal international
organization promoting the sport. The IARU divides the world into three regions
for administrative purposes. These regions correspond with the three regions
used by the International Telecommunications Union for its regulatory purposes,
A member of the Republic of Korea
but the IARU has also used these regions for sports administration. The first
national team sprints to the finish
IARU RegionI (Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and ex-USSR) Championship
line of an eighty meter ARDF
was held in 1993 in Chtelnica, Slovakia,Wikipedia:Link rot the first IARU
course.
RegionIII (Asia and Oceania) Championship was held in 1993 in Beijing,
[4]
China,Wikipedia:Link rot and the first IARU RegionII (North and South America) Championship was held in
1999 in Portland, Oregon, USA. In addition to participation in international events, most nations with active ARDF
organizations hold annual national championships using the IARU rules.
ARDF is a sport that spans much of the globe. In 2012 over 570 athletes from thirty-three countries, representing
four continents, entered the 16th World Championships held in Kopaonik, Serbia [5] Organized ARDF competitions
can be found in almost every European country and in all the nations of northern and eastern Asia. ARDF activity is
also found in Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States. Although they represent a broad
range of amateur radio interests in their nations today, several member societies of the International Amateur Radio
Union were originally formed for the promotion and organization of the sport and continue to use the term
radiosport in their society name. These include the Federation of Radiosport of the Republic of Armenia (FRRA),[6]
the Belarusian Federation of Radioamateurs and Radiosportsmen (BFRR),[7] the Chinese Radio Sports Association
(CRSA),[8] and the Mongolian Radio Sport Federation (MRSF).[9] To promote the sport, the IARU has delegated
individuals as ARDF Coordinators for each IARU region to help educate and organize national radio societies and
other ARDF groups, especially in nations without prior activity in the sport.
Description of competition and rules

The rules used throughout the world, with minor variations, are maintained by the IARU RegionI ARDF Working
Group.[10] Although these rules were developed specifically for international competitions, they have become the de
facto standard used as the basis for all international competitions worldwide.
An ARDF competition normally takes place in diverse wooded terrain, such as in a public park or natural area but
competitions have also been held in suitable suburban areas. Each competitor receives a detailed topographic map of
the competition area. The map will indicate the location of the start with a triangle and the location of the finish with
two concentric circles. Somewhere within the competition area designated on the map, the meet organizer will have
placed five low power radio transmitters. The locations of the transmitters are kept a secret from the competitors and
are not marked on the map. Each transmitter emits a signal in Morse code by which it is easily identifiable to the
competitors. The transmitters automatically transmit one after another in a repeating cycle. Depending on entry
classification, a competitor will attempt to locate as many as three, four, or all five of the transmitters in the woods,
and then travel to the finish line in the shortest possible time. Competitors start at staggered intervals, are
individually timed, and are expected to perform all radio direction finding and navigation skills on their own.
61
62
Standings are determined first by the number of transmitters found, then by shortest time on course. Competitors
who take longer than the specified time limit to finish may be disqualified.
ARDF events use radio frequencies on either the 2-meter or 80-meter amateur radio bands. These two bands were
chosen because of their universal availability to amateur radio licensees in all countries. Each band requires different
radio equipment for transmission and reception, and requires the use of different radio direction finding skills. Radio
direction finding equipment for eighty meters, an HF band, is relatively easy to design and inexpensive to build.
Bearings taken on eighty meters can be very accurate. Competitors on an eighty meter course must use bearings to
determine the locations of the transmitters and choose the fastest route through the terrain to visit them. Two meters,
a VHF band, requires equipment that is relatively more complicated to design and more expensive to build. Radio
signals on two meters are more affected by features of the terrain. Competitors on a two meter course must learn to
differentiate between accurate, direct bearings to the source of the radio signal and false bearings resulting from
reflections of the signal off hillsides, ravines, buildings, or fences. Large national or international events will have
one day of competition using a 2-meter frequency and one day of competition using an 80-meter frequency.
In addition to the rules of the sport, ARDF competitions must also comply with radio regulations. Because the
transmitters operate on frequencies assigned to the Amateur Radio Service, a radio amateur with a license that is
valid for the country in which the competition is taking place must be present and responsible for their operation.
Individual competitors, however, are generally not required to have amateur radio licences, as the use of simple
handheld radio receivers does not typically require a license. Regulatory prohibitions on the use of amateur radio
frequencies for commercial use generally preclude the awarding of monetary prizes to competitors. Typical awards
for ARDF events are medals, trophies, plaques, or certificates.
Entry categories
Although all competitors at an ARDF event use the same competition
area and listen to the same set of five transmitters, they do not all
compete in the same category. Current IARU rules divide entrants into
different categories based on their age and gender. Only the M21
category must locate all five transmitters, while the other categories
may skip only a specified transmitter or transmitters.
M19Men ages 19 and younger, 4 or 5 transmitters
M21Men of any age, 5 transmitters
M40Men ages 40 and older, 4 or 5 transmitters
W19Women ages 19 and younger, 4 or 5 transmitters
W21Women of any age, 4 or 5 transmitters
W35Women ages 35 and older, 4 or 5 transmitters
An ARDF competitor in the W19 category on an

eighty meter course.
Youth competitions
The International Amateur Radio Union rules for ARDF competitions include provisions for youth competitions.
These competitions are restricted to competitors aged fifteen years or younger. The course lengths are shorter (up to
six kilometers), the transmitters may be located closer to the start (500meters), and a course setter may require that
fewer transmitters be located.
Local variations
The IARU rules go into great detail about certain procedures that are unique to international championships events.
Not every ARDF competition follows all of these rules. Common variations to the generally accepted rules exist at
local events. Most smaller events do not have large juries or on-course referees. Some events will use simpler start
procedures, such as using only one starting corridor instead of two. ARDF events on the two meter band in North
America sometimes use frequency modulation instead of amplitude modulation for the transmission of the Morse
code identifications.[11]
Map and course details

Ideally, the topographic maps used in ARDF
competitions are created using the
International Specification for Orienteering
Maps 2000 (ISOM) [12] set by the
International Orienteering Federation and
used for orienteering competitions. In fact,
many ARDF competitions use existing
orienteering maps, in collaboration with the
orienteering clubs that created those maps.
Course design is an important element of a
successful competition. The international
rules adopted by the IARU include both
requirements and recommendations for
basic course design. Important requirements
are that no transmitter may be within
750meters of the start, no transmitter may
be within 400meters of the finish or any
A portion of an orienteering map marked for an ARDF competition. Here, labeled
other transmitter on course, and that there is
circles indicate the locations of two of the five transmitters, but these do not appear
no more than 200meters elevation change
on the maps given to competitors.
between the start, finish, and all
transmitters. The IARU rules for international competitions recommend that courses be designed for six to ten
kilometers of total travel distance through the terrain. A well-designed course will present the competitors with an
athletic challenge in addition to the challenges of land navigation and radio direction finding. Depending on the
course design and competition, winning times at World Championship events are often less than 90minutes for two
meter courses, and can be under 60minutes for eighty meter courses.[13]
63
64
Equipment and clothing

ARDF equipment is a specialty market, and much of what is available for purchase comes from small commercial
vendors or small-batch production by individuals. Building equipment, such as handheld antennas, from published
designs or kits is also a popular activity.[14] Clothing and other equipment is sold through specialty orienteering
equipment suppliers or general outdoor sports retailers.
Transmitter equipment
ARDF transmitters have a low power output and operate in either the
two meter or eighty meter amateur radio band. The transmissions are in
Morse code. Each transmitter sends a unique identification that can be
easily interpreted even by those unfamiliar with the Morse code by
counting the number of dits that follow a series of dashes. The
transmitters on course all transmit on the same frequency and each
transmit in sequence for one minute at a time in a repeating cycle.
Within a few meters of each transmitter, an orienteering control flag
and punch device will be present. For many events and all major events
the punch device is an electronic system, such as SPORTident, used in
orienteering competitions. This records the time competitors visit each
control on a small device that they carry. An alternative is to use pin
punches which the competitor uses to make a distinct pattern on a
control card they carry. Competitors need to locate the control flag at
the transmitter site and use the punch device to record their visit. Good
course design will attempt to preclude, as much as possible, runners
interfering with the transmitter equipment as they approach the control.
At large international or national events, jurors might be present at
transmitter controls to ensure fair play.
A transmitter, orienteering control flag, paper

punch and electronic punch device at an ARDF
control.
The IARU rules include detailed technical specifications for transmitter equipment.[] Transmitters for two meters are
typically 0.25 to 1watts power output, and use keyed amplitude modulation. The transmitter antennas used on two
meters must be horizontally polarized and omnidirectional. Transmitters for eighty meters are typically one to five
watts power output keyed CW modulation. The transmitter antennas used on eighty meters must be vertically
polarized and omnidirectional. It is common for the transmitter, a battery, and any controlling hardware to be placed
inside a weatherproof container such as an old ammunition case or large plastic food storage container for protection
from the elements and wildlife.
Receiver equipment
The radio equipment carried on course must be capable of receiving

the signal being transmitted by the five transmitters and useful for
radio direction finding. This includes a radio receiver that can tune in
the specific frequency of transmission being used for the event, an
attenuator or variable gain control, and a directional antenna.
Directional antennas are more sensitive to radio signals arriving from
some directions than others. Most equipment designs integrate all three
components into one handheld device. On the two meter band, the
most common directional antennas used by competitors are two or
A homemade eighty meter receiver
three element Yagi antennas made from flexible steel tape. This kind
of antenna has a cardioid receiving pattern, which means that it has one
peak direction where the received signal will be the strongest, and a null direction, 180 from the peak, in which the
received signal will be the weakest. Flexible steel tape enables the antenna elements to flex and not break when
encountering vegetation in the forest. On the eighty meter band, two common receiver design approaches are to use
either a small loop antenna or an even smaller loop antenna wound around a ferrite rod. These antennas have a
bidirectional receiving pattern, with two peak directions 180 apart from one another and two null directions 180
apart from one another. The peak directions are 90 offset from the null directions. A small vertical antenna element
can be combined with the loop or ferrite rod antenna to change the receiving pattern to a cardioid shape, but the
resulting null in the cardioid is not as sensitive as the nulls in the bidirectional receiving pattern. A switch is often
used to allow the competitor to select the bidirectional or cardioid patterns at any moment. ARDF receiver
equipment is designed to be lightweight and easy to operate while the competitor is in motion as well as rugged
enough to withstand use in areas of thick vegetation.
Clothing
The IARU rules specify that the choice of clothing is an individual decision of the competitor, unless the meet
director specifies otherwise. Although comfortable outdoor clothing is all that is required for participation, specialty
clothing developed for the sport of orienteering is also worn by ARDF competitors. Nylon pants, shirts, or suits,
gaiters or padded socks for lower leg protection, and specialty shoes for cross-country running through wooded
terrain are popular choices. Some competitors may choose to carry food or water on course, and wear a small waist
pack or hydration pack for this purpose. At large international or national events, competitors may be required by the
meet director to wear identifying numbers pinned to their clothing, and many wear team uniforms in their national
colors.
Other equipment
In addition to the radio equipment and topographic map, an ARDF competitor uses a magnetic compass for
navigation. The most popular compass types are those that are also popular for use in orienteering. Some events may
require or suggest that competitors carry a whistle for emergency use. In at least one World Championship event,
competitors were provided with cards written in the native language of the host country, intended to aid in
communications with local citizens in the event that a competitor needed emergency aid or directions. In general, the
use of cellular phone, or two-way radio equipment on course is prohibited. All competitors are encouraged to wear a
watch to keep track of their time on course and not finish over the time limit set for the competition.
65
Variations
Sprint events have shorter courses with an expected winning time of 15 minutes and use either a 1:5000 or 1:4000
map. They use lower powered transmitters on the eighty metre band which transmit in sequence for only 12secs
with the cycle repeating every minute. The IARU Region 1 Rules [15] require 2 sets of 5 transmitters where each set
operates on a different frequency. The Morse code transmitted by the second set of transmitters is slightly faster
(PARIS 70) than the first set (PARIS 50) to differentiate the two sets. There is also a "spectator" control and a
"beacon" control which both operate on different frequencies to the other ten, so four frequencies are used in total. It
is possible to combine the spectator control with the beacon control. Competitors start at 2 min intervals and have to
visit between 3 and 5 controls out of the first set (according to their age class) before visiting the compulsory
spectator control. They then visit the requisite controls from the second set before punching the compulsory beacon
control, prior to finishing.
Fox Oring is a variation of the sport that requires more orienteering skills. In a Fox Oring course, the radio
transmitters put out very little power, and can be received over only very short distances, often no more than
100meters. The location of each transmitter will be indicated on the map with a circle. The transmitter does not need
to be exactly at the circle's center or even located inside the circle, but one should be able to receive its transmissions
everywhere within the area indicated by the circle. A competitor must use orienteering skills to navigate to the area
of the circle on the map and only then use radio direction finding skills to locate the very low power transmitter.[16]
Another variation of the sport, Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area, requires less athletic skill and more technical
radio direction finding skills. In a ROCA course, the transmitters put out very little power, typically 10 to 200mW,
and can be received over only very short distances. The transmitters are physically small, and marked with a control
card that is no larger than a typical postcard with a unique number identification. Because of the low power and short
distances involved, most ROCA competitors walk the entire course, and focus their attention on the radio direction
finding tasks rather than navigation.[17]
Another form of recreational radio direction finding activity in North America that includes the use of automobiles
for transportation is most often referred to as foxhunting or transmitter hunting, but is sometimes confused with the
organized international sport of amateur radio direction finding.
References
Cited references
[1] Moell, Joe KOV (2000). "Try ARDF on 80 Meters" (http:/ / www. homingin. com/ joemoell/ 80intro. html). 73 Amateur Radio Today.
November, 2000.
[2] IARU Region I ARDF Working Group (2003). "IARU Region 1 Record of Participation in Regional and World Amateur Radio Direction
Finding Championships." (http:/ / www. ardf-r1. org/ html/ participation_of_societies. html). Retrieved October 20, 2005.
[3] Moell, Joe KOV (2005). "International Style Foxhunting Comes to the Americas" (http:/ / www. homingin. com/ intlfox. html). Retrieved
September 13, 2009.
[4] Arisaka, Yoshio JA1HQG (2004). "ARDF Report" (http:/ / www. jarl. or. jp/ iaru-r3/ 12r3c/ docs/ 009. doc). Proceedings, International
Amateur Radio Union Region 3 Twelfth Regional Conference. Taipei, Republic of China. Feb. 1620, 2004.
[5] 16th World Championships 2012 (http:/ / www. ardf2012. org/ home. html) web site. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
[6] "Federation of Radiosport of the Republic of Armenia" (http:/ / www. iaru-r1. org/ index. php?option=com_mqcontacts& view=contact&
id=5:federation-of-radiosport-of-the-republic-of-armenia& catid=38:member-societies& Itemid=83). Listing on IARU Region 1 web site.
Retrieved September 13, 2009.
[7] Belarusian Federation of Radioamateurs and Radiosportsmen (http:/ / www. bfrr. net/ bfrr. php) web site. Retrieved December 13, 2005.
[8] Chinese Radio Sports Association (http:/ / www. crsa. org. cn/ english. php) web site. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
[9] Mongolian Radio Sport Federation (http:/ / www. mrsf. mn/ ) web site. Retrieved December 13, 2005.
[10] IARU Region I ARDF Working Group. "Rules for Championships in Amateur Radio Direction Finding" (http:/ / www. ardf-r1. org/
ardf_rules).
[11] Texas ARDF (2008). "Rules for Texas ARDF Competitions" (http:/ / www. texasardf. org/ rules/ ). Retrieved May 6, 2013.
[12] International Specification for Orienteering Maps (http:/ / orienteering. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2010/ 12/
International-Specification-for-Orienteering-Maps-2000_2. pdf). Retrieved May 6, 2013.
66
67
[13] 16th ARDF World Championships Results 2012, Kopaonik, Serbia, 10th to 16th September 2012 (http:/ / www. ardf2012. org/
championships/ results. html). Retrieved May 6, 2013.
[14] Hunt, Dale WB6BYU (2005). "A Simple Direction-Finding Receiver for 80 Meters". QST. September, 2005, pp. 3642.
[15] IARU Region 1(2013). (http:/ / www. ardf-r1. org/ ardf_rules).Retrieved May 6, 2013.
[16] Victorian ARDF Group (2009). "Fox-Oring: Just Like Orienteering with Hidden Controls!!!" (http:/ / www. ardf. org. au/ whatis/
fox_or_ing_handout. pdf). Retrieved December 2, 2005.
[17] Crystal, Bonnie KQ6XA (1998). "Radio-Orienteering in a Compact Area: The New Walking Foxhunt" (http:/ / www. qsl. net/ kq6xa/ roca/
roca. htm). Retrieved December 2, 2005.
General references
Harker, Kenneth WM5R (2005). "What You Need to Get Started in ARDF" (http://www.texasardf.org/
getstarted/). Retrieved Nov. 28, 2005.
Moell, Joe KOV and Curlee, Thomas N. WB6UZZ (1987). Transmitter Hunting: Radio Direction Finding
Simplified" (http://www.homingin.com/THRDFSinfo.html). TAB Books, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8306-2701-4.
Special Postal Cancellation on ARDF 18 May 2009 Bangalore India by VU2JHM Lion Ajoy, International
Director, Lions International Stamp Club LISC (http://www.barc.in) (http://www.hamfestindia.com)
Titterington, Bob G3ORY (2001). "A Newcomer's View of ARDF" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20070817192648/http://www.ardf.btinternet.co.uk/newcomer.html). Retrieved Dec. 2, 2005.
Titterington, Bob G3ORY, Williams, David M3WDD and Deane, David G3ZOI (2007) "Radio Orienteering, The
ARDF Handbook" (http://www.rsgbshop.org/cgi-bin/sh000010.pl?REFPAGE=http://www.rsgbshop.org/
&WD=ardf&PN=Online_Catalogue_Operating___DX_13.html#a8#a8), Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN
978-1-905086-27-6.
External links
ARDF organizations
ARDF Events
ARDF Information
International Amateur Radio Union

(IARU) (http:/ / www. iaru. org/ )
ARDF in IARU RegionI (http:/ /
www. ardf-r1. org/ )
ARDF in IARU RegionII (http:/ /
www. ardf-r2. org/ )
ARDF in IARU RegionIII (http:/ /
www. iaru-r3. org/ ardf/ r3ardf.
htm)
2012 ARDF World Championships (http:/ / ardf.

darc. de/ contest/ 12091215/ 12091215. htm)
2010 ARDF World Championships (http:/ / www.
darc. de/ referate/ ardf/ contest/ 10091517/
10091517. htm)
darc. de/ referate/ ardf/ contest/ 08090406/
08090406. htm)
darc. de/ ardf/ contest/ 06091416/ 06091416. htm)
darc. de/ ardf/ contest/ 04090911/ 04090911. htm)
ARDF web sites of IARU member

societies (http:/ / www. ardf-r1. org/ links.
htm)
ARDF web sites organized by country
(http:/ / www. pejla. se/ ardf_links_swe.
htm)
Radio orienteering simulator RASOR
(http:/ / www. pejla. se/ ardf_games. htm)
web site of german ardf group (http:/ /
www. peilsport. de)

Direction finding Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=607698286 Contributors: Andrewman327, Antennaman, Bumm13, Bushben, Chris the speller, Chrisminter, Ciacho5,
Comint, DJ Clayworth, DanMS, Darklilac, Epbr123, Fltnsplr, GRAHAMUK, HDCase, Ingolfson, Ivanov id, Joolsr, Kiroomani, Luen, Matt Crypto, Maury Markowitz, Mikeblas, Mkratz, Mojeda,
N5iln, Negative3, Neparis, Omnipaedista, PEHowland, Radagast83, Radiojon, Ratb, Remuel, Rfsmit, SaxTeacher, Scetoaux, Shaddack, Smyth, SpookyMulder, Sv1xv, Thames Gateway,
Thefrood, Timecop, Tsylos, Una Smith, Vegaswikian, Williambhunter, Wingman4l7, Woohookitty, Wtshymanski, 51 anonymous edits
Radio direction finder Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=609147651 Contributors: AB, AeroPsico, AetherCzar, Ahunt, Algorithme, Allesmller, Altes2009, Amikake3,
ArnoldReinhold, Arpingstone, Arrorro, BaseTurnComplete, Billymac00, Binksternet, Cherkash, Chris Roy, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Colin Douglas Howell, Commander Keane,
Cottingham, Cptshawky, Crum375, Dawkeye, Debresser, Dellant, Dewritech, DexDor, Drpixie, Dthomsen8, Emerson7, Erik Kennedy, Espoo, Geirem, Gene Nygaard, Gilliam, GraemeLeggett,
Islander(Scandinavia), Itai, Jackehammond, JimmB, Jmcastano, Jmcc150, Johnphil458, KXN, Keilana, Kglavin, Kharker, Lexw, Light current, LjL, Lyncs, Makemyacc, Mandarax, MarsRover,
Materialscientist, Maury Markowitz, Midnightcomm, Mikhail Ryazanov, MilborneOne, Mopskatze, Newbyman, Nick Number, OFDM, Omnipaedista, Ost316, PKT, Patrick0Moran, Raul654,
RedWolf, Rfsmit, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Sannse, SaxTeacher, Scetoaux, Solitude, Steven Luo, Sv1xv, Trevor MacInnis, Una Smith, Vegaswikian, Webmaster601, Wik, Wtshymanski, XLerate, Xin
Alan Rong, Yrithinnd, 79 anonymous edits
Adcock antenna Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582184636 Contributors: BD2412, Bachforelle, Chetvorno, ChrisHodgesUK, Crum375, Eyreland, MarcoLittel, Ospalh,
Rjwilmsi, Sv1xv, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits
Non-directional beacon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=610932012 Contributors: 14meter, Alexwcovington, Apalsola, Archer3, ArnoldReinhold, Arpingstone, Arrorro,
Artcort.fis, AxelBoldt, BD2412, BDantas, Bahar101, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Cacycle, Caerwine, CambridgeBayWeather, Charlene.fic, Chauhansenior, Cherkash, Chris the speller, Chrumps,
Cmdrjameson, Cottingham, Crum375, Davandron, De728631, Denelson83, Denisarona, DexDor, Dpm64, Dual Freq, Dysprosia, Emerson7, Ericg, Espoo, Finnusertop, Gene Nygaard, Gerixau,
Glrx, GoingBatty, Growler37, Herbert44, HiFlyChick, Hooperbloob, Hydrargyrum, Hydroxonium, Jay8g, Jed Smith, Jivecat, Kentborg, KylieTastic, LovesMacs, Marc W. Abel, Marknagel,
Mattbrundage, Maury Markowitz, Mercer5089, Michael Hardy, Mintaka10, Moongrim, Nigelj, Nyq, Nyttend, Ojw, Oltbaba, Ospalh, Patbahn, Patrick Bernier, Paul Richter, Philip Trueman,
Plane Person, Quistnix, R'n'B, Ramjar, Read-write-services, RedWolf, Robofish, Rolypolyman, Rsduhamel, SM Jafarian, Sagsaw, Sardanaphalus, SaxTeacher, Search4Lancer, Shaddack, Sv1xv,
Svenlx, Tabletop, Tallrichard2, Tex23, Topbanana, Treesmill, Umerfarooqawan, Unixxx, Vargenau, Vegaswikian, Wbeard52, Webfan29, Wik, Yaoleilei, Zyxw, , 112 anonymous
edits
High-frequency direction finding Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=610940341 Contributors: A.R., AJim, Androstachys, ArnoldReinhold, Between My Ken, Bill.martin, Bjf,
Cetok01, Dreamafter, Dyanega, EdC2, ElectricEye, Engineman, Espoo, Fils du Soleil, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Fltnsplr, Ft93110, GDW13, Gavia immer, Gene Nygaard, Gg123123, Glrx,
GraemeLeggett, Ground Zero, Hcberkowitz, Hmains, Jhnmurphy, JimmyTheOne, Jll, Joe Decker, John of Reading, Kwamikagami, Maury Markowitz, Mentifisto, Mrg3105, N-Man, Nageh, PBS,
Palmiped, Pinethicket, Plaicy, Quadell, Roo72, Spliced, Sv1xv, Tony1, Trekphiler, U-bootwisky, Vigilius, WPGA2345, Wavelength, Welsh, Wizzy, Wossi, Wwoods, 38 anonymous edits
Signals intelligence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=612156436 Contributors: @pple, A.R., ALR, Aaron Rotenberg, Aaroncorey, AdamWill, Adamantios, Aditya.m4, Ahrii,
AnnaFrance, Aoidh, ArnoldReinhold, Arvindn, AzureCitizen, BDD, BKoehler, Bambuway, Barreto, Bert Schlossberg, Biederman, Big davej, Binksternet, Bowlhover, Brighterorange, Caalip,
Camryl, CanisRufus, Canley, Carey Evans, CarlosFlys, Ccreitz, ColonelKasatka, Comint, Conversion script, Cornellrockey, Cromdog, Damian Yerrick, DanMS, Dave314159, Decora, DexDor,
DocWatson42, Doprendek, Dougher, DouglasCalvert, DynamoDegsy, Egil530, Enemenemu, Erxnmedia, Ettrig, ExpatEgghead, FF2010, Fg, Filemon, Flockmeal, Fuck you Very Much, Fuxx,
Fwappler, Fyrael, Gabriel1907, Gaius Cornelius, Gamgee, Gavleson, Gay bashers, Gjs238, Gob Lofa, GraemeLeggett, GreatWhiteNortherner, Ground Zero, Gsantella, Gtstricky, Harumphy,
Hcberkowitz, Heron, Hippo43, Holliday, Hu12, Hugo999, Ida Shaw, Iridescent, Isomorphic, Jacopo, Jarble, Jcooper, JeLuF, Jim.henderson, Jnc, Joeykai, John Lunney, John Warburton,
Jonesey95, Julesd, Karada, Kateshortforbob, Kirbyple, L337 kybldmstr, LWF, Leslie Mateus, Liftarn, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, Linmhall, Los688, M-le-mot-dit, Mabdul, Mark
Klamberg, Martarius, Matt Crypto, Mauls, Maurice Carbonaro, Maurreen, Maxsonbd, Miguel.baillon, Mike1979 Russia, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miyagawa, Mogism, Mohlam12, Monsignore, Morana,
MrOllie, MuZemike, Mushroom, N328KF, Nabokov, Nageh, NeonMerlin, Nikita.perestoronin, Ninney, NotWith, Ofus, Ohconfucius, Olegwiki, Omnipaedista, Oosh, Orangemike, Ormondroyd,
PBS, Peter Horn, Peterlin, Philip Trueman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Poco a poco, Pol098, Psychonaut, Quantumobserver, RHaworth, RJASE1, Radio1963, Ratiocinate, Recondaddy, Rj, Rjwilmsi,
Robert K S, Rochdalehornet, Rodzilla, Ronabop, Roxport, Rybec, SWAdair, Sardanaphalus, Secureoffice, Senor Freebie, Shirulashem, Shoghi, Signalworks, SimonP, Sligocki, Specialmissions,
Stambouliote, Stefanomione, Stewacide, Superdude2077, Suruena, Sv1xv, Sverdrup, TableManners, Taviso, TedColes, Teemuk, Telso, The Anome, The Rambling Man, The1marauder,
TheThomas, Theresa knott, Tmaull, Tommy2010, Tpbradbury, TreasuryTag, Tylerdmace, U-bootwisky, UnitedStatesian, Vadmium, WLU, Wapcaplet, Wikiklrsc, Wutsje, Ww, YaZug,
Ytcracker, Zabanio, ZeiP, Zoicon5, , , 166 anonymous edits
Avalanche transceiver Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=608366970 Contributors: Armando, Bedgerly, ChromaNebula, Clayoquot, Dethme0w, Dthomsen8, Ericoides,
Gautehuus, Graeme Bartlett, Jerzy, JiveTalkinChoirBoy, Laudak, Macgeek112, Nathan Johnson, Nolispanmo, Palfrey, Pcsnow, Rbblrsn, Rjwilmsi, Rybec, SHCarter, Sailargh, Sarahj2107,
Scientif38, Shogun, Sladen, Smithkennedy, Stevenkrauss, Tsylos, Yworo, 25 anonymous edits
Triangulation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=611016793 Contributors: 4C, A3r0, ALoopingIcon, Adolphus79, Afasmit, Afaz, All(an) knowing, Altenmann, Amaury,
Aomarks, AstroHurricane001, Baseball Watcher, Beetstra, BillHart93, Billiken07, Biopresto, Blisco, Brandmeister, CSimeon, Ceoil, Ceyockey, Charvex, ChrisGualtieri, CiaPan, Cst17, Cyp, D
cushman, Daleband, DavidJ710, Dawgbytez, Dcoetzee, Decora, Electron9, Elizgoiri, Ellywa, Encyclops, Epbr123, Erebus Morgaine, Evil Prince, Excirial, Fgnievinski, Fibonacci, Frecklefoot,
Geboy, Gerd Breitenbach, Giftlite, Gilliam, Good Olfactory, Goudzovski, Gribor23, Herbee, Hiding, Histo01, Huku-chan, Iccthedral, J.delanoy, JMK, Jagged 85, Jarekt, Jd4x4, Jeffq, Jheald,
Jleedev, Johnteslade, JustinWick, Karada, Keilana, Kku, Laundry, Linas, Looxix, LucasVB, ManU0710, Marcopauloferreira, Mark Arsten, Matdrodes, Materialscientist, Maxkingesq,
Metallurgist, Metric, Mhaitham.shammaa, Michael Hardy, Michael Pridat, Micru, Mike Rosoft, [email protected], Mpfiz, Mrs.Mitschef, N734LQ, Nbarth, Ngoquangduong,
Octahedron80, Oleg Alexandrov, PEHowland, Patrick, Petergrnkjr, Pprkl007, Qwerty12341234321, RL0919, Robofish, Ronz, Saibod, Saltine, Saltmarsh, SamSim, Samw, Satellizer, Siddhant,
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Vsmith, Wavelength, Wik, Wireless friend, , , 190 anonymous edits
Phased array Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=613561482 Contributors: A.R., Aarchiba, AirBa, Aldnonymous, Algebraist, Alureiter, Anlace, Antennaman, Arado,
Asrghasrhiojadrhr, B137, BRW, Bgwhite, BilCat, Billlion, CharlesC, Chetvorno, Chris the speller, Claudeb, ConradPino, Cwkmail, Datsyuk, Dav!dB, DavidCary, Davidmack, Dawnseeker2000,
Denelson83, Deville, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Donarreiskoffer, Dual Freq, Eastlaw, Ethically Yours, Evice, Fgnievinski, Floquenbeam, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Geoffrey.landis,
Glloq, Greg.warnes, HDP, Heron, HighlyErratic, Hillbrand, Hmains, Ingolfson, Intersofia, Isopropyl, Isthisthingworking, J04n, Jengelh, Jim.henderson, Jimw338, Jjoy3646, Joe Shupienis,
Jonnyapple, Jonverve, Josh Parris, KGyST, KathrynLybarger, Khazar2, Kinema, Kri, Laserspec, LittleWink, LogIntuit, Los688, MBisanz, Marszalski, Meganfoxx, Meyavuz, Mikelieman,
Mkonca, Mtpaley, Mwarren us, Nakon, Naniwako, Nanoatzin, Nbarth, Nick Number, Nvinen, Omegatron, Perfecto, Peter M Gerdes, Pjvpjv, Psych0-007, Quibik, Radiojon, Rama, Ravidurbha,
Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Roidroid, Rosarinagazo, Rpalmerarrc, RupertMillard, SchreiberBike, Shaddack, Simetrical, SimonP, Srinivas.zinka, Ssd, Steve Quinn, StevenBell, TheGerm,
ThreeBlindMice, Tierce, Timpo, Travisyoung, Trickstar, Unara, Vaccardi, Vegaswikian, Wavelength, Will Beback, Wireless friend, Yuriybrisk, Zgystardst, 159 anonymous edits
Amateur radio direction finding Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=608229800 Contributors: 23974 Tariff, 4r4, Adambro, Alan Liefting, Amire80, Bkell, Brandon,
Brighterorange, Chingwakabungya, Conscious, Curps, Daggerstab, Dark Shikari, David12481632, Dsergeant, Encephalon, Folajimi, Greudin, Harryboyles, Interferometrist, J.delanoy, JT1CD,
Jleedev, Jonaasle, Juliancolton, Justin davis111, Kharker, Kid222r, Kslotte, LeicsO, Light current, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LilHelpa, Lionajoy, Lupin, Maclean25, Maitchy, Maralia, Mattisse,
Member, Mgiganteus1, Michaelfavor, Nakon, Niceguyedc, Nichalp, NuclearWarfare, Obli, R'n'B, Raggedrunner, Railspinner, Raul654, RexNL, Rjstott, Ryt, SMcCandlish, Seqsea, Shaddack,
Shawnc, Sota767, Spangineer, Sporti, StuffOfInterest, Tangotango, TenPoundHammer, TheEmoEater, Tpbradbury, Una Smith, Wayward, Weer, Win777, Zondor, 68 anonymous edits
68

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Direction Finding PDF

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What are some common types of antennas used for direction finding?

What are some common types of antennas used for direction finding?

How does triangulation help locate the source of a transmission?

How does triangulation help locate the source of a transmission?

Contents

Radio direction finder

High-frequency direction finding

Amateur radio direction finding

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

RDF systems can be used with any radio

The RDF antenna on this B-17F is located in the

The pseudo-doppler technique is a phase based DF method that

Watson-Watt / Adcock antenna array

A portable, battery operated GT-302 Accumatic

Further information: Non-directional beacon

Location of illegal, secret or hostile transmitters - SIGINT

Radio direction finder

Radio direction finder

Radio direction finder

Radio direction finder

Usage in maritime and aircraft navigation

Historic advertisement for Kolster

Automatic direction finder (ADF)

Radio direction finder

Typical NDB services ranges

Radio direction finder

Radio-magnetic indicator (RMI)

Boffa P. D., Sistemi per la radionavigazione, ed. Siderea, 1985

Radio direction finder

Adcock radio range ground station. Hundreds of

Radio direction finding

Low Frequency radio range

Automatic direction finder equipment

Radio Tower of NKR Leimen-Ochsenbach,

NDB navigation consists of two parts the automatic direction finder

ADF equipment determines the direction to the NDB station relative to

This symbol denotes an NDB on an aeronautical

The formula to determine the compass heading to an NDB station (in a

Use of non-directional beacons

NDB transmitter at 49 12.35' N, 2 13.20' W.

Determining distance from an NDB station

Instrument landing systems

One of the wooden poles of NDB HDL at

Other information transmitted by an NDB

Automatic Weather Information Service, or AWIS, or, in an

Automated Weather Observation System or AWOS

Common adverse effects

High-frequency direction finding

High-frequency direction finding

High-frequency direction finding

High-frequency direction finding

Battle of the Atlantic

"Super Duff" equipment on the museum ship

Aware of the danger presented by normal RDF techniques, the

High-frequency direction finding

High-frequency direction finding

Bauer 2004, p.1.

High-frequency direction finding

RAF Menwith Hill, a large site in the United