Measure of Central Tendency

There are three measures of central tendency

1. The mean
2. The median
3. The mode
The mean

The mean or the average, is a measure of central tendency that offers a

general picture of the data.

The mean or average of a set of, say, ten observations, is the sum of ten
individual observations divided by ten (the total no of observations).

(54+50+35+67+50)/5=51.2

The median

The median is the central item in a group of observations when they are
arrayed in either an ascending or a descending order.

35,50,50,54,67------50

The mode

In some cases, a set of observations does not lend itself to meaningful

representation through either the mean or the median, but can be signified
by the most frequently occurring phenomenon.

54,50,35,67,50-----50

Measure of Dispersion

Dispersion is the variability that exist in a set of observations.

Two sets of data might have the same mean, but the dispersion could be
different.

The three measures of dispersions connected with the mean are

1. The range
2. The variance
3. The standard deviation
The range

Range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations.

54,50,35,67,50

(35,67)
The variance

The variance is calculated by subtracting the mean from each of the

observations in the data set, taking a square of this difference, and dividing
the total of these by the number of observations.

The standard deviation

Another measure of dispersion for interval and ratio scaled data, offers an
index of the spread of a distribution or the variability in the data.

It is a very commonly used, measure of dispersion, and is simply square root

of the variance.

Testing Goodness of Data

Goodness of data can be tested by two measures

Reliability

Validity

Reliability

The reliability of a measure is established by testing for both consistency and

stability.

Consistency indicates how well the items measured a concept having

together as a set.

Cronbachs alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set
are positively correlated to one another
SPSS

Cronbach Alpha (Reliability)

Factor Analysis (Validity)

Hypotheses Testing

Difference between groups

Relationship between variables

Types of Hypotheses
Null

that no statistically significant difference exists between the groups

No Statistically significant relationship exists between variables

Alternative

logical opposite of the null hypothesis

that a statistically significant difference does exist between groups

That statistically significant relationship exists

Testing for Statistical Significance

State the null hypothesis

Choose the statistical test

Select the desired level of significance

Compute the calculated difference value

Obtain the critical value

Usually the software now provides the standard significance values

and the f or t values. Based on the significance level value one can
interpret the test

Interpret the test

Research Report Layout

Title

Introduction

A brief literature review

Research Questions

Theoretical Framework

Hypothesis

Method section

Study Design (cross sectional , )

Population and Sample

Variables and measures

Their reliability and Validity

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Discussion of Results

Recommendations

Primary Data

Primary Data = information obtained exclusively for current research

Personal Interview

Focus Groups

Panels

Delphi Technique

Telephone Interview Computer assisted telephone interviewing and

Computer administered telephone survey

Self-Administered Surveys
Secondary Data

Company Archives

Gov Publications

Industry Analysis

Primary Data Collection Methods

Focus Group

Panels

Interviews (face to face, telephone, electronic media)

Questionnaires (personally, mail, electronic)

Observation

Other (projective tests)

Focus Group:

Usually consist of 8 to 10 members , with a moderator leading the discussion

for 2 hours on a particular topic, concept or product.

Member are chosen on the bases of their expertise on the topic.

E.g Discussion on computers and computing , or women mothers , social

networking etc

Less expensive and usually done for exploratory information. Cannot be

generalized
Panels:

Similar to focus group but meets more than once in order to study the change
or interventions need to be studies over a period of time.

Members are randomly chosen

E.g effect of advertisement of a certain brand need to be assessed quickly,

panel members could be exposed to the advertisement and intention of
purchase could be assessed.

When the product is modified then the response of the panel can be observed
Observation measures:

Methods through which primary data is collected without the involving

people.

E.g: Wear and tear of books , section of an office, seating area of railway
station which indicate the popularity, frequency of use etc.

E.g: The number of cans in the dust bin and their brands, the number of
motor cycles vs cars parked in the university parking lot
Interviewing:

Collect data from the respondent on an issue of interest.

Usually administered at the exploratory stage of the research.

In case large set of respondents are needed then more than one interviewer
are used , hence they need to be trained so that biases , voice inflections,
difference in wording are avoided

Structured and Unstructured

Un Structured:

No planned sequence of questions, help in exploring preliminary issues.

Structured:

Know at the outset what information is needed. Focusing on factors relevant

to the problem.

The focus is on the factors which have surfaced during the un structured
interview.

Guideline for Interviews

Listen carefully

Motivate the respondents

How to take notes

Built proper trust and rapport with interviewee

Clarification of complex issues

Physical setting

Explaining the reasons for research and criteria of selection

Face to Face

Adv :Clarify doubts, repeating, rephrasing, getting non verbal cues

Dis : vast resources required, cost, anonymity

Telephone:

Adv : Wider reach in short time, some time easy to discuss personal
information over the phone

Dis: Can be terminated without warning, cannot have a prolonged interview,

non verbal cue.

Closed vs. Open Questions

Easy.

Cost of coding is reduced.

Quicker, standardized interviews.

Can be answered without thinking.

Pre-testing is a must.

Limit the richness of data.

Questionnaires

Data Collection is mechanism when the researcher knows exactly what is

required and how to measure the variables of interest.

Types of Questionnaire:

Personally administered questionnaire

Mail Questionnaire

Personally Administered Questionnaires

Mostly local area based, org is willing to have a group of employee respond to
it.

It is Cheaper then interviews, helps remove doubts, motivating respondents

Mail Questionnaires:

Wide geographical area can be reached, respondents have flexibility of time ,

It is more cost effective but the response rate is low,

Can improve by giving some incentives and doubts cannot be clarified.

Type and Form of Questions:

Open ended vs Closed Ended

Positively vs Negatively Worded

Open ended vs Closed Ended

In open ended the respondent chooses any way they like. E.g. any five things
which interest him at his job.

In close ended the respondent have to make a choice among the given
alternatives e.g. out of the list of 10 job characteristics rank any 5

Positively vs Negatively Worded :

Have some positive and some negative worded questions to break the
monotony.

E.g. Coming to work is great fun or coming to work is no great fun

Biases in Questions:
Double Barreled:
Questions has more than one question within it.

E.g. Do you think that the course content is adequate and it applicable at
your work?

Ambiguous Question:

Respondent does not know what it means. E.g. To what extent would you say
you are happy?

Do you discuss you work with your boss regularly? Do you go to movies
frequently?
Recall Dependent:

Questions based on past experiences and rely on memory.

Leading Questions:

Are worded in such a way that it would lead the respondent to answer in a
way that the researcher would like to or want to give.
Loaded Questions:

Are when they are phrased in an emotionally charged manner.

Social Desirability:

Is when questions are worded such that they elicit(draw out) socially
desirable response

Sampling
The process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or events as representative of
entire population is known as sampling.
Population

It refers to the entire group of people, events or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.
Element
An element is a single member of a population
Sample
A sample is a subset or subgroup of the population.
Parameters
The characteristics of the population such as the population mean, the population
standard deviation, and the population variance are referred to as its parameters.
The Sampling Process
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of right elements from the
population so, the major steps in the sampling include.
1. Defining the population
2. Determine the sample process
3. Determine the sampling design
4. Determine the appropriate sample size
5. Execute the sampling process

Determining the sample design

Two major types of sampling

Probability sampling

The elements in the population have some known, non zero chances or probability
of being selected as sample subjects.

Non probability sampling

The elements do not have a known or predetermined chance of being selected as

subjects.
Probability Sampling
Technique which ensures that each element in the population has an equal chance
of being selected for the sample.

The simple random sampling is the least bias and offer the most
generalizability.

The major advantage of simple random sampling is its simplicity.

The sampling process could become cumbersome and expensive.

Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum, computer-generated selections,

random-digit telephone dialing.

Restricted or complex probability sampling:

It is an alternate to simple random sampling design, several complex

probability sampling designs can be used.

Efficiency is improved in that more information can be obtained for a given

sample size using the complex probability sampling procedures.

The most common complex probability sampling design

1. Systematic sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
1. Area sampling
4. Double sampling
Systematic Sampling:

Technique in which an initial starting point is selected by a random process,

after which every nth number on the list is selected to constitute part of the
sample.

Stratified Sampling:

Technique in which simple random subsamples are drawn from within

different strata that share some common characteristic. Within the group
they are homogenous and among the group they are heterogeneous.

Cluster Sampling

Technique in which the target population is first divided into clusters. Then, a
random sample of clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster either all
the elements or a sample of elements are included in the sample.

Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity within groups and more

homogeneity among groups

Area sampling
Specific type of cluster sampling in which clusters consist of geographic areas such
as counties, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality.

Area sampling is less expensive than most other sampling designs and it is
not dependent on sampling frame.

Double sampling:

A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some

preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary
sample is use to examine the matter in more detail

Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling:

Sampling technique which selects those sampling units most conveniently

available at a certain point in, or over a period, of time.

Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick, convenient and

economical; a major disadvantage is that the sample may not be
representative.

Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory research

and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling.

Judgment (purposive) Sampling:

Sampling technique in which the business researcher selects the sample

based on judgment about some appropriate characteristic of the sample
members.

Example: Selection of certain students who are active in the university activities to
inquire about the sports and recreation facilities at the university.
Quota Sampling:
This is a sampling technique in which the business researcher ensures that certain
characteristics of a population are represented in the sample to an extent which is
he or she desires.
Snowball Sampling :

This is a sampling technique in which individuals or organizations are

selected first by probability methods, and then additional respondents are
identified based on information provided by the first group of respondents

The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes and costs
are necessary; a major disadvantage is that the second group of respondents
suggested by the first group may be very similar and not representative of
the population with that characteristic.

Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20 antique car enthusiasts are

identified which, in turn, identify a number of other antique car enthuiasts