ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Marian GRECONICI
[email protected]
www.et.upt.ro
2014-2015

Science and Engineering

Scientists investigate that which already is;

Engineers create that which has never been
(Albert Einstein)

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Electric Circuits

INTRODUCTION

Engineering practice is " the ..process of creating, developing,

integrating, sharing and applying knowledge for the benefit
of humanity and the profession
(from IEEE Mission Statement)

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Electric Circuits

Electrical quantities and SI units

The International System of Units (SI) will be used throughout this course;
The basic quantities and their SI units are:

Length, L, l ............................... meter, m

Mass, M, m ................................ kilogram, kg

Time, T, t .................................. second, s

Current, I, i ................................ Ampere, A

Temperature, T ......................... degrees Kelvin, K

Amount of substance . moles mol

Luminous intensity .. candelas, Cd

Two supplementary quantities are:

Plane angle (phase angle) . radian, rad

Solid angle ... steradian, sr

All other units may be derived from the seven basic units.

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Electric Circuits

Electrical quantities and SI units

The electrical quantities and their symbols commonly used in
electrical circuit analysis are:

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Electric charge, Q, q ................................ Coulomb, C

Electric potential, V, v ....................... ...... Volt, V
Resistance, R .......................................... Ohm,
Conductance, G ...................................... Siemens, S
Inductance, L ................................... ....... Henry, H
Capacitance, C ... Farad, F
Frequency, f .. Hertz, Hz
Force, F .... Newton, N
Energy, work, W, w ... Joule, J
Power, P, p .. Watt, W
Magnetic flux, .. Weber, Wb
Magnetic flux density, B .... Tesla, T
Electric field intensity, E ......................... Volt/meter, V/m

Electric Circuits

Electrical quantities and SI units

The decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units, which act as
multipliers on the basic unit, are:
Prefix

Factor

Symbol

yocto
zepto
atto
femto
pico
nano
micro
mili
centi
deci

10-24
10-21
10-18
10-15
10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1

y
z
a
f
p
n

m
c
d

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Prefix

deca
hecto
Kilo
Mega
Giga
Terra
Peta
Exa
Zetta
Yotta

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Factor

10
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024

Symbol

da
h
K
M
G
T
P
E
Z
Y

Electric Charge and Current

All maters is made up of fundamental building blocks known as atoms.
Atoms are composed of smaller components known as particles.
The three fundamental particles comprising atoms are called protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
The protons and neutrons are very tightly bound together (because of a force
called the strong nuclear force which has effect only under very short distances),
forming the nucleus of the atom, while the electrons have more freedom to
move around the nucleus.
The tight binding of protons in the nucleus is responsible for the stable identity
of chemical elements.
If neutrons are added or gained, the atom will still retain the same chemical
identity, but its mass will change slightly and it may acquire strange nuclear
properties such as radioactivity.
Because of the attraction/repulsion behavior between individual particles,
electrons and protons are said to have opposite electric charges. That is, each
electron has a negative charge, and each proton a positive charge. Neutron has
no electric charge.
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Electric Charge and Current

Normally, the number of protons is equal with the number of electrons,
we say the net electric charge of atom is balanced.
The process of electrons arriving or leaving is exactly what happens
when certain combinations of materials are rubbed together: electrons
from the atoms of one material are forced by the rubbing to leave their
respective atoms and transfer over to the atoms of the other material;
the atoms net electric charge becomes unbalanced and we say that the
material becomes charged.
The result of the imbalance of this electrons between objects is called
static electricity.
Electron is the smallest known carrier of electric charge, is defined as
the elementary charge.
e- = 1.602 10-19 C quantum of the electric charge
A charge of negative one Coulomb (1C) consist of accumulated charge
of about 6.24 1018 e-.
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Electric Charge and Current

Electric charges in motion constitute a current.
Electrical charges could be: electrons in conductors, ions in liquids and
free electrons and positive charges in semiconductors.

n
e-

v
i

The current is defined as the ratio between the

total charge Q that penetrate the surface in a
time t when the time shrink to zero, t0
The current represents the rate at which the
charges flow changes with time:

dQ
i
dt

[C ]
[ A]
[ s]

For the reference direction of the current adopted in fig., the current is
positive when:

positive charges cross the plane surface S in the same direction

with the current;

negative charges cross the plane surface S in the opposite

direction with the current.
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10

The Burndy Library Collection

at The Huntington Library,
San Marino, California.

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Andre-Marie Ampere (17751836), a French

mathematician and physicist, laid the foundation of
electrodynamics. He defined the electric current
and developed a way to measure it in the 1820s.
Born in Lyons, France, Ampere at age 12 mastered
Latin in a few weeks, as he was intensely
interested in mathematics and many of the best
mathematical works were in Latin. He was a
brilliant scientist and a prolific writer. He
formulated the laws of electromagnetics. He
invented the electromagnet and the ammeter. The
unit of electric current, the ampere, was named
after him.

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11

Electric Potential. Voltage

In the neighborhood of an electric charge a force will be exerted when
another charge is introduced. Such a region of influence is called electric
field.
The electric field is defined at a point as the force per unit-positive
charge. That is, the electric field at any point is the force, in magnitude
and direction, which would act on a unit-positive charge at that point,
E=F/Q. Contribution to the total field at any point are made by all the
charges that are close enough to have any influence.
The measure for the electric field is the electric field intensity, E.
Potential difference or voltage, U, is defined as the work per unitpositive charge in moving a charge between two points in the field;
V=W/Q.
The SI unit for the voltage is Volt, [V].
Potential difference can exist regardless of whether current is flowing:

If a conducting path exists between two points with a potential

difference, than charge will flow, resulting in a electric current;

If there is no such path, the potential difference will continue to

exist even in the absence of current flow.

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12

The Burndy Library Collection

at The Huntington Library,
San Marino, California.

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Alessandro Antonio Volta (17451827), an Italian

physicist, invented the electric batterywhich
provided the first continuous flow of electricity
and the capacitor.
Born into a noble family in Como, Italy, Volta was
performing electrical experiments at age 18. His
invention of the battery in 1796 revolutionized the
use of electricity. The publication of his work in
1800 marked the beginning of electric circuit
theory. Volta received many honors during his
lifetime. The unit of voltage or potential difference,
the volt, was named in his honor.

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13

Basic Circuit Concepts

Circuit element is an object to which two wires (assuming to be ideal
conductors), called leads, are connected.
Circuit is a collection of elements in which each lead of the given element is
connected to a lead of at least one other element.
Branch a portion of the circuit between two nodes.
Node a place in the circuit where at least three branches converges.
Sub-circuit a part of a circuit connecting to the rest of the circuit by two
terminals.
Path described as an ordered sequence of elements, each two successive
elements of which share a common node; a path has a direction from the
initial node to the finale node shown by an arrow.
Loop, mesh a branches sequence that follow a closed path.
F

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Basic Circuit Concepts

Active elements are voltage or current sources which are able to
supply energy to the network.
1

ub

ub

ui

ub

i=is
is

ui
dl

symbols for voltage sources

symbol for current sources

Passive elements Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors - take energy from the

sources and either convert it to another form or store it in an electric or
magnetic field.
i
R

uC

i
C

UL

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UL

Ub

symbols for resistors

i
dl

symbols for capacitors

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symbols for inductors

15

Power and Energy

P U I [W ] [V ] [ A ]

The power in an electrical circuit is:

Consider a two-terminal sub-circuit with a voltage v defined across its

terminals and a current i into one of these terminals.
In the fig.a) is defined the positive current reference going into the
terminal which has the positive voltage reference. This choice is called the
passive sign convention. The sub-circuit absorbs power (removes power).
In the fig.b) is defined the positive current reference coming out of the
terminal which has the positive voltage reference. This choice is called the
active sign convention. The sub-circuit generates power (delivers power).

+
v

i
passive sign
convention

+
v

a)

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active sign
convention
b)

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16

James Watt, (19 January 1736 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and
mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were
fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native
Great Britain and the rest of the world.
While working as an instrument maker at the University
of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of
steam engines. He realized that contemporary engine
designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly
cooling and re-heating the cylinder. Watt introduced a
design enhancement, the separate condenser, which
avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the
power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam
engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce
rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond
pumping water.
He died in 1819 at the age of 83. Watt has been
described as one of the most influential figures in
human history.
He developed the concept of horsepower and the SI unit
of power, the watt, was named after him.
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Ohms Law

dS

V2

i
S

dl
(C)

J dS J S

J E

local conduction law

- conductivity [S/m]
V1

- represents the relative mobility of electrons within a material

1

resistivity [m]

U V1 V 2 E dl
C

dl
S

dl i
C

dl
iR
S

resistance []

l
l

S S

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1
R

conductance [S]

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U iR

18

Georg Simon Ohm (17871854), a German

physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the
most basic law relating voltage and current for a
resistor. Ohms work was initially denied by
critics.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria,
Ohm threw himself into electrical research. His
efforts resulted in his famous law. He was awarded
the Copley Medal in 1841 by the Royal Society of
London. In 1849, he was given the Professor of
Physics chair by the University of Munich. To
honor him, the unit of resistance was named the
ohm.

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Active and Passive Circuit Elements

1 Active Circuit Elements
The circuit elements capable to supply energy in circuit are called sources.
Independent sources produce a voltage or a current waveform which is
unaffected by the circuit to which it is connected.
The Independent Voltage Source
There is not possible a parallel
1
1
connection of voltage sources of
Ub=E
ub(t)=e(t)
+
+
different values.
E
e(t)
There is not possible to put in short
2
2
circuit a voltage source.
The voltage drop from 1 to 2, ub(t), is independent of the load that may be
connected to the source and is determined exclusively by the function e(t).
When a load is connected by the source terminals, a current exists in the
source in the direction of the voltage rise. A current direction from to +
signifies the source is delivering energy to the load. It is also possible for
the current in the source to exist in the direction of the voltage drop. In
this situation the voltage source is extracting energy from the system as is
the case when a battery is charged.
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The voltage ub(t) is always equal to e(t), no matter what the value of the
current i(t) pass true the voltage source. The current depends upon the
circuit into which the voltage source is connected.
If the voltage u(t) does not change in time, we write U (that is, we use an
uppercase letter). If we simply write u(t), we mean that the voltage can
change with time or can be constant. We call constant voltages and
currents dc quantities. This is short for direct current, and is used for both
currents and voltages.
The Independent Current Source
1
i=is
is
2

ub

There is not possible a series connection of

current sources of different values.
There is not possible to put in open circuit a
current source.

The arrows in the current symbol point in the direction of positive current.
The current is independent of the voltage. The current source does not
constrain the voltage ub. The voltage is determined by the circuit into which
the current source is connected.
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An ideal current source is characterized by a current which is independent

of load connected at its terminals.
When supplying power to a load, the source current is in the direction of
the voltage rise. The value of the voltage rise varies with the power
requirements of the load.
For the two sources, the values e(t) and is(t) are not affected by the loads
connected to them or by the electrical conditions that exist elsewhere in
the systems in which they are employed. For this reason, the ideal voltage
and current sources are referred to as independent sources.

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2 Passive Circuit Elements

The circuit elements capable of removing energy from the system by
storage in a field or by dissipation are called passive circuit elements.
Usually, for the passive circuit elements, is assumed the passive sign
convention, i.e. the positive current reference going into the terminal
which has the positive voltage reference.
Resistance
The circuit element used to represent energy dissipation is most commonly
described by requiring the voltage across the element be directly
proportional to the current through it. The constant of proportionality R is
the resistance of the element and is measured in ohms [].

uR i R

The voltage-current relation expressed is known as Ohms law.

1

uR i R

R
uR
2

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uR
2

A physical device whose principal electrical

characteristic is resistance is called a resistor.
The power dissipated by the resistance is:
p u R i ( R i) i i R u R
2

Electric Circuits

uR
R

u R2
R

[W ]

23

Capacitance
Condenser (Capacitor) is the electric element used to represent the charge
storage and, consequently, energy stored in the electric field.
i

iC

d uC
dt

The capacitive effect may be thought

of as opposing a change in current.

uC
uC

As expressed quantitatively, the current through the element is

proportional to the derivate of voltage across it:
iC

d uC
dt

Solving for the voltage, yields:

uC

1
C

i dt

Q
C

and:

Q
uC

The proportionality constant C express the charge-storing property of the

element and is called the capacitance of the element. With Q in coulombs
and u in volts, the capacitance is in farads, F. Because a farad is physically a
large unit, capacitance is frequently expressed in mF, F, pF.
A condenser (capacitor) is a physical element which exhibits the property of
capacitance.
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The Burndy Library Collection

at The Huntington Library,
San Marino, California.

2014/2015

Michael Faraday (17911867), an English

chemist and physicist, was probably the greatest
experimentalist who ever lived.
Born near London, Faraday realized his boyhood
dream by working with the great chemist Sir
Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, where he
worked for 54 years. He made several
contributions in all areas of physical science and
coined such words as electrolysis, anode, and
cathode. His discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831 was a major breakthrough in
engineering because it provided a way of
generating electricity. The electric motor and
generator operate on this principle. The unit of
capacitance, the farad, was named in his honor.
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25

The power associated with a capacitance is:

p uC i C uC

d uC
dt

[W ]

The energy stored in the electric field is:

WC

p dt C u C

d uC

1
dt C u C du C C u C2 [ J ]
dt
2

The value of the energy stored in the capacitance is dependent only on the
voltage magnitude and not on the moment of reaching that magnitude.
The energy stored in the electric field can be also written in the form:
1
1
1 Q2
2
WC C u C Q u C
[J ]
2
2
2 C
-Q

+Q
S
ee0er
U
d

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In the simplest form a capacitor is constructed by

forming a pair of metal plates separated by an insulator
material (dielectric). Practical capacitors employ variety
of geometries and dielectrics to provide a wide range of
capacitance values, usually from a few pico farads to
one farad. However, as a given capacitor cannot store
an arbitrary amount of energy, the maximum voltage
which may exist across the capacitor terminals is
limited. Exceeding the maximum voltage rating causes
permanent damage to the capacitor as a result of
dielectric breakdown.
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Inductance
Inductor (coil) is the electric element used to represent the energy stored
in the magnetic field.
uL

uL

di
uL L
dt
L

The inductive effect may be thought

of as opposing changes in the
velocity of flow of charge.
Inductance prevents the current
from changing instantly.

As expressed quantitatively, the voltage across the element is proportional

to the time rate of change of current through it:
uL L

di
dt

The constant of proportionality L is the self-inductance, or simply the

inductance of the element, and is measured in henrys, H.
The voltage uL is a voltage drop in the direction of the current and can be
considered to oppose an increase in current.
A coil (inductor) is a physical element which exhibits the property of
inductance.
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Joseph Henry (December 17, 1797 May 13, 1878) was an

American scientist who served as the first Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, as well as a founding member of the
National Institute for the Promotion of Science, a precursor of
the Smithsonian Institution. He was highly regarded during
his lifetime. While building electromagnets, Henry
discovered the electromagnetic phenomenon of selfinductance. He also discovered mutual inductance
independently of Michael Faraday, though Faraday was the
first to publish his results. Henry developed the
electromagnet into a practical device. He invented a precursor
to the electric doorbell (specifically a bell that could be rung
at a distance via an electric wire, 1831) and electric relay
(1835). The SI unit of inductance, the henry, is named in his
honor. Henry's work on the electromagnetic relay was the
basis of the practical electrical telegraph, invented by Samuel
Morse and Charles Wheatstone separately.

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Solving for the current, yields:

1
u L dt
L

The equation shows that inductance current depends not on the

instantaneous value of the voltage but on the its past history, that is, on the
integral or sum of the volt-second products for all time prior to the time of
interest. For many application, where knowledge of an inductance current
following a switching process (usually occurring at an arbitrary time called
t=0) is desired, the previous equation may be written in the form:

1
i
L

u
t

dt i0

where i(0) is the current existing at the time of switching and is a measure of
the past history of the inductance prior to the switching process.
The power associated with the inductive effect in a circuit is:

di
[W ]
dt
The energy stored in the electric field is:
p u L i Li

W C p dt L i

di
1
dt L i di L i 2 [ J ]
dt
2

The value of the energy stored in the inductance is dependent only on current
and not on the manner of reaching that magnitude.
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The magnetic field

I
H

2 r
dS

B 0 H
H

dS

B dS

0 4 10 7 H m

B d S cos [Wb]
S

BS

[H ]
i

S
i

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30

I
H

N2 i2=0

N1

11

b)

1 N 1 11 21 L1 i1 L21 i 2

u1

L1

22

21

a)

2 N 2 22 12 L2 i 2 L12 i1

i2

L12
L2

i2 N 2

N1

i1=0

12

i1

N2S
N2S
L 0 r

l
l

LN
i

L
i
i1

i1
u2

u1

L1

d 1
di
di
L1 1 L 21 2
dt
dt
dt
d 2
di
di

L 2 2 L12 1
dt
dt
dt

i2
L12

L2

u2

d 1
di
di
L1 1 L 21 2
dt
dt
dt
d 2
di
di

L 2 2 L12 1
dt
dt
dt

u L1

u L1

u L2

u L2

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Mutual inductance
The self-inductance of the circuit is associated with the magnetic field
linking the circuit. The self-inductance voltage may be thought of as the
voltage induced in the circuit (in the coil) by a magnetic field produced by
the circuit current.
Since a magnetic field exists in the region around the current which
produced it, there is also a possibility that a voltage may be introduced in
other circuits linked by the field.
Two circuits linked by the some magnetic field are said to be coupled to
each other.
The circuit element used to represent magnetic coupling is called mutual
inductance, M. Like self-inductance, is measured in henrys, H.
The volt-ampere relationship is one which gives the voltage induced in one
circuit by a current in another. For the circuit below we have:
i1

i2=0

u2

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di1
u2 M
dt

32

A similar equation can, of course, be written giving a voltage u1 induced by a

current i2.
i1=0

u1

i2

di 2
u1 M
dt

The two dots, called polarity markings, are used to indicate the direction of
the magnetic coupling between the two coils.
If currents are present in both coupled circuits, voltage of self-inductance
and mutual inductance are induced in each circuit (in each coil). We nave
yhe next convention:

if the currents direction through the polarity markings is the same, the
coupling is considered positive;
If the currents have opposite direction through the polarity markings, the
coupling is considered negative.
Coupling between two closed circuits (coils) permits the transfer of energy
between the circuits through the medium of the mutual magnetic field. This
phenomenon is the basis on which all transformers operate.
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For a positive coupling, we have:

u L2

i1

di1
di
M 2
dt
dt
di
di
L2 2 M 1
dt
dt

u 1 L1

i1

i2

u2

u1

u2

u1
i2

For a negative coupling, we have:

u L2

i1

u1

di1
di
M 2
dt
dt
di
di
L2 2 M 1
dt
dt

u 1 L1

i1

i2

u2

u2

u1
i2

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CIRCUIT ANALYSIS.
RESISTIVE NETWORKS

The reasonable man adapts himself to the world;

The unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the
world to himself.
Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable
man
(George Bernard Shaw, Irish Dramatist & Socialist, 1856 - 1950)

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The Kirchhoffs Law (KL)

Usually, the circuit problem is to determine the currents flow to the

circuit branches when are given the resistances of the branches, the
voltage drop on the voltage sources and the currents generated by the
current sources.
The two Kirchhoffs laws determine univocally the current flows through
the all circuit branches.
The system of equations needed for the solution of network problems is
generated using the KL.
The current values that results using the two Kirchhoff laws are unique.

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Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887), a

German physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847
concerning the relationship between the currents
and voltages in an electrical network. Kirchhoffs
laws, along with Ohms law, form the basis of
circuit theory. Born the son of a lawyer in
Konigsberg, East Prussia, Kirchhoff entered the
University of Konigsberg at age 18 and later
became a lecturer in Berlin. His collaborative
work in spectroscopy with German chemist
Robert Bunsen led to the discovery of cesium in
1860 and rubidium in 1861. Kirchhoff was also
credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation. Thus
Kirchhoff is famous among engineers, chemists,
and physicists.

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The Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)

The Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) refers to the currents in a circuit node.
i1

i1

i2

i2

dS

i5
i5

i3

i3
i4

i 0

i4

Consider drawing a closed surface around some of the elements in the

circuit, without passing through the nodes.
The surface is penetrating only by conductors. For some conductors, the
reference arrows for current point into the surface (i2, i3, i5), for others
the reference arrows for current point out of the surface, (i1, i4).
The experience shows that the total DC current that penetrate the
surface is always zero.
The Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) is obtained when the closed surface
surrounds only one node.
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According to the KCL:

i 0
i1 i 2 i 3 i 4 i 5 0
n

Generalize:

k 1

KCL: The algebraic sum of all currents directed away from the nod is zero.
The currents directed away from the node are considered positive and the
currents directed towards the node are considered negative.
KCL is assumed to hold for every instant of time for time-dependent currents.
i1 i 4 i 2 i 3 i 5

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The Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)

Whereas the first Kirchhoff lows concerned currents (and therefore charges),
the second will be concerned with voltages.
The Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) refers to the voltage drops across a closed
path.
The experience shows that the voltage drops across a closed curve is zero.
The KVL is obtained when the closed curve follows a circuit loop.
For the circuit loop below, assuming the path direction as shown, it follows:

k( O )

ui1

U1

R1
i1

U1 U 2 U 3 U 4 U 5 0

U2
i2

R2
ui2

U5
R5

ug3
i5

U3

5
U4

R4

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i4
ui4

is3

KVL: The algebraic sum of the voltage drops

taken in a specified direction around a
closed path is zero.
The voltage drops taken in the same
direction with the specified direction around
the close path are considered positive and
the voltage drops with opposed direction
are considered negative.
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41

ui1

U1

R1
i1

U2
i2

R2

ui2

U5

k( O )

R5

ug3
i5

U1 U 2 U 3 U 4 U 5 0
U3

5
U4

R4

i4
ui4

is3

In circuit analysis is useful to express the KVL in terms of the voltage drops
on the loops elements.
U 1 u i1 i1 R1
U 2 i2 R2 u i2
U 3 u g3

u i1 i1 R1 i 2 R2 u i 2 u g 3 u i 4 i 4 R4 i5 R5 0

i1 R1 i 2 R2 i 4 R4 i5 R5 u g 3 u i1 u i 2 u i 4

U 4 u i4 i4 R4
U 5 i 5 R5

( o )

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

( o )

( o )

42

Direct application of Kirchhoffs laws

The circuit problems requires to identify the independent variables

(unknowns) and write a number of independent equations equal to the
number of unknowns.
The independent equations are obtained by the use of KCL and KVL for the
circuit resistances. Stated without proof, the number of independent
equations of each type is available:
The number of independent KCL equations is equal to one less
then the number of nodes;
The number of independent KVL equations is equal to the
number of independent loops. An independent loop is one whose KVL
equation includes at least one voltage not included in other equations;
Before starting to solve a circuit, we have to assign the reference polarities
for the unknown voltages and directions for the unknown currents. The KL
are applied in a circuit regarding to the reference directions.
Assuming a circuit with N nodes and l branches, only with resistances and
voltage sources, the number of unknown currents is l. The l linear
independent equations are written as follows:
with KCL results (N-1) independent equations;
with KVL results l-(N-1) independent equations.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

43

Example

N=3, l=5

i3
ui3
i1

III

R3
i4

A
R4

ui1

R2

R5

II

i2
B

ui5

i5

R2=2
R3=3
R4=4
R5=5
ui1=20V
ui3=12V
ui5=5V

i 1 i 2 i 3 i 4 0

i 3 i 4 i 5 0

i 2 R 2 u i 1
i R i R i R u
i5
2 2 4 4 5 5
i 3 R 3 i 4 R 4 u i 3

i1=11.213A
i2=-10A
i3=-1.021A
i4=2.234A
i5=-1.213A

The significance of the negative sign associated with i2 and i5 is that the
assumed direction specified when we start solving the circuit is opposite to
the actual direction of the current. Thus, i2 was chosen as being directed
from B to A; in reality, the positive direction of I2 is from A to B.
Note that the voltage drop on the resistor R2 is wholly consistent with both
the assumed and actual directions of I2. A negative voltage drop from B to A
is simply a positive drop from B to A.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

44

In circuits in which exist current sources, the current is known in the

branches with current sources (the voltage drop on the current sources is
unknown). The number of unknown currents is less with the number of
currents generated by current sources.
For example, for a circuit with N nodes, l branches and lg branches with
current sources, the number of unknown currents is (l-lg). We need a
number of (l-lg) linear independent equations. It results as follows:

(N-1) linear independent equations using KCL for (N-1) arbitrary nodes;

l-lg-(N-1) linear independent equations using KVL for independent loops.

The independent loops will be build only with branches that do not contain
current sources.
In the loop construction will be taken only the branches that no contain
current sources.
i1

ui1

R1

ug

is3
B

2014/2015

R2

i2

ui2

R1=5
R2=2
is3=2A
ui1=15V
ui2=4V

Electric Circuits

N=2, l=3, lg=1

i1 i 2 i s 0

i1 R1 i 2 R 2 u i1 u i 2

i1=1A
i2=-3A

u g i1 R1 u i1 i 2 R2 u i 2 10V

45

Dependent sources
In circuit could exist sources characterized by the fact that the source voltage or
source current depends on a current or a voltage elsewhere in the circuit.
Sources which exhibit this dependency are called controlled or dependent
sources.
Since a voltage or current can served as the control quantity, four types of
dependent sources are possible, represented schematically.
The sources, designated by diamonds, act between terminals c and d, with
control provided at terminals a and b with the reference polarity for the voltage
sources. The direction of the positive current is given by the arrows.
The proportionality constants A, r and q indicate the relation between the
control quantities and the strength of the sources.
+

u1

+c
Au1

- b

-d

VCVS

2014/2015

i1

+c

CCVS

u1

ri1
b

-d

c
i1

gu1

- b

VCCS

Electric Circuits

Ai1
b

CCCS

VCVS voltage controlled

voltage sources
CCVS current controlled
voltage sources
VCCS voltage controlled
current sources
CCCS current controlled
current sources

46

Dependent sources
A major difference between dependent and independent sources is that four
terminals are required to define a controlled source, whereas only two are needed
for an independent source.
On the four dependent source terminals, one pair provides the control, and the
second pair exhibit the properties of the source.

u1

+c
Au1

- b

-d

VCVS

2014/2015

i1

+c

CCVS

u1

ri1
b

-d

c
i1

gu1

- b

VCCS

Electric Circuits

Ai1
b

CCCS

VCVS voltage controlled

voltage sources
CCVS current controlled
voltage sources
VCCS voltage controlled
current sources
CCCS current controlled
current sources

47

Examples with controlled sources

2I0
4

I0=?

I=?

24V

p g U g 2 I 0 24 I 0 160 W
2

U0/3

U0=?

U0
I 0 16 12 28 W
3
4
16
2
2
2
p g I 1 18 I 2 9 I 3 4 18 9 1 4 28 W
9
9
pg 8I

2014/2015

U0
U 0 12 V
3
U
2
I 1 0 A
18 3
U
4
I 2 0 A
9 3
I I 1 I 2 2 A

8 U0

I0=?
I3=?

U g 2 I 0 24 4 I 0 4 2 I 0 28 V
p c 2 I 0 4 3I 0 2 I 02 2 I 02 4 160 W

8V

I2=?
18

U g 2 3I 0 4 2 I 0 14 I 0 28 V

3I 0

Ug=? 2

I1=?

24 2 I 0 2 3I 0 4 I 0 I 0 2 A

Electric Circuits

U0
U
I 3 4 I 3 0 1 A
3
12
I 0 I I 3 3 A

48

Power in DC circuits
Depending on the reference direction for the voltage drop and the current
through a branch, the branch could generate or remove power from the
k
system.
Ub
ACTIVE
BRANCH

i
Ub
R

PASSIVE
BRANCH

Ub
R

the direction for Ub

is opposite with the
direction for i

ui

ui
the direction for Ub
is the same with the
direction for i

Ub
k+1

ui

A :
P :

u b u i i R
u b u i i R

A first form of the DC power theorem states that the total power absorbed
by the all branches that removes power from circuit is equal with the
power generated by the all branches that supply power in circuit.

( A)

( P )

A second form of the DC power theorem could be demonstrated when the

voltage drops of the branches are replaced with the voltages of the
branches elements.
u i u i i R
l

( A i )

2014/2015

( Pi )

Electric Circuits

49

Example
is3
1

i4

ug3

i5

is1

i6

R4
R5

ug1

ui4

R6
i7

R7

i S 1 i S 3 i 4 i 5 0

i S 2 i S 3 i 4 i 6 0

i S 2 i 6 i 7 0
i R i R i R i R u
i4
4 4 5 5 7 7 6 6
u g 1 U 14 i 5 R 5 10 V

u g 2 U 2 3 i 6 R 6 6 V
u U u i R 11V
21
i4
4
4
g3

is2
ug2

R4=4K
R5=5K
R6=6K
R7=7K
is1=1mA
is2=2mA
is3=3mA
ui4=27V

i 4 i 5 2 10 3

3
i 4 i 6 5 10

3
i 6 i 7 2 10
4 i 5 i 6 i 7 i 27
5
6
7
4
Pg1 i s1 u g1 10 mW
Pg 2 i s 2 u g 2 12 mW

Pg 3 i s 3 u g 3 33 mW
u i 4 i 4 108 mW

2014/2015

I4=?
I5=?
I6=?
I7=?
Pg=?
Pc=?

Electric Circuits

N 4
l 7
lg 3

i 4 4 mA

i 5 2 mA

i 6 1 mA
i 1 mA
7

Pg Pg1 Pg 2 u i 4 i 4 130 mW

Pc Pg 3 i 42 R4 i 52 R5 i 62 R6 i 72 R7 130 mW
Pg Pc

50

Source transformation
Practical physical voltage source
A actual voltage source consist of a ideal voltage source in series with a
resistance (inner resistance).
Source in open circuit: U=ui, i=0
Source in short circuit: U=0, i=ui/r
i
Real voltage
source

Voltage source supplying a load:

r
U

ui

ui
rR

U iR

U
ui

ideal source

ui

ideal source

real source

real source

U ui r i

R
ui
rR

R
U
ui
rR

The inner resistance is lower the performances of voltage source are better.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

51

Practical physical current source

An actual voltage source with a large value for the inner resistance, satisfies:
i

ui
u
i
rR r

A source that exhibit such a propriety is called an actual current source.

Source in open circuit (R=): U=iSr, i=0
Source in short circuit (R=0): U=0, i=is

i
ir
r

Real current Is
source

Current source supplying a load:

I s i ir
U i R i r r I s i r
i

i
Is

ideal source

Is

ideal source

real source

i R I s i r

real source

U
i Is
r

2014/2015

r
is
Rr

U
Is
r

r
is
Rr

Electric Circuits

52

Source transformation
i

reale voltage
source

real current
source

Is
U

ir
rg

ui

U ui i r

r rg
u i I s rg

U I s rg i rg

The source equivalence is a powerful tool for analyzing circuits.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

53

Examples with source transformation

i
i1
R1

i2
R2

R1

R2

ui1

I s1

u i1
R1

I s2

ui2
R2

I s I s1 I s 2
R R
R 1 2
R1 R 2

u
n

Ge

u i ( I s1 I s 2 ) R

u i1 u i 2 R1 R 2
u i1 R 2 u i 2 R1 u i1G1 u i 2G 2

u i ( I s1 I s 2 ) R

R1 R 2 R1 R 2
R

R
G1 G 2
1
2

G G1 G2

2014/2015

ui

ui2

R
U

Is

Is2

ui

U
Is1

Ge

G1

1
R1

Electric Circuits

G2

1
R2

54

Linearity and Superposition

Linearity is a property that holds in general for all voltage and current
responses in circuits with only independent sources and resistances.
For a linear circuit, the responses of the currents and voltages are linear
combinations of the existing sources in circuit.
Consider a simple circuit whose independent source values are variables, is
and ue.
2

is

2is

Ue i
2

Ue i

U e 2is 1
1
U e is
6
6
3

We can define current parameters i1 and i2 as follows:

1
is
3
1
i 2 i | i 0 U e
6
i1 i | U

e 0

The parameters i1 and i2 represents the partial responses; i1 is the response

with the voltage source reduced to zero and i2 is the response with the
current source reduced to zero.
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Electric Circuits

55

A deactivated voltage source is a short circuit and a deactivated current source

is an open circuit.
Hence the partial response expressions are described by the following circuits:
2

is

i1 i | U

i1
e 0

1
is
3

Ue i
2
2

1
i 2 i | i 0 U e
6

It follows a general form for the principle of linearity:

Consider a circuit having only resistors and n independent sources with
values: x1, x2,, xn.
Any response y, voltage or current, has the form: y a x a x ... a x
where ai, i=1,n are the constants determined by the resistive portion of the circuit.
Thus, n partial responses could be defined: y a x , i 1, n
and the total
response of the yi quantities is: y y y ... y
where y y | , k 1, n with ki.
Thus we can compute each partial response yi from the circuit that results
when all independent sources other then ith are deactivated.
This is known as the principle of superposition, and sometime is a useful
analysis tool. By its means, we can split a complicated circuit analysis
problem into a number of simple ones.
1

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

x k 0

56

Examples with superposition

i
i1
R1

i1

i2
R1

R2

i2
R2

ui2

R1

i1
R2

ui1

ui1

ui2

i2
R

ui1

ui2

i i ' i ''

i1 i1' i1''
i 2 i 2' i 2''

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

57

Source Transportation
This theorems refer to the possibility of introducing voltage or current
sources in a circuit, in a particular manner, without to change the current
flows in the circuit branches.

Voltage Source Transportation

Considering a circuit with two sub-circuits and all the branches that link the
two sub-circuits.
The second circuit derived from the first one by inserting identical voltage
sources Ue (with the same positive directions) in the branches that link up
the two sub-circuits.
The corresponding currents in the two circuits are identically because of the
identically linear independent system of equations using the KL for the two
circuits.
The two circuits are equivalents in respect of the current flows.
ue
ue
Subcircuit 1

Subcircuit 2

Subcircuit 1

Subcircuit 2

ue

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

58

The independent linear equation using KCL are not affected by the inserted
voltage sources.
The voltage sources do not affect the independent linear equations using KVL
for the loops formed inside a sub-circuit.
The independent linear equations using KVL using loop branches from the
two sub-circuits, are also unaffected by the voltage sources. For such
equations, the voltage sources appear for a even number, once with + and
once with -, so the sources vanish.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

59

A particular case refers to a circuit node, shown below.

The equivalence that derived is called voltage source transportation because
it could be consider to transport a source through a node.
i1

i1

i3
i2

i3
i2

ue

ue

ue

Example that use voltage source transportation

i
i1
R

ue

2014/2015

i2
R

ue

i1
R

i2
R

ue

ue

ue

ue

i1
R

ue

Electric Circuits

i2
R

ue

60

Current Source Transportation

Consider a loop (without circuit elements).

In parallel with the loop branches we introduce identical current sources, is
(with the same positive direction regarding to a reference loop direction).
is

is

i5

i5

i1

i1
is

i4

i4

i2

i2

i3

i3

is
is

The linear independent system of equations using the KL is identically for the
two circuits.
The linear independent equations using KCL do not change; for a node, the
current is once point into the node and once point out of the node.
The fundamental loops used for KVL are not affected by the current sources;
the fundamental loops do not contain current sources.
If in parallel with the branches of a loop are introduced identical current
sources (with the same direction regarding to the reference loop direction),
the currents in the branches of the circuit do not change.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

61

Example that use current source transportation

18A
i=?

i=?

20A
3

18A 20A

4A
2

i=?

i(3 6 2) 6 28 i

2014/2015

2A

2
28V

6V

18A

i=?
3

4A

14A
2

22
2 A
11

Electric Circuits

62

Thevenins and Nortons Theorem

In order to focus attention on the behavior of a specific element or group of
elements, it is convenient to describe the other portion of the system by
simple, equivalent representations.
Sometimes in a circuit, of interest is a single current in a branch or a single
voltage drop on a branch.
The Thevenins theorem allows to calculate a current in a branch and the
Nortons theorem allows to calculate the voltage drop on a branch.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

63

Lon Charles Thvenin (30 March 1857 21 September 1926) was

a French telegraph engineer who extended Ohm's law to the analysis
of complex electrical circuits. Born in Meaux, France, Thvenin
graduated from the cole polytechnique in Paris in 1876. In 1878, he
joined the Corps of telegraph Engineers (which subsequently became
the French PTT). There, he initially worked on the development of
long distance underground telegraph lines.
As a result of studying Kirchhoff's circuit laws and
Ohm's law, he developed his famous theorem,
Thvenin's theorem, which made it possible to
calculate currents in more complex electrical circuits
and allowing people to reduce complex circuits into
simpler circuits called Thvenin's equivalent circuits.
The theorem was independently derived in 1853 by
the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz and in
1883 by Lon Charles Thvenin.
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Electric Circuits

64

Thevenins Theorem
Considering a active circuit and a passive branch detached from the circuit.
We want to determine the current flow to the detached branch.
i a

A
Circuit
activ

i a
R

u0

A
Active
circuit

i a
R

u0

i a

A
Active
circuit

u0

P
Passive
circuit

u0
R

Using successively the source transportation and the principle of

superposition, the circuit has been split in two circuits:
One circuit that keep all the sources from the initial circuit and one of the
two sources ui introduced by source transportation.
The second circuit has only the remaining source u0 introduced by source
transportation (has a single source).
Using the superposition principle:
i i ' i ''
For the second circuit, having a single source, always i0; for the first circuit,
having more then one source, there is possible to have i=0 when uab=u0 (the
source voltage balances the network open circuit voltage) and i=i (the
current i is determined only by the current i from the second circuit). The
open circuit voltage at terminals ab, uab is established by the linear sources
from the remaining network.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

65

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is the essence of Thevenins theorem, stated

for resistive networks as follows:
At a pair of terminals, ab, any linear network can be represented by an
equivalent circuit composed of a voltage source in series with a resistance.
The source voltage u0=uab is the voltage measured across the open circuited
terminals ab.
The resistance value R0 is the equivalent resistance of the remaining network
as viewed from terminal ab, when all independent sources are suppressed.
Thevenin equivalent
i
circuit
i

R0

i a
R

R0

u0

u0
b

R0

Deactivated
circuit
b

According to the Thevenins theorem, the current flow through a branch

with resistance R is:
u
i

R R0

where u0 is the open circuit voltage measured between terminals ab and R0

is the equivalent resistance of the remaining deactivated circuit.
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66

To deactivate a circuit means to suppress all the voltage and the current
sources (all the sources are set to zero). There result a circuit only with
resistances.
For a voltage source, suppression requires that the source voltage be made
zero, a short-circuit condition.
Current sources are open-circuited to reduce their effect to zero.

R
R

is

ui

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

67

Example that use the Thevenins theorem

Determine the parameters R0 and U0 used in a Thevenins equivalence and
determine the current i using the Thevenins theorem for the circuit shown
below.
i=?
12

12

36V

3A

12

i=?

R0=?
U0=?
a

36 i1 6 12 i1 2 A

2
36V

3A

3 i 2 2 i 2 1 A

i1

U 0 3 2 6 i1 18 V

12

i2

U 0 18V

12

2014/2015

U0=?

Electric Circuits

R0 6

U0
1 A
R 0 12

68

Edward Lawry Norton (28 July 189828 January 1983) was an accomplished Bell
Labs engineer and scientist famous for developing the concept of the Norton
equivalent circuit. He attended the University of Maine for two years before
transferring to M.I.T. and received a S.B. degree (electrical engineering) in 1922. He
received an M.A. degree from Columbia University in 1925.
Although interested primarily in a communications circuit
theory and the transmission of data at high speeds over
telephone lines, Edward L. Norton is best remembered for
development of the dual of Thevenin's equivalent circuit,
currently referred to as Norton's equivalent Circuit. In fact,
Norton and his associates at AT&T in the early 1920s are
recognized as some of the first to perform pioneering work
applying Thevenin's equivalent circuit and who referred to this
concept simply as Thvenin's theorem. In 1926, he proposed the
equivalent circuit using a current source and parallel resistor to
assist in the design of recording instrumentation that was
primarily current driven
Norton's theorem was independently derived in 1926 by Siemens &
Halske researcher Hans Ferdinand Mayer (18951980) and Bell Labs
engineer Edward Lawry Norton (18981983).
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

69

Nortons Theorem
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is equivalent to any two-terminal sub-circuit
containing resistors and independent voltage and current sources.
The Norton equivalent circuit is an alternative general equivalent circuit
which can be derived independently or it can be obtained from the Thevenin
equivalent circuit by applying the source transformation.
a
a

A
Active
circuit

R0

ub

ub

Active
circuit

2014/2015

R0

i s i sc

is
ub

u0
R0

u0

Thevenin
equivalence

is

Norton
equivalence

The current is could be obtain from the current i

when R0, (i=isc).
For R=0, is=isc, the current generated by the
current source is the short circuited current
between the terminals ab.
Electric Circuits

70

By denoting G0=1/R0 and G=1/R the conductance of the branch and the
equivalent conductance of the remaining network as viewed from terminal
ab, when all independent sources are suppressed, it follows: i u G u G
sc

i sc

R0

ub

Norton
equivalence

According to the Nortons theorem, the voltage drop on a branch with

resistance R (conductance G=1/R), is:
ub

i sc
G G0

where isc is the current flow between the terminals ab when these are
short-circuited and G0 is the equivalent conductance of the remaining
deactivated circuit.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

71

Example that use the Nortons theorem

Determine the parameters R0 and isc used in a Nortons equivalence regarding
to the 2 s resistance and determine the voltage drop Uab using the Nortons
theorem for the circuit shown below.
a

Uab=?
3

b
a

6A

i1 6 36

I sc 6 i1

Isc

Isc

R0

12A

i 1 6 A
I sc 12 A
a

36V

Uab

i1
3

R0=?

36V

6A

Isc=?

R0

3 6
3 6

R0 2

Uab
2
b

U ab

I sc
G G0

12
12 V
0.5 0.5

U ab 12V

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

72

Example
Using the Tevenins theorem, calculate the current i5 for the circuit below:
a

i2

R1

R2

R1

i5

i1

i5

R2

i1

R5

u5
i

i1'

u 0 ab
i3

i3
R3

R4

R3

R4

i
b 4

ui

ui
R1 R 2

u 0 ab
R5 Ri
i 3'

ui
R3 R 4

R2
R4
R 2 R3 R1R 4
ui
u 0 ab i1' R 2 i 3' R 4 u i

R1 R2 R3 R4
R1 R 2 R3 R 4

ui
a

R1

R2
R1

R2

R3

R4

Ri

R1 R 2
R R
3 4
R1 R 2 R3 R 4

Ri
R3

R4
b

i5

u i R 2 R3 R1R 4
R1 R 2 R3 R 4 R3 R 4 R1 R 2 R5 R1 R 2 R3 R 4

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

73

Example
Using the Nortons theorem, calculate the voltage drop u5 for the circuit below:
a

i2

R1

R2

u5

i2

R1

i5

i1

R2

i1

i1

R5

u5

isc

i sc
G5 Gi

G5

R1

i2 R2

up1

up2

1
R5

R3

R4
b

i4

R3
b

ui

i ''

i4

R4

i3

R3

i1''

ui
u i R1 R3 R 2 R 4

R e R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

R1 R3
u i R1 R3 R 2 R 4

R1 R3 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

u p 2 i ''

R2 R4
u i R 2 R 4 R1 R3

R 2 R 4 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

i sc i1'' i 2''

2014/2015

Re

R4

ui

ui

u p1 i ''

i4

i 3''
i 2''
i 4''

1
Ri

i sc i1'' i 2'' i 4'' i 3''

i3

i3

Gi

R1 R3
R R
2 4
R1 R3 R 2 R 4

u p1
u i R3 R 2 R 4

R1 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

u p1
u i R1 R 2 R 4

R3 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

u p2
u i R 4 R1 R3

R 2 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3
u p2
u i R 2 R1 R3

R 2 R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

u i R 2 R3 R1 R 4
R1 R3 R 2 R 4 R 2 R 4 R1 R3

Electric Circuits

74

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

A limitation of the direct-application of the KL is that the number of
variables increases rapidly as the circuit becomes more complex, increasing
the number of equations to be solved simultaneously.
The Nodal and Mesh (Loop) Analysis represents techniques which reduce
the number of circuit variables and thus decrease the number of equations
to be solved simultaneously.
Nodal analysis is a formulation of circuit equations in which a set of voltage
variables is selected that implicitly satisfies the KVL relations. The circuit can
then be described completely by the necessary number of KCL equations
whose solution permits the determination of the current and voltage in
every circuit element.

Mesh (loop) analysis represents an alternative formulation of circuit

equations based on a set of current variables. The KCL equations are
inherently satisfied by the current variables selected so that the circuits are
described only by the necessary number of independent KVL equations. The
solution of the mesh or loop equations obtained by this method allows the
currents and voltage in each circuit element to be determined.
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Electric Circuits

75

Nodal Analysis
In the nodal analyses one of the circuit nodes is selected arbitrary as a
reference node of zero potential.
The potential variable of the remaining nodes are defined regarding to the
reference node. These potentials represent the voltage drops from each of
the remaining nodes to the reference node.
The KL will be used in respect of the potential of the nodes. This set of
variables inherently satisfied KVL.
The number of potential unknowns are reduced to the number of nodes less
one.
Having the potentials in nodes, will permit calculation of the currents in the
circuit branches.

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Electric Circuits

76

To exhibit the nodal analysis we start from a particular example.

Consider the circuit below with l=8, lg=2, N=4.
ui3

R3

i3

V1 V2 u i1 i1 R1 i1 u i1G1 V1 V2 G1
V1 0 i2 R2 u i 2 i2 u i 2G2 V1G2

is2
1

ui1

R1

ui5

i1

V1 V3 u i 3 i3 R3 i3 u i 3G3 V1 V3 G3

R5

i6

R2
R4

ui2

is1

i3 is 2 i1 i2 is1 0

i5
R6

V1 G1 G2 G3 V2G1 V3G3 is1 is 2 ui 3G3 ui 2G2 ui1G1

i4
Rs

i2

ui 3G3 V1 V3 G3 is 2 ui1G1 V1 V2 G1 ui 2G2 V1G2 is1 0

V2 G1 G4 G5 V1G1 V3G5 ui1G1 ui 5G5

4
V4=0

V3 G3 G5 G6 V2G5 V1G3 is 2 ui 5G5 ui 3G3

V1Gk1 V2Gk 2 ... V Gk ... Vk Gkk ... VN 1Gk ( N 1)

Gk Gk

2014/2015

i u G

Gkk

Electric Circuits

77

The formal procedure for writing nodal equations is given in the following
step-by-step outline:
Set a potential of an arbitrary node to zero;
Write the equations for the remaining (N-1) nodes; there results a linear
system of (N-1) equations that will be solved in respect to the potential of
the remaining nodes;
Calculate the currents in the branches using the value of the nodes
potential.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

78

There are some exceptions in using the nodal analysis.

5

R0 G

i1
i5

VA1 VB1 ui

R5

ui

VB 0 VA u i

R1
ui
A1

V6 VA1 i6 R6 u i 6
V2 VB1 u i 2 i2 R2
V1 VB1 i1 R1 u i1

i6 VA1 V6 G6 u i 6G6

B1

R6

i5 V5 VA1 G5 u i 5G5

i2 V2 VB1 G2 u i 2G2

R2

i2

i J dS 0

i1 VB1 V1 G1 u i1G1

ui2

is4

is7

i6

is3

ui6

R3

is8

V5 VA1 i5 R5 u i 5

ui1

ui5

VA 0 VB u i

i1 is 3 i2 is 4 i5 i6 is 7 is 8 0

B1

V1 G1 ui1G1 is 3 V2 VB1 G2 ui 2G2 is 4 V5 VA1 G5 ui 5G5 VA1 V6 G6 ui 6G6 is 7 is8 0

VA1 G5 G6 VB1 G1 G2 V1G1 V2G2 V5G5 V6G6 ui1G1 ui 2G2 ui 5G5 ui 6G6 is 3 is 4 is 7 is 8

VA1 VB1 ui
VA1

2014/2015

A1,

VB1

B1,

V1

1,

... Vk

k ,

Electric Circuits

...

u G i
i

79

Loop (Mesh) Analysis

The technique employed in mesh analysis is to identify a current variable

that is associated with each fundamental loop in the circuit.
The ideal (fictitious) current variables, called mesh (loop) currents, exist in
each and every element in the mesh. Thus, at a node contained in a loop,
the mesh current both enters and leaves the node, guaranteeing that the
KCL equations is satisfied.
As more then one mesh current may exist in a particular element, the actual
branch current becomes the algebraic sum of the mesh currents.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

80

To exhibit the loop analysis we start from a particular example.

Consider the circuit below with l=6, N=4.
ui6

R6

i6

I33
i1 ui1

R1

ui4

R4

i4

R3

I11

i3

i2

i 2 I11

i 5 I 22

i 3 I11 I 22

i 6 I 33

i1R1 i2 R2 i3 R3 ui1 ui 3

R5

I22

i 4 I 22 I 33

i1 i3 i4 0 I11 I 33 I11 I 22 I 22 I 33 0

i5
R2

i1 I11 I 33

11

ui3

I 33 R1 I11R2 I11 I 22 R3 ui1 ui 3

R1 R2 R3 I11 R3 I 22 R1I33 ui1 ui3

R11I11 R12I 22 R13I 33 ui1 ui 3

R11 R1 R2 R3

R12 R3

R13 R1

R21I11 R22I 22 R23I 33 ui 3 ui 4

R21 R12 R3

R22 R3 R4 R5

R23 R4

R31 R13 R1

R32 R23 R4

R33 R1 R4 R6

R31I11 R32I 22 R33I 33 ui1 ui 4 ui 6

2014/2015

k 1

Rkk

Electric Circuits

Rk

R
o

81

The formal procedure for writing mesh equations is given in the following stepby-step outline:
Convert each current-source parallel-conductance combination to a voltage
source in series with resistance. For convenience the circuit is redrawn.
Select a mesh current variable for each elementary (fundamental) loop. It is
usual to chose all currents in the same direction; a clockwise direction is
traditional.
Write the KVL equations for each loop in the direction of the mesh current for
the loop. Solve the set of equations for the desired mesh current.
The currents in the branches and voltages in the circuit can be obtained by the
use of Ohms law and Kirchhoffs current law.
R
is

is0

ui is R

R
is0

is1

ise

ui1

uie

i s1

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u i1
R

Electric Circuits

i se i s1 i s 0

u ie i se R

82

There are some exceptions in using the mesh analysis.

I kk i s

R2
is

Ikk
R1
ui1

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

83

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a sub-circuit consist of sources and resistances and a load
connected between the terminals ab of the sub-circuit.
At times it is desired to obtained the maximum power transfer from the
active network to the load R.
Assuming that the network is linear, it can be reduced to an Thevenins
equivalence.
a
a

A
Active
network

R0

ub

ub

PR ubi i 2 R

u0

PR

u0
R R0

R
2
2 u0
R R0

To find the value of the R* which will absorb the maximum power from the
circuit, form the dPR/dR and equate it to zero. This yields:
PR
0
R

R
R02 R 2 2
2

u 0
2 u0
R R R0
R R0 2 0

*
R
R0
Solving for the R gives:

2014/2015

and the maximum power is:

Electric Circuits

PR max

u02
4R*

84

The maximum power transfer theorem states that the load resistance R* for
the maximum power transfer is equal to the equivalent resistance of the
source as viewed from the terminals of R.
Usually the equivalent source resistance is called the output resistance, and
the process of equating output resistance and load resistance is known as
resistance matching.
Example, for a stereo system, the Thevenins equivalence permits us to
match the speakers to the amplifier output.
It is noted that the condition for maximum power transfer to the load is not
the same as the condition for maximum power delivered by the source. The
latter happens when R=0, in which case power delivered to the load is zero.
When the power transferred is maximum, the efficiency is 50 percent.

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Electric Circuits

85

The Y- resistances transformation

There are certain network configurations which cannot be resolved by
series-parallel combinations alone.
These configurations may often be handled by the use of a Y-
transformation.
The transformation permits three resistors which makes a Y configuration
to be replaced by three in a configuration, or vice versa.
In figure below we have a Y and a network. If these networks are to be
equivalent, the resistance between any pair of terminals must be the same
in the Y as in the .
The aim is to express the three resistances in Y configuration in terms of the
resistances in configuration, and vice versa.
1
U31

1
i1
R1

i1

U31

U12

R31
R3

R2

i3

i31

2
U23

2014/2015

R12

i2

U12

i12

i3

R23

i23

i2

U23

Electric Circuits

86

U 12 U 23 U 31 0

i1 i 2 i 3 0

i1 R1 i 2 R 2 U 12
i R i R U
23
2 2 3 3

1
i1
R1

U31

U12

1
i1

U31

U12

i12

R31
R3

R2

i3

R12

i31
i2

i3

i23

R23

U23

i1

0
1
U 12 R 2
U 23 R 2
1
R1
0

1
0
R3

1
R2
R2

1
0
R3

R12 R 23 R31

R R

2014/2015

U23

U 12 R 2 U 23 R 2 U 12 R 3
U 12 R 3 U 31 R 2

R1 R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
R1 R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
i2

U 12 U 31

i1 i12 i 31
R
R 31
12

U 23 U 12

i 2 i 23 i12
R
R12
23

U
U
i 3 i 31 i 23 31 23
R 31 R 23

U 23 R1 U 12 R3
R1 R 2 R 2 R3 R3 R1

R 2 R3 R3 R1
R1 R 2 R3

i3

R12 R 23

U 31 R 2 U 23 R1
R1 R 2 R 2 R3 R3 R1

R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
R 2 R3

Electric Circuits

i2

R1 R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
R12
R3

R1 R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
R 23
R1

R R R 2 R 3 R 3 R1
R 31 1 2
R2

R12 R 31
R1
R12 R 23 R 31

R 23 R12
R 2
R12 R 23 R 31

R 31 R 23
R1
R12 R 23 R 31

87

For a particular case when

R12 R23 R31 R,

we have

1
U31

i1

i1

U31

U12

RY

RY

i3

i31

2
U23

U12

i12
R

i2

2014/2015

R
RY

R1 R 2 R 3

RY

R
3

Electric Circuits

i3

i23

i2

U23

88

SINUSOIDAL STEADY
STATE CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS

Courtesy Smithsonian Institution

2014/2015

Nikola Tesla (18561943) was a Croatian-American engineer

whose inventionsamong them the induction motor and the
first polyphase ac power systemgreatly influenced the
settlement of the ac versus dc debate in favor of ac. He was also
responsible for the adoption of 60 Hz as the standard for ac
power systems in the United States.
Born in Austria-Hungary (now Croatia), to a clergyman, Tesla
had an incredible memory and a keen affinity for mathematics.
He moved to the United States in 1884 and first worked for
Thomas Edison. At that time, the country was in the battle of
the currents with George Westinghouse (18461914)
promoting ac and Thomas Edison rigidly leading the dc forces.
Tesla left Edison and joined Westinghouse because of his
interest in ac. Through Westinghouse, Tesla gained the
reputation and acceptance of his polyphase ac generation,
transmission, and distribution system. He held 700 patents in
his lifetime. His other inventions include high-voltage
apparatus (the tesla coil) and a wireless transmission system.
The unit of magnetic flux density, the tesla, was named in
honor of him.
Electric Circuits

90

Polyphase currents
patents:
381968: Electro Magnetic Motors October
12, 1887
382280: Electrical Transmission of power
October 12, 1887
381970: System of Electrical Distribution
December 23, 1887
. Altogether about 40 patents in 2-3 years
outlying new a.c. system used until today
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

91

First Teslas induction motor

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

92

Niagara Falls

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Electric Circuits

93

Interior of Power Plant

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

94

Some General Definitions

Most of the worlds electric energy is generated and distributed by means of
voltages and currents which vary sinusoidally with time. This type of sources
(most notably, rotary electro-mechanical generators) naturally produce
voltages alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative over time.
The electric generators, motors and power distribution systems build to use
alternating current are far more efficient than the similar one that use direct
current, and so we find alternating current used predominately across the
world in high power applications.
The sinusoidal functions are an important class of excitation in electrical
engineering.
The sinusoidal steady state circuit analysis assumes that all the currents and
voltages vary sinusoidally with the same frequency. The problem consist in
finding the amplitudes and phases for all currents and voltages in network,
when we know the circuit sources and the passive elements of the circuit.
Circuits excited with sinusoidal currents and voltages of same frequency are
often called alternating current circuits, AC. Circuits excited with constant
currents and voltages are similarly called direct current circuits, DC.
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Electric Circuits

95

A sinusoidal function, for example a voltage function u(t) is given by:

ut um sin t

where um is the maximum value or amplitude (magnitude) or the pick, and

is the angular velocity, or angular frequency.
The u(t) is called the instantaneous value of the sinusoidal function and
changes the value at any time t.
Another form to express the wave magnitude is to measure the total height
between opposite peaks. This is known as the peak-to-peak (UP-P) value of
an AC waveform.

um

u(t)

U=

um
2

t [s]
t [rad]

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

96

The Burndy Library Collection

at The Huntington Library,
San Marino, California.

2014/2015

Heinrich Rudorf Hertz (18571894), a German experimental

physicist, demonstrated that electromagnetic waves obey the
same fundamental laws as light. His work confirmed James
Clerk Maxwells celebrated 1864 theory and prediction that
such waves existed.
Hertz was born into a prosperous family in Hamburg,
Germany.
He attended the University of Berlin and did his doctorate
under the prominent physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. He
became a professor at Karlsruhe, where he began his quest for
electromagnetic waves. Hertz successfully generated and
detected electromagnetic waves; he was the first to show that
light is electromagnetic energy. In 1887, Hertz noted for the
first time the photoelectric effect of electrons in a molecular
structure. Although Hertz only lived to the age of 37, his
discovery of electromagnetic waves paved the way for the
practical use of such waves in radio, television, and other
communication systems. The unit of frequency, the hertz, bears
his name.
Electric Circuits

97

A sinusoidal function is a periodic function, that is, it repeats itself every T

seconds.
In general a function which satisfies f(t)=f(t+T) for all values of t is said to be a
periodic function with period T. Two other periodic functions commonly
encountered are the square-wave and sowtooth-wave.
The portion of each waveform existing for a period is called a cycle. The
number of cycles of the waveform per second is the frequency, f, measured in
hertz [Hz]. Evidently: f=1/T.
When we plot a sin function as a function of t, one cycle corresponds to an
electric angle of 2 radians or 3600 degrees. Thus the angular frequency
can be expressed as: 2 2f ,from which the instantaneous value
T
can be expressed in the alternative forms:
2
u t um sin t um sin 2ft um sin t
T

In the figure above, the time origin or time reference axis is chosen at the
point where current is zero. In general, the origin can be chosen arbitrary at
any point on the wave. The equation of the wave is:
ut um sin t ,where is the phase angle.
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Electric Circuits

98

Consider two sinusoidal voltage waves, u t u sin t , u t u sin t

and t t
We have:
12>0 when the voltage wave u1 reaches a peak at an earlier time that does
the voltage wave u2. We say that voltage u1 leads the voltage u2 by the angle
12, or conversely, the voltage u2 lags the voltage u1 by the angle 12. (fig.a)
12=0 when the voltage wave u1 reaches a peak in the same time with the
voltage wave u2. We say that voltage u1 is in phase with the voltage u2. (fig.b)
12<0 when the voltage wave u1 reaches a peak after that does the voltage
wave u2. We say that voltage u1 lags the voltage u2 by the angle 12, or
conversely, the voltage u2 leads the voltage u1 by the angle 12. (fig.c)
1

12

u1

12 >0

m2

u1
u2

12 =0

u2

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m1

Electric Circuits

u1

12 <0

u2

99

Operations with sinusoidal functions

Operations of sum or difference between sinusoidal waves of identical
angular velocity (frequency), generates a sinusoidal wave with the same
angular velocity (frequency).
The derivate of a sinusoidal function is also a sinusoidal function that leads
the sinusoidal function by an angle of 900:
da

a m cos t a m sin t
dt
2

The integral of a sinusoidal function is also a sinusoidal function that lags the
sinusoidal function by an angle of 900:

2014/2015

a t dt

am

cos t

sin t

am

Electric Circuits

cos sin
2

cos sin
2

100

The RMS Value. The Average Value

The effective value is a characteristic quantity for all periodical functions. For a
periodical function a(t), with period T, the effective value (denoted always with
capital letter) is defined as follows:
1 T 2
A
a t dt
T

The effective value for a periodically sinusoidal varying voltage

ut um sin t

is given by the expression:

1
T

u m2 sin 2 t dt

sin 2 t dt

um
2

0.707 u m

1 cos 2 t

um
2

0.707 u m

dt
where we used the identity:

2
2
Effective values are also known as root-mean-square values (rms abbreviated)
because of the manner in which they are defined. The designation root-meansquare, said backward, outline the process of evaluation: first the ordinates of
the wave are squared, than the mean ordinate of the squared wave is found,
and lastly the square root of this mean ordinates is taken.
RMS values are used almost invariably for specifying magnitudes of alternating
currents and voltages. Another advantage is that the most common AC
instruments movements inherently indicate effective values.
T

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Electric Circuits

101

The average value is another characteristic quantity for all periodical

functions. The average value is usually defined as the mathematical mean of
all points on the waveform algebraically (that is, to consider their sign, either
positive or negative).
For a periodical function a(t), with period T, the average value is defined as
1
follows:
a at dt
T
For sinusoidal waveform, the average value is zero, because all positive points
cancel out all the negative points over a full cycle (the sin waveform has equal
area-portion above and below the zero line of plot).
Sometimes, in electronics, is useful to define a average value as the
mathematical mean of all the points' absolute values over a cycle. In other
words, we calculate the practical average value of the waveform by
considering all points on the wave as positive quantities, as if the waveform
looked like this:
T

mean

ut um sin t

um
uavr
t [s]
t [rad]

2014/2015

1 T
2
~
u
u t dt
T 0
T

T
2

u
0

sin t dt

2 1
2u
2u

u~ um cost |T0 / 2 m 1 1 m
T
T

Electric Circuits

102

The average value of the product of two sinusoidal functions,

u1 t um1 sin t 1 ,

is:

u2 t um 2 sin t 2

1 T
um1um 2 T
~
u
u1 t u2 t dt
sin t 1 sin t 2 dt
0
0
T
T

Considering the identity:

sin a sin b

we have: sin t 1 sin t 2

1
cos a b cos a b
2

1
cos1 2 cos2t 1 2
2

and finally the average value becomes:

u u cos1 2
u u
u~ m1 m 2
T 0 m1 m 2 cos1 2 U1U 2 cos1 2
T
2
2

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Electric Circuits

103

The Phasor associate to a sinusoidal wave

Let consider a direction (the dot line shown in fig.a below). Regarding to the
adopted direction, for each sinusoidal functions of same frequency, we
associate a phasor in a graphical form as follows: the magnitude of the phasor
is equal with the rms value of the sinusoidal function, and the angle between
the adopted direction and the phasor represents the phase angle of the
function.
a A 2 sin t

a 1 t A1 2 sin t 1

A1
1
A2

at a 1 t a 2 t A 2 sin t

a 2 t A2 2 sin t 2

There is useful to consider the phasor representation when we have to do

operations like adding or subtraction with sinusoidal functions. In this cases the
phasor operations are same with the vector operations.
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Electric Circuits

104

Sinusoidal Independent Sources

To have a sinusoidal electric energy in a network, we need to supply the
network with electrical sources (voltage and current sources) that generate
sinusoidal waves of same frequency.
Sinusoidal voltage sources produce voltages alternating in polarity, reversing
positive and negative over time.
Either as voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back
and forth, the sinusoidal steady state is known as alternating current, (AC).

ub
u e (t ) u m sin t

2014/2015

u e (t ) u m sin t

Electric Circuits

i s (t ) i s m sin t

105

Single-elements responses to sinusoidal

excitations
R

i t I 2 sin t

uR iR

uL L

di
dt

uL

uR

U IR

u L t L

u C t

uL
uR

di

L I 2 cost L I 2 sin t U 2 sin t

dt
2
2

U L I X L I

i dt

1
C

uC
i

u R t i R U 2 sin t

uC

X L L

1
1
1

i dt
I 2 cost
I 2 sin t U 2 sin t
C
C
C
2
2

uC

cos sin
2

cos sin
2

2014/2015

1
I XCI
C

XC

1
C

Electric Circuits

106

RLC series circuit supplied with a sinusoidal voltage

u t U 2 sin t

i t I 2 sin t

it ?

I ?

1 i(t)

u v1 v0 (v1 v 2 ) (v 2 v 3 ) (v 3 v 0 )
u u R u L uC

u iR L

di 1

i dt
dt C

u t U 2 sin t

u(t)

R 2

i t I 2 sin t

U 2 sin t R I 2 sin t L I 2 cost

1
I 2 cost
C

U 2 sin t R I 2 sin t L
I 2 cost
C

1
1
L
L
1

C arctg
C
t 0 : 0 R I 2 sin L
I 2 cos tg
R
R
C

L
t : U 2 sin L 1 I 2
tg
C

sin

2
2
1 tg
1

2
R L

I
2
2
1

1 I i
1

Z R 2 L

Y m
R 2 L

Z U um
C

U u
u t
Z m
I i m it

2014/2015

X L L inductiv reactance
XC

1
capacitiv reactance
C

Electric Circuits

X X L X C reactance
Z R 2 X L X C R 2 X 2
2

107

UL

UL

UC UL

UC
UC

UR
UR

UR=U

>0, the circuit behaves inductively, the current legs the supplying voltage by
angle , and XL>XC;
<0, the circuit behaves capacitively, the current leads the supplying voltage
by angle , and XC>XL;
=0 the circuit is in resonance, the current lies along the supplying voltage,
and XC=XL

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Electric Circuits

108

The Kirchhoffs Laws

The Current Kirchhoff Law (CKL)

i1(t)

i2(t)

i J dS 0

i1 (t ) i 2 (t ) i 3 (t ) i 4 (t ) i 5 (t ) 0

(t ) 0

( p )

i5(t)
i3(t)

i1 (t ) i 4 (t ) i 2 (t ) i 3 (t ) i 5 (t )

i4(t)

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Electric Circuits

109

The Voltage Kirchhoff Law (VKL)

1

L16

u16 v1 v 6 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3 v 3 v 4 v 4 v 5 v 5 v 6

L6

i1

R1

i5
R5

u1

1 6 v1 v6 u1 u 2 u 3 u 4 u 5 0

2
i2

L5

R2

C5

L2

u4

R4
i4
L48

L7
C2

L4
C4

L8

uC
4

uC
ue2

ue4
4

is3

di di
di di
di
di
di
i1 R1 i 2 R 2 i 4 R 4 i 5 R5 L1 1 L16 6 L 2 2 L 27 7 L 4 4 L 48 8 L5 5 u C1
dt dt
dt dt
dt
dt
dt
u C 2 u C 4 u C 5 u 3 u e 2 u e 4

di
i R
L
dt

o
o

2014/2015

di
di
u 4 u e 4 u C 4 u L 4 u R 4 u e 4 u C 4 L 4 4 L 48 8 i 4 R 4 ,
dt
dt
di
u 5 u R 5 u L 5 u C 5 i 5 R5 L5 5 u C 5 .
dt

u3

di
di
u 1 u R1 u L1 u C1 i1 R1 L1 1 L16 6 u C1 ,
dt
dt
di
di
u 2 u R 2 u L 2 u C 2 u e 2 i 2 R 2 L 2 2 L 27 7 u C 2 u e 2 ,
dt
dt

L27

u2

C1

u5
uC

u16 u1 u 2 u 3 u 4 u 5

uC

L1

L
1

di
dt

uC
u g
u e

o
o
o

Electric Circuits

110

The Phasor Method

The phasor method is the technique for solving circuits problems when the
excitations are sinusoids of the same frequency and the steady-state
responses are desired.
The method is basically one in which the time functions are transformed to
the phasor representations of the sinusoids.
im

i t i m sin t

I I e j

Im

dI
j I
dt

I dt

dt

j I
I

1
j
I I
j

it Im 2 I e

2014/2015

dI

j t

Re

Electric Circuits

I dt

1
I
j

111

Symbolic Representation and Defining Relations

Used in the Phasor Method
uR(t)
i(t)

U R IR

uR i R

uL(t)
i(t)

uL L

U LL

di
dt

dt

uC

2014/2015

U L jL I

1
i dt
C

U
1
UC
C

j L

dI

uC(t)
i(t)

I dt
UC

Electric Circuits

1
j C

1
1
I j
I
jC
C

112

Impedance and Admitance Phasor Operator

u t U 2 sin t
R
i(t)

u(t)

u iRL

di 1

dt C

i dt
1
j C

U
Z

U
U j

e
Z e j Z

2014/2015

dt

1
C

I dt U

U I R j L I

jXC

1
L
C
Arg Z arctg
R

j C

I U

1
j C

RI U

i t

U
2 sin t
Z

a)

Y G2 B2

1
Z

b)

Y the admitance phasor operator

B X
tg
G R

Electric Circuits

j L I U

1
1
R
X
R
X

j
G jB
Z R jX R X 2
R2 X 2 Z 2
Z2

Y Y e j

d I

j L j X L

Z the impedance phasor operator

2

Transformed
network

I RL

Z
R j L
R j X L X C R j X
I
C

Z Z R L

j C

I I e j

j L
I Z
C

j L

I
U

U U

Time domain
network

i I 2 sin t

U I R

113

The Phasor Form of the Kirchhoffs Laws

i

KCL:
KVL:

(t ) 0

( p )

( p )

di
i R
L
dt

o
o

1
R j L
I

C
( o )

di
dt

Z
( o )

j L

2014/2015

j L
1

I
U
( o )

Electric Circuits

( o )

1
j C
I

I
U
( o )

1
j C

uC
u g
u e

o
o
o

Z R j L
j L

( o )

114

The terms phasor operators are used for Z and Y because they are
complex quantities which acts to change the magnitude and the angle
to the associated current and voltage phasors.
The several voltage and current phasors in a network can be shown
on a phasor diagram in which each phasor is represented by its
corresponding directed arrow drawn to scale. Phasor diagram are
often usefull as a visual check of the algebraic solution of problem.
For a circuit in time-domain the element values are in ohms, henrys
and farads, and voltages and currents are functions of time. In the
transformed circuit, element values are impedances in ohms and
voltages and currents are expressed as phasors (complex numbers).
For many problems the information in the problem statement are:
admitance and impedance values are given direclly; the sinusoidal
excitation is given as an rms-valued phasor and the desired result is
the rms value of the response and its phase angle.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

115

There are some aspects of the utility of the phasor method:

The determination of the desired response is carried out by

use of purely algebraic manipulations;

Because the KVL and KCL equations are algebraic, nearly all
the techniques developed for DC circuits are applicable to
steady-state AC circuits.

The techniques used in AC analysis follows the procedure

outlined in DC circuits. However, the constant voltages and
currents in DC circuits are replaced by phasor voltages and
currents in AC circuits. Similarly, resistances and
conductances are replaced by the complex quantities for
impedance and admitance.

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Electric Circuits

116

Loop Analysis
j M 12

j L1

I1
Z

j M 13

I 1 I 11
j L2

j M 23

jL3 I 3 jM13 I 1 jM 23 I 2 I 3 Z 3 U e1 U e3
2

I 11 Z 1 jL1 jM 13 jL3 jM 13 Z 3

I 22 jM 12 jM 13 jL3 jM 23 Z 3 U e1 U e3

22

e1

I 3 I 11 I 22

I 1 Z 1 jL1 I 1 jM12 I 2 jM13 I 3

j L3

I 11

I 2 I 22

e2

e3

I 11 Z 1 Z 3 jL1 jL3 j 2M 13

I 22 Z 3 jL3 jM 12 jM 13 jM 23 U e1 U e3

I 22 Z 2 Z 3 jL2 jL3 j 2M 23 I 11 Z 3 jL3 jM12 jM13 jM 23 U e 2 U e3

Z 11 Z 1 Z 3 jL1 jL3 j 2M 13

Z 11 I 11 Z 12 I 22 U e1 U e3

Z 21 I 11 Z 22 I 22 U e 2 U e3

Z 22 Z 2 Z 3 jL2 jL3 j 2M 23
Z 12 Z 21 Z 3 jL3 jM 12 jM 13 jM 23

A general form of the theorem for the loop k, is:

I 11 Z k1 I 22 Z k 2 ... I Z k ... I kk Z kk ... I oo Z ko

Z kk

2014/2015

j M

Z k

k
k

Electric Circuits

Z j M

117

Coupled Branches Transfiguration

Series Coupled Branches Transfiguration
j M 13

j M 23

j M 12

I
b

Z1

e1

Z
e2

e3

U b I Z 1 j M12 I j M13 I U e1 I Z 2 j M12 I j M 23 I U e 2 I Z 3 j M 23 I j M13 I U e3

U b I Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 j 2 M12 M13 M 23 I U e1 U e 2 U e3
Z e Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 j 2 M12 M13 M 23

U b I Z e U e

U e U e1 U e 2 U e3

A general form of the series coupled branch transfiguration, is:

Ze

Z
1

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j M
k

Ue

Electric Circuits

118

Parallel Coupled Impedances Transfiguration

I

I1
U

U b j M
Ub
Z2
Z 2 j M
I1
Ub
2
Z1
j M
Z 1 Z 2 M
j M
Z2

2014/2015

Z1

j M

U b I 1 Z 1 j M I 2

U b j M I 1 I 2 Z 2

U b I 1 Z 1 j M I 2

U b j M I 1 I 2 Z 2

I I1 I 2

I1

j M

Z1

I2 Ub

Z 1 j M
2
Z 1 Z 2 M

U
Z Z M
Ze b 1 2
I Z 1 Z 2 j 2M

Z 1 Z 2 j 2M
Ub
2
Z 1 Z 2 M

Electric Circuits

119

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Circuits

Consider a sub-circuit in AC steady-state consist of sources and impedances
and a impedance load connected between the terminals ab of the subcircuit.
At times it is desired to obtained the maximum power transfer from the
active network to the load Z.
Assuming that the network is linear, it can be reduced to an Thevenins
equivalence.
I

Active
Circuit

Z Z

P
R 0

P 0
X

2014/2015

Z
U

R R e j X X e

R R X X

2 2

P
0
R

X Xe 0

U e2

R R e 3

PI R
2

R e R 0

Electric Circuits

Z e Re j X e

R R j X X
R R X X

2U e2 X X e
e

Z R jX

RU e2

R R e 2 X X e 2

RU e2

R R e 2

Z Z

*
e

R Re
R Re 0

X Xe

120

Example
Determin the value of the impedance Z to have a maximum power in it.

R1

R1=XC1=2
XL2=XL3=2
R4=5
XC5=10
E=10V

C1

E
R4

Z 3 j X L 3 j 2
Z 4 R 4 5

C5

Z4

Z2

Z5
Z ab

L2
L3

Z3
b

Z 1 R1 j X C1 2 j 2
Z 2 j X L 2 j 2

Z1

p1

Z1Z 2
Z1 Z 2

2 j 2

1
1
1
1

Z ab Z s1 Z 4 Z 5

Z s1 Z

p1

Z 3 2 j 4

Z ab 3 j

Z 5 j X C 6 j10

Z Z

2014/2015

*
ab

Electric Circuits

Z 3 j

121

Power in AC Steady State Circuits

it I 2 sin t

Instantaneous power is defined as:

p ut it U 2 sin t I 2 sin t

AC Steady
State SubCircuit

u t U 2 sin t

1
cosa b cosa b
2
p U I cos U I cos2 t

sin a sin b

1kwh 3600 kj

p dt [ j ]

p(t)

Active Power (True Power):

u(t)

Q U I sin

QL I 2 X L I 2 L 0

[VAR]

p dt U I cos

U
I

X Z sin

t2

P dt

t1

P I 2 Z cos I 2 R

R Z cos

S U I

[VA]

S I2Z

Q I 2 Z sin I 2 X

QC I 2 X C I 2

Electric Circuits

[W ]

Apparent Power:

Reactive Power:

WC

2014/2015

P U I cos

i(t)

1
T

1
0
C

122

p(t)
p(t)

u(t)
P0

i(t)

u(t)
P U I

i(t)

t
t

S 2 P 2 Q 2

P S cos
Q S sin

u t U 2 sin t

U U e j

i t I 2 sin t

I I e j

Apparent Power Phasor:

S U I

S U I U e j I e j U I e j U I cos jU I sin P j Q
*

P Re S U I cos

2014/2015

Q Im S U I sin

Electric Circuits

S S U I

123

Power Factor and Power Compensation

The power factor is defined as the ratio between the true power and
apparent power:
P
P
cos

UI

The power factor cos, like all ratio measurements, is a unitless quantity.
I0
1

IZ

2
I1

I2

P UI1 cos1 UI 2 cos2 UI 0

Any power factor less then 1 means that the circuit has to carry more current
then what would be necessary with zero reactance in the circuit, to deliver
the same amount of the true power to the resistive load.
A poor power factor can be corrected adding another load of opposite
reactance.
The inductive reactance can be canceled by capacitive reactance.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

124

I0

I C j C U

IC

I
IZ

I C j C U

I
IC

I C I Z sin
U

2
1

owercompensation
owercompensation
U
total
total
compensation
compensation

U C I Z sin

IZ

IC

undercompensation
undercompensation

C*

I Z sin

IZ

2014/2015

IC

Electric Circuits

125

FOURIER SERIES.
FOURIER ANALYSIS

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (17681830), a

French mathematician, first presented the series and
transform that bear his name. Fouriers results were
not enthusiastically received by the scientific world.
He could not even get his work published as a paper.
Born in Auxerre, France, Fourier was orphaned at
age 8. He attended a local military college run by
Benedictine monks, where he demonstrated great
proficiency in mathematics. Like most of his
contemporaries, Fourier was swept into the politics
of the French Revolution. He played an important
role in Napoleons expeditions to Egypt in the later
1790s. Due to his political involvement, he narrowly
escaped death twice.

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Electric Circuits

127

Fourier Series
The phasor method of circuit analysis can be extended to include,
nonsinusoidal, periodic functions.
In general, a periodic function f(t)=f(t+T), with period T, can be expressed
as a sum of sine and cosine terms called the Fourier series.
The mathematical theorem associated with Fourier series states that a
periodic function f(t) can be written in the form:
f t a0 am1 sin t am2 sin 2t ... bm1 cost bm2 cos2t ...
f t a0

or

sin t bm cost

where =2/T =2f is the fundamental angular frequency, T and f the period
and respectively the frequency of the original periodic wave.
The term a0 is the average ordinate or the dc component of the wave.
The term am1 sin t bm1 cost is the fundamental component and has the
same frequency and period with the original wave.
The remaining terms of the form am sin t bm cost give the -th harmonic
component of the function.
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Electric Circuits

128

The value of the Fourier coefficients can be determined as follows.

1 T
a

The coefficient a0 is the average value of the f(t) and is: 0 T 0 f t dt

To find the am coefficient, first multiply each terms by sin(t) and integrate
the result from 0 to T. By this operation, the am coefficient results in form:
am

2
T

f t sin t dt
T

To find the bm coefficient, first multiply each terms by cos(t) and

integrate the result from 0 to T. By this operation, the bm coefficient results
2 T
in form:
bm f t cost dt
T 0
There are some particular cases:
T
4 2
1. f(t)=f(-t), f is a even function, f(t)=f(T-t):
am 0, bm f t cost dt
T

2. f(t)=-f(-t), f is a odd function, f(t)=-f(T-t):

3. f(t)=f(t+T/2), we have only even
4. f(t)=-f(t+T/2), we have only odd

am

4
coefficients: a2n T

T
2

4
f t sin 2nt dt , b2 n
T

4
a2 n1
T
coefficients:

Electric Circuits

f t sin t dt , bm 0

4
b2 n1
T

2014/2015

T
2

T
2

T
2

T
2

f t cos2nt dt

f t sin 2n 1t dt ,
f t cos2n 1t dt

129

Exact representation of the non-sinusoidal, periodic wave requires an

infinite number of terms in the Fourier series. Notice, however, that the
amplitude of the harmonics in Fourier series decreases progressively as the
order of the harmonic increases, indicating that a good approximation can
be obtained with comparatively few terms.
The -th harmonic of a Fourier series can be also written in the form:
b
2
2
2
am sin t bm cost Am sin t ,where Am am bm , arctg m
am

A concentrate form of the Fourier series is:

f t A0

sin t A0

where A0=a0 and:

2 f

sin t

2
T /

For the -th harmonic, the frequency f becomes times larger as the
fundamental frequency f, and the period T becomes times smaller as the
fundamental period T.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

130

Example
V0

f(t)=f(-t) even function

am 0
T/4

T/2

3T/4

a0

bm

bm

T
2 T
2 T/4
f t cos t dt V0 cos t dt V0 cos t dt

3T / 4

T 0
T 0

f t dt

1 T /4
V0 dt
T 0
V
a0 0
2

V
V0 dt 0
3T / 4
2
T

4 T /2
4 T /4
4 V0
2 T / 4 2V0
f t cost dt V0 cost dt
sin
t |0
sin sin 0

T 2 T
T 0
T 0
2

bm
bm1
vt

1
T

2V0

2V0

n
, if 2n 1
1
2n 1

0
, if 2n

, bm 2 0, bm3

2V0
2V
2V
, bm 4 0, bm5 0 , bm6 0, bm7 0 , bm8 0,....
3
5
7

V0 2V0
2V
2V
2V
2V
2V

cost 0 cos3t 0 cos5t 0 cos7t 0 cos9t 0 cos11t ...

2

3
5
7
9
11

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Electric Circuits

131

The RMS Value. The Total Harmonic Distortion

Let consider a periodic function of period T:

f t A0

sin t

1
T

2
The rms (effective) value for a periodic function is:
0 f t dt
We are looking for a expression of the rms value depending on the harmonics.

1 T

F A0 Am sin t dt
T 0
1

F
2

A02

1 T 2
Am2
2
Am sin t dt
A2
T 0
2
T
Am Am
sin t sin t dt 0
0
T
Am T
sin t dt 0
T 0

A02

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Electric Circuits

132

The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a signal (periodic function) is a

measurement of the harmonic distortion and is defines as the ratio of the
sum of the powers of all harmonics components to the power of the
fundamental frequency.
THD

harmonic powers

fundamntal frequency power

P2 P3 P4 ...
P1

Many authors define THD as an amplitude ratio rather than a power ratio.

THD

A22

A32

A42

A1

...

A1

For example, when a sinusoidal signal passes through a non-linear device,

additional content of harmonics are added at the original frequency. We say
the signal is distorted. THD is a measurement of the extent of the distortion.

THDU

U U U ...

U1
2
2

2
3

2
4

U1

THDI

2014/2015

I I I ...

I1
2
2

2
3

2
4

Electric Circuits

I1

133

Network Response to Periodic Function

The physical circuits are supplied by voltages and currents
having periodical waveforms very close to the sinusoidal
waveforms, but not a perfect sinusoidal form.
The facts that any periodic waveform can be written as a
Fourier series leads to the conclusion that knowledge of how to
solve problems involving sinusoidal excitations permits the
solution of problems with any periodic excitation. The Fourier
series for the voltage or current sources is written and each
term of the series is considered as a separate source.

The principle of superposition then states that the total

response is the sum of the responses produced by each
individual component.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

134

In general, many periodic function can be approximately

represented by a relatively few terms of the Fourier series,
greatly reducing the computation effort. The decision to
include or to ignore a specific terms is one requiring
engineering judgment and depends mainly on how
accurately the results must be known and also on the
accuracy whit which the data are presented.
The Fourier series representation of a periodic excitation and
the superposition principle allows the phasor technique to
be used to determine the system response. Each frequency
component of the response is produced by the
corresponding harmonic of the excitation; the sum of these
responses is the Fourier series of the system response.
Implicit in the use of phasor techniques is that the response
being determined is the force or steady-state response.
2014/2015

Electric Circuits

135

Example
u(t)

i(t)

R=6
L=1
1/C=9

u(t ) 15 120 sint 30 sin3t 30 V

I(0)

U 0 15V ,

For the fundamental component:

i(1)(t)

uC(1)(t)
C

I 1

U 1
Z 1

I 0 0 A,

For the 3th order harmonic:

u(3)(t)

U 1

120

2 R j L

120
2

120
8.485 e j 53
2 6 j 1 9

j
I 9 j 8.485 e j 53 76.365 e j 37
C 1
30 j 30
u3 t 30 sin t 300
U 3
e
2
U 3
30 e j 30
30 e j 30
I 3

3.536 e j 30
Z 3

2
6

j
3

2 R j 3L

j
U C 3
I 3 3 j 3.536 e j 30 10.608 e j120
3C

U C 0 U 0 15V

U C 1

u(1)(t)

i(3)(t)

u(t)

u(1)(t)
u(3)(t)

u1 t 120 sin t

U(0)

u(t)

u(t)

uC t ?

I ?

For the DC component:

U(0)

uC(3)(t)

I I 20 I 21 I 23 02 8.4852 3.5362 9.192 A

uC t U 0 uC 1 t uC 3 t 15 76.365 2 sin t 370 10.608 2 sin 3t 1200 V

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

136

Remarks:
The inductive and capacitive reactance and the impedance are expressed in
terms of since the frequency of each term in the Fourier series is different.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

137

Example
uC(t)

I L ? , iL t ?

R2

i(t)

u(t ) 100 50 sint 30 V

is(t)
L

u(t)

For the DC component:

iL(t)

i(1)(t)
u(1)(t)

is (t ) 10 5 sin2t A

U 0 100V ,

U C 0 U 0 100V ,

R1

For the

R1=5, R2=L=1/C=10

U C ?, uC t ?

I s 0 10 A

I L0 I s0 10 A

50 e j 30
fundamental component: u1t 50 sin t 30 U 1
2
j 30
U
uC(1)(t)
50
e
50
e j 30
10 j 30

1
R2
I 1 I L1

e
C
Z 1

1
2 5 j 10 10
2

2 R j L

L
j
10 j 30 100 j120
U C 1
I 1 10 j
e

e
C
2
2
iL(1)(t)
R1

For the 2th order harmonic:

C

uC(2)(t)

R2

i(2)(t)

Is(2)(t)
I11

I22

iL(2)(t)
R1

is 2 t 5 sin 2t

I s 2

5
2

I 22 I s 2 2

I R j 2L j j 2L I 0
22
11 1
2C
I 2 I 11 4.243 j 1.414 4.472 e j162
I L2 I 11 I 22 0.707 j 1.414 1.581e j117

U C 2

2014/2015

j
I 2 7.071 j 21.213 108.435 e j108
2C

Electric Circuits

138

10
I I 20 I 21 I 22 102
1.5812 12.349 A
2

iL t I L0 iL1 t iL2 t 10 10 sin t 300 1.581 2 sin 2t 1170 A

100
U C U C2 0 U C2 1 U C2 2 1002
108.4352 163.579 V
2

uC t U C 0 uC 1 t uC 2 t 100 100 sin t 1200 108.435 2 sin 2t 1080 V

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

139

Power in Circuits with Periodic Excitation

i(t)

u t U 0
Steady State
Sub-Circuit

u(t)

pt ut it

um sin t

it I 0

sin t

U 0

um sin t I 0
1

sin t dt 0,

im sin t dt
1

sin t dt 0

u sin t i sin t dt U I
sin t sin t dt 0
T

Active Power

1
P
T

1 T
pt dt
T 0

P U 0 I0

U I

cos W

U I

sin VAR

Reactive Power

cos

S U I VA

Apparent Power

S 2 P2 Q2

for sinusoidal excitation

S 2 P2 Q2 D2

for periodic excitation

D S 2 P 2 Q 2 VAD

2014/2015

U 02

I 02

S U0 I0

Distortion Power

Electric Circuits

140

S 2 P2 Q2 D2
S U I U
2
0

I
2
0

P U0 I0

U I

cos

U 02 U12 ... U2 ... U2 ...I 02 I12 ... I2 ... I2 ... U 0 I 0

D2

U I sin

U I cos
1

U I sin D 2
1

I2 U2 I2 2U U I I cos cos 2U U I I sin sin

I2 U 2 I 2 2U U I I cos

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Electric Circuits

141

Constantin Budeanu (28 February 1886 1959)

was
a
Romanian
electrical
engineer who contributed to the analysis of
electric networks states and the SI system of
units.
He studied electricity in Paris with a V.
Adamachi scholarship gained after the
completion of studies in Bucharest. He
proposed the unit electric reactive power and
he introduced the concept of deformed
power in electric networks.

2014/2015

Electric Circuits

142

i(t)
u(t)

u(t ) 15 80 sin100t 10 sin 300t 300 V

U 0 15V ,

For the fundamental component:

X L1 L 100 0.1 31.42

1
1
X C 1

15.92
C 100 200 106

For the 3th order harmonic:

X L 3 3L 3 100 0.1 94.25
X C 3

I 0 0 A,

U 1
Z 1

U 1

R j X L1 X C 1

U 3

U C 0 U 0 15V

u3 t 10 sin t 300

I 3

80 10
15

59 V
2 2

U 20 U 21 U 23

u1 t 80 sin 100t

I 1

P ?, Q ?, D ?
2

For the DC component:

U ?
uC t ?

R=6
L=100mH
C=200F

U 3

U 1

80
2
U C 1 jX C 1 I 1 48.81e j147

3.07 e j 57

U 3

10 j 30
e
2

0.08 e j 53

U C 3 jX C 3 I 3 0.42 e j143

Z 3 R j X L3 X C 3
1
1

5.31
6
3C 3 100 200 10
uC t U 0 uC 1 t uC 3 t 15 48.81 2 sin 100 t 1470 0.42 2 sin 300 t 1430 V

I I 20 I 21 I 23 02 3.07 2 0.082 3.07 A

P U 0 I 0 U 1I 1 cos 1 U 3I 3 cos 3
Q U 1 I 1 sin 1 U 3 I 3 sin 3

2014/2015

S UI 59 3.07 180.83VA

80
10
3.07 cos0 57
0.08 cos30 53 94.11W
2
2

80
10
3.07 sin 0 57
0.08 sin 30 53 146.33 VAR
2
2

Electric Circuits

P I 2 R 94.11W
D S 2 P 2 Q 2 49.34 VAD

143

u (t ) 50 100 sin 400t 50 sin1200t V

6
4

uC(t)

R=30, R1=50, C=50F

i(t)
i1(t)
u(t)

For the DC component:

R1

U 0 50V ,

I 0 I10

U ?
I ?, I1 ?
uC t ?

P ?, Q ?, D ?

U 0

0.625 A
U C 0 I10R1 31.25V
R R1

100 j 6

For the fundamental component: u1t 100 sin 400t 6 U 1 e

2

R1 jX C 1
1
1
Z p 1
25 25 j , Z e1 R Z p 1 55 25 j

X C 1

50

R1 jX C 1
C 400 50 106
U C 1
U 1
I 11
0.816 j 0.136 0.828 e j 9
U C 1 I 1 Z p1 40.819 j 6.79 41.38 e j 9
I 1
0.681 j 0.952 1.17 e j 54
R
1
Z e1

50 j 4

u3 t 50 sin1200t
U 3
e
For the 3th order harmonic:
4
2

R1 jX C 3
1
1
Z p 3
5 15 j , Z e1 R Z p 1 35 15 j

X C 3

16
.
667

R1 jX C 3
3C 1200 50 106
U C 3
U 3
j 93
I

0.017 j 0.293 0.294 e j 93

j 22 U
1

I
Z

0
.
862

j
14
.
655

14
.
68
e
I 3
0.862 j 0.345 0.928 e
3 p3
C 3
R1
Z e3

I I 20 I 21 I 23 0.6252 1.17 2 0.9282 1.619 A

I1 I120 I121 I123 0.6252 0.8282 0.2942 1.078 A

100
50
50 0.625
1.17 cos 24
0.928 cos 23 136.765 W
2
2

uC t U 0 uC 1 t uC 3 t 31.25 41.38 2 sin 400 t 90 14.68 2 sin 300 t 930 V

P U 0I 0 U 1I 1 cos 1 U 3I 3 cos 3
Q U 1I 1 sin 1 U 3I 3 sin 3

P I 2 R I12 R1 136.765W

100
50
1.17 sin 240
0.928 sin 230 47.178 VAR
2
2
2

100 50
U U 20 U 21 U 23 502

93.541 V
2 2

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S UI 93.5411.619 151.484 VA

Electric Circuits

D S 2 P 2 Q 2 45 VAD

144

FIRST ORDER
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

Pierre Simon Laplace (17491827), a French

astronomer and mathematician, first presented the
transform that bears his name and its applications to
differential equations in 1779.
Born of humble origins in Beaumont-en-Auge,
Normandy, France, Laplace became a professor of
mathematics at the age of 20. His mathematical
abilities inspired the famous mathematician Simeon
Poisson, who called Laplace the Isaac Newton of
France. He made important contributions in
potential theory, probability theory, astronomy, and
celestial mechanics. He was widely known for his
work, Traite de Mecanique Celeste (Celestial
Mechanics), which supplemented the work of
Newton on astronomy. The Laplace transform, the
subject of this chapter, is named after him.
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Introduction in Transient Analysis

Transient analysis (or just transients) of electrical circuits is as important as
steady-state analysis.
We may distinguish the transient behavior of an electrical circuit from its
steady-state, in that during the transients all the quantities (currents,
voltages, power, energy) are changed in time, while in steady-state they
remain invariant, i.e. constant (in DC supplying) or periodical (in AC
supplying) having constant amplitudes and phase angles.
The cause of transients is any kind of changes in circuit parameters and/or
in circuit configuration, which usually occur as a result of switching, short,
and/or open circuiting, change in the operation of sources etc.
The changes of currents, voltages, etc. during the transients are not
instantaneous and take some time, even though they are extremely fast
with a duration of milliseconds or even microseconds. These very fast
changes, however, cannot be instantaneous since the transient processes
are attained by the interchange of energy.

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All transient changes, which are also called transient responses, vanish and,
after their disappearance, a new steady-state operation is established.
In this respect, we may say that the transient describes the circuit behavior
between two steady-states: an old one, which was prior to changes, and a
new one, which arises after the changes.
Usually, two methods of transient analysis are used: the classical method
and the Laplace transformation method.
Comparing the classical method and the Laplace transformation method it
should be noted that the latter requires more knowledge of mathematics
and is less related to the physical matter of transient behavior of electric
circuits than the former.
In present study we will refer to the classical method applied to the circuits
that satisfy 1st order linear ordinary differential equations; furthermore we
will apply some known methods of steady-state analysis, which will allow
us to simplify the classical approach of transient analysis.

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In the analysis of an electrical system (as in any physical system), we must

distinguish between the stationary operation or steady-state and the
dynamical operation or transient-state.
An electrical system is said to be in steady-state when the variables
describing its behavior (voltages, currents) are either invariant with time
(DC circuits) or are periodic functions of time (AC circuits).
An electrical system is said to be in transient-state when the variables are
changed non-periodically, i.e., when the system is not in steady-state.
The transient-state vanishes with time and a new steady-state regime
appears. Hence, we can say that the transient-state is usually the
transmission state from one steady-state to another.

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The parameters L and C are characterized by their ability to store energy:

magnetic energy Wm=Li2/2 and electric energy We=Cu2/2.
The electrical circuit is characterized by certain energy condition in its
steady-state behavior. Under steady-state condition the energy is stored in
the various inductances and capacitances, supplied by the circuit sources.
When any sudden change occurs in circuit, there is usually a redistribution
of energy between L-s and C-s, and a change in energy sources required by
the new conditions.
The energy redistributions cannot take place instantaneously, but during
some period of time, which brinks about the transient-state.
An instantaneous change of energy would required infinite power, which is
associated with inductors and/or capacitors.

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To change magnetic energy requires a change of current through inductances.

Therefore, currents in inductive branches of the circuit (through a
inductance), cannot change abruptly.
From another point of view, the change of current in an inductor brings about
the induced voltage of magnitude L(di/dt). An instantaneous change of
current (magnetic flux) would therefore require an infinite voltage, which is
also unrealizable in practice.
From this fact, the principle of continuity of inductance current can be
formulated: In the absence of an infinite voltage, the current in an inductance
cannot change instantaneously.

iL 0 iL 0

0 0

where the symbol i(0-) indicates the time immediately before switching and
the symbol i(0+) indicates the instant of time immediately after switching.

uL L

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di
dt

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151

To change electric energy requires a change in voltage across a capacitor,

which is given by u=q/C, where q is the charge. Therefore, neither the voltage
across a capacitor nor its charge can be abruptly changed.
In addition, the rate of voltage charge is du/dt=(1/C)dq/dt=i/C, and the
instantaneous change of voltage brings about infinite current, which is also
unrealizable in practice.
Accordingly, the following principle of continuity of capacitance voltage can be
formulated: In the absence of an infinite current, the voltage across a
capacitance cannot change instantaneously.

uC 0 uC 0

q0 q0

Summarizing, we can say that any change in an electric circuit, which brings
about a change in energy distribution, will result in a transient-state.

du C
dq
iC
C
dt
dt
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We can summarize that any change in an electrical circuit (switching,

interrupting, short-circuiting, rapid changes in the structure of the electric
circuit), which brings about a change in energy distribution, will result in a
transient-state.
Every change of state leads to a temporary deviation from one regular steadystate performance of the circuit to another one.
In circuits, which consist of only resistances, and neither inductances and
capacitances, the transient-state will not occur at all and the change from one
steady-state to another will take place instantaneously.

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Classical Method Applied to 1st Order Linear Circuits

Classical method is based on the determination of differential equations and
splitting the solution into two components: natural and forced responses.
We will solve the differential equation by finding natural and force responses
separately and combining them for a complete solution.
To determine how the currents and voltages change in time, we will apply the
Kirchhoffs lows.

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154

Consider the pull-up RC circuit:

K
t=0

U0

uC 0 uC 0 0

uC 0 0

uC

iR uC U 0
RC

duC
uC U 0
dt

iC

duC
dt

The pull-up equation describes the

series RC circuit for t0

uC t uCn t uCf t

uCn the natural response

uCf the forced response

The equation we have to solve is a 1st order linear ordinary differential equation
(differential eq.- uC expressed in terms of its derivatives; 1st order - only the first
derivative of the variable uC is present; ordinary eq.- there are no partial
derivatives; linear - variable uC occurs as a linear terms, not as a argument of
another function).
The equation is valid only for t>0.
The complete solution is composed of two parts: the natural response (the
transient response) which describes the forced-free behavior, and the forced
response (the DC steady-state response) which represents the system behavior
to the specific excitation (DC excitation in our case).
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The natural response uCn is the solution of the homogenous equation associate to
the original equation:
RC

duC
uC 0
dt

The homogenous equation is called the characteristic equation of the circuit.

The general form of the natural response is: uCn t Kes t
Substituting this response into the homogeneous differential equation, we
obtain:
RCKses t Kes t 0 or Kes t RCs 1 0 ,
from which s

1
and the natural response becomes:
RC

uCn t Ke
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t
RC

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156

In general, the natural response does not depend on the forcing function, but
only on the circuit parameters and on the initial condition and, is therefore, a
characteristic of the circuit.
It is also called the solution of the homogeneous equation, which does not
include the source function (in our case DC source) and has anything but zero
on its right side.
The force response is also called the steady-state response or the particular
solution of the equation.
This solution is depending on the forcing function, (U0 in our case), and
represents the system behavior to the specific excitation.

uCf t U 0 uC uC

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The total response of the capacitance voltage is:

uC t uCn t uCf t Ke

t
RC

U0

where the constant K will be determined using the initial condition.

The constant K must be selected to satisfy the initial condition uC(0+)=0, which is
the initial voltage across the capacitance. Thus, the solution of the equation,
uC(t) at t=0 becomes uC(t)=0, or K+ uC()=uC(0+), and we may conclude that
K= uC(0+)- uC()=-U0.
With this value of the K, we will obtain the desired total response:
uC t U 0 U 0e

t
RC

RC

U 0 1 e

or in a general form:
uC t U C U C U C 0 e

RC

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represents the time constant of the transient.

Electric Circuits

158

The time constant is a dividing factor on t and its value dictates how rapidly
the voltage uC(t) reacts to the change in the switch position. The larger is, the
slower the response; the smaller the is, the faster the response.
The unit of the time constant are seconds ([]=[R][C]=F), so that the
exponential t/ is dimensionless, as it is supposed to be.
In the time interval of about 5 , the capacitance voltage is less than one
percent of the voltage source U0. Thus, it is usual to presume that in the time
interval of (3-5) , the transient response declines to zero or, in other words,
we may say that the duration of the transient response is about five time
constants.
Precisely speaking, the transient response declines to zero in infinite time,
since e-t0, when t.
The general form of the total response consist of two terms: the first part of
the is called the DC steady-state response (in this example is equal to the value
of the voltage source U0); the second term depends on time t and is called the
transient response.
The DC steady-state response is always given by:
lim uC t
t

Just after the switching event at t=0, the transient response dominates the
total response of the circuit.
The transient response for all first order linear circuits is always a decaying
exponential function. The transient response decays to zero as t becomes
larger.
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159

The current through the capacitance during the transient is:

t

du
1 RC U 0 RC
it C C CU 0

e
e
dt
R
RC

uC

U0
uC(t)

RC

uC t U 0 1 e

t
i
U0/R
t

U
it 0 e RC
R

i(t)

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Consider the pull-down RC circuit

We have to solve a homogeneous equation.
The force response will be zero, we have only natural response.
Networks used to evaluate the natural response contain no independent
voltage or current sources and are called source-free networks.
K
t=0

iC

i
R

duC
dt

uC

U0

uCf t uC 0

RCs 1 0

iR uC 0

uC 0 U 0

uC 0 uC 0 U 0

t 0 : uC 0 U 0

U0

du
RC C uC 0
dt

uCn t

1
RC

uCn t U 0e

t
RC

uC(t)

RC
Ke

t
t

K U0

uCn t U 0e

t
RC

i(t)

uC t U C U C U C 0 e

2014/2015

uC

uC t uCn t uCf t uCn t

s

it C

The pull-down equation describes the

series RC circuit for t0

U
it 0 e RC
R

duC
U
1 RC
CU 0
0 e RC
e
dt
R
RC

Electric Circuits

-U0/R

161

XCP1

2
XSC1
G
T
A

3
R1
1.0k

C1
5uF

XFG1

XCP1

2
XSC1
G
T
A

3
R1
2k
1

C1
20uF
XFG1

2014/2015

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162

The pull-up RL circuit.

i

K
t=0

R
L

U0

iR L

di
0
dt

i f t

i0 0

uL

di
U0
dt

i0 i0 0

R Ls 0

U0
i
R

iR L

t 0 : i0 0 i0 K

it in t i f t

R
L

it in t i f t

The pull-up equation describes the

series RC circuit for t0

in t
R
t
Ke L

R
t
Ke L

U0
R

i(t)
R
t
U 0
it
1 e L

U0
U
K 0
R
R

R
R
t
U 0 U 0 L t U 0
it

1 e L

R
R
R

L
s the time constant
R

uL

U0

uL(t)

it i i i0 e
R

uL t U 0
R

t
di
U R t
uL t L L 0 e L U 0 e L
dt
R L

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R
t
e L

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163

The pull-down RL circuit.

i

1
2

t=0

R
L

U0

di
iR L 0
dt

i0

U0
R

iR L

The pull-down equation describes

the series RC circuit for t0

di
0
dt

i f t i 0 it in t i f t in t

uL i0 i0 U 0

R Ls 0

in t

R
s
L

it in t

R
t
Ke L

L
s the time constant
R

U0/R

R
t
Ke L

i(t)
it

U
U
t 0 : i0 0 K 0
R
R

it

U0 L t
e
R

U0 L t
e
R

uL

it i i i0 e
R

uL(t)

2014/2015

uL t U 0

t
di
U R t
uL t L L 0 e L U 0 e L
dt
R L

Electric Circuits

R
t
e L

-U0

164

XCP1
XSC1
G
T
A

3
2

R1
500

L1
1H

XFG1

XCP1
XSC1
G

T
A

3
R1
50
1

L1
3H
XFG1

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165

Generalization to all 1st Order RC and RL Circuits

We have determined an expression for capacitor voltage in the simple RCswitch circuit
t

uC t U C U C U C 0 e

and for the inductance current in the simple RL-switch circuit

it i i i0 e

The expressions for capacitor voltage or for the inductance current may be
generalized to describe the voltage or the current associated with any element
in circuit:
t

X t X X X 0 e

where X represents any branch voltage or branch current.

Once X is chosen, it is only necessary to determine by inspection the value of X
at t=0 and for t and the time constant in the order to write down the
expression X(t).

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Circuits with more than one resistor and

capacitor or inductance
For an RC or RL circuit to be 1st order, it must be such that the resistors and
capacitors or inductors may be combined using the rules for parallel and series
connection into a single equivalent resistor and single equivalent capacitor or
inductor defining a single time constant ReqCeq or Leq / Req .
We have only to determine the value uC(0), uC() and C for 1st order circuits
with capacitors and iL(0), iL() and L for 1st order circuits with inductors, and
insert them into the standard equations.
X t X X X 0 e

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Example
i(t)

K
t=0

iC(t)

uC t U C U C U C 0 e

i1(t)
R1

U0

uC

U C 0 0
i i1

t 0
K

i(t)
i1(t)

iC(t)

R1

U0

UC 0 UC 0 0

U0
R R1

U C i1 R1

uC

Req

R1

R1
U0
R R1

R R1
R R1

Req C

R R1 C
R R1

R R
R R

t
R1
RR C t
R1
R1
RR C

uC t
U0
U 0 U C 0 e

U0 1 e

R R1
R R1
R R1

R R1

R R

t
R1
RR C

uC t
U0 1 e

R R1

2014/2015

R R1

R R1 R R C t U 0 R R C t
du
R1
e
iC t C C C
U 0

e
dt
R R1 R R1 C
R

u t
U0
i1 t C
R1
R R1

R R

t
1 e R R C

U0
it i1 t iC t
R R1

Electric Circuits

R R R t
1 1 e R R C

168

uC
R1U 0
R R1

uC t

uC(t)

R R

t
R1
U 0 1 e R R C

R R1

t
i
U0
R

i(t)
U0
R R1

U0
it
R R1

i1(t)
iC(t)

R R R t
1 1 e R R C

U0
i1 t
R R1

R R1

t
U
iC t 0 e R R C
R

R R

t
1 e R R C

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169

it i i i0 e

Initial steady-state
4

t=0

4H

uL(t)
i(t)

20V

it ?
u L t ?

Final steady-state
6

4H

i(0)

4H

14

50V

i()

20V

6
50V

14

5A

i0

i(t)

50V
5A
4 6

it 1 4 e

5 t

20V
1A
14 6

1A

it 1 1 5e5t 1 4 e5t A

uL
uL(t)

di
uL t L 80 e5 t V
dt

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Req 20

t
t

uL t 80 e5t V

14

-80V

Electric Circuits

L 1
0.2 s
Req 5

170

For tomorrow belongs to the people who prepare for it today

(African Proverb quotes)

Engineering is the practice of making good on the promise of

technology

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Innovation, Knowledge and Relevance

Creativity and innovation concern the process of creating and
applying new knowledge
(David Gurteen)
Knowledge is of no value unless you put it into practice
(Anton Chekhov)
The survival of a Society in the third millennium will depend
on its ability to innovate
(Knut Holt, Founder of ISPIM, International Society for
Professional Innovation Management, 1985)

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The reasonable man adapts himself to the world;

The unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the
world to himself.
Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable
man
(George Bernard Shaw, Irish Dramatist & Socialist, 1856 - 1950)

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Need is the cause of most innovations, but the best come from
desire
(Guglielmo Marconi)

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174

Creating a Future
Success is getting what you want;
Happiness is enjoying what has been achieved.
Coincidence is when the preparation meets opportunity
(Lair Ribeiro, Cardiologist)

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2014/2015

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