Chapter - 7 Bitumen Bound Materials

1
BITUMENBITUMEN
BOUND
MATERIALS
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

Definitions
f
and terminology
gy
2
y Asphalt or bitumen:
y The residuum produced from the distillation of crude petroleum at
y
y
y
y
atmospheric and under reduced pressures in the presence or

absence of steam.
Asphalt
p
is a black or dark brown solid or viscous liquid
q
at room
temperature; insoluble in water at 20 C; partially soluble in
aliphatic organic solvents; and soluble in carbon disulfide,
chloroform, ether, and acetone.
Natural asphalts or natural bitumens:
It is naturally occurring deposits of asphalt-like material.
While these deposits have physical properties that are similar to
those of petroleum
petroleum-derived
derived asphalt, the composition is different.
Natural asphalt deposits occur in various parts of the world, mainly
as a result of mineral oil seepage from the ground. The best known
natural deposit is Trinidads Pitch Lake; asphalt deposits can also be
found in Venezuela,
Venezuela the Dead Sea
Sea, Switzerland
Switzerland, and the Athabasca
oil sands in northeastern Alberta.

Definitions
f
and terminology
gy
3
y Asphalt cement:
y It is an asphalt that is refined to meet specifications for
y
y
y
y
paving, roofing, industrial, and special purposes.

Asphalt cements are used mainly as binders (410% of
the mixture) in hot-mix asphalts and serve to hold the
aggregate together.
P
Penetration-grade
i
d asphalts:
h l
It is asphalt that that are further processed by airblowing,
b
g, solvent precipitation,
p
p
, or p
propane
p
deasphalting.
p
g
A combination of these processes may be used to produce
different grades that are classified according to their
penetration value.
value

Definitions
f
and terminology
gy
4
y Cutback asphalt:
y Asphalt that is liquefied b
by the addition of diluents (typically
(t picall
y
y
y
petroleum solvents).
It is used in both paving and roofing operations, depending on
whether a p
paving
g or roofing
g asphalt
p
is liquefied.
q
It is further classified according to the solvent used to liquefy the
asphalt cement to produce rapid-, medium-, or slow-curing asphalt.
Rapid-curing cutback asphalts are made by adding gasoline or
naphtha
hth and
d are mainly
i l used
d as surface
f
ttreatments,
t
t seall coats,
t and
d
tack coats.
Medium curing cutback asphalts are made by the addition of
kerosene, and slow
slow-curing
curing cutback asphalts are made by the
addition of diesel or other gas oils.
Medium- and slow-curing cutback asphalts are mainly used as
surface treatments, prime coats, tack coats, mix-in-place road
mixtures and patching mixtures
mixtures,
mixtures.

Definitions
f
and terminology
gy
5
y Emulsified asphalt:
y It is
i a mixture
i t
off two
t
normally
ll iimmiscible
i ibl components
t
y
y
y
y
y
(asphalt and water) and an emulsifying agent (usually soap).

It is used for seal coats on asphalt pavements, built-up roofs,
and other waterproof coverings.
coverings
Emulsified asphalts are further graded according to their
setting rate (i.e., rapid, medium, and slow).
Rapid setting grades are used for surface treatment,
Rapid-setting
treatment seal
coating, and penetration macadams; medium-setting grades
are used for patch mixtures; and slow-setting grades are used
for mix-in-place
p
road mixtures,, patch
p
mixtures,, tack coats,, fog
g
coats, slurry seals, and soil stabilization.
Hot-mix asphalt:
paving
p
g material that contains mineral aggregate
gg g
coated and
cemented together with asphalt cement.

Types
yp off Bituminous Material
6
y Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation
off petroleum
l
crude
d
y Bitumen is a hydrocarbon material of either natural or
pyrogenous
py
g
origin,
g , found in gaseous,
g
, liquid,
q , semisolid or
solid form
y Highway construction: hydrocarbon material which are
cementitious in character
{
{
Natural product (lake asphalt, rock asphalt)

Fractional distillation of petroleum
Asphalt
A h lt cementt (P
(Penetration
t ti grade)
d )
Oxidized asphalt (softening point grade)
Liquid asphalt
Tar: destructive distillation of coal

Types
7
y Production
y The portion of bituminous material present in
petroleum may widely differ depending on the

source
y Almost all the crude petroleum's contain
considerable amounts of water along with crude oil
y Hence the petroleum should be dehydrated before
the
h distillation
d ll

Petroleum Bitumen Flow Chart
8

Types
9
y Types of Distillation Processes

y Fractional
F
i
l di
distillation:
ill i
{
{
{
{
In the fractional distillation the various volatile constituents

are separated at successively higher temperatures without
substantial chemical change
The fractions obtained yield gasoline, naphtha, kerosene and
lubricating oil
The residue would be petroleum bitumen
In destructive distillation material undergoes chemical
changes under the application of extreme heat and pressure
y Steam distillation:
{
{
Steam distillation is employed to produce steam refined

petroleum bitumen without causing chemical change
When the residue is distilled to a definite consistency without
further treatment it is called as Straight-run Bitumen

Types
10
Desirable Properties of Bitumen

y It should be fluid enough at the time of mixing to coat the
aggregate evenly by a thin film
y It should have low temperature susceptibility
y It should show uniform viscosity characteristics
y Bitumen should have good amount of volatiles in it, and it
should not lose them excessivelyy when subjected
j
to higher
g
temperature
y The bitumen should be ductile and not brittle
y The bitumen should be capable of being heated to the
temperature at which it can be easily mixed without any fire
hazards
y The bitumen should have good affinity to the aggregate and
should not be stripped off in the continued presence off water

Tests ffor Bituminous Materials
11
yQ
Qualityy control tests for Bitumen
Penetration
{ Ductility
{ Softening point
{ Specific gravity
{ Loss
L
on heating
h ti
{ Flash & Fire point
{ Viscosity
{ Solubility
{

Penetration test for Bitumen
12
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Significance
The penetration test determine the hardness or softness of bitumen
The bitumen grade is specified in terms of the penetration value
30/40 and 80/100 grade bitumen are commonly used
In hot climates lower penetration grade bitumen is preferred and vise
versa
Consistency of bitumen varies with temperature, constituents, refining
process, etc.
Vi
Viscosity
it is
i an absolute
b l t property,
t b
butt could
ld nott be
b d
determined
t
i d easily
il
Viscosity of cutback bitumen by indirect method (orifice viscometer)
Too soft for penetration, too hard for orifice then perform float test
Basic principle of penetration test: measurement of penetration in units
of 1/10th of a mm of a standard needle of 100 gm in a bitumen sample
kept at 25C for 5 seconds
Higher penetration implies softer grade
Purpose is classification

13

14
Procedure
y Heat the bitumen to softening point +900 C
y Pour the bitumen into the container at least 10 mm above the expected
penetration
y Place all the sample containers to cool in atmospheric temperature for 1
hour
y Place the sample containers in temperature controlled water bath at a
temperature of 250 C 1o C for a period of 1 hour
y Fill the transfer dish with water from the water bath to cover the container
completely
y Take off the sample container from the water bath, place in transfer dish
and place under the middle of penetrometer
y Adjust the needle to make a contact with surface of the sample
y See the dial reading and release the needle exactly for 5 seconds
y Note the final reading
y Difference between the initial and final readings is taken as the penetration
value
l iin 1/10th
/ h off mm

15

16

17
Discussion
y Test is highly influenced by the pouring temperature, size of
needle, weight of needle, test temperature, duration of
release of needle
y High penetration grade is desirable in colder regions
y Penetration
e et at o be
below
ow 20
0w
will result
esu t in ccracking
ac g
y For lower penetration, bonding is difficult, but once
achieved will remain for a long time

Ductility
y Test
18
Significance
y The ductility of bitumen improves the physical interlocking of
the aggregate bitumen mixes
y Under traffic loads the pavement layer is subjected to repeated
deformation. The binder material of low ductility would crack
and thus provide pervious pavement surface
y The
Th ttestt iis b
believed
li d tto measure th
the adhesive
dh i property
t off bit
bitumen
and its ability to stretch
y Ductility and penetration go together, in general, but exception
can happen
y Ductility is the distance in cm to which a standard briquette of
bitumen can be stretched before the thread breaks
y Ductile materials is one which elongates when held in tension

Ductility
y Test
19
y Procedure
y The bitumen sample is melted to temperature of 75oC to 100oC above the approx.
approx
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
softening point until it is fluid

It is strained through IS sieve 30, poured in mould assembly and placed on a brass
plate, after a solution of glycerine or dextrine is applied over all surfaces of the
mould exposed to bitumen
Thirty to forty minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate
assembly along with the sample is placed in water bath maintained at 27oC for 30
minutes
The sample and mould assembly are removed from water bath and excess bitumen
material is cut off by leveling the surface using hot knife
After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is replaced in
water bath maintained at 27oC for 85 to 95 minutes
The slides of the mould are then removed and the clips are carefully hooked on the
machine without causing any initial strain
The pointer is set to read zero
The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally
While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water
up to a depth of at least 10mm
The distance at which the bitumen thread breaks is recorded (in cm) and reported
as ductility value

Ductility
y Test
20

Ductility
y Test
21

Ductility
y Test
22

Ductility
y Test
23

Ductility
y Test
24

Ductility
y Test
25
Discussion
y Ductility of bitumen is affected by the pouring temperature,
briquette size, placement of briquette, test temperature,
rate of pulling
y Ductility value ranges from 5-100. Low value implies
cracking. Some minimum ductility is needed for flexural
strength
y The lack of ductility does not necessarily indicate poor
quality.
quality

Softening
f
g Point Test
26
Significance
y Bitumen does not melt, but change gradually from solid to
liquid
y Softening
S ft i point
i t is
i the
th temperature
t
t
att which
hi h th
the bit
bitumen
attains particular degree of softening under specified test
conditions
y Ring and ball apparatus is used for the test

Softening
f
g Point Test
27

Softening
f
g Point Test
28
Procedure
y Heat the bitumen to a temperature between 125oC to 150oC
y Heat the rings at the same temperature on a hot plate & place on
glass plate coated with glycerin
y Fill up the rings with bitumen
y Cool for 30 minutes in air and level the surface with a hot knife
y Set the rings in the assembly and place in the bath containing
distilled water at 5oC and maintain that temperature for 15
minutes
y Place the balls on the rings and Raise the temperature uniformly
at 5oC per minute till the ball passes trough the rings
y Note the temperature at which each of the ball and sample
touches the bottom plate of the support
y Temperature shall be recorded as the softening point of bitumen

Softening
f
g Point Test
29

Softening
f
g Point Test
30
Discussion
y Test is affected by quality of liquid, weight of ball, rate of
heating etc
y It gives
i
an idea
id off the
th temperature
t
t
att which
hi h th
the bit
bituminous
i
material attains a certain viscosity
y Bitumen
tu e with
w t higher
g e so
softening
te g po
pointt iss used in wa
warmer
e
places
y Softening point is very critical for thick films like joint and
crack
k fillers,
fill
to
t ensure th
they will
ill nott fl
flow

31
y Assignment
g
Specific gravity
{ Loss on heating
{ Flash & Fire point
{ Viscosity
{ Solubility
S l bilit
{

32
y Quality control tests for Bitumen

{ Consistency tests
Saybolt Fural Viscosity test
Kinematic Viscosity test
Float test
Tests for Rate of Curing
Distillation test for cutback and emulsions
Specific gravity test

{ Loss on heating test
{ Flash & Fire point test
{ Viscosity test
{ Solubility
S l bilit test
t t
{

33
y Quality control tests for Bitumen

{
Consistency tests
Ductility test
{
{
{
{
{
{
Thin Film Oven test
Tests for Rate of Curing
Saybolt Fural Viscosity test

Kinematic Viscosity test
Penetration test
Float test
Softening point test
Di ill i
Distillation
test for
f cutback
b k and
d emulsions
l i
Softening point test

Specific gravity test
Ductility test
Loss on heating test
Flash & Fire point test
Viscosity test
Solubility
y test

34
y Bituminous materials,, commonly

y referred to as
premixes, are manufactured in asphalt mixing plants

and laid hot (hence the other used designation, hotmix).
i )
y In-situ mixing can also be used for making base
courses for lower standard roads.
roads

Components
p
of a Mix
35
y The coarse aggregates for premixes should be produced by crushing
y
y
sound,, unweathered rock or natural g

gravel. The aggregate
gg g
must be
clean and free of clay and organic material; the particles should be
angular and not flaky.
Aggregates for wearing course must also be resistant to abrasion
and polishing
polishing. Highly absorptive aggregates should be avoided
where possible, but otherwise the absorption of bitumen must be
taken into account in the mix design procedure.
Hydrophilic
y
p
aggregates
gg g
which have a p
poor affinityy for bitumen in
the presence of water should also be avoided. They may be
acceptable only where protection from water can be guaranteed.
The filler (material passing the 0.075 mm sieve) can be crushed
rock fines
fines, Portland cement or hydrated lime.
lime
Portland cement or hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (12 % by mass of total mix) to assist the adhesion of the bitumen to
the aggregate. Fresh hydrated lime can help reduce the rate of
h d i off bit
hardening
bitumen iin surface
f
d
dressings
i
and
d may h
have a similar
i il
effect in premixes.

Components
p
of a Mix
36
y Table 7-1: Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes

Components
p
of a Mix
37
y Table 7-2: Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Mixes

Components
p
of a Mix
38
y To perform satisfactorily as road surfacing, bitumen
aggregate mixes need to possess the following

characteristics:
{
{
{
{
{
{
High resistance to deformation.

deformation
High resistance to fatigue and the ability to withstand high
strains i.e., they need to be flexible.
Sufficient stiffness to reduce the stresses transmitted to the
underlying pavement layers.
High resistance to environmental degradation i.e. good
durability.
durability
Low permeability to prevent the ingress of water and air.
Good workability to allow adequate compaction to be obtained
d i construction
during
t ti

Components
p
of a Mix
39
y The requirements of a mix which will ensure each of these

y
characteristics are often conflicting.

conflicting
Mixes suitable for areas carrying heavy, slow-moving traffic, such as
on climbing lanes, or areas where traffic is highly channeled, will be
unsuitable for flat, open terrain where traffic moves more rapidly.
A mix suitable for the latter is likely to deform on a climbing lane
and a mix suitable for a climbing lane is likely to possess poor
durability in flat terrain.
It has been shown that 40/50,
40/50 60/70 and 80/100 penetration grade
bitumens in the surface of wearing courses all tend to harden to a
similar viscosity within a short time.
It is therefore recommended that 60/70 p
penetration bitumen is
used
d to provide
d a suitable
bl compromise b
between workability,
k bl
deformation resistance and potential hardening in service.
If possible, a bitumen should be selected which has a low
temperature sensitivity and good resistance to hardening.
hardening

Types
yp of a PreMix
40
y The main types of premix are asphaltic concrete, bitumen

y
y
y
macadam
d
and
dh
hott rolled
ll d asphalt.
h lt
Each type can be used in surfacings or base courses.
ASPHALTIC CONCRETE
Asphaltic concrete (AC) is a dense, continuously graded mix
which relies for its strength on both the interlock between
aggregate particles and, to a lesser extent, on the properties of
the bitumen and filler.
The mix is designed to have low air voids and low
permeability to provide good durability and good fatigue
behavior.
The particle size distributions for wearing course material
given in Table 7-3 have produced workable mixes that have
not generally suffered from deformation failures.

Types
yp of a PreMix
41
y Table 7-3: Asphaltic Concrete Surfacing

Types
yp of a PreMix
42
y It is common p
practice to design
g the mix using
g the
Marshall Test (ASTM D1559) and to select the design

binder content by calculating the mean value of the
bi d contents
binder
t t ffor
a)
b)
c)
d)
maximum stability,
maximum density,
density
the mean value for the specified range of void contents and
the mean value for the specified range of flow values.
y Compliance of properties at this design binder
content with recommended Marshall Criteria is then

obtained
bt i d (T
(Table
bl 7-4).
)

Types
yp of a PreMix
43
y Table 7-4: Suggested Marshall Test Criteria

Types
yp of a PreMix
44
y A good method of selecting the Marshall Design binder
content is:
{
{
{
to examine the range of binder contents over which each property is

satisfactory,
define the common range over which all properties are acceptable,
acceptable
and then
choose a design value near the center of the common range.
y If this common range

g is too narrow,, the aggregate
gg g
grading should be adjusted until the range is wider and

tolerances less critical.
y To ensure that the compacted
p
mineral aggregate
gg g
in
continuously graded mixes has a void content large
enough to contain sufficient bitumen, a minimum value
of the voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) is specified,
as shown
h
iin Table
bl 7-5.

Types
yp of a PreMix
45
y Table 7-5: Voids in the Mineral Aggregate

Types
yp of a PreMix
46
y BITUMENMACADAM
y Close graded bitumen macadams are continuously graded
mixes similar to asphaltic concretes but usually with a less

dense aggregate structure.
y Their suitability for different conditions and with different
materials may be questioned but, in practice, numerous
materials including
g crushed g
gravels have been used
successfully.
y The advantage of this method is that quality control testing is
simplified
p
and this should allow more intensive compliance
p
testing to be performed.
y Aggregates which behave satisfactorily in asphaltic concrete
will also be satisfactory in dense bitumen macadam. Suitable
specifications for a base course mix are given in Table 7-6.

Types
yp of a PreMix
47
y Table 7-6: Bitumen Macadam

Types
yp of a PreMix
48
y When gravel other than limestone is used, the anti-stripping
y
y
y
properties
ti will
ill b
be iimproved
db
by iincluding
l di 2%
%P
Portland
tl d cementt
or hydrated lime in the material passing the 0.075 mm sieve.
For aggregate with fine micro texture e.g. limestone, the
bi
bitumen
content should
h ld b
be reduced
d
db
by 0.1 to 0.3%. 60/70
/
grade bitumen is preferred.
In p
practice the upper
pp limit has been exceeded byy 20% with no
adverse effect.
Limestone and gravel are not recommended for wearing
courses where high
g skidding
g resistance is required.
q
Close graded bitumen macadam mixes offer a good basis for
the design of deformation resistant materials for severe sites,
and in these cases they should be designed on the basis of
their refusal density.

Types
yp of a PreMix
49
y Marshall Design criteria in Table 7-7 should be used.

y At the time of construction the air voids content is virtually
certain to be in excess of five per cent and therefore a

surface dressing should be placed soon after construction.
construction
y Table 7-7: Suggested Marshall Criteria for Close Graded Bitumen
Macadams

BITUMINOUS SURFACING
50
y BITUMINOUS SURFACING
y It is
i essential
i l that
h the
h thin
hi bi
bituminous
i
surfacings
f i
(50mm) recommended for flexible structures.

y This is p
particularlyy important
p
for surfacing
g laid on
granular
l b
base courses.
y Mixes which are designed to have good durability rather
than high
g stabilityy are flexible and are likelyy to have
sand and bitumen contents at the higher end of the
permitted ranges.
y In areas where the p
production of sand-sized material is
expensive and where there is no choice but to use higher
stability mixes, additional stiffening through the aging
and embrittlement of the bitumen must be prevented by
applying
l i a surface
f
d
dressing.
i

DESIGN TO REFUSAL DENSITY
51
y DESIGN TO REFUSAL DENSITY

y Under severe loading conditions asphalt mixes must be
expected to experience significant secondary compaction in

the wheel paths.
y Severe conditions cannot be precisely defined but will consist
of a combination of two or more of the following:
{
{
{
{
High
g maximum temperatures
p
Very heavy axle loads
Very channeled traffic
Stopping or slow moving heavy vehicles
y Failure by plastic deformation in continuously graded mixes
occurs very rapidly once the VIM is below 3 per cent.

y Therefore the aim of refusal density design is to ensure that at
refusal there is still at least 3 per cent voids in the mix.

DESIGN TO REFUSAL DENSITY
52
y DESIGN TO REFUSAL DENSITY

y Therefore
Th f
the
th aim
i off refusal
f
ld
density
it d
design
i iis tto ensure th
thatt att
y
refusal there is still at least 3 per cent voids in the mix.

For sites which do not fall into the severe category, the
method can be used to ensure that the maximum binder
content for good durability is obtained.
This may be higher than the Marshall optimum but the
requirements for resistance to deformation will be
maintained.
Where lower axle loads and higher vehicle speeds are
involved,, the minimum VIM at refusal can be reduced to 2 per
p
cent.
Refusal density can be determined by two methods:
{
{
Extended Marshall Compaction

Compaction by vibrating hammer

Bituminous Base Courses
53
y Bituminous Base Courses

y Satisfactory bituminous base courses can be made
using a variety of specifications.

y They
Th should
h ld possess properties
ti similar
i il tto
bituminous mix surfacings but whenever they are
j
with such a surfacing
g the loading
g
used in conjunction
conditions are less severe, hence the mix
requirements are less critical.
y Nevertheless,
N
th l
th
the ttemperatures
t
off b
base courses may
be high and the mixes are therefore prone to
g g and
deformation in earlyy life, and aging
embrittlement later.

54
y PRINCIPAL MIX TYPES

y Particle size distributions and general specifications
for continuously graded mixes are given in Table 7-8.

y No formal design method is generally available for
determining the optimum composition for these
materials
t i l b
because th
the maximum
i
particle
ti l size
i and
d
proportions of aggregate greater than 25 mm
precludes the use of the Marshall Test.
Test

55
y Table 7-8: Bitumen Macadam Base Course

56
y The following principles should be adopted for all
bituminous layers but are particularly important for

recipe type specifications:
{
Trials for mix production,

production laying and compaction should be
carried out to determine suitable mix proportions and
procedures.
Durable mixes require a high degree of compaction and this is
best achieved by specifying density in terms of maximum
theoretical density of the mix.
Mixing times and temperatures should be set at the minimum
required to achieve good coating of the aggregates and
satisfactory compaction.
The highest bitumen content commensurate with adequate
stability should be used

57
y SAND-BITUMENMIXES
y For light
li h and
d medium
di
trafficked
ffi k d roads
d and
d iin areas
lacking coarse aggregates, bitumen stabilized sands are

an alternative.
y Best results
l are achieved
h
d with
h well-graded
ll
d d angular
l sands
d
in which the proportion of material passing the 0.075mm
sieve does not exceed 10% and is non plastic.
y The bitumen can range from a viscous cutback that will
require heating to a more fluid cutback or emulsion that
can be used at ambient temperatures.
y The most viscous cutbacks that can be properly mixed at
ambient temperatures are RC or MC 800 or equivalents.
In general, the more viscous the bitumen the higher will
b the
be
th stability
t bilit off th
the mix.
i

58
y SAND-BITUMENMIXES
y The amount of bitumen required will generally lie between
3 and 6 per cent by weight of the dry sand, the higher

proportions being required with the finer-grained
finer grained
materials.
y The Marshall Test ((ASTM D1559)
559) can be used for
determining the amount of bitumen required.
y Table 7-9: Criteria for Sand-Bitumen Base Course Materials

MANUFACTURE AND CONSTRUCTION
59
y MANUFACTURE AND CONSTRUCTION

y It is normal practice to carry out preliminary design testing to
determine the suitability of available aggregates and their

most economical combination to produce a job mix formula.
y The importance of detailed compaction trials at the beginning
of asphalt construction work cannot be over emphasized.
y During these trials, compaction procedures and compliance of
the production-run asphalt with the job-mix formula should
be established.
y Adjustments to the job-mix formula and,
and if necessary,
necessary
redesign of the mix are carried out at this stage to ensure that
the final job mix satisfies the mix design requirements and
can be consistently produced by the plant.
plant

60
y Tolerances are specified for bitumen content and for the
aggregate
t grading
di tto allow
ll
ffor normall variation
i ti iin plant
l t
production and sampling.
y Good quality control is essential to obtain durable asphalt and
the
h mean values
l
ffor a series
i off tests should
h ld b
be very close
l
to the
h
job-mix formula which, in turn, should have a grading entirely
within the specified envelope.
y Mixing must be accomplished at the lowest temperatures and
in the shortest time that will produce a mix with complete
coating of the aggregate and at a suitable temperature to
ensure proper compaction.
y Very little additional compaction is achieved at the minimum
rolling
g temperatures
p
shown in the table and onlyy p
pneumatic
tired rollers should be used at these temperatures.

61
y Table 7-10: Job-Mix Tolerances for a Single Test
y Table 7-11: Manufacturing and Rolling Temperatures (oC)

62
y Rolled asphalts are relatively easy to compact but bitumen
y
y
y
y
macadams and asphaltic concretes are relatively harsh and more

compactive effort is required.
Heavy pneumatic tired rollers are usually employed, the kneading
action of the tires being important in orientating the particles.
Vibratory compaction has been used successfully but care is needed
in selecting the appropriate frequency and amplitude of vibration,
and control of mix temperature is more critical than with pneumatic
tired rollers.
Steel-wheeled deadweight rollers are relatively inefficient and give
rise to a smooth surface with poor texture but are required to obtain
satisfactory joints.
Rolling
ll
usually
ll b
begins near the
h shoulder
h ld and
d progresses towards
d the
h
center.
It is important that directional changes of the roller are made only
on cool compacted mix and that each pass of the roller should be of
slightly different length to avoid the formation of ridges.

63
y The number of joints to cold, completed edges should be minimized
y
y
y
y
by using two pavers in echelon of a full-width paver to avoid cold

joints between adjacent layers.
If this is not possible, repositioning of the paver from lane to lane at
frequent intervals is another option.
If a layer is allowed to cool before the adjacent layer is placed, then
the edge of the first layer must be roller over and thoroughly
compacted. Before laying the second lane, the cold joint should be
broomed if necessary and tack coated.
The paver screed should be set to overlap the first mat by a
sufficient amount to allow the edge of the rolled over layer to be
brought up to the correct level.
Coarse aggregates in the
h materiall overlapping
l
the
h cold
ld joint should
h ld
be carefully removed.
The remaining fine materials will allow a satisfactory joint to be
constructed.
constructed

SURFACE TREATMENTS
64
y SURFACE TREATMENTS
y A surface
f
ttreatment
t
t iis a simple,
i l hi
highly
hl effective
ff ti and
d iinexpensive
i
road surfacing if adequate care is taken in the planning and
execution of the work.
y The process is used for surfacing both medium and lightly trafficked
roads, an also as a maintenance treatment for roads of all kinds.
y A surface treatment comprises a thin film of binder, generally
bitumen or tar, which is sprayed onto the road surface and then
covered with a layer of stone chippings.
chippings
y The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing seal preventing the
entry of surface water into the road structure.
y The stone chippings protect this film of binder from damage by
vehicle tires, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free
wearing surface.
y In some circumstances the process may be repeated to provide
d bl or ttriple
double
i l llayers off chippings.
hi i

SURFACE TREATMENTS
65
y SURFACE TREATMENTS
y Roads
R d carrying
i iin excess off 1000 vehicles/lane/day,
hi l /l
/d
h
have b
been
successfully surfaced with multiple surface treatments.

y If traffic growth over a period of several years necessitates a
more substantial surfacing or increased pavement thickness
thickness, a
bituminous overlay can be laid over the original surface
treatment when the need arises.
y A surface treatment is also a very effective maintenance
technique, which is capable of greatly extending the life of a
structurally sound road pavement if the process is undertaken
at the optimum time.
y Under certain circumstances a surface treatment may also
retard the rate of failure of a structurally inadequate road
pavement by preventing the ingress of water and preserving
the inherent strength of the pavement layers and the
subgrade.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
66
y SINGLE SURFACE TREATMENT

y A single
i l surface
f
treatment would
ld not normally
ll b
be used
d on a
new roadbase because of the risk that the film of bitumen will
not give complete coverage.
y It is also particularly important to minimize the need for
future maintenance and a double dressing should be
considerably more durable than a single dressing.
y However,
However a racked-in
racked in dressing may be suitable for use on a
new roadbase which has a tightly knit surface because of the
heavier applications of binder which is used with this type of
single dressing.
y When applied as a maintenance operation to an existing
bituminous road surface a single surface treatment can fulfill
the functions required of a maintenance re-seal, namely
waterproofing the road surface,
surface arresting deterioration,
deterioration and
restoring skid resistance.

67

SURFACE TREATMENTS
68
y DOUBLE SURFACE TREATMENT

y Double surface treatments should be used when:
{
{
{
A new road base is surface treated.

Extra cover is required
q
on an existing
g bituminous road surface
because of its condition (e.g. slightly cracked or patched surface).
There is a requirement to maximize durability and minimize the
frequency of maintenance and resealing operations.
y The quality of a double surface treatment will be enhanced of
traffic is allowed to run on the first treatment for a minimum

period of 2-3
p
3 weeks before the second treatment is applied.
pp
y This allows the chippings of the first treatment to adopt a
stable interlocking mosaic, which provides a firm foundation
for
o the second
o d treatment.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
69
y DOUBLE SURFACE TREATMENT

y However, traffic and animals may cause contamination of the
y
y
surface with mud or soil during this period and this must be
thoroughly swept off before the second treatment is applied.
Such cleaning is sometimes difficult to achieve and the early
application of the second seal to prevent such contamination
mayy g
give a better result.
Sand may sometimes be used as an alternative to chippings
for the second treatment.
Although it cannot contribute to the overall all thickness of
the surfacing, the combination of binder and sand provides a
useful grouting medium for chipping of the first seal and helps
to hold them in place firmly when they are poorly shaped.
A slurry seal may also be used for the same purpose.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
70
y TRIPLE SURFACE TREATMENT

y A triple surface treatment may be used to advantage where
a new road is expected to carry high traffic volumes.

y The
Th application
li ti off a small
ll chipping
hi i iin th
the thi
third
d seall will
ill
{ reduce noise generated by traffic and
{ the additional binder will ensure a longer maintenancefree service life

SURFACE TREATMENTS
71
y RACKED-IN SURFACE TREATMENT

y This
Thi treatment is
i recommended
d d ffor use where
h
traffic
ffi iis
y
y
y
particularly heavy or fast.

A heavy single application of binder is made and a layer of
large chippings is spread to give approximately 90 per cent
coverage.
This is followed immediately by the application of smaller
chippings which should lock-in
lock in the larger aggregate and form
a stable mosaic.
The amount of bitumen used is more than would be used with
a single
g seal but less than for a double seal.
The main advantages of the racked-in surface treatment are:
{ Less risk of dislodged large chippings.
{ Early stability through good mechanical interlock.
{ Good surface texture.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
72
y OTHER TYPES OF SURFACE TREATMENT

y Pad coats are used where the hardness of the existing
road surface allows very little embedment of the first

layer of chippings, such as on a newly constructed
cement stabilized roadbase or a dense crushed rock base.
y A first layer of nominal 6mm chippings will adhere well
to the hard surface and will provide a key
key for larger
10mm or 14mm chippings in the second layer of the
treatment.
y Sandwich surface treatments are principally used on
existing binder rich surfaces and sometimes on gradients
to reduce the tendencyy for the binder to flow down the
slope.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
73
y Chippings for Surface Treatments

y The selection of chipping sizes is based on the volume of
commercial vehicles having weight of more than 1.5

tones and the hardness of the existing pavement.
y Ideally, chippings used for surface treatment should be
single sized, cubical in shape, clean and free from dust,
strong durable
strong,
durable, and not susceptible to polishing under
the action of traffic.
y It is recommended that chippings used of surface
treatment should comply with the requirements of Table
7-12 for higher levels of traffic, and to the requirements
of Table 7
7-13
3 for lightly
g y trafficked roads of up
p to 250
5
vehicles per day:

SURFACE TREATMENTS
74
y Table 7-12: Grading Limits, Specified Size and Maximum Flakiness
I d for
Index
f Surface
S f
T
Treatment Aggregates
A

SURFACE TREATMENTS
75
y Table 7-13: Grading Limits, Specified Size and Maximum Flakiness
I d for
Index
f Surface
S f
T
Treatment A
Aggregates ffor Lightly
Li h l Trafficked
T ffi k d Roads
R d

SURFACE TREATMENTS
76
y Samples of the chippings should be tested for grading, flakiness
y
y
index, aggregate crushing value and

index
and, when appropriate
appropriate, the polished
stone value and aggregate abrasion value.
Specifications for maximum aggregate crushing value (ACV) for
surface treatment chippings typically lie in the range 20 to 35. For
li h l trafficked
lightly
ffi k d roads
d the
h hi
higher
h value
l iis lik
likely
l to be
b adequate
d
b
but
on more heavily trafficked roads a maximum ACV of 20 is
recommended.
The polished stone value (PSV) of the chippings is important if the
primary purpose of the surface treatment is to restore or enhance
the skid resistance of the road surface.
The PSV required in a particular situation is related to the nature of
th road
the
d site
it and
d th
the speed
d and
d iintensity
t
it off th
the ttraffic.
ffi
The resistance to skidding is also dependent upon the macro texture
of the surface which, in turn, is affected by the durability of the
exposed
p
aggregate.
gg g

SURFACE TREATMENTS
77
y Table 7-14: Recommended Polished Stone Values of Chippings

SURFACE TREATMENTS
78
y The nominal sizes of chippings normally used for surface treatment

y
y
are 6
6, 10,
10 14 and 20 mm.
mm
Flaky chippings are those with a thickness (smallest dimension) less
than 0.6 of their nominal size.
The p
proportion
p
of flakyy chippings
pp g clearlyy affects the average
g
thickness of a single layer of the chippings, and it is for this reason
that the concept of the average least dimension (ALD) of chippings
was introduced.
In effect,
effect the ALD is the average thickness of a single layer of
chippings when they have bedded down into their final interlocked
positions.
The amount of binder required
q
to retain a layer
y of chippings
pp g is thus
related
l d to the
h ALD off the
h chippings
h
rather
h than
h to their
h nominall
size.
The most critical period for a surface treatment occurs immediately
after the chippings have been spread on the binder film.
film

SURFACE TREATMENTS
79
y Dusty chippings can seriously impede adhesion and can cause

y
y
y
y
y
y
immediate failure of the dressing.

dressing
The effect of dust can sometimes be mitigated by dampening them
prior to spreading them on the road.
The chippings
pp g dryy out q
quicklyy in contact with the binder and when a
cutback bitumen or emulsion is used, good adhesion develops more
rapidly than when the coating of dust is dry.
Most aggregates have a preferential attraction for water rather than
for bitumen.
bitumen
Hence if heavy rain occurs within the first few hours when adhesion
has not fully developed, loss of chippings under the action of traffic
is possible.
p
Where wet weather damage is considered to be a severe risk, an
adhesion agent should be used.
An adhesion agent can be added to the binder or, used in a dilute
solution to precoat the chippings.
chippings

SURFACE TREATMENTS
80
y Improved adhesion of chippings to the binder film can
also be obtained by pre-treating the chippings before

spreading.
y This
Thi is
i likely
lik l to
t be
b mostt beneficial
b
fi i l if th
the available
il bl
chippings are very dusty or poorly shaped, or if traffic
conditions are severe.
y There are basically two ways of pre-treating chippings:
{
Spraying the chippings with a light application of creosote,

di l oil,
diesel
il or k
kerosene att ambient
bi t ttemperature.
t
Pre-coating the chippings with a thin coating of hard bitumen
such that the chippings do not stick together and can flow
freely.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
81
y Chippings which are pre-coated with bitumen enable the
use of a harder grade of binder for construction which

can provide early strong adhesion and thus help to obtain
high quality dressings.
y The
Th binder
bi d used
d ffor pre-coating
ti need
d nott necessarily
il b
be
the same kind as that used for the surface treatment; for
example, tar-coated chippings adhere well to a sprayed
bitumen film.
film
y Pre-coating is usually undertaken in a hot-mix plant and
the hardness of the coating, and thus the tendency for the
chippings to adhere to each other,
other can be controlled by
the mixing temperature and/or the duration of mixing;
typical coating temperatures are about 140oC for bitumen
binders and 120oC for tar binders.
binders

SURFACE TREATMENTS
82
y Table 9-4: Binder Contents for Lightly-Coated Chippings
y Pre-coated chippings should not be used with emulsions because
the breaking of the emulsion will be adversely affected.

y Adhesion agents or pre-treatment chippings are often used in an
attempt to counteract the adverse effect of some fundamental
f l iin the
fault
h surface
f
treatment operation.
i
y If loss of chippings has occurred, it is advisable to check whether
the viscosity of the binder was appropriate for the ambient road
temperature at the
h time
i
to spraying.
i

SURFACE TREATMENTS
83
y Bitumens
y It is essential that good bonding is achieved between the
surface treatment and the existing road surface.

y This means that non-bituminous materials must be
primed before surface treatment is carried out.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
84
y PRIME COATS
y Where
h
a surface
f
treatment iis to b
be applied
li d to a previously
i
l
untreated road surface it is essential that the surface should

be dry, clean and as dust-free as possible.
y The
Th ffunctions
ti
off a prime
i
coatt iis summarized
i d as ffollows:
ll
{
{
{
{
maintain adhesion between the roadbase and a surface

treatment by pre-coating the roadbase and penetrating surface
voids.
voids
seal the surface pores in the roadbase thus reducing the
absorption of the first spray of binder of the surface treatment.
strengthen the roadbase near its surface by binding the finer
particles of aggregate together.
If the application of the surface treatment is delayed for some
reason it provides the roadbase with a temporary protection
against
i
rainfall
i f ll and
d li
light
h traffic
ffi until
il the
h surfacing
f i can b
be llaid.
id

SURFACE TREATMENTS
85
y The depth of penetration of the prime should be between 3-
y
y
10mm and the quantity sprayed should be such that the

surface is dry within a few hours.
The correct viscosity and application rate are dependent
primarily on the texture and density of the surface being
primed.
The application rate is, however, likely to lie within the range
0.3-1.1kg/m2.
3
g/
Low viscosity cutbacks are necessary for dense cement or
lime-stabilized surfaces, and higher viscosity cutbacks for
untreated coarse-textured surfaces.
It is usually beneficial to spray the surface lightly with water
before applying the prime coat as this helps to suppress dust
and allows the primer to spread more easily over the surface
and to penetrate.
penetrate

SURFACE TREATMENTS
86
y Bitumen emulsions are not suitable for priming as they tend
to form a skin on the surface.

y Low viscosity, medium curing cutback bitumens such as MC30 MC
30,
MC-70
70, or in rare circumstances MC-250
MC 250, can be used for
prime coats.
y Table 9-5: Kinematic Viscosities of Current Cutback Binders

SURFACE TREATMENTS
87
y BITUMENS FOR SURFACE TREATMENTS

y The
h bi
bitumen must ffulfill
lfill a number
b off iimportant
requirements. It must:
{
{
{
{
{
{
be capable of being sprayed;

wet the surface of the road in a continuous film;
not run off a cambered road or form pools of binder in local
depressions;
wet
and
d adhere
dh
to the
h chipping
hi i at road
d temperature;
be strong enough to resist traffic forces and hold the chippings
at the highest prevailing ambient temperatures;
remain
i flexible
fl ibl att the
th llowestt ambient
bi t ttemperature,
t
neither
ith
cracking nor becoming brittle enough to allow traffic to pickoff the chippings; and
resist premature weathering and hardening.
hardening

SURFACE TREATMENTS
88
y At the lower road temperatures cutback grades of bitumen are
most appropriate,
appropriate whilst at higher road temperatures
penetration grade bitumens can be used.
y The temperature/viscosity relationships shown in Figure 7-2
do not apply to bitumen emulsions.
emulsions
y These have a relatively low viscosity and wet the chippings
readily, after which the emulsion breaks, the water
evaporates
p
and p
particles of high
g viscosityy bitumen adhere to
the chippings and the road surface.
y Depending upon availability and local conditions at the time
of construction, the following types of bitumen are commonly
used:
d
{
{
{
{
Penetration grade
Emulsion
Cutback
Modified bitumens
y Figure 7-2: Surface
Temperature/Choice of
Binder
i d ffor Surface
f
Treatments
y In Ethiopia, daytime road
temperatures lie between
25oC and 50oC, normally
being in the upper half of
this range.
y For
F these
h
temperatures
the viscosity of the binder
should lie between
pp
y 104 and
approximately
7x105 centistokes.
y At the lower road
temperatures cutback
grades of bitumen are
most appropriate, whilst
at higher road
temperatures penetration
grade
d bitumens
bit
can be
b
used
89

SURFACE TREATMENTS
90
y PENETRATION GRADE BITUMENS

y Penetration grade bitumens vary between 80/100 to
approximately 700 penetration.

y The softer p
penetration g
grade binders are usuallyy p
produced at
the refinery but can be made in the field by blending
appropriate amounts of kerosene, diesel, or a blend of
kerosene and diesel.
y With higher solvent contents the binder has too low a
viscosity to be classed as being of penetration grade and is
then referred to as a cutback bitumen which,, for surface
treatment work, is usually an MC or RC 3000 grade.
y In very rare circumstances a less viscous grade such as MC or
RC 800 may be used if the pavement temperature is below
15oC for long periods of the year.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
y BITUMEN EMULSION
91
y Cationic bitumen emulsion with a bitumen content of 70 to 75

y
per cent is recommended for most surface treatment work.

This type of binder can be applied through rotating spray jets at a
temperature between 70 and 85oC and, once applied, it will break
rapidly
idl on contact with
i h chippings
hi i
off most mineral
i
l types.
The cationic emulsifier is normally an anti-stripping agent and
this ensures good initial bonding between chippings and the
bitumen.
bitumen
When high rates of spray are required, the road is on a gradient,
or has considerable camber, the emulsion is likely to drain from
the road or from high
g p
parts of the road surface before break
occurs.
In these cases it may be possible to obtain a satisfactory result if
the bitumen application is split, with a reduced initial rate of
spray and a heavier application after the chippings have been
applied.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
92
y BITUMEN EMULSION
y If the
th intention
i t ti was tto construct
t t a single
i l seall th
then th
the second
d
application of binder will have to be covered with sand or

quarry fines to prevent the binder adhering to roller and
vehicle wheels.
wheels
y If a double dressing is being constructed then it should be
possible to apply sufficient binder in the second spray to give
the required
q
total rate of spray
p y for the finished dressing.
g
y If split application of the binder is used care must be taken
with the following:
{
{
{
The rate of application

pp
of chippings
pp g must be correct so that there
is a minimum of excess chippings.
The second application of binder must be applied before traffic is
allowed onto the dressing.
For a single seal it will be necessary to apply grit or sand after the
second application of binder.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
93
y CUTBACK BITUMENS
y Except
E
t ffor very cold
ld conditions,
diti
MC or RC 3000 grade
d cutback
tb k iis normally
ll
y
y
y
y
the most fluid binder used for surface treatments.

This grade of cutback is basically an 80/100 penetration grade bitumen
blended with approximately 12 to 17 percent of cutter.
It may be necessary to blend two grades together or to cut-back a supplied
grade with diesel oil or kerosene in order to obtain a binder with the
required viscosity characteristics.
Diesel oil,, which is less volatile than kerosene and is generally
g
y more easilyy
available, is preferable to kerosene for blending purposes.
Only relatively small amounts of diesel oil or kerosene are required to
modify a penetration grade bitumen such that its viscosity is suitable for
p
in Ethiopia.
p
surface treatment at road temperatures
For example, Figure 7-3 shows that between 2 and 10 per cent of diesel oil
was required to modify 80/100 pen bitumen to produce binders with
viscosities within the range of road temperatures of between 40 60.
Figure 7
7-4
4 shows the temperature/viscosity relationships for five of the
blends made for trials in Kenya.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
94
y Figure 7-3: Blending Characteristics of 80/100 Pen Bitumen with
Di l F
Diesel
Fuell

SURFACE TREATMENTS
95
y Figure 7-4: Viscosity/Temperature Relationahips for Blends of
8 /
80/100
Pen
P Bitumen
Bi
with
i h Diesel
Di l F
Fuell

SURFACE TREATMENTS
96
y Determining the average least dimension of
chippings
y The ALD of chippings is a function of both the average size
of the chippings,
chippings as determined by normal square mesh
sieves, and the degree of flakiness.
y The ALD may be determined in two ways.
{
{
{
A grading analysis is performed on a representative sample of the

chippings
The sieve size through
g which 5
50 p
per cent of the chippings
pp g p
pass is
determined (i.e. the median size').
The flakiness index is then also determined.
The ALD of the chippings is then derived from the nomograph shown
in Figure 7-5.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
97
Figure 7-5
Determination of average
least dimension

SURFACE TREATMENTS
98
y Determining the overall weighting factor

y The ALD of the chippings is used with an overall weighting
factor to determine the basic rate of spray of bitumen.

y The
Th overall
ll weighting
i hti ffactor
t F' is
i d
determined
t
i db
by adding
ddi
together four factors that represent: the level of traffic, the
condition of the existing road surface, the climate and the
type of chippings that will be used.
y Factors appropriate to the site to be surface dressed are
selected from Table 7-6.
76

SURFACE TREATMENTS
99
y Table 7-6: Weighting factors for surface dressing design

SURFACE TREATMENTS
100
y For example, if flaky chippings (factor -2) are to be used at a road
site carrying medium to heavy traffic (factor - 1) and which has a

very rich bituminous surface (factor -3) in a wet tropical climate
(factor +1) the overall weighting factor 'F' is: -2-1-3 + 1 = -5
y The rating for the existing surface allows for the amount of
binder which is required to fill the surface voids and which is
therefore not available to contribute to the binder film that
retains the chippings.
y If the existing surface of the road is rough, it should be rated as
'very
very lean bituminous
bituminous' even if it
itss overall color is dark with
bitumen.
y Similarly, when determining the rate of spread of binder for the
second layer of a double surface dressing, the first layer should
also be rated 'very lean bituminous'.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
101
y Determining the basic bitumen spray rate

y Using the ALD and 'F' values in the following equation will
give the required basic rate of spread of binder.

R = 0.625+(F*0.023)+[0.0375+(F*0.0011)]ALD
6
(F*
) [
(F*
)]ALD
y Where
F
= Overall weighting factor

ALD = the average least dimension of the chippings (mm)
R = Basic rate of spread of bitumen (kg/m2)

SURFACE TREATMENTS
102
y Alternatively, the two values can be used in the design chart
given in Figure 7-6.

y The intercept between the appropriate factor line and the
ALD line is located and the rate of spread of the binder is
then read off directly at the bottom of the chart.
y The basic rate of spread of bitumen (R) is the mass of
MC3000 binder per unit area on the road surface
immediately after spraying.
y The relative density of MC3000 can be assumed to be 1.0
10
and the spread rate can therefore also be expressed in
1/m2, however, calibration of a distributor is easier to do by
measuring spray rates in terms of mass.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
103
Figure 7-6:
Surface dressing
design chart

SURFACE TREATMENTS
104
y The basic rate of spread of binder must also be modified to
allow for the type of binder used. The following

modifications are appropriate:
{
Penetration grade binders: decrease the rate of spread by 10

per cent.
Cutback binders: for MC/RC 3000 no modification is
required.
i d (I
(In th
the rare cases when
h cutbacks
tb k with
ith llower viscosity
i
it
are used the rate of spread should be increased to allow for the
additional percentage of cutter used).
Emulsion binders: multiply the rate of spread given in the
chart by 90/bitumen content of the emulsion (per cent). This
calculation includes a reduction of ten p
per cent for the residual
penetration grade bind

SURFACE TREATMENTS
105
y Spread rate of chippings

y An estimate of the rate of application of the chippings
assuming that the chippings have a loose density of

1 35Mg/m3 can be obtained from the following equation:
1.35Mg/m3,
y Chipping application rate (kg/m2) = 1 .364*ALD
y Table 8 Suggested maximum increases in bitumen spray rate for low
volume roads

SURFACE TREATMENTS
106
y The chipping application rate should be regarded as a

y
y
y
y
rough
h guide
id only.
l
It is useful in estimating the quantity of chippings that is
required
q
for a surface dressing
g project
p j
before crushing
g and
stockpiling of the chippings is carried out.
A better method of estimating the approximate application
rate of the chippings is to spread a single layer of chippings
taken from the stockpile on a tray of known area.
The chippings are then weighed, the process repeated ten
times with fresh chippings
chippings, and the mean value calculated
calculated.
An additional ten per cent is allowed for whip off.
Storage
g and handling
g losses must also be allowed for when
stockpiling chippings.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
107
y The precise chipping application rate must be determined
y
y
y
y
by observing
b
b
i on site
i whether
h h any exposed
d bi
binder
d remains
i
after spreading the chippings, indicating too low a rate of
application of chippings, or whether chippings are resting
on top off each
h other,
h iindicating
di i too hi
high
h an application
li i
rate.
Best results are obtained when the chippings
pp g are tightly
g y
packed together, one layer thick.
To achieve this, a slight excess of chippings must be
applied.
applied
Some will be moved by the traffic and will tend to fill small
areas where there are insufficient chippings.
T great an excess off chippings
Too
hi i
will
ill iincrease the
h risk
i k off
whip-off and windscreen damage.
y The quantity of
chippings must be
sufficient to cover the
entire surface of the
binder film after
rolling.
y The rate at which
chippings should be
spread depends on
their size
size, shape and
specific gravity, but
rates can be estimated
using
i Figure
i
7-7.
108

SURFACE TREATMENTS
109
y POLYMERMODIFIED BITUMENS
y Polymers can be used in surface treatment to modify penetration grade,
grade
y
cutback bitumens and emulsions.

Usually these modified binders are used at locations where the road
geometry, traffic characteristics or the environment dictate that the
road
d surface
f
experiences
i
high
hi h stresses.
Generally the purpose of the polymers is to reduce binder temperature
susceptibility so that variation in viscosity over the ambient
p
range
g is as small as p
possible.
temperature
Polymers can also improve the cohesive strength of the binder so that it
is more able to retain chippings when under stress from the action of
traffic.
They also improve the early adhesive qualities of the binder allowing
the road to be reopened to traffic earlier than may be the case with
conventional unmodified binders.
Other advantages claimed for modified binders are improved elasticity
i bridging
in
b id i h
hairline
i li cracks
k and
d overall
ll iimproved
d durability.
d bilit

SURFACE TREATMENTS
110
y Examples
E
l off polymers
l
th
thatt may b
be used
d tto modify
dif bitumens
bit
are
proprietary thermoplastic rubbers such as Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene

(SBS), crumb rubber derived from waste car tires and also glove rubber
from domestic gloves. Latex rubber may also be used to modify
em lsions Binders of this type
emulsions.
t pe are best applied b
by distrib
distributors
tors fitted
with slotted jets of a suitable size.
y Rubber modified bitumen may consist, typically, of a blend of 80/100
penetration grade bitumen and three per cent powdered rubber.
Blending
l di and
d di
digestion
i off the
h rubber
bb with
i h the
h penetration
i grade
d
bitumen should be carried out prior to loading into a distributor.
y Cationic emulsion can be modified in specialized plant by the addition
per cent latex rubber.
bb
of three p
y One of the advantages of using emulsions is that they can be sprayed at
much lower temperatures than penetration grade bitumens, which
reduces the risk of partial degradation of the rubber which can occur at
high spraying temperatures.
temperatures

SURFACE TREATMENTS
111
y Bitumen modified with SBS exhibits thermoplastic qualities at high
y
y
temperatures while having a rubbery nature at lower ambient

temperatures.
With three per cent of SBS, noticeable changes in binder viscosity and
temperature susceptibility occur and good early adhesion of the chippings
is achieved.
SBS can be obtained in a carrier bitumen in blocks of approximately 20kg
mass.
Th blocks
The
bl k can b
be bl
blended,
d d att a concentration
t ti recommended
d db
by th
the
manufacturer, with 80/100 penetration binder in a distributor. In this
procedure it is best to place half of the required polymer into the empty
distributor, add hot bitumen from a main storage tank and then circulate
the binder in the distributor tank.
tank
The remaining blocks are added after about 30 minutes and then about 2
hours is likely to be required to complete blending and heating of the
modified binder.
E
Every
effort
ff
should
h ld b
be made
d to use the
h modified
difi d bi
bitumen on the
h d
day iit iis
blended.

SURFACE TREATMENTS
112
y ADHESION AGENTS
y F
Fresh
hh
hydrated
d t d lime
li
can be
b used
d tto enhance
h
adhesion.
dh i
y It can be mixed with the binder in the distributor before spraying or
the chippings can be pre-coated with the lime just before use, by
spraying with lime slurry.
The amount of lime to be blended with the bitumen should be
determined in laboratory trials but approximately 12 per cent by
mass of the bitumen will improve bitumen aggregate adhesion.
P
Proprietary
i
additives,
ddi i
k
known as adhesion
dh i agents, are also
l available
il bl
for adding to binders to help to minimize the damage to surface
treatments that may occur in wet weather with some types of stone.
When correctly used in the right proportions, these agents can
enhance adhesion between the binder film and the chippings even
though they may be wet.
Cationic emulsions inherently contain an adhesion agent and lime
should
h ld nott b
be used
d with
ith thi
this ttype off bi
binder.
d

MIX DESIGN
113
y The Marshall mix design

g method consists of 6 basic
steps:
Aggregate selection.
{ Asphalt binder selection.
{ Sample preparation (including compaction).
{ Stability
St bilit d
determination.
t
i ti
{ Density and voids calculations.
{ Optimum asphalt binder content selection
{

MIX DESIGN
114
y Aggregate Selection
y Determine aggregate physical properties.

y This consists of running various tests to determine
properties such as:

{
{
{
{
{
{
Toughness and abrasion

Durability and soundness
Cleanliness and deleterious materials
Particle shape and surface texture
Gradation and size
Specific gravity and absorption
y Perform blending calculations to achieve the
mix
i design
d i
aggregate
t gradation.
d ti

MIX DESIGN
115
y Asphalt Binder Evaluation

y The Marshall test does not have a common generic
asphalt binder selection and evaluation procedure.

y Each
E h specifying
if i entity
tit uses th
their
i own method
th d with
ith
modifications to determine the appropriate binder
y, modifiers.
and,, if any,
y Binder evaluation can be based on local experience,
previous performance or a set procedure.
y Once the binder is selected, several preliminary tests
are run to determine the asphalt binder's
temperature-viscosity
temperature
viscosity relationship.

MIX DESIGN
116
y Sample Preparation
y The
h Marshall
h ll method,
h d lik
like other
h mix
i d
design
i methods,
h d
y
y
y
y
uses several trial aggregate-asphalt binder blends

(typically 5 blends with 3 samples each for a total of 15
specimens),
i
) each
h with
ith a diff
differentt asphalt
h lt bi
binder
d content.
t t
Then, by evaluating each trial blend's performance, an
optimum asphalt binder content can be selected.
In order for this concept to work, the trial blends must
contain a range of asphalt contents both above and below
the optimum asphalt content.
Therefore, the first step in sample preparation is to
estimate an optimum asphalt content.
Trial blend asphalt
p
contents are then determined from
this estimate.

MIX DESIGN
117
y Optimum
p
Asphalt
p
Binder Content Estimate
y The Marshall mix design method can use any
suitable method for estimating optimum asphalt

content and usually relies on local procedures or
experience.
y Sample
S
l Asphalt
A h lt Binder
Bi d C
Contents
t t
y Based on the results of the optimum asphalt binder
content estimate
estimate, samples are typically prepared at
0.5 percent by weight of mix increments, with at
p above the estimated asphalt
p
binder
least two samples
content and two below.

MIX DESIGN
118
y Compaction with the Marshall Hammer

y Each sample is then heated to the anticipated
compaction temperature and compacted with a Marshall

h
hammer,
a device
d i that
th t applies
li pressure to
t a sample
l
through a tamper foot. Some hammers are automatic
and some are hand operated.
p
Keyy p
parameters of the
compactor are:
{
Sample size = 102 mm (4-inch) diameter cylinder 64 mm (2.5

inches) in height (corrections can be made for different sample
heights)
Tamper foot = Flat and circular with a diameter of 98.4 mm
( 8 iinches)
(3.875
h ) corresponding
di to an area off 76
6 cm2 (11.8
( 8 iin2).
)

MIX DESIGN
119
y Compaction with the
Marshall Hammer
y Number of blows = Typically
35, 50 or 75 on each side
depending upon anticipated
traffic loading.
y Simulation method = The
tamper foot strikes the
sample on the top and
covers almost the entire
sample top area. After a
specified number of blows,
the sample is turned over
and the procedure repeated.

MIX DESIGN
120
y The Marshall Stability and Flow Test

y The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance
y
y
y
prediction measure for the Marshall mix design method.

The stabilityy p
portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8
mm/minute (2 inches/minute).
Basically, the load is increased until it reaches a maximum
then when the load just begins to decrease, the loading is
stopped and the maximum load is recorded.
During the loading
loading, an attached dial gauge measures the
specimen's plastic flow as a result of the loading (Figure 2).
The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments
at the same time the maximum load is recorded.
recorded

MIX DESIGN
121
y Figure
g
2. Marshall stabilityy testing
g apparatus.
pp

MIX DESIGN
122
y The Marshall Stability

y and Flow Test
Table 1. Typical Marshall Design Criteria (from Asphalt Institute, 1979)
Mix Criteria
Light Traffic
(< 104 ESALs)
Medium Traffic
(104 - 106 ESALs)
Heavy Traffic
(> 106 ESALs)
Min.
Min.
Min.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Compaction
(number of blows
35
50
75
Stability
(minimum)
2224 N
(500 lbs.)
3336 N
(750 lbs.)
6672 N
(1500 lbs.)
Flow (0.25
mm (0.01
inch))
20
18
16
Percentt Air
P
Ai
Voids
on each end of the

sample)

MIX DESIGN
123
y Density
y and Voids Analysis
y
y All mix design methods use density and voids to
determine basic HMA physical characteristics. Two

different measures of densities are typically taken:
{
{
Bulk specific gravity (Gmb).

Theoretical maximum specific gravity (TMD,
(TMD Gmm).
)
{
{
These densities are then used to calculate the volumetric

parameters of the HMA. Measured void expressions are usually:
Air voids (Va), sometimes expressed as voids in the total mix

(VTM)
Voids in the mineral aggregate
gg g
((VMA))
Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)

MIX DESIGN
124
y Generally,
y, these values must meet local or State
criteria..
Table 2. Typical Marshall Minimum VMA
(from Asphalt Institute, 1979)
Nominal Maximum
Particle Size
Minimum VMA (percent)
(mm)
(U.S.)
63
2.5 inch
11
50
2.0 inch
11.5
37.5
1.5 inch
12
25.0
1.0 inch
13
19.0
0.75 inch
14
12.5
0.5 inch
15
9.5
0.375 inch
16
4.75
No. 4 sieve
18
2 36
2.36
N 8 sieve
No.
i
21
1.18
No. 16 sieve
23.5

MIX DESIGN
125
y Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder
Content
y The optimum asphalt binder content is finally
selected based on the combined results of Marshall
stability and flow, density analysis and void analysis.
y Optimum
p
asphalt
p
binder content can be arrived at in
the following procedure:
y Plot the following graphs:
{
Asphalt
A
h l binder
bi d content vs. d
density.
i
D
Density
i will
ill generally
ll
increase with increasing asphalt content, reach a maximum,
then decrease. Peak density usually occurs at a higher asphalt
binder content than peak stability.
stability

MIX DESIGN
126
y Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content

{ Asphalt
A h l binder
bi d content vs. M
Marshall
h ll stability.
bili
Thi should
This
h ld
follow one of two trends:
Stability increases with increasing asphalt binder content, reaches a
peak, then decreases.
Stability decreases with increasing asphalt binder content and does
not show a peak. This curve is common for some recycled HMA
mixtures.
{
{
{
Asphalt binder content vs

vs. flow
flow.
Asphalt binder content vs. air voids. Percent air voids should
decrease with increasing asphalt binder content.
Asphalt binder content vs.
vs VMA
VMA. Percent VMA should
decrease with increasing asphalt binder content, reach a
minimum, then increase.
Asphalt
p
binder content vs. VFA. Percent VFA increases with
increasing asphalt binder content.

MIX DESIGN
127
y Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content

y Determine the asphalt binder content that corresponds
y
y
y
to the specifications median air void content (typically

this is 4 percent).
This is the optimum asphalt binder content.
Determine properties at this optimum asphalt binder
content by
b referring
f i to the
h plots.
l
Compare each of these values against specification values
and if all are within specification,
p
, then the preceding
p
g
optimum asphalt binder content is satisfactory.
Otherwise, if any of these properties is outside the
specification range the mixture should be redesigned.
redesigned

MIX DESIGN
128

MIX DESIGN
129

MIX DESIGN
130
131
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Chapter - 7 Bitumen Bound Materials

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1

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

atmospheric and under reduced pressures in the presence or

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

paving, roofing, industrial, and special purposes.

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

(asphalt and water) and an emulsifying agent (usually soap).

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation

Natural product (lake asphalt, rock asphalt)

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

petroleum may widely differ depending on the

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y Types of Distillation Processes

In the fractional distillation the various volatile constituents

Steam distillation is employed to produce steam refined

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

Desirable Properties of Bitumen

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

softening point until it is fluid

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y Quality control tests for Bitumen

Tests for Rate of Curing

Distillation test for cutback and emulsions

Specific gravity test

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y Quality control tests for Bitumen

Thin Film Oven test

Tests for Rate of Curing

Saybolt Fural Viscosity test

Softening point test

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y Bituminous materials,, commonly

premixes, are manufactured in asphalt mixing plants

BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS

y The coarse aggregates for premixes should be produced by crushing

sound,, unweathered rock or natural g