Viking Age Dyes: A Brief Overview

Kristina Gundersen

So who were the Vikings?

When speaking about Vikings often a barrage of
modern stereotypes come to mind. For the
purpose of this article, however, we will be
discussing the dyes used by Scandinavian peoples
who lived from approximately 800 to 1100.
Geographically, they lived throughout Northern
Europe in what we now call Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Finland, and Northern Germany.
Viking settlements were also to be found along
the coasts and river-ways of Ireland, the British
Isles, Scotland, Iceland, and the Baltic. The
settlements in northern and eastern England
(including the city of Jrvk, or modernly York)
comprised what is known as the Danelaw. In
general, settlers to the Danelaw originated in
Denmark and Norway.

In Ireland, they founded the city of Dublin. The

Danes along with the Swedes also ventured east,
trading and settling along the Baltic. It is
generally accepted that the Rus have Swedish

origins. (Downham 5) We know Scandinavian

traders during the Viking Age also had contact
with Byzantium and the Mediterranean.
Migration and trade throughout the Viking world
was a complicated mixing of cultures that often
resulted in hybrid ethnic identities. In the context
of dyes and textiles, contact with such diverse
populations spread over such a large geography
meant they had access to a wider variety of ideas,
materials, and techniques. (Heckett 106)
One of the challenges of researching period dyes,
especially from this era, is that there is scant
source material to work with. Contemporary
depictions, such as the valkyries, are stylized and
generally not in color. Records were kept through
oral tradition, so the only written descriptions are
sagas recorded centuries later. These sources are
problematic at best. Color is often used
allegorically and symbolically in literature. Even if
that were not the case, the authors of the sagas
never actually saw which colors were worn during
the Viking Age. Using the sagas as evidence of
those colors would be similar to using a preRaphaelite painting to determine the construction
of a bliaut. Two contemporary depictions of
Viking Age Scandinavians do exist in the form of
Ahmad ibn-Fadlans description of the Swedish
Rus and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles; however
neither source mentions textile colors, and even if
they did, cultural bias would have to be taken into
account because their authors are not
Scandinavian. What we do have is some
archeological evidence in the form of both
preserved dyestuffs and textiles.

Colorants, and mordants, and modifiers oh my!

The Viking Age was not new to dyes, and there is
evidence of purposeful dyeing dating back to
some of the earliest textile finds. (Barber 224)
Israels arid climate has led to the preservation of
textiles such as a scrap of
Fig. 1: Dog Whelk
red woolen cloth from the
early 4th millennium
thats thousands of years
before even the Vikings!
Newer analysis has even
established that the
majority of Scandinavian
Early Iron Age textiles that
have been recovered from
peat bogs were in fact dyed. (Vanden Berghe
1920) By the time we reach the Viking Age, dyers
had mastered some pretty sophisticated organic
chemistry, all in the name of fashion.
In order to understand the range of colors
available historically, it is important to understand
a little bit about how dyes work. There are
several different types of natural dyes. Some are
really just staining the fiber; much the way dirt or
grass can stain your hem. These dyes are
temporary, known to dyers as fugitive. Others
form a chemical bond with the fiber; these are
more permanent. These more permanent dyes
can be sub-divided into two main groups;
substantive dyes and adjective dyes. Substantive
dyes become chemically fixed to the fiber on their
own, without the need for additional chemicals.
Adjective dyes are not able to fully fix to the fiber
without the assistance of another substance such
as; alum, iron, or tannin. These additional
substances are usually metal based and are called
mordants.

The final color result can be tweaked depending

on the mordants used or by changing the
chemical reaction slightly using substances like
calcium carbonate, cream of tartar, and ammonia
to adjust factors such as the dye bath pH. These
substances are called modifiers. For example,
using an iron dyepot could not only act as a
mordant, helping to fix the dye to the fiber, but
also as a modifier because iron typically
saddens, or dulls the final color. Other
modifiers can be used to brighten or deepen
color. Temperature can also be a factor in the
final colormany dyes need to stay within a
certain temperature range for the colorant to be
released. The range of colors produced can be
expanded through the use of over-dyeing as well.
This involves dyeing with one dye and then taking
that fiber and dyeing it again with another color.
Finally, the fiber itself can affect the color
outcome. Not all fiber is white in its natural state.
Grey or tan fibers will give you a different result
than white or off-white. These color differences
were also used to create patterns in their un-dyed
state. Wools, silks, and linen also absorb dyes
differently. Linen, for example, is notoriously
difficult to dyemost likely a reason there are so
few extant examples of dyed linen.
They wore color? But everything looks brown!
When looking at the archeological evidence, it is
important to remember that this evidence is by
no means comprehensive, and what we do have
has in many cases been altered over time by
environmental factors. Only a small sampling of
textiles and dyestuff survived, and many of those
textiles are stained and discolored by the soil in
which they were found. Remember those
mordants and modifiers? Soil can contain not

only metals such as iron and aluminum, but other

mordants such as tannins; which are found in
plants such as oak trees. These will change the
color of textiles over time. Tannins, in particular,
will turn fiber shades of brown. Additionally,
some dyesespecially the yellow ones, are
almost impossible to identify using current
techniques or were fugitive and have long since
disappeared from the textile. (Taylor
Identification 158, Walton-Rogers Wools 154)
They almost certainly used wayside plants to
create dyes we are unable to identify. So with all
of these challenges how do we know what we do
about which dyes were used?
For Science!
The dye identification process is actually some
pretty cool science. Chemists used various types
of chromatography to
Fig. 2: Woad
isolate the residual dye
chemicals and then
compared them to
known dye sample
spectrums. (Taylor
Identification 154-55,
Walton-Rogers
Summary 14-15)
Basically, the individual
atoms that make up the
various dyes absorb
light energy differently.
This light energy travels
in wavelengths, and
only certain wavelengths are absorbed by each
material. All of the others are reflected. What
this means is chemists are able to look at the
patterns created by the wavelengths absorbed
and compare them to the patterns created by

known substances. They are even able to draw

conclusions about the shades based on the level
of dye chemical found! (Walton-Rogers Wools
153-54) The chemistry surrounding the
identification of these dyes is also detailed
enough that subtle differences between the dye
resulting from kermes and cochineal can often be
pinpointed. (Koren 276) Mordants are a bit
trickier to identify because they can be confused
with minerals from soil deposits. Their position
and density in the soil around the finds would
need to be analyzed to positively identify
common modifiers such as iron. (Taylor
Fig. 3: Weld
Identification
154) A great deal
of research has
been done
recently trying to
both develop
new methods of
dye identification
that will allow
those more
elusive dyes
such as the
yellows to be
identified, as well
as, developing
non-destructive methods. (Vanden Berghe 191415) Currently this research is focused on textiles
dating just prior to the Viking Age, but hopefully
this will result in there being even more data
available in the future!
In addition to the dyes identified on extant
textiles, archeologists have also discovered plant
material in contexts such as workshops that
suggest their use as dyestuffs. Seeds, roots,
flowers and stems from a variety of dye plants

including woad, weld, madder, walnut, heather,

and broom have been discovered at a variety of
Viking Age sites. (Walton-Rogers Textile
Production 1767-69) The plants were identified by
archeobotanists using a variety of methods
including chemical
Fig. 4: Clubmoss
analysis and even
distinctive dermal
patterns, such as the
stoma plants use for
respiration, observed
under a dissecting
microscope.
(Tomlinson 270)
Woad plant
remnants were actually found in a manner that
suggests they had been fermentedevidence
that lends extra credence to the remains being
found in a dye context. (Tomlinson 278) Also of
interest is the discovery of a non-native variety of
clubmoss at Jrvk. Clubmoss actually absorbs
aluminum making the plant a great mordant in
the absence of alum. (Taylor Reds 40, Duff 29)
The variety of clubmoss found is not native to the
British Isles, and is in fact, native to parts of
Scandinavia. (Hall Evidence 25, Tomlinson 275)
This implies that it was imported specifically to be
used in a dye context. Having evidence that
aluminum-based mordants were used further
supports the use of adjective dyes such as weld
and madder during this period.
Ok, so what colors did they use?
As laid out in Table 1, there is evidence that reds,
blues, yellows, purples, pinks, oranges, greens,
and browns could be achieved using dyestuffs
that have been identified either as plant material
found in a dye context or on an extant Viking Age

textiles using chromatography. There is also

some positive chemical evidence of mordants
being used, and this greatly widens the available
color palette. (Walton Cordage 401) Fibers that
were naturally brown or grey would also give a
greater variety of achievable colors, and the
chromatography process has positively identified
several examples of overdyeing, or textiles dyed
with more than one dye. (Pritchard 98) The
unidentified dye referred to as Yellow-X, for
example, was only detected because the indigotin
came off of the textile differently in some
instances. (Walton-Rogers Wools 154, Summary
17) This happened because the indigotin was on
a textile that also had a mordanted dye applied
the textile had been overdyed. The Vikings got
creative with their color use too. There are
examples of woad blue stripes being dyed over
madder and diamond twill being woven with a
heavily saturated woad blue warp and an off
white weft-- thus giving the effect of blue
diamonds on an off white field. (Walton-Rogers
Wools 153-4)
Because Viking
settlements and
trade routes
covered such a
wide geographic
Fig. 5: Polish Cochineal
area, they had
access to dyes that are not native to Scandinavia
both in the form of pre-dyed imported textiles and
imported dyestuffs. (Walton-Rogers Wools 156)
Some dyes, such as Polish cochineal and kermes
were only found on textiles whose context suggest
that they were imported. (Heckett 105-108) This
widespread geographical distribution of Viking Age
Scandinavians also meant that the variety of native

dyestuffs to which they had access differed

depending on where they lived.
There is also evidence to suggest regional
differences in color usage. For example the AngloScandinavians lived in a climate where madder
could be grown
rather than just
imported, and
proportionally a
larger number of
items dyed with
madder were
found there.
Thus, AngloScandinavian
finds tend
towards reds
Fig. 6: Madder
and oranges. (Walton-Rogers Textile Production
1769) Norwegian and Danish examples tend

towards blues from woad, and Irish examples tend

towards purples from lichens (Walton-Rogers
Summary 18-19) The regional differences may stem
from incomplete dataespecially since the textiles
as a whole are not from consistent contexts.
Overall, the finds from Scandinavia tend to be from
wealthier burials, and that is not the case for the
Anglo-Scandinavian and Hiberno-Norse textiles.
Fig. 7: Bedstraw

In conclusion,
there is
archaeological
evidence that
establishes a
strong tradition
for dyed textiles
throughout
Scandinavian
settlements
during the
Viking Age.
There appear to
have been
regional
preferences in the choice of dyestuffs, but it may
also be an incomplete picture. Items dyed with
lichens, weld, woad, and madder have been
found throughout the Scandinavian settlements.
The availability of the three primary colors as well
as the use of over-dyeing and the textiles natural
color variations would have given Viking Age
dyers a large palette to choose from, and the
imports of exotically dyed silks would have added
to those colors. The evidence points to the
fashion choices of Scandinavians throughout
Viking settlements during the Viking Age being as
colorful as their history.

Viking Age Dyes: Selected Biblography (Complete bibliography available upon request.)
1. Barber, E. J. W.. Prehistoric Textiles: the Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages
with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991. Print.
2. Downham, Clare. "Viking Ethnicities: A Historiographic Overview." History Compass 10.1 (2012):
1-12. Print.
3. Duff, D.G., and R.S. Sinclair. "The Use of Aluminum in Clubmoss as a Dye Mordant." Dyes in
History and Archaeology 7 (1989): 25-31. Print.
4. Hall, A.R.. "Evidence of Dye Plants from Viking Age York and Medieval Beverly." Dyes in History
and Archaeologgy 2 (1983): 25. Print.
5. Hall, Allan R., and Philippa Tomlinson. "Archaeological records of dye plantsan update with a
note on fullers teasels." Dyes in History and Archaeology 8 (1989): 19-21. Print.
6. Heckett, Elizabeth. Viking Age Headcoverings from Dublin. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 2003.
Print.
7. Hedeager Krag, Anne. "Dress and Fashion in Denmark's Viking Age." Northern Archaeological
Textiles: NESAT VII; Textile Symposium in Edinburgh, 5th-7th May 1999. Oxford: Oxbow Books,
2005. 29-35. Print.
8. Koren Z.C. 1994. HPLC analysis of the natural scale insect, madder and indigoid dyes. Journal of
the Society of Dyers and Colourists 110, pp. 273277.
9. Pritchard, Frances. " Aspects of the wool textiles from Viking Age Dublin pp.93-104.
" Archaeological Textiles in Northern Europe 4 (1992): 93-104. Print.
10. Taylor, G.W.. "Detection and Identification of Dyes on Anglo-Scandinavian Textiles." Studies in
Conservation 28 (1983): 23-26. Print.
11. Taylor, George W., 'Reds and Purples: from the Classical World to Pre-Conquest Britain', Textiles
in Northern Archaeology: NESAT III: Textile Symposium in York, 6-9 May 1987, edited by
Penelope Walton and John-Peter Wild (London, 1990), p. 37-46
12. Tomlinson, Philippa. "Use of Vegetative Remains in the Identification of Dyeplants from
Waterlogged 9th-10th Century AD Deposits at York." Journal of Archaeological Science 12
(1985): 269-283. Print.
13. Vanden Berghe, I., Margarita Gleba, and Ulla Mannering. "Towards the identification of
dyestuffs In Early Iron Age Scandinavian peat bog textiles." Journal of Archaeological
Science 36.9 (2009): 1910-1921. Print.
14. Walton-Rogers, Penelope. "Dyes and Wools in Iron Age Textiles from Norway and Denmark."
Journal of Danish Archaeology 7 (1988): 144-158. Print.
15. Walton-Rogers, Penelope. "Dyes of the Viking Age: A Summary of Recent Work." Dyes in History
and Archaeology 7 (1989): 14-20. Print.
16. Walton-Rogers, Penelope. Textiles, Cordage and Raw Fibre from 16-22 Coppergate. London:
Published for the York Trust by the Council for British Archaeology, 1989. Print.
17. Walton-Rogers, Penelope. Textile Production at 16-22 Coppergate. York: Published for the York
Archaeological Trust by Council for British Archaeology, 1997. Print.

Kristina Gundersen 2013

[email protected]

Table 1: Viking Age Dyes *

Color/Colors Given
Archeological Evidence
Found
Blues, Greens
Seeds, Wool, Linen, Silk

Dyestuff

Common Name

Chemical Colorant

Isatis tinctoria

Woad

Indigotin

Reseda luteola

Weld, Dyers Rocket

Luteolin

Yellows, Golds

Seeds, Silks

Norway, Denmark, York, Sweden,

Dublin
York, Sweden

Rubia tinctorum

Madder

Oranges, Reds

Plant Remains, Wool, Silks,

Linen

Norway, York, Denmark, Sweden,

Dublin

Galium boreale,
Galium verum,
Galium aparine
Juglans regia

Bedstraw, Ladys
Bedstraw

Alizarin,
Pseudopurpurin,
Purpurin
Alizarin,
asperuloside

Reds, Yellows

Wool

Norway, Denmark

Walnut

Juglone, Tannin,
Plumbagin

Browns, Tans

Wool, Plant Material

Norway, Denmark

Xanthoria
parietina,
Rocella tinctoris
Ochrolechia
tartarea
Calluna vulgaris

Wall Lichen

Orecin

Yellows, Tans, Reds,

Purples

Wool, Silk

Dublin

Orchil Lichens

Orecin

Purples/Pinks

Wool

York, Northern Germany, Dublin

Yellow

Plant Material

York

Genista tinctoria

Broom, Dyers
Greenwood,
Woadwaxen
Dog Whelk

Genistein

Yellow

Plant Material

York

Dibromoindigo

Tyrian Purple

Silks, Shells in Dye Workshop

Ireland

Kermes
Polish Cochineal

Kermesic Acid
Carminic Acid

Reds
Reds

Silks, Wool Tunic

Silks

Norway, York
Norway, Sweden

? Dyes eliminated
include: Weld, Broom,
and Heather

Nucella lapillus
Kermes vermilio
Porphyrophora
polonica
Yellow X- always
found with
indigotin

Mordants &
Modifiers most
likely used

Heather

Geographic Location

Green & Yellow (In all 7 Textiles (fiber composition Norway, Denmark, Dublin
but 1 instance found
was unspecified)
with indigotin. Dye
itself produced a
yellow.)
Alum -We have archeological evidence for clubmoss (Diphasium complanatum, Lycopodium complanatum) which is a likely source of alum.
Iron- Most likely through the dyepot Copper - Most likely through bronze dyepots Tannin- Perhaps from Oak Galls
Calcium Carbonate (Think shells or Coccolithophores.)
*This table is a work in progress

Kristina Gundersen 2013

[email protected]

Glossary of Terms:

Archaeobontanist- an archaeologist who studies plant remains

Adjective Dye- dyes that require use of a mordant to bind the color to the fiber

Alum- (aluminum sulfate) is a naturally occurring basic mordant widely used in the ancient world.

Chromatography- collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures

Dermal Pattern- specialized cells that form the outer layer of a vascular plant that can form unique
patterns used to identify the plant.

Dog Whelk- Nucella lapillus, is a species of predatory sea snail that can be used to produce redpurple and violet dye

Dye- are color-bearing organic compounds that can be dissolved in water or another liquid so that
they will penetrate fibers

Fugitive Dye- colors are prone to fading when exposed to sunlight (fugitive to light) or washing, as
opposed to colorfast

Gall- a tannin-rich growth on oak trees produced by an infection of the insect Cynips gallae
tinctoriae, used as a dye and a mordant.

Kermes- a scale insect (Kermes vermilio) from which the crimson-colored dye Kermesic Acid is
derived

Lichen- fungus and algae living in a symbiotic relationship that in many cases will produce brightly
colored dyes

Madder- (rubia tinctoria) and related plants of the Rubia family whose roots are a source of good
red dyes containing alizarin and purpurin

Mordant- a chemical, usually a mineral, used in combination with dye to "fix" the color in the textile
fibers. Different mordants will result in different colors from the same dye.

Modifier- a chemical used to change the color result when dyeing

pH- a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are
said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH
very close to 7.

Pigment- insoluble color particles that may be attached to the surface of cloth using a binding agent.

Kristina Gundersen 2013

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Polish Cochineal- a scale insect (Porphyrophora polonica) from which the crimson-colored dye
carmine is derived

Stoma (pl. stomata) - minute pores on plants found typically on the outer leaf skin layer that allow
for respiration

Substantive Dye- dyes that produce color without the use of a mordant

Tannin- a naturally occurring yellow to brown acid compound found in many plants that is used as a
mordant and a dye

Wayside Plant- a plant occurring naturally in the wild, rather than one being cultivated

Wavelength- the distance over which the wave's shape repeats as light energy travels. Each color
has a unique wavelength.

Weld- (Reseda luteola),a plant also called mignonette or dyer's rocket, produces an important
yellow dye

Woad- (isatis tinctoria) a plant whose leaves are a source for the indigotin, which can be used to
create a blue dye

Kristina Gundersen 2013

[email protected]