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PhysicsofMusicalSounds
byDr.JohnAskill
Secondedition

ChapterSeven
WindInstruments

Beforediscussingtheoperationofthevariouswindinstrumentsweshouldfirstcomparethe
phenomenonofstandingwavesandresonanceinaircolumnstothatinstrings,sinceitis
upontheseprinciplesthatallwindinstrumentsdepend.Standingwavesmayoccurinair
columnsinawayverysimilartothewaytheyoccurinstretchedstrings.However,thereare
someimportantfundamentaldifferences.Theyare:
1. Themotioninastretchedstringistransverse,whereasthestandingwavesinanair
columnarelongitudinal.
2. Thetwoendsofastretchedstringarebothnodes,whereasinaircolumnsanopenend
isanantinodeandaclosedendisanode.Theantinodeattheopenendisinfacta
displacementantinode(orapressurenode),andthenodeattheclosedendisa
displacementnode(orpressureantinode).

ModesofOscillation
Thefirstfourmodesofoscillationforbothanopenpipeandaclosedpipeareshownin
Figure7.1.Thestandingwavesasshownwithinthepipesrepresentpositionsofdisplacement
nodes,denotedbyN,anddisplacementantinodes,denotedbyA.
Thelowestmodeofvibrationinwhichaconditionofresonanceexistsinanopenpipehasa
wavelengthequaltotwicethelengthofthepipe.Thefrequencycorrespondingtothisisf1=v/
1=v/2L,wherevisthevelocityofsoundinairandListhelengthofthepipe.Thesecond
modeforanopenpipeissuchthat2=L.Itsfrequencyisf2=v/2=v/L,or2v/2L,twicethe
fundamentalfrequency.Similarly,thethirdmodehas3=2L/3,withf3=v/3=3v/2L,three
timesthefundamentalfrequency.Thus,weseethattheresonantfrequenciesforanopenpipe
aref1=v/2L,f2=2v/2L,f3=3v/2L,f4=4v/4L,andsoon.Thegeneralrelationforthe
frequencyofthenthmodeforanopenpipeisthennv/2L,wherenisainteger.
Foraclosedpipe,however,thelowestresonantfrequencyissuchthat1=4L,sothatf1=v/
1=v/4L.Thesecondmodehas2=4L/3,sothatf2=v/2=v/(4L/3)=3v/4Lorthreetimes
itsfundamentalfrequency.Thenextresonancemodehas3=4L/5andf3=v/3=v/(4L/5)or
5v/4L,or5timesthefundamentalfrequency.Foraclosepipetheresonantfrequenciesaref1
=v/4L.f2=3v/4L,f3=5v/4L,andsoon.
Thegeneralrelationforthefrequencyofthenthmodeinthiscaseisthen(2n1)/4L.

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Figure7.1ModesofOscillationforOpenandClosedPipes.
Thenumbernisthenumberofthevibrationalmode,orharmonicnumber.Althoughallof
theharmonicsarepossibleforanopenpipe,itisimpossibletohaveevenharmonicsina
closedpipe.(Evenharmonicswouldbeoutofphase,causingdestructiveinsteadof
constructiveinterference)Thisdistinctionbetweenopenandclosedpipesisveryimportant.It
explainswhythetonequalityofopenpipes,forinstance,isrichandbrilliantwhereasstopped
pipessoundhollow.Theuncorrectedequationsfortheresonantfrequencyofthenthmode
foranopenandclosedpipearethen
fn=nv/2Lforanopenpipe,andfn=(2n1)v/4Lforaclosedpipe
................................................(7.1)
Aclosedtubewithanodeatbothends(asisthecaseforavibratingstring)hasnopractical
useasamusicalinstrumentsincethereisnowayforthesoundtogetout.However,weshall
seeinChapter10thatstandingwaveswithinaroomareanimportantconsiderationinits
acousticalquality.Inthiscase,thefundamentalfrequencywouldbegivenbyv/2Lwithall
harmonicspossible.
SomeotherobservationsfromFigure7.1thatareusefulare:
1. Forpipesofequallength,openpipeshavefundamentalfrequenciesanoctaveabove
closedpipes.
2. Forpipesofequallength,thefrequencyofthesecondmodeofaclosedpipeisamusical
intervalofatwelfthaboveitsfundamental,3v/4Lv/4L=3/1,andafifthabovethe
fundamentalofanopenpipe,3v/4Lv/2L=3/2.
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3. Forpipesofequallength,thethirdmodeofanopenpipeistheoctaveofthesecond
modeofaclosedpipe,3v/2L3v/4L=2/1.</li>

EndCorrections
Theequationsdevelopedabovehaveallbeenforsituationsinwhichtheantinodeswere
exactlyattheopenendsandthenodeswereexactlyattheclosedendsofthepipes.Inpractice,
theantinodepositionsofthedisplacementstandingwavesarefoundtobeslightlybeyondthe
endsofthepipes,whereasthenodesareexactlyatthereflectingboundaryattheclosedendof
thepipe.ThelengthLintheuncorrectedrelationsinEquation7.1istheactuallengthofthe
pipeonlyifthediameterofthepipeissmallcomparedwithitslength.Theendcorrection,
"e"attheopenendofacylindricalpipeofdiameterDisapproximately0.4D.Theend
correctiontobeappliedtothemouthpieceendhasbeenfoundtobeaboutequaltothepipe
diameter.Thus,thetotalendcorrectionforaclosedcylindricalpipeisDandforopen
cylindricalpipes,1.4D.Forsquarepipesofwidth'a'(suchaslargewoodenorganpipes),the
endcorrectionsare2aforaclosedpipeand3aforanopenpipe.However,exceptforsome
organpipes,theboreofmostwindinstrumentsisnotuniformlycylindricalandtheopenends
areusuallyflared.Thisresultsinalargerendcorrectionof0.5Dormore.
Thecorrectedrelationsfortheresonantfrequencyofthenthharmonicofopenandclosed
pipesthenbecome:
fn=nv/{2(L+1.4D)}foranopenpipe,andfn=(2n1)v/{4(L+D)}forclosedpipes
............................(7.2)
Thefourbasicpipeshapesare:
1. Cylindrical(eithercircularorsquareincrosssection).
2. Exponential.
3. Logarithmic.
4. Conical.
Ofthese,onlytheconicalandcylindricalpipeshaveresonantfrequenciesthataremultiplesof
thefundamental.AirinanopenconicalpipeoflengthLhasexactlythesameresonant
frequenciesasanopencylindricalpipeofthesamelengthhas.Weshallseelaterthatmany
windinstrumentsarepartcylindrical,partconical,andpartflared.
Incontrasttostringedinstruments,onlythelengthofwindinstruments(includingend
corrections)determinestheirfundamentalresonantfrequencies.Thusinplaying,intuning,
andinconstructiontheonlyvariableisthelength.Overblowingwindinstrumentschangesthe
harmonicnumberfromthefundamental(n=1)tothenextharmonicupthescale.Foropen
pipesallharmonicsaresounded,sothatoverblowingproducestheoctave(n=2),thetwelfth
(n=3andthedoubleoctave(n=4).Forclosedpipes,onlytheoddharmonicsaresoundedso
theyoverblowatthetwelfth(n=3)andtheseventeenth(n=5).Inallwindinstruments,the
musicallengthisthelengthfromthesoundsourcetothenearestopenhole.
Allwindinstrumentsconsistofasoundgeneratorandaresonantaircolumn,orcavity.They
naturallydivideintofivegroupsasfollows:
1. Airreedinstrumentssuchastheflueorganpipe,flute,piccolo,recorder,flageolet,and
fife.
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2. Singlemechanicalreedinstrumentssuchasthereedorganpipe,clarinet,saxophone,
andbagpipes.
3. Doublemechanicalreedinstrumentssuchastheoboe,Englishhornorcoranglais,oboe
d'amore,bassoon,andcontrabassoon.
4. Lipreedinstruments(thebrassinstruments)suchasthetrumpet,cornet,bugle,
trombone,Frenchhorn,tuba,euphonium,andsousaphone.
5. Thehumanvoice.

Letuslookateachofthedifferentinstrumentswithineachgroup.Inparticular,weshall
studythesourceofthesound,theresonanceconditionsforeachinstrumentandthe
propertiesthatdeterminethequality,loudness,andfrequencyofthesoundsthateach
produces.

AirReedInstruments
TheFlueOrganPipe

Flueorganpipesareusuallymadeofwoodandaresquareincrosssection,orcircularifmade
ofsteel.Thesourceofsoundistheflue,orslitofthepipe,whichproduceswhatiscalledan
edgetonewhenairisblownthroughthepipe.Astheairstreamspasttheflue,smallvortices
areformedintheair,somemovinginsideandsomemovingoutsideoftheflueedge.Theopen
orclosedtubeabovethemouthofthepipeistheresonator.Itamplifiesbyresonancevarious
frequenciesdeterminedbythelengthandcrosssectionalareaofthepipe.Theedgetone
energizestheaircolumnwhich,throughatypeoffeedback,controlsthefrequencyofit.For
theaircolumntobecontinuouslyresonant,theedgetonemustbecontinuoustheremustbe
anconstantsupplyofairtothepipe.Theinstantthattheairstops,theedgetoneceasesandso
doestheresonanceintheaircolumn.Figure7.2showsanopenandclosedorganpipe.

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Figure7.2Open(a)andclosed(b)organpipes.

TheimportanceofendcorrectionsforpipesofvarioussizesisshowndramaticallyinFigure
7.3.Eachofthepipeshasthesamefrequency,A3.Theeffectiveormusicallengthofthepipes
isgivenbyv/4f=344/(4x220)=0.39mor39cm,whereastheactuallengthsare34,29,and
19cm.Thepipewidthsare2,4,and8cmandtheendcorrectionsare5,10,and20cm.The
endcorrectionforthewidestpipeisgreaterthanitslength!

Figure7.3Organpipesofdifferentlengthsbutsamefrequencyshowingtheeffectofend
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correctionss.

TemperatureEffects
Temperatureaffectsthepitchoforganpipesintwoways:thevelocityofsoundinairis
temperaturedependent,andthelengthofthepipeincreasesastemperatureincreases.The
changeinlengthofapipewithtemperatureisdeterminedbyapropertyofthematerialfrom
whichitismadecalleditsexpansioncoefficient,.Theequationforthelengthofapipeat
temperatutreToCcomparedwithitslengthat0oCisLT=L0(1+T).Typicalvaluesofare
2x105forbrass,1x105foriron,2x105fortin,and5x105forwood.
ThevelocityofsoundinairisgivenbyEquation(3.2),v=331.7+0.61T,whichwemaywrite
as331.7(1+0.00184T).Hence,thefrequencyofthesoundsproducedbywindinstrumentsis
proprotionaltov/L=(331.7/L0)x(1+0.00184T)/(1+T).Sincethevaluesofareallvery
muchsmallerthan0.00184(about1/100asmuch),weseethatthefrequenciesofallwind
instumentsincreasewithincreasingtemperature(becomesharp)anddecreasewith
decreasingtemperature(becomeflat).

ClassificationofOrganPipes
Thepitchoforganpipes,bothflueandreed,isclassifiedaccordingtotheirlength.Stops
whichhavethesamepitchasthecorrespondingnoteonthepianoarecalled8ftstops4ft
and2ftstopssoundoneandtwooctaveshigher(thesecondandfourthharmonics)16ftand
32ftstopssoundoneandtwooctaveslower.Pipesindicatedas22/3are1/3thelengthofan
8ftpipe,sohaveafrquency3timesasgreat(thethirdharmonicoratwelfthhigher).
Similarly,a51/3ftpipehasafrequencyof8/(16/3)higherthanthefundammental,thatis3/2
orafifthhigher.Pedalorganpipesareanoctavelower.Theseandothercommonpipe
lengthsaregiveninTable7.1.
LengthNameLengthName
(infeet)ofpipe(infeet)ofpipe

32subsuboctave4octave

16suboctave31/5tenth

102/3subquint22/3twelfth

8unison2fifteenth
(doubleoctave)

62/5third(terz)11/3nineteenth
51/3fifth(quint)1tripleoctave

Figure7.1Classificationoforganpipes.
Thetonequalitydependsonsuchcharacteristicsaswhetherthepipeisopenorclosed,the
sizeofthemouthhole,thethicknessandnatureofthewallmaterial(whetherwoodormetal),
thewindpressureusedtoexcitethepipe,theshape(whethersquare,rectangular,or
cylindrical),andthescaleofthepipe(thelargerthediameterofthepipe,themoredifficultit
istoexcitehighovertones).Allofthesecharacteristicsinvariouswaysdeterminethenumber
andrelativestrengthsoftheovertonesthatareexcited,andthetonequalityproduced.The
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mostimportantoftheseis,ofcourse,whetherthepipeisopenorclosed,sinceinclosedpipes
onlyoddharmonicsareexcited,whereasinopenpipes,allharmonicsarepossible.
Thescaleofthepipedeterminesthequalitysincelongpipesofsmalldiameterexcitemore
andhigherovertonesthanshorterpipesoflargerdiameter.Thescalefactorofapipeisthe
ratioofitsdiameterorwidthtoitslength.Fororganpipes,thefluteandthepiccolo,thescale
factorisabout1/30,butforbrassinstrumentsitiscloserto1/100.Thematerialfromwhich
thepipesaremadeprobablyhaslittleeffectontheirharmonicspectrum.Metalorganpipes
areusuallymadeoftinoratinleadalloy,sinceitiseasytoformandmakes"voicingthe
pipe"easier.Theprocedureofvoicinggreatlyaffectstheharmonicspectrumofthepipe.This
istheadjustmentofthemouthhole,fluegap,andlanguid(seeFigure7.2).Figure7.4shows
somerepresentativveflueorganpipeswiththeirtypicalharmonicspectra.

Figure7.4Flueorganpipes.
Someotherflueorganpipesarethegemshorn,thediapason,thegedeckt,thesalicional,and
theviola,tonamejustafew.Thegemshornanddiapasonaresimilarpipesalthoughthe
gemshornisslightlyconicalinshapeandisusuallymetal,whereasthediapasonisusually
wood.Thegemshornispitchedfrom2to32ft.Thegedecktisastoppedflute,4to32ft.Itcan
beeithermetalorwooden.Therearemanyvarietiesofgedecktorganpipes.Theshapeofthe
lowpitchedpedalpipeisrectangular.TheC1pipesareabout12by9inchesincrosssection.
Thesalicionalisastringstop,similartoavoxcelestewithmanystrongovertones.Theviola
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is,ofcourse,alsoastringstop,usually8or16ft.Ithasarichsoundwithmanyovertones.
Thestopisusuallymadeofwoodandissquareincrosssection.

ThePiccolotheandFlute
Becausethesetwoinstrumentsaresoalikeweshallconsiderthemtogether.Bothgenerate
soundinamannersimilartotheflueorganpipe.Anedgetoneisproducedwhentheplayer
blowsacrosstheedgeoftheembouchureopening.Thestreamofairissetintoturbulanceasit
crossestheedgeoftheopening,partofwhichgoesintotheinstrumentandpartescapesinto
openair.Theoverallqualitysoundproduceddependsontheembouchureformation,the
positioningofthelips,tongue,teeth,andjaw,relativetotheembouchureopening.
Thefluteistheoldestofthewindinstruments.Alloftheinstrumentsintheflutefamilyare
constructedaccordingtotheBoehmsystem(namedafterTheobaldBoehmwhodevelopedthe
modernfluteintheyear1300)andhavethesamefingering.Twoflutesandtwopiccolosare
common:theCandtheGaltoflutes,andtheCandDpiccolos.Themusicalrangesofthese
fourinstrumentsarecomparedinTable7.2Thefluteisabout66cmlongand2cmin
diameter,andthepiccolo,beinganoctavehigher,ishalfthelength,33cm,and1cmin
diameter.ThepiccologetsitsnamefromtheabbreviationoftheItalian"flautopiccolo"
meaning"littleflute".

Table7.2TheFrequencyRangesofFlutesandPiccolos
Alloftheseinstrumentsintheflutefamilyactlikeopenpipes.Theeffectiveormusicallength
oftheresonatingaircolumn,L,isthelengthfromthecenteroftheembouchureopeningto
thecenterofthenearestopenholeplustheendcorrectionforbothends.Sinceallharmonics
arepossibleinopenpipes,theoctave(secondharmonic)andalsothetwelfth(thirdharmonic)
maytheproducedbyoverblowing.
Thebodyoftheinstrumentwasoriginallymadeofwood,circularincrosssectionand
cylindricalinlength.Modernflutesaremadeofmetal,usuallynickelbutsometimessilver.
Evenafewgoldflutesweremadelongago.Thequalityofsoundfromthemwasreportedto
beexceptional.Themetalflutes,especiallythesilverones,seemtohavemorehigher
overtonesthanwoodenonesdo.Silverhasoneofthehighestthermalconductivitiesofthe
metals,sothatthewarmuptime(thetimetakentoasquireauniformtempersatureinsidethe
flute)isreduced.Piccolosaremadeofwood,metal(usuallysilverornickelplatedwithsilver)
orhardplastic.Thescalefactor(theratioofthediameterofthepipetoitslength)isusually
1/30.Whenthefluteisplayedsoftly,thewaveformisclosetobeingapuresinewave,whereas
whenitisplayedloudly,morehigherharmonicsareexcited.
Thetonequalityoftheinstrumentsintheflutefamilyischaracterizedbyastrong
fundamentalandsecondharmonic,thethitd,fourth,anfifthharmonicsbeingweak,therest
nonexistent.Intheupperendoftheplayingregister,onlythefundamentalandsecond
harmonicarepresent.Thelowestoctaveforthepiccolosoundsweak,themiddleismore
piercing,whiletheupperregisterproducesaveryshrillsound.Thefluteandthepiccoloand
theirtypicalharmonicspectraareshowninFigure7.5.
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Figure7.5Thefluteandpiccolo.

TheRecorder,FlageoletandFife
Thesethreeinstrumentsarealsosimilartotheflute.Thefifeisplayedthesamewayasthe
fluteis,whereastherecorderandflageoletareblownlikeawhistle.Theiracoustical
propertiesarealsosimilartothoseoftheflute.Themaindifferenceisthattheyhaveonly
fingerholes,nokeys.Thepipesaremostlycylindricalincrosssectionandcanbemadeof
wood,metalorhardplastic.Therecorder,however,hasareversedconicaltubesuchthatthe
tubediameterislargernearthefippleholethanitisattheopenend,despiteitsexternal
shape(seeFigure7.6).Becauseofthis,itoverblowsattheninthinsteadoftheoctave.There
areseveralsizesoftherecorder,eachcoveringanocatverangeinfrequency.Theyarethe
bass,tenor,treble,descant,andtheoctave.Theflageoletandthefifearesimilartothe
recorderalthoughbothhave6holeswhereastherecorderhas8.Twootherinstrumentsthat
haveafippletypesoundgeneratoraretheocarinaandthegemshorn.Theseinstrumentsare
notusuallyconsideredasorchestralinstruments.

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Figure7.6Therecorder(a),flageolet(b),andthefife(c).

SingleMechanicalReedInstruments
TheReedOrganPipe
Thesourceofsoundinreedorganpipesisathinmetalreedwhichiscausedtovibrateatits
ownfundamentalresonantfrequencybyasteadystreamofair.Thefundamentalfrequency
ofvibrationforametalreeddependsonitsthicknessandlength,andthematerialfromwhich
itismade.ItisgivenbyEquation(8.3).Thefrequencyisadjustedtobeapproximatelythe
sameasfortheresonantpipeattachedtoit.ThisisgivenbyEquation(7.1).Thereedpipe
thenhasaresonantrequencydeterminedbyboththereedandthelengthofthepipe.A
sketchofthereedmechanisminatypicalreedorganpipeisshowninFigure7.7.Areed
organpipeisusuallytunedbyadjustingthereedratherthanthelengthofthepipe.Thisis
knowmasvoicingthepipe.

Figure7.7Thereedmechanisminareedorganpipe.
Thequalityofthesoundisdeterminedbytheshapeofthereedandpipe.Byadjustmentsto
theshapeofthereed,thereedorganpipemaybemadetoimitatethevariousinstrumentsof
theorchestrasuchasthechorusreeds,thetrumpetortuba,ortheorchestralreeds,theoboe
orclarinet.Figure7.7showssomereedorganpipesandtheirharmonicspectraforparticular
notes.Someotherreedorganpipesarethefagotto,thetrumpette,thevoxhumana,the
bassoon,thebombarde,thekinura,thetromba,andthemixtures.

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Figure7.8Reedorganpipes.
TheClarinetandtheSaxophone
Inbothoftheseinstruments,thesoundsourceisasinglereed(usuallyacanealthough
sometimesmadeofmetalorhardplastic)coupledtoaresonancetube.Theclarinetwas
developedfromthechalameauinthemiddleofthe18thcenturybytheGermaninstrument
makerJohannDenner(18551797).Ithasamostlycylindricaltube1cmindiameterwith
aflaredopenend,whereasthesaxophonehasaconicalbore.Theflaredendsofboththe
clarinetandthesaxophonehavealargerendcorrectionthanacylindricaltube,aboutequal
tothetuberadius.Inbothoftheseinstruments,theeffectivelengthoftheresonantaircolumn
isdeterminedbythenumberofopenholes.Theholesmaybeclosedeitherbythefingersor
bykeys.Partwayalongthetubeisasmallholecalledtheregisterorspeakerhole,whichwhen
opendedcausesthepipetoresonateatthenexthigherharmonic.Itisabout1/3thewayalong
thetubefromthereedend.Sincethereedactsasanode,onewouldexpecttheclarinetand
saxophonetoactasclosedpipeswithonlyoddharmonicspresent.However,thisisnotthe
case.Althoughatypicalharmonicspectrumforaclarinetdoesshowastrongfirstandthird
harmonic,thesecond,fourth,andhigherharmonicsareusuallypresentaswell.Initslowest
register(calledthechalameau),thesecondandfourthharmonicsareabsentfromthe
harmonicspectrum,whileforthemidrangefrequenciesmonlythesecondharmonicis
absent.Forveryhighpitches(thethirdorclarionregister),theclarinetspectrumshowsthat
allharmonicsarepresent.sothatitactslikeaflute.Thisisachievedbyusingtheregisteror
speakerkey.Inthelowerregister,theclarinetoverblowsatthetwelfth,butforhighnotesit
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overblowsattheoctave.TherearesixdifferenttypesofclarinetrangingfromtheEbsoprano
whichisthesmallest(only18incheslong)totheBbcontrabassclarinetwhichisthelargest
(withatotalpipelengthof10feet)
ThesaxophonewasinventedmuchlaterthantheclarinetbytheBelgiuminstrumentmaker,
AdolpheSax(18141894)inBrusselsin1845.Whenoverblown,itproducesanotewhichis
anoctavehigher,sinceitactslikeanopenpipe.Thesopranosaxophoneisusuallystraight,
similartotheclarinet.Alloftheothermodelsofclarinetsandsaxophonesarecurved.Figure
7.9showsasopranoandbassclarinetandanaltoandtenorsaxophone,togetherwiththeir
harmonicspectraforparticularnotes.

Figure7.9Thesopranoandbassclarinetsandaltoandtenorsaxophones.
Theharmonicspectrumofthesaxophoneshowsthatitactsasanopenpipe.Itproducesall
harmonicsoverthewholeofitsfrequencyrange.Thecouplingbetweenthevibratingreed
andtheresonantaircolumnisveryimportantinthisregards.Thefingeringforaclarinetor
asaxophoneismorecomplicatedthanforaflute,sincetheyhavemoreholesandkeys.
Apparentlyforthesakeofeasyfingering,theclarinethasevolvedasatransposing
instrument.ABbclarinettransposesdownawholetone.
ThevariousclarinetsandsaxophonesandtheirmusicalrangesaregiveninTable7.3.The
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overalllengthsoftheinstrumentsare:soprano,clarinet65cm:bassclarinet95cm:soprano
andaltosaxophone40cm:tenorsaxophone70cmbaritonesaxophone85cm,andbass
saxophone100cm.

Table7.3FrequencyRangesofClarinetsandSaxophones

TheBagpipe
Themostunusualofthereedinstrumentsisthebagpipes.Bagpipesconsistofseveralsingle
reedpipeswithoutholescalleddronepipes,andonesingleordoublereedpipewithanumber
offingerholes,calledthemelodyorchanterpipe,allconnectedtoalargeleatherbagwhichis
keptinflatedbyblowingdownthemouthpipe(theblowpipe)(Figure7.10).Thedronepipes
produceacontinuousbackgroundsoundofseveralsoundsbasedonthenoteAandhavea
tonesimilartotheclarinet.Thechanterpipecoversanoctaverangetoproducethemelody.
Thebagpipeswerefirstdevelopedmorethan2000yearsagoandstillsurvivetoday,
particularlyinScotlandandIreland.

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Figure7.10Asketchofabagpipe.

DoubleMechanicalReedInstruments,theOboe,theOboe
d'Amore,theEnglishhorn,theBassoon,andthe
Contrabassoon
Alloftheseinstrumentshavetworeedsasthebasicsoundgenerator.Thereedsareusually
madeofcane,andthesoundisproducedbytheperiodicopeningandclosingactionofthe
reedsasairisforcedbetweenthem.Thisproducesapulsationoftheairflowwithasawtooth
likewaveshape,whichisamplifiedbyresonanceinanaircolumninthesamewaythata
singlereedinstrumentis.Themaindifferencesbetweentheinstrumentsisintheirlengthand
theirfrequencyranges.ThesearecomparedinTable7.4

Table7.4TheFrequencyRangeoftheOboe,Englishhorn,Oboed'Amore,Bassoon,andthe
Contrabassoon.
Theoboeisthesmallestoftheorchestraldoublereedinstrumentsandisthe"soprano"ofthe
woodwindgroup.Itwasdevelopedfromthe15thcenturyItalianinstrumentcalledthe
Shawn.ItistheoboethatusuallysoundsthestandardtuningpitchofA440inorchestral
concerts.Oboesarenowusuallymadeofrosewoodorebony.Alloftheinstrumentsinthis
classhaveconicalpipesandtheirharmonicspectrashowsthattheyactasopenpipeshaving
bothoddandevenharmonics.Theyoverblowattheoctave.Theobed'amoreandthecor
anglais(Englishhorn)arebothsimilartotheoboebuthaveauniquepearshapedbell.This
actsasaresonatorandaccountsfortheparticularrichqualityofsoundproducedbythese
instruments.Theoboed'amoresoundsaminorthirdlowerthantheoboeandthecoranglais,
afifthlower.Theoveralllengthofthecoranglaisisabouthalfaslongagainastheoboe,and
soundsafifthbelowthatwritten.Twootherinstrumentssimilartotheoboearethe
heckelphoneandthesarrusaphone.Thebassoon(or"tenoroboe")wasfirstdevelopedin
Europeinthemiddlesixteenthcentury.Ithasaconicalboreandusesadoublereedlikethe
oboe.Itactslikeanopenpipewithallharmonicsbeingpresentinitsspectrum.Thebassoon
isundoubtedlythemostcomplicatedofthewoodwindinstruments,butitisalsothemost
versatile.Itstotaltubelengthisalmost8ft,sothatitmustbebenttwicetomakeitofplayable
length.ItslowestnoteisB1.
Thedoublebassoonorcontrabassoonisthelowestpitchedinstrumentoftheorchestra.Itis
twicethetotallengthofthebassoonandisatransposinginstrumentsoundinganoctavelower
thanwrittem.ItslowestnoteisBo(31Hz).Figure7.11showsanoboe,anEnglishhorn,anda
bassoonwiththeirharmonicspectraforparticularnotes.

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Figure7.11Anoble,coranglais(Englishhorn),andbassoon.

TheLipReedInstrumentsorBrassInstruments
Inallofthebrassinstruments,thelipsoftheplayerformavibratingdoublereed,whichacts
asthetonegenerator.Theresonantairtubesarecylindricalorconicalinshape,flaredatthe
endsandhavenosideholes.Theyaredistinguishedbytheshapeandsizeofthemouthpiece,
thelengthoftheconicaltube,andthesizeoftheflaredend,aswellastheiroverallshapeand
numberofvalves.
Themodernbrasshornisadescendantoftheancienthuntinghorn.Overthecenturiesthe
hornhasbeenimproved,correctedandmodifiedtoproducethebrassmusicalinstrumentsin
usetoday.AcylindricalpipeactsasaclosedpipeThemouthpieceactsasthecloseendofthe
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resonantaircolumnsothatonlytheoddharmonicswouldbepresentintheharmonic
spectrum.Inordertoproduceallharmonics,acombinationofamouthpiece,acylindrical
mainsectionleadingintoaconicalsection,andaflaredendhasevolved.
Astraightcylindricaltube130cmlongand1cmindiameterwillproduceresonance
frequenciesgivenbytherelationfn=nv/4L=344n/{4(1.30+1.4x0.01)}or65.4nHz,wheren
istheseriesofoddintegers1,3,5,...Theonlypossiblefrequenciesarethen98,296,327,458
Hzandsoon.However,whenamouthpieceandaflaredbellsectionareadded,thesechange
theresonantfrequencies.Thehigherresonantfrequenciesbecomelowerandthelower
frequenciesbecomehigher.Theresultisthattheybecomequiteclosetothoseforanopen
pipewithalloftheharmonics,bothevenandodd.Theactualresonantfrequenciesfora
flaredhorn130cmlongareapproximately260,390,520,650,780Hzandsoon,whichcanbe
seentobeequalto2x130Hz,3x130Hz,4x130Hz,5x130Hzand6x130Hz.Weseethat
theeffectofthemouthpieceandflaredendistomakeaclosedpipesoundlikeanopenpipe.
TheresonantfrequenciesandtheirmusicalnotesintheharmonicseriesforaChornbased
onthefundamentalfrequencyof130Hz(whichisusuallynotsounded)aregiveninTable7.5.
Ifthelengthisincreasedtoabout146cm,itwouldsoundasaBbhornandthenotesthat
couldbeplayedonitare:
B3bF4B4bD5F5.....

Table7.5ThefrequenciesandnotesintheharmonicseriesforaChorn
Theflaredbellactuallyservesseveralfunctions.Aswellasaffectingtheactualresonant
frequencies,itmoreefficientlyradiatesthesoundbymatchingthepressureinsidethehornto
theairpressureoutside.Italsochangestheradiationpatternoftheinstrumentmakingit
moredirectionalathighfrequenciesandgivingititscharacteristicbrightersound.Figure
7.12showsastraighthorn,acoiledhorn,andabuggle.

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Figure7.12Astraighthorn(a),coiledhorn(b),andabugle(c).
TheSwissAlphornisanextremelylongstraighthornwithaflaredbell.AnAoalphorn(the
lowestnoteonthepiano)hasafrequencyof27.5Hzandapipelengthofv/2f=344/(2x275)=
6.25m(over20feet).Althoughhornsandbuglescouldtheoreticallybemadeofanylength,
andpitchedinanykey,themostcommonmilitarybuglesarepitchedinForG.Any
particularhornorbuglecanproduceonlyafewharmonics,thenumberbeingdetermiedby
theexpertiseoftheplayer.Inordertoplayothernotes,sothatacompletechromaticscale
maybeplayed,thelengthofthehornmustbechanged.Thesimplestwayinwhichthismay
beaccomplishedisinthetrombone.

TheTrombone
Thetromboneisbasicallyahornorbugleinwhichthelengthoftheresonantaircolumnmay
bevariedbyatelescopicUtube.Thisallowsforacontinuousvariationinthelengthofthe
resonantaircolumnandinthecorrespondingfrequencies.Thetubeofthetromboneismostly
cylindricalandabout1cmindiameter,Thehighestfrequencyoccurswhentheslideispushed
inallthewayandthelowestwhenitispulledouttoitsmaximumposition.Thetromboneand
theinstrumentsintheviolinfamilyaretheonlyorchestralinstrumentstoproducepitches
thatmaybecontinuouslyvariesduringplaying.Figure7.13showsasketchofatrombone
withthesevenstandardpositionsoftheUtubeandtheircorrespondingnotesbasedonB1b.
Thesecond,third,fourth,andfifthharmonicsarealsoshown.Bychangingtheembouchure
andblowingpressure,theseconduptoabouttheeighthharmoniccanbesounded.

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Figure7.13TheTromboneslidepositions.
Whentheslideispushedinalltheway(calledthefirstposition),thetromboneactslikean
openpipeandhasresonancefrequenciesgivenbyfn=nv/2L,wherenistheintegerseries2,3,
4...andsoon.Thefundamentalfrequencycorrespondington=1isusuallydifficulttosound.
FortheB1btrombone,thefirstovertoneresonance(n=2)isat116Hz(B2b),thesecond(n=
3)at175Hz(F3),thethird(n=4)at233Hz(B3b)andsoon.Inordertolowertheplaying
notetoA2,thepitchmustbedecreasedby5.95%andthelengthoftheresonantpipemustbe
increasedbythesameamount.Inthefirstpositiontheeffectivetotallengthofthetubeisv/f=
344/116mor295cm(althoughthephysicallengthisabout20cmshorte),sothattheincraese
inlengthrequiredforthesecondpositionis295x0.0595mor17.6cm.Theslidemustbe
movedoutonehalfthisdistanceor8.8cm.Inthisposition,thetotallengthisnow312.7cm.
Thelengthcorrespondingtothethirdpositionis312.7x1.0595or331.3cmandincreaseof
18.6cm.Theslidemustthenbemovedoutafurther9.3cm.Inasimilarway,eachsuccessive
positionoftheslideaddsanadditional(andincreasing)lengthtothetubeandlowersthe
pitchbyasemitone.ThisisshowninTable7.6.

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Table7.6SlidepositionsforaBbtenortrombone
Thequalityofthesoundfromatromboneisbright,similartothatfromatrumpet,having
strongovertonesinitsharmonicspectrum.Trombonesaremadeindifferentsizeswith
differentfrequencyrangesasgiveninTable7.7.Sometrombonesevenhadvalves.They
appearedinViennaaroundtheyear1820.AtypicalBborchestraltrombonewithits
harmonicspectrumisshowninFigure7.14.

Table7.7TheFrequencyRangesoftheTrombone

Figure7.14Atrombone

TheTrumpet,theCornet,theFrenchHorn,theMellophonium,theTuba,the
Euphonium,andtheSousaphone
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Thisgroupofbrassinstrumentsfunctionsinthesamewayasthehornserxceptthatthe
effectivelengthoftheresonantaircolumnischangedbytheuseofvalves.Depressingavalve
addsacertainextralengthoftubingsothatthepitchisdecreased.Thisisshown
schematicallyinFigure7.15.Using'a'lowersthepitchawholetone(s2),'b'lowersthepitcha
semitone(s),'c'or'a+b'lowersitaminorthird(s3),'b+c'amajorthird(s4),'a+c'afourth
(s5),and'a+b+c'lowersthepitchatritoneordiminishedfifth(s6).

Figure7.15Diagramofadditionaltubinginbrassinstruments.
Inthetrumpet,forexample,'a'isthefirstvalve,'b'isthesecondvalve,and'c'thethird.The
extratubelengthsforeachvalveaspercentagesofthetubelengthare12.25,5.85,and18.9.
Twotypesofvalveshavebeendeveloped,thepistonandtherotaryvalve.Thepistonvalves
wereintroducedinGermanyaroundtheyear1815andtherotaryinViennaaroundtheyear
1832.TheyareshowninFigure7.16.Usingthevalvesindifferentcombinationsallowsthe
pitchofanotetobeloweredbyoneuptosixsemitones.Thesearecomparedwiththeseven
positionsofthetromboneinTable7.8.

Figure7.16(a)Pistonvalveand(b)rotaryvalve.

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Table7.8Comparisonoftrumpetvalveconfigurationswiththetromboneslidepositions
Themouthpieceendcorrectionisapproximatelyequalto2/3ofthediameterofthetubeatthe
mouthpieceendorabout1cmforatypicaltrumpetTheendcorrectionforthebellendis
about1/3ofthediameterofthebellorabout5cm.Themusicallengthwouldthenbe6cm
longerthanthephysicallengthoftheinstrumenttubing.
Thefundamental(orpedaltone)isoftendifficulttosound.Thelowestnotethatisusually
playedisthesecondharmonic(n=2)andthenexthighernoteisamusicalintervalofthefifth
aboveit(n=3).Theoctaveofthelowestplayednotecorrespondstothefourthharmonic(n=
4).Withoutdepressinganyofthevalves,thefollowingseriesofnotesmaybeproducedona
B2btrumpet.

Itisbyusingtheseharmonics,togetherwiththevariousvalveconfigurations,thatallofthe
variousnotescanbeplayedonthetrumpet.TheseareshowninTable7.9foraB2btrumpet.

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Table7.9ValveconfigurationsforvariousnoyesonaB2btrumpet
Thequalityofsoundfromthebrassinstrumentsischaracterizedbytheirbrightsound,rich
inhighharmonics.Thecharateristicsthatdeterminethenatureoftheharmonicspectrumare
theshapeofthetube,whethercylindricalorconical,thescalefactorofthetube(thatis,the
ratioofitsdiametertolength),andtheshapeandsizeofthebell.Thenarrowerthetube,the
highertheovertonesandthemorebrilliantthesound.Alargebellallowsformoreefficient
couplingofthelowfrequenciestotheair,producingamellowersound.Asmallbellproduces
amorebrilliantsound.ParticularlyfortheFrenchhorn,thesecondandthirdharmonicsare
strongerthanthefundamental.Figure7.17comparesthetrumpet,thecornet,theFrench
horn,andthemellophoniumandtheirharmonicspectraforparticularnotes.Thetrumpetis
the"sopranoofthebrassfamily.Thecornetisnotasbrilliantorbrassybecauseofitsconical
tubingandfewerovertones.Ithasamuchdeepermouthpiecethanthetrumpet.Twothirdsof
thelengthofatrumpetiscylindricalwhereasonlysboutonethirdiscylindricalinthecornet,
therestofthelengthbeingtheflaring.TheFrenchhornwasoriginallyaverylonghunting
horncoiledsothatitcouldbeeasilycarriedonhorseback.Itusuallyhasfourvalves.The
fourthvalvelowersthepitch5semitonesoramusicalintervalofafourth.SomeFrenchhorns
have5oreven6valves.Thepositionoftheplayer'shandinthebellaffectsthepitchenabling
harmonicsashighas15ormoretobesounded.Themellophoniumisanewer"alto"brass
instrumenthavingabeautiful,richtimbre,andisoftenusedinconcertsandmarchingbands.

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Figure7.17Atrumpet,cornet,Frenchhorn,andmellophonium.
Thetuba,thebasstuba,thecontrabasstuba,theeuphonium,andthesousaphonecomplete
thefamilyofbrassinstruments.Someofthese,especiallythetubas,haveafourthvalvewhich
addsanextralengthoftubingtolowerthepitchbyaperfectfourth.Infact,someFrench
tubashad6valves.Thesousaphone,namedafterJohnPhilipSousa(18541932)isthe
largestofthetubafamilyandwasfirstbuiltin1898.Itisactuallycoiledaroundtheplayer
withthebellfacingforwardsandisafamiliarsightinmarchingbands.Modernonesare
usuallywhiteincolor,beingmadeoffiberglass.Thetuba,thebaritoneeuphonium,andthe
sousaphoneareshowninFigire7.18.Thecharacteristicsofthetrumpet,thecornet,the
Frenbchhorn,theMellophonium,thetubaandcontratuba,andtheeuphoniumand
sousaphone,arecomparedinTable7.10.

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Figure7.18Atuba,baritoneeuponium,andsousaphone.

Table7.10FrequencyRangesofthetrumpet,cornet,Frenchhorn,andTuba

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TheHumanVoice
Asasourceofmusicalsounds,thehumanvoiceisthemostversatileofthemusical
instrumentsinitspossiblevariationsofpitch,loudness,andqualityofsoundsthatitcan
produce.Althoughwenormallythinkofthehumanvoiceasawindinstrument,insomeways
itmaybethoughtofasastringedinstrument(thevocalcordsmaybelikenedtostrings),and
inothersitmaybethoughtofasapercussioninstrumentlikeaharmonica,sincetheresonant
cavitiesofthehumanvoicearenotliketheregulartubularcavitiesoftheotherwind
instrumentsinyetotherwaysthevoicemaybelikenedtothebagpipes.Whetherornotwe
considerittobeawind,stringed,orpercussioninstrumentitconsistsofthreebasisparts:
1. Thelungs,whichactasbellows.
2. Thevibrator(thevocalcordsorfoldsofthelarynx,whichvibrateasdoublereeds).
3. Theresonators.Therearethreeresonators,theloweroneorthroat,andtwoupper
resonators,thenasalcavityandtheoralcavityormouth,ofwhichonlythemouth
cavitymaybevariedbythejaw.
Itshouldbenotedthatthevocalorgans(lungs,windpipe,throat,larynx,nose,andmouth)are
primarilyforbreathingandeatingsoundproductionissecondary.

TheLungs
Thesourceofenergyfortheproductionofsoundsisasteadystreamofaircomingfromthe
lungsasweexhale.Thisisnormallyinaudible(exceptforinvoluntaryvibrationsproduced
whenonesnores).Themaximumvolumeofairwhichmaybeexhaledisknownasone'svital
capacity.Itisusuallyaboutthreeliters.Thepressureoftheaircanbecontrolledatwill.Itis
forcedfromthelungsupthewindpipe,whichisabout12cmlonginmenand10cmin
women,tothelarynx.

TheVibrator(Larynx)
Thevocalcordsinthelarynxarethesourceofsoundinthevoice.Theyaretwobandsofskin
locatedatthetopofthewindpipewhosepurposeistorestrict,inacontrolledway,theair
movingthroughthem.Whenclosed,theyshutofftheairflow.Whenopen,airpassesthrough
tothethroatandwhenthevocalchordsarevibrating,theycausetheairstreamtobechopped
upintopuffswhosefrequencyisjustthefrequencyofvibrationofthevocalcordsactingasa
doublereedclampedatbothends.Thelengthofthevocalcordsvariesfrom18to24mmin
menandfrom10to15mminwomen.Thetensioninthevocalcords,andtheireffective
vibratinglength,arevariedbythemusclesattachedtothem.Thefrequencyofvibrationis
determinedbytheirlength,mass,tensionorelasticity,and,toacertainextent,theair
pressure.
Fromearlychildhooduptopubertythepitchrangeofchildrenincreases.Thereisverylittle
differenceinsizeofthevocalcordsbetweenboysandgirls.Duringpuberty,boyslosethe
abilitytocontrolthepitchofsounds.Thesizeofthemalevocalcordsincreasesconsiderably
witharesultantreductioninthepitchofthespeakingandsingingvoiceofaboutanoctave.
Boysthenhavetorelearnhowtocontroltheirvocalfolds.Thisoftentakesaslongasayear.
Asbothmenandwomenbecomeolder,theirpitchrangebeginstodecrease,mainlydueto
lossofelasticityofthemusclesofthecartilageinthelarynx.Tenorsbecomebaritones
sopranosbecomemezzosopranos.Inadditionthevoiceoftenacquirespronouncedtremolo.
Falsettotonesareproducedinthelarynxbyacombinationoftwoeffectstheshapeofthe
glottisopeninginthevocalcordsbecomesellipticalsuchthattheydonotfullycloseandso
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allowsomeairtocontinuouslypassthroughthem,andthemusclesthataffectthevocalcords
actdifferentlysuchthattheedgesofthecordsbecomethinnerandvibratemoreeasily.Figure
7.19isasectionalviewoftheheadshowingthelarynx(vocalcords)andresonators(throat,
nasal,andmouth).

Figure7.19Sectionalviewofthehumanheadshowingthevocalcordsandresonantcavities.

Resonators
Therearethreemainresonantcavities:thepharynxorthroat,thenasalcavity,andtheoral
cavityormouth.Theyeachfunctiontobothincreasetheoverallloudnessofthevoiceand
affectthequalityofthetonesproducedbyselectivelyintensifyingcertainfrequencies.Thusa
pleasantsoundingvoicehasfewprominentovertones,whereasaharshvoicehasmanystrong
overtones.
Theresonantfrequencyoftheresonatorsis:
1. inverselyrelatedtoitsvolume,
2. directlyrelatedtothesizeofopeningofthecavity,
3. inverselyrelatedtothelengthofthecavityneck,and
4. directlyrelatedtotheelasticityanddensityofthewallsofthecavity.

Theoverallvolumeofthethreeresonatorsmaybevaried,sincetheshapeoftheoralcavity
maybechangedbymovingthelowerjawandcheeks.Theresonantcavitiesarenotuniform
indiameterorevenregularindiameterastheyareintheotherwindinstruments.The
resonantfrequenciesaredeterminednotjustbythelengthoftheairtubebutbyotherfactors
suchasthevaryingcrosssectionalareaoftheopeningofthelips,thevaryingcrosssectional
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areaofthewallsofthetubeaswellasconstrictionsinit,andtheelasticbehaviorofthetube
walls.
Thevariableresonantpropertiesofthemoutharewelldemonstratedinwhistling.Thepitch
ofwhistlingisdeterminedbythevolumeofairinthemouth,whichisvariedbythecheeks,
tongue,andjaw.Thisvariesthepitchbyuptotwooctaves.Thequalityoftheoverallvocal
soundsproducedisdeterminedbytheacousticalpropertiesofthewholevocaltract,whichin
turndependontheshapeofthecavitiesasvariedbythetongue,mouth,andlips.

PitchandAmplitude
Pitchandamplitudearedeterminedbytheelasticityofthevocalcordsandthepressureofthe
airpassingthroughthem.However,theeffectsarenotindependent.Iftheelasticityofthe
vocalcordsiskeptconstantandtheairpressureisincreased,thenthepitchandthe
amplitudeofthenoteproducedwillincrease.Iftheairpressureremainsconstant,anincrease
intensioninthevocalcordsincreasesthepitch,butalsodecreasestheamplitudesincethe
cordsdonotopenasfar.
Soundsofgreateramplitudeobviouslyrequiremoreairtobeexpelled,sothattherateof
usageoftheairfromthelungsisgreaterforloudsoundsthanforsoftones.However,
differentsoundsrequiredifferentratesofairusage.Thuswemightsaythatinsinging,
certainsoundsaremoreairefficientthanothers.Inordertoproduceacontinuoustoneat
constantamplitudeforanextendedperiodoftime(10ormoreseconds)ahighdegreeof
controloverallpartsofthevocalmechanismisrequired.
Insummarywemaysaythatforthehumanvoice:
1. Pitchisdirectlyrelatedtoelasticityortensioninthevocalcordsandisalsodirectly
relatedtotheairpressure.
2. Intensity(amplitudeorloudness)isdirectlyrelatedtotheairpressure,butinversely
relatedtotheelasticityortensioninthevocalcords.
Theaveragefundamentalfrequencyofthemalespeakingvoiceisabout145Hz,whereasin
womenitisabout230Hz.Therangesofthehumanvoiceare:
SopranoC4toC6or262to1047Hz.
TenorG3toF5or196to698Hz.
BaritoneA2toG4or110to392Hz.
BassE2toD4or82to254Hz.
Agoodsingingvoiceusuallyhasacertainamountofvibratoortremoloinit.Vibratoisthe
periodicchangeinthefrequencyofanoteby5to10Hzatconstantloudness,whereas
tremoloisaperiodicchangeinloudnessatconstantfrequency.Inpractice,agoodsingerhas
amixtureofboth.Thefactisthatitisverydifficulttodistinguishbetweenthem.Vibratoand
tremolobothaddrichnesstothetoneandisgenerallyacceptedaspartofgoodtonequality.
Thehumanvocaltractcanbeapproximatedtoatubeabout15to20cmlong,closedatone
endandopenattheother.Thefundamentalfresonantfrequencyisthengivenbyv/4Lor430
to575Hz.Frequenciesaround500Hz(thatis,closetoC5)willbeemphasizedandadd
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richnesstothevoice.Thenextresonanceregionswillbearound1500and2500Hz(n=3and
5).Thus,asinthecaseofallmusicalinstruments,thevoicedoesnothavethesamequality
overitscompleterangeoffrequencies.Itsharmonicspectrumvarieswithfrequency.Figure
7.20showsatypicalharmonicspectrumforthehumanvoiceatseveraldifferentfrequencies.

Figure7.20Theharmonicspectrumofthehumanvoiceatvariousfrequencies.

PerfectPitch
Perfectpitchisthenamegiventotheabilitythatasomepeople(about1in2000)haveof
beingabletonamethepitchofatoneoracombinationoftones,ortobeabletosingagiven
notewithoutcomparisontoanyreferencetone.Itcanbethoughtofascolorhearingthe
abilitytorecognizepitchesinthesamewayaswerecognizecolors.
Untilrecently,perfectpitchhasgenerallybeenregardedassomethingthatoneisbornwith,a
geneticinheritance.However,itisnowbelievedthatmostpeoplehavetheability,butfew
knowhowtouseit.Itissomethingthat,toacertainextent,canbedevelopedbylearninghow
tolistentotones.Whetherinheritedorlearned,itiscertainlycherishedbythosefewpeople
whohaveit.
Itisinterestingthattheintervaloftheoctave,althoughthesimplest,istheonethatgives
someonewithperfectpitchthemostdifficulty.Itisrelativelyeasyforthemtorecognizea
noteasC,buttheyoftenhavedifficultyindeterminingwhether,forexample,itisC3,C4,or
C5.Perfectpitchseemstobemoreoftheabilitytorecognizedifferentnotesthantoplace
themwithinthecorrectoctave.
Perfectpitchhasbeenassociatedwithaparticularpartoftheleftsideofthebrainthesame
areainvolvedinlanguagelearning.Usingmagneticresonanceimaging(MRI),musicianswith
perfectpitchhavebeenshowntohavethatpartoftheirbrainenlargedcomparedwithnon
musicians.

SummaryofTerms

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Allwindinstrumentsconsistofasoundgeneratorandaresonantaircolumn.Wind
instrumentsaregroupedaccordingtothetypeofsoundgenerator:(1)Airreed,(2)single
mechanicalreed,(3)doublemechanicalreed,(4)lipreed,(5)humanvoice.
Endcorrections

Openend

Flueend

Cylindricalpipe
Flaredpipe
Squarepipe

0.4D
0.5D
a

D
D
2a

whereDistheinsidediameterofacircularpipe,and"a"istheinsidewidthofasquarepipe.
ScaleFactoristheratioofthepipediametertothepipelength.Fortheflutethevalueis
about1/30.
Qualitydependsonsuchcharacteristicsaswhetherthepipeisopenorclosed,itsthickness
andthematerialofitswalls,sizeofmouthpiece,windpressureandpipescalefactor.

SampleProblems
1. Calculatethefrequencyofanorganpipe2mlongiftheairtemperatureis20oCandit
is
(a)open.withendcorrectionsneglected,
(b)open,circular,10cmindiameter,
(c)open,squareincrosssection,10cminsidelength.
(d)closed,circular,10cmindiameter,
(e)closed,squareincrosssection,10cminsidelength
(a)f=v/2L=343.9/(2x2)=343.9/4or86.0Hz.
(b)f=v/2(L+1.4D)=343.9/2(2+1.4x0.1)=343.9/4.3or80.35Hz.
(c)f=v/2(L+3a)=343.9/2(2+3x0.1)=343.9/4.6or74.8Hz.
(d)f=v/4(L+D)=343.9/4(2+0.1)=343.9/8.4or40.9Hz.
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(e)f=v/4(L+2a)=343.9/4(2+2x0.1)=343.9/8.8=39.1Hz.
2. Aflute,88cmlongwiththestandardscalefactorandendcorrections,hasanopenhole
62.3cmfromthemouthpiecehole.Whatnotedoesitsoundiftheairtemperatureis
17oC?
Thefundamentalfrequencyisgivenbyv/2{L+1.4D)=v/2(L+1.4xL/30)sincethe
scalefactorD/L=1/30.
At17oC,thevelocityofsoundv=331.7+0.61x17=342.07m/s.
Hence,f=342.07/2{0.623+1.4x0.66/30}=251.6Hz,whichisC4.
3. WhatincreaseintemperatureisneededtoraisethepitchofanopenC5organpipebya
semitoneifitisintuneat20oC?
At20o,fC5=523.25=331.7+(0.61x20)/2L,sothatL=343.9/(523.25x2)or0.329m.
AtatemperatureToC,fC5=523.25xs,or554.4Hz,sothat
554.4=331.7+0.61T/(2x0.329)whichgivesT=54oC.
Thetemperatureincreaseneededis34oC.

4. Aresonancetubecanbeexcitedatfrequenciesof500,750,and1000Hzbutatnoothers
between400and1100Hz.Isitopenorclosed,andhowlongisit?
(250)
(1x250)

500
2x250

750
3x250

1000
4x250

Thefundamentalfrequencyis,therefore,250Hzandthepipeisopensincebotheven
andoddharmonicsaresounded.
Hence,f=250=v/2L=344/2L,sothatL=0.69mor69cm.
5. Aresonancetubecanbeexcitedatfrequenciesof540,900,and1260Hz,butatno
othersbetween500and1300Hz,Isitopenorclosed,andhowlongisit?
(180)
(1x180)

540
3x180

900
5x180

1000
7x180

Thefundamentalfrequencyis,therefore,180Hzandthepipeisclosedsinceonlyodd
harmonicsaresounded.
Hence,f=180=v/4L=344/4L,sothatL=0.479mor48cm.
6. ByhowmuchmusttheslideofatrombonebemovedtochangeitsnotefromC4toF4?
Thenotessoundedcorrespondtothesecondharmonic(n=2)sothatf=2v/2L.Ifwe
takethevelocityofsoundas344m/s.
fC4=261.63=2x344/2LfromwhichL=2x344/(2x261.63)or1.315m.
fF4=349.23=2x344/2LfromwhichL=2x344/(2x349.23)or0.985m.
Thechangeinlengthofthetrombonetubeisthen1.3150.975mor33cm,andthe
slidemustthenbemovedhalfofthisdistanceor16.5cm.
7. WhatnotedoesaB1btrumpetsoundifitisblowninitsthirdharmonicmodewiththe
firstandsecondvalvesdepressed?Whatnotedoesthepitchincreasetoifitisthen
blownharderton=4?
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ThenotesoundedbyaB1btrumpetisthesecondharmonicB2b.
Thenotesoundedwithoutdepressingthevalveswhenoverblowntothethirdharmonic
ofB1bisF2.
DepressingthefirstvalvelowersthepitchtwosemitonestoE2anddepressingthe
secondvalvelowersthepitchanadditionalsemitonetoD2.
Overblowington=4raisesthebasepitchtoB3banddepressingboththefirstand
secondvalvelowersthepitchthreesemitonestoG3.

Questions
1. Discusswhyallharmonicsarepossibleforanopenpipebutthatonlytheodd
harmonicsarepossibleforaclosedpipe.
2. Aswaterispouredintoasodabottle,thepitchofthesoundproducedincreasesasthe
waterlevelincreases.Explainwhythishappensandtowhatuseyoucouldputthis
effect.
3. Estimatethelengthoftheaircolumninthepreviousquestionwhenyoucouldnolonger
hearthesound.
4. Discusstheeffectsofchangesinairtemperatureonthepitchofwindinstruments.
5. Whateffectdoestheflareandtheshapeofthetubehaveonthefrequenciesofbrass
instruments?
6. Howcanyoutellwhetherapipeisopenorclosedfromananalysisofitsovertones?
7. Whyisthefundamentalpitchofaclarinetanoctavelowerthanafluteeventhoughthey
arebothaboutthesamelength?
8. Whensingingaparticularnote,whydoesthepitchincreasesslightlywhenyousing
louder?
9. Whyisitdifficultforasingertosingaseriesofnotesfromthelowesttothehighest
pitch,allatthesameloudness?
10. Goodsingersoftensingwithaparticularamountofvibratoortremolointheirvoice.
Howwouldyoudetermineexperimentallywhichitis?

Problems
1. Whatisthefrequencyofaclosedpipe425cm(14ft)long?Couldyouhearthisnote?
Answer:20Hz,barely.
2. Whatisthelengthofaclosedorganpipewhosefrequencyisthatofthelowestnoteon
thepiano?
Answer:313cm.
3. AnorganpipehasapitchofC4inair.Ifitisnowfilledwithhydrogen,whatwouldbe
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itsnewpitch?
Answer:C6.
4. Showthatthethirdharmonicofanopenpipeistheoctaveofthefirstovertoneofa
closedpipeofthesamelength.
5. Showthatthesecondovertoneofaclosedpipeisamajorthirdabovethesecond
harmonicofanopenpipeofthesamelength.
6. Thefrequencyofanorganpipeis1000Hzat20oC.Ifthetemperatureincreasesby5oC,
howmuchsharpisthepipenow?Whatfractionofasemitoneisthis?
Answer:8.8Hz,15%.
7. Anopenflueorganpipeis3mlongand5cmindiameter.Whatisitsfundamental
frequencyifendcorrectionsareignored?Whatisitstruefrequencyiftheend
correctionsaretakenintoaccount?
Answer:57.3,56.0Hz.
8. Anopensquareflueorganpipe1mlongandwithasidelengthof5cmissoundedin
air.Whatisitsfrequencyiftheairtemperatureis25oC?
Answer:154Hz.
9. Anopencylindricalorganpipe2cmindiametersoundsapitchofA2whentheair
temperatureis30oC.Whatisitslength?
Answer:156.3cm.
10. AfluteistunedtoA4atroomtemperature(20oC).Howsharpisitasafractionofa
semitonewhenblownwithairwarmedtobodytemperature(36.9oC)?
Answer:1/2
11. Whatisthefundaentalpitchofapiccolooflength33cmifitis31.3cmfromthecenter
ofthemouthholetotheopenend?Useroomtemperature(20oC)andincludeend
corrections.
Answer:C5.
12. WhichnotedoesatrumpetoffundamentalpitchB2bsoundwhenplayedwithallthree
valvesdepressed?
Answer:E3
13. Ifthetrumpetinthepreviousproblemisnowoverblowntoitsthirdharmonic(n=3)
andatthesametimethethirdvalveisdepressed,whatnoteisnowheard?
Amswer:D4
14. WhichnotedoesaB2btrumpetsoundwhenplayedwiththesecondvalvedepressedand
atthesametimeoverblowntoitsfourthharmonic(n=4)?
Answer:A4.
15. CalculatetheeffectivetubelengthsandthedifferencesintheslidepositionsfortheBb
tenortrombonegiveninTable7.8.
16. AB1btrombonesoundsB2bwiththeslideatthefirstposition.Whatisitspipelength?
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HowfarmusttheslidebemovedsoastosoundG2atitsfourthposition?
Answer:295cm,28cm.
17. WhatnotedoesaB1btrombonesoundwiththeslideatthesecondpositionandwhen
overblowntoitsthirdharmonic?Whatnotedoesitsoundiftheslideisthenpulledout
anextra40.7cm?Whatslidepositionisthis?
Answer:E3,C3,6th.
18. Anexperimentwitharesonancetubeshowedthatitcouldbeexcitedat1000,1500,and
2000Hz.Wasthetubeopenorclosed,andhowlongwasit?
Answer:Open,34.4cm.
19. Inasimilarexperimenttothatinthepreviouswithanotherresonancetube,the
excitationfrequencieswerefoundtobe450,750,and1050Hz.Wasthistubeopenor
closedandhowlongwasit?
Answer:Closed,57.3cm.
20. Iftheadjacentresonancesofanorganpipeare686,882,and1078Hz,whatnoteisits
fundamentalandisthepipeopenorclosed?
Answer:G2,closed.

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