PERIODICA POL)'TECii!;jCA SER.

cn'n

EXG. VOL

3o, SO. 3. pp 25}-270 (199::)

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF

STRUT AND TIE MODELS
.J.

AU.!,~SI

Department of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Technical l"niversity of Budapest
Received: 00vember 10. 1992

Abstract
Construction of strut and t:e mode! IST\!j at D-regions is based on elastic stress distributions by imagining the force, 2S re,ultants of stresses. Beside 'snlOoth' stress-trajectories
there are turbulent' places having a decish'e influence on the cracks. Therefore. it is useful
to use alternative ST\is. onp con:itructed on the base of smooth trajectories. and another
which fits the turbulent stre,ses. Examples are gi\'en for different types of structural
elements.

Keyword,,: strut and tie model (ST\\). elastic stress-trajectories. smooth and turbulent
stress-t rajectories. altprnative ST\!s for nTH' st met ural element.

of the Strut and Tie Model

Principles of the strut and tie model, and a short review of its application
is given according to SCHLAICH (1991) as follows. Internal stresses of RC
structures are characterized by bending moments, axial and shear forces
that are determined using well-known methods of the structural analysis.
Connections between bending moments and deformations as well as distributions of stresses due to internal forces and moments are given on the
base of a slightly modified elementary bending theory of bars which also
takes the specific behaviour of the structural concrete into account.
However, sections or regions of an RC structure may behave differently
and a linear distribution of axial strains and stresses due to the so-called
Bernoulli-Navier hypothesis can only be assumed for limited parts of the
structure, referred to as B-regions. (Fig. 1).
Sections or regions where the distribution of strains and stresses significantly differs from those obtained by the elementary bending theory
of bars are called D-regions. At D-regions, e.g. near concentrated loads,
frame corners (Fig. 2), etc. assumptions of elementary bending theory of
RC beams have to be replaced by those of a strut and tie model. B-regions
and D-regions can be separated using Saint,-Venant's principle. The first

252

J. ALMAsI

b)

0)

Fig. 1. Elementary bending theory for prismatic beams

step of developing a strut and tie model is the assignment of D-regions of

the structure in question, then, more or less correct distributions of elastic
stresses and the principal stress directions are to be determined for the
D-regions (for example by FEM analysis) (Fig. 3a). This way more or
less correct stress diagrams at the boundaries of the D-region also become
known.
Assuming that pencils of trajectories of compressive and tensile principal stresses in a D-region represent 'load paths' of compressive and tensile
forces and replacing these pencils by properly directioned straight struts
and ties, respectively, a contiguous and rigid plane truss or space grid can
be constructed (Fig. 3b).
This truss or grid is called the replacement strut and tie model of
the D-region. Bar forces acting at the struts and ties are the resultants
of compressive and tensile stresses. The directions of struts have to be
taken in the average direction of the trajectories of compressive stresses
and located about the central lines of the pencils. The ties should follow
the tensile stresses in the same way.
v 0" \7lith
Strut and tie lllUU.tl111J.Y-, ol)'\ilClW31 nrrn;';ciF<: the structural
some freedom of choice that can be used to aim either at the safest or at
the cheapest or at an otherwise optimised solution.
For practical reasons (e.g. to produce a simpler replacement truss or
to simplify the manufacturing of the reinforcement) one usually does not
closely follow the principal
and tensile stress directions. In this
case it is necessary to consider the consequences of these deviations, that
to check the equilibrium and to adjust the amOU'1t of reinforcement for
in'-o
aCCO-lln-'j-'-s de--:a-'-l'ons
rrom
(ii';a
!)
.... 1 t<
l_D _1"
V.!. L
L
1_
i _ -'-ho
t...L ...... D-inri~al
l ___ ,-_p_ di-oct:on<:
_l.\....
!
\J... "........ --;.
If modelling does not closely follow the stress-nows, it can cause incompatibilities in the corresponding strains, that means, cracks a,nd plastic
deformations have to develop. It is well known that concrete has a low
tensile st:i'ength and permits limited plastic compreSSlve deformations. To
cL!!a!

.!.

_w

CRAG.f:S AS U.fPORTANT

CO."~STITUENTS

253

OF STRUT AND TIE .MODELS

b)

1~ ~

"

d)

~D ~~~r","

'~Er

/region-jj, ," , '. reg ion

//;/ ~""

"

Fig, 2, Regions wherp there are non-linear strain distributions, separation of sections

avoid developing of wide cracks and exceeding plastic limit. an addit.ive

reinforcement. of t.wo directions has to be used,

The Problems of Strut and Tie Model

The use of strut. and t.ie models is st.rongly hampered by problems, not.
perfectly clarified so far, as follows:

254

J. ALMASJ

0)

et

)
b)

Fig. 3. Principal stresses and the imagr of forces

First Group of Questions

In order to determine whether principles used heretofore form a sufficient

base to develop strut and tie models, which can properly model the real
behaviour of structures, it is necessary to improve the adequateness of the
modelling by refining the fundamental assumptions.
Questions connecting to this are as follows:
- What dense should a replacement truss be?

CRACKS,AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

255

b)

a)
T (As}

{
CRACK

PRINCIPAL
TENS!ON

-4, Correction of reinforcement

What are the physical limits for constructing the truss?

How does the reinforcement influence the truss?
When using two strut and tie models for the same structures how can
the load be split into parts born by each model?
How can the effect of the prestressing be taken into account in strut
and tie modelling?
How have statically indeterminate strut and tie models to be correctly
solved?
How does a complicated cross-section influence the modelling?

Second Group of Questions

These are related to the accuracy of calculation. Connected to this one can
ask:
How does the deformation of strut and ties influence the action- effect
of the truss elements?
How can be compensated the neglection of the compabitility condition
for the changes in length of the fictitious bars?
What is the minimal amount of reinforcement for assuring the 'sufficient ductility'?
What kind of safety measures have to be used to avoid erroneous
dimensionings?
What kind of results do give the comparison between the calculated
and the measured values?
How does the bond change in nodes?
How does the deviation of the strength of the concrete influence the
results obtained by STMs?

256

J. AL.H.4S1

The Influence of Cracks on the Strut and Tie Model

Cracks on a well-designed structure or structural element gradually appear
as the intensity of the load increases, they are uniformly distributed and
not concentrated in narrow strips of the structure, their widths remain
moderate in the service state of the structure.
It is impossible to avoid cracks at the level of load of service state,
even in case of optimal design, however, crack widths and the crack pattern
can be influenced in many ways. Factors influencing the crack pattern are
as follows (Fig. 5):
the geometry and cross-section of the structure,
the loads and their characteristics,
the variance of strength of the concrete,
the concrete covering the reinforcing bars,
the temperature and the free motion hinder,
the amount of reinforcement,
the diameter of reinforcing bars,
the distances of reinforcement,
the direction of reinforcement (how it follows the direction of principal
tensile stresses),
the types of reinforcement (normal, prestressed or mixed),
the bond and the anchorages.
At abrupt changes of the cross-section, so-called stress peaks develop
(Fig. 6). Here the maximum stresses can multiply exceed the average
values caiculated by usual methods. Steep changes in stresses especially in
tensile stresses are hardly born by materials having a iimited ductility like
concrete .. Around stress peaks, tensile stresses quickly increase and exceed
the tensile strength of the concrete. Cracks arise, large deformation of the
tensile reinforcement starts and plastic zones develop while other parts of
the structure are
in elastic range. The appearance of cracks
that
the equalizing of stresses has begun.
Cracks at stress peaks have a decisive influence on the load-bearing
capacity of structures. These stress peaks form only small parts of the
Vllhole system of stresses and they can hardly be fit by any strut and tie
model. However, disregarding them would be a bad mistake. Researches
prove that unlike the other structural parts, where tensile forces can be
conveniently covered by simple webs of orthogonal reinforcement, at stress
peaks this method only gives a reduced-value solution both in ULS and
SLS.
Researches have also shown that at places where stress peaks can
develop the load bearing capacity can be increased by 20-30 % if reinforcing
bars are put at right angles to the cracks. The solution can be improved

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUBNTS OF STRUT AND TIB MODBLS

al

bI

cl

o
di

f)

" ,.
*"wini"c.r

~ -'30 0
~

t1

n ~

h1

\~ o

E:ZS2

i)

j)l

~o=====~>

Fig. 5. Factors influencing cracks

257

J. ALMASI

258

b)

0)

:)

c. )

d}

e)

f)
1

I
-

1_
Fig. 6. Stress peaks, decisive effect on cracks

by application of wedgings, roundings up, that is, gradual and not abrupt
changes of the cross-sections. These geometrical refinements also permit
good possibilities to refine the reinforcement as well.

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

259

As previously mentioned, the reinforcement has a decisive effect on

cracks. The correct direction of tensioned bars of strut and tie model
around the stress peaks has a great importance because this gives a great
influence on behaviour at S1S.
In the subsequent sections typical cracks on different structures are
shown that has to be taken in consideration in constructing strut and tie
models.

0.)

c. )

b)

d)

e.)

f)

L[J
Fig. 7. Principal stresses and what influences the cracks

260

1. ALMASI

Beam with Dapped End

Tests on beams with dapped end show that the first crack appears at
relatively low load level, (at about 25 % of the ultimate load) and it starts
with nearly 45 angle at the corner (Fig. 1). If the beam has a correct
reinforcement, the number of cracks increases to 2-3, while the length and
the width of the first crack are growing. The place of the starting points
and the direction of cracks are influenced by the geometrical proportion of
the dapped end (such as wedging, rounding, up, etc.). Two types of the
strut and tie models are recommended to use (Fig. 8). The load has to
be split into two parts according to the proportion of stiffness of the two
models.

c.l

bl

a)

1"10d8\ 1

t-i\ odC?\ TI

8. Alternative models for the same structure

Tests on corbels show four characteristic failures: bending, shear, dl;agon;al

splitting and
under the load
9). In the first three cases
charaC"tel~lS1G1C cracks develop
feature the manner and the cause of
the failure. If the bracket is connected to a column then the load has an
infiuence on the direction of the bending cracks (Fig. 9).
When ratio aj d is higher than 1 then vertical stirrups are more effective than horizontal ones (Fig. 10). Cracks on the bracket show the
importance of using oblique reinforcement. Doing so, the basic strut and
tie model has to be completed with ties crossing the cracks (Fig. 11). Alternative solution for the struts is also given on Fig. 11. Again, the load
has to be divided between the two models.

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

a)

bl

d)

C.l

T--_H

_---Wr
Lr

r-~j

___ .l
e.)

1/(1

f)

-::.t-__

-~

-r

"-..ft

Fig. 9. Princlpal stresses and failure modes

261

262

J. ALMASI

a)

b) -, - -

JL

11

1111111
a Id

D1

a Id >1

Fig. 10. Main reinforcements for corbel and cantilever

a)

Ir~,- /

b)

tl"
Modell

cl

Model 11

d)

e)

Fig. 11. Alternative models of corbel alld refinements of struts

Frame Corners
The action effects arising on frame corners are very different, depending on
stiffness ratio and loads. There are two characteristic cases: frame corners
loaded by: 'opening' moment and those loaded by 'closing' ones (Fig. 12).

263

CRACKS-AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

cl

bl

-no,
0)

......

i
I

_-""""

_L

-l.

___

..L

d)

e)
'f

-~
Fig. 12. Characteristic cracks and stresses at frame, corners

The cracks and their forms depend on the stresses of the used reinforcement
type.
The diagonal cracks are deep on the frame corner if they are loaded
by a 'closing' bending moment, therefore, taking off the tensile forces we
need more ties than one. Example is given in Fig. 13.
At frame corners loaded by 'opening' bending moment, the crack
starts from the inside corner and after a short way, it splits into two directions perpendicular to the original direction (Fig. 12). This again makes
necessary to use two strut and tie models. The basic model and the alternative version is shown in Fig. 14.

264

J. ALMA.SI

Mode!

Model

II

Fig. 13. Alternative models for corners with 'closing' bending moment

b)

0.)

! .

=-r--1~1)
~

'"

"I

Model II

Model 1
14. A..lternative rnodels for corners v-iith

~opening~

bending mOIllent

on Beams
One of the most uncomfortable tasks for a Ue:t51,lSl],t:l is to make openings on
structural parts
great statical importance. Nevertheless, the special
difficulties
in these cases have to be solved in a safe vvay.
Openings in homogeneous stress fields cause singularities in the stresses and make rise special cracks in well determinated places (Fig. 16).
Possible strut and tie models for these cases are given in Fig. 17. In
these cases it is also useful to use the combinations of tWD strut ana tie
models or to use a refined model.

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OP STRUT AND TIE MODELS

a)

265

b)

15. Influence of geon1etry proportion on the model

Beams
If a structure bears large loads,
beams have to be used. A survey
of the literature shows that a lot of different recommendations have been
worked out to control the stresses and to design the reinforcement in deep
beams.
Tests show four characteristic failure modes (Fig. 18). Up to now
methods mainly concentrated on avoiding bending failure but did not properly discuss the other cases, e.g. the large local stress peaks caused by large
concentrated forces. In the case of normal beams, second, third, etc. cracks
often rise in slightly different directions, while in the case of deep beams
this divergence cannot be observed.
To approach correct force flows we again need two combinations of
strut and tie models (Fig. 9).
Tests also show that the cracks can be essentially influenced by the
proportion of horizontal and vertical reinforcement. As a rule, a larger
load bearing capacity can be achieved by an enlarged vertical proportion
of reinforcement. This also supports the usefulness of the application of a
second model as shown in Fig. 19.

Conclusions
Construction of strut and tie models is based on elastic stress distributions,
by imagining the strut and tie forces as resultants of stresses.
Abrupt changes in geometry at D-regions of structures cause singular
stresses or turbulent places which disturb the generally smooth trajectories
of principal stresses. Unlike the places where the trajectories can be easily

266

J. ALMAsI

bl

cl

e)

Fig. 16. Cracks around openings

described by a strut and tie model, forces which arise at the places of
singularities cannot be fit in a simple way by commonly used strut and
tie models. If we force to fit these forces by the model, we easily lose the
simplicity of the calculation.

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

Model

-'1

Model I

If-

Fig. 17. Alternative models for a deep beam with opening

267

268

J. ALMAsI

b}

a)

-- - .n ..":'): n.<r - ---3'

c)

d)

~'
L~3

~\

I~.\~

Fig. i 8. Characteristic cracks and failures of deep beams

However, these turbulent places have decisive influence on the crack

at the
and their existence must not be disregarded in
the calculations. Taking into account tensile forces at these places needs a
special treatment. It is necessary to construct alternative models to control
the first cracks appearing at singular places. This can be done by the
following way: beside of the strut and tie model, constructed on the base
of smooth stress trajectories, also a second model has to be constructed
the ties (or tensile forces) of which are passing through these places and
make the stress peaks to distribute. The main part of this article shows
such models for different structures.
The load distribution between two replacing models can be divided in lack of a better solution - according to the proportion of stiffness of the
two models. It also has to be taken into consideration that codes require
more than one load case or load combination.

CRACKS AS IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF STRUT AND TIE MODELS

d1

i,

1/
//
I; ,

L'-L_J

i77

,."

11 .-

ill
1

Modal IT
e)

/,h
,I,

\\

\\
\ \

\ \
\

/ I
,,/ I

\
\ \

f-!---}
I,"

\ \

\
-'!>-

\
\

\,

i
I

I 1 ;"
,//

-1-1+--<0-

---.Ii l tI

Mode.l 11.

Pig. 19. Alternative models for deep beams

269

270

J. ALMi.SI

References
J. - SCHAEFFER, K.: Design and Detailing of Structural Concrete Using Strut
and Tie Models. The Structuml Engineer, No. 6, March, 1991.

SCHLAICH,

Address:

Dr. J6zsef ALMASI

Department of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Technical University H-1521 Budapest, Hungary