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academic and practical publications on the subject of project management
reference the PMBOK, adopt its methodology, and incorporate its terminology.
What Is a Project?
The fundamental nature of a project is that it is a temporary endeavor
undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.2 Projects are
distinguished from operations and from programs.
Temporary Endeavor
To be temporary signifies that there is a discrete and definable commencement
and conclusion; the management of a project requires tailored activities to support
this characteristic, as such, a key indicator of project success is how it performs
against its schedulethat is, does is start and end on time.
Unique Deliverable
The uniqueness of the deliverable, whether it is a product, service, or result,
requires a special approach in that there may not be a pre-existing blueprint for
the projects execution and there may not be a need to repeat the project once it is
completed. Uniqueness does not mean that there are not similarities to other
projects, but that the scope for a particular project has deliverables that must be
produced within constraints, through risks, with specific resources, at a specific
place, and within a certain period; therefore, the process to produce the
deliverable as well as the deliverable itself is unique.
Progressive Elaboration
This unique process and deliverable produces the third characteristic of a project:
progressive elaboration. Project management is a group of interrelated processes,
implemented in a progressively elaborative manner, in which to produce the
deliverable. Progressive elaboration is the revealing and focusing of details
through time. For example, in the engineering design process, a general and
broad concept may be a starting point for the design team; but through the design
process, the concept is narrowed to a specific scope and is further elaborated to
achieve the completed design; moreover, it may continue to be elaborated and not
be finalized until the product, service, or result is delivered.
Other Projects
A clarification should be made with respect to Reclamation language. In
Reclamation, a project is typically a congressionally authorized or directed
activity that allows Reclamation to do something specific. Traditionally, projects
2
Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge:

PMBOK Guide, 3rd Edition. Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, Project Management Institute,
2004, p. 5.
are groups of infrastructure, such as the Central Arizona Project, the Lower
Colorado Dams Project, or the Central Valley Project. The Reclamation project
activities would range from the traditional planning, designing, and building of
structures, to negotiating and signing delivery contracts, developing operations
plans, and completing environmental compliance documents.3 In historic
Reclamation vernacular, the operation and maintenance of the completed project
is also often considered as part of the project. Additionally at times in
Reclamation, the people managing projects are often referred to as something
other than project managersthey may be called team leaders, coordinators,
activity managers or program managers; people managing projects may be
called area managers or facility managers. Because of these connotations, care
should be taken to distinguish between Reclamation projects and projects as
defined above.
A Project Versus an Operation

The operations of an organization are continuing and repetitive activities that are
executed to achieve its mission and sustain the business, but without a definable
end to their performance and without a unique outputthat is, it is not produced
or provided only once.
A Project Versus a Program

A project differs from a program in that a program is a group of related projects
managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from
managing them individually. Programs may include elements or related work
outside the scope of discrete projects in the program.4 Furthermore, programs
often involve a series of repetitive or cyclical undertakings. In Reclamation, a
program is typically a group of projects administered by Reclamation.
Reclamation programs do not have to be specifically authorized, and a programs
schedule may continue past any individual project. Examples of Reclamation
programs are the Safety of Dams Program, the RAX Program, and the Title 16
Program.5
What Is Project Management?

Project management is the process of the application of knowledge, skills, tools,
and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements.6 That is,
project management is an interrelated group of processes that enables the project
3
Carly, Lauren. Project Management Primer. Bureau of Reclamation, 2004, p. 2.

2004, p. 16.
5
Carly, Lauren. Project Management Primer. Bureau of Reclamation, 2004, p. 2.
6
2004, p. 37.
4
team to achieve a successful project. These processes manage inputs to and

produce outputs from specific activities; the progression from input to output is
the nucleus of project management and requires integration and iteration. For
example, a feasibility report could be an input to a design phase; the output of a
design phase could be a set of plans and specifications. This progression requires
project management acumen, expertise, tools and techniques, including risk
management, contingency development, and change control. Figure 1 illustrates
the project context, its conceptual boundaries, or scope lines, as well as the
process groups required to manage the inputs and deliver the outputs.
Process Groups
The project management process groups depicted in figure 1 are initiating,
planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing. Initiating defines
and authorizes the project or a project phase. Planning defines and refines
objectives and plans the course of action required to attain the objectives and
scope that the project was undertaken to address. Executing integrates people
and other resources to carry out the project management plan for the project.
Monitoring and controlling regularly measures and monitors progress to
identify variances from the project management plan so that corrective action can
be taken when necessary to meet project objectives. Closing formalizes
acceptance of the product, service, or result and brings the project or a project
phase to an orderly end.7 Figure 28 illustrates the relative depth, breadth, and
interrelationship between these process groups.
Figure 2.
7
8
Ibid, p. 41.
Ibid, p. 68.
Several significant observations regarding the nature of project management can

be made from this figure. The breadth or range of project management is
comprehensivethat is, it begins with initiating and continues through closing;
these processes are coincident with the start and end of the specific project itself,
respectively. Monitoring and controlling occur throughout the duration of the
project and have a range relatively similar to that of executing. Indicating a
projects temporary nature and the importance of the timing of the deliverable,
closing begins relatively shortly after initiating concludes. Planning and
monitoring and controlling have a collective depth similar to that of executing,
illustrating that these activities require a level of effort and have a implication
similar to that of constructing the product, providing the service, or producing the
result.
Process Group Interaction

The level of interaction of the five processes indicates a strong relational
dependence not exclusive of one another. One process does not simply end and
the next one begins. The presence of this interrelationship and range is a function
of progressive elaboration. Projects are executed in increments and details are
exposed and developed through the progression of timeobjectives are
developed, discoveries are made; investigations, studies, and surveys are
completed; analysis is performed; constraints are changed; resources are
amended; contingencies are exercised; changes are managed; risks are mitigated;
and Force Majeure (unforeseeable or unpreventable circumstances) occurs.
To manage the breadth or range of a project, active and proactive project
management is required throughout the duration of the project. It cannot be
simply initiated and/or planned and left alone; it must be continually planned and
monitored and controlled. Sustained reactive project management is indicative of
incomplete or absent planning and/or monitoring and controlling.
Project Phases Versus Process Groups

Project management process groups are not project phases. In fact, the process
groups may need to be repeated for each phase, such as study, programming,
engineering, procurement, construction, and commissioning. A process group or
project phase is not discrete; they are interdependent and require integration.
Also, project management must ensure continuity as a project progresses through
processes and phases.
What Is Project Success?

A standard must be established by which to define and measure project success.
Fundamentally, project success is the delivery of the required product, service, or
result on time and within budget. To meet these objectives is to deliver a quality
project. PMI illustrates project quality through the concept of the triple

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academic and practical publications on the subject of project management

Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge:

A Project Versus an Operation

A Project Versus a Program

What Is Project Management?

Carly, Lauren. Project Management Primer. Bureau of Reclamation, 2004, p. 2.

team to achieve a successful project. These processes manage inputs to and

Several significant observations regarding the nature of project management can

Process Group Interaction

Project Phases Versus Process Groups

What Is Project Success?

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