3

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Nicholas M. Short
As perceived from space, entire geomorphic provinces may look volcanic in origin (e.g.,
Columbia Plateau in the Pacific Northwest section of the United States); in other provinces,
volcanism may prevail over a significant but usually spatially discontinuous fraction of the
region (as in parts of the Basin and Range province of the United States). The extent to which
a regional landscape is controlled by volcanism depends on: (1) the nature of the extruded
materials (basic lava's tend to spread over larger areas, producing landforms with more
subdued slopes (1 to 50) than do silicic lava's (20 to 350); (2) the distribution of vents and
fissures; (3) the volume of outpourings, (4) the duration of volcanism, (5) the age(s) of
volcanic activity relative to the present and to associated stratigraphic units; and (6) the
intensity and stage of subsequent erosional activity. In some regions, volcanic outpourings
were confined to a limited time period, leading to flows that cap older nonvolcanic units. The
resistance of such volcanic rocks to erosion strongly influences the subsequent history of
landscape development as streams penetrate into the underlying more erodible bedrock,
causing a distinctive assemblage of lava-capped hills and mesas (as, for example, in the
western Siberian Platform of Russia, Figure 3-l). Likewise, lava flows and/or thick tephra
deposits that accumulate over larger areas may partially to completely bury preexistent
topography.

Figure 3-1. Landforms developed by erosion of PermoTriassic rocks capped by basaltic trap. Area shown in this
Landsat image (1097-04465-5;Oct 28, 1972) is part of the
western Siberian Platform drained by the Nizhnyaya
Tunguska river. Many hills are flat-topped, reflecting
control by the resistant volcanic members. The Platform
contains 750000 km2 of Mesozoic flood basalts.

Most (about 82 percent) currently active centers of volcanism are concentrated on or near
convergent margins of continents and island arcs along plate boundaries within the Pacific
Basin ("Ring of Fire"). Nearly 14 percent of the world's active volcanoes are located in the
Indonesian Archipelago. Another 6 percent lie along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Africa, the
Mediterranean, and Arabian Peninsula regions account for 5 percent. The remainder occur at
other plate boundaries within the ocean basins (e.g., Hawaiian Islands) or continental
interiors (e.g., Yellowstone), generally where one or more subcrustal thermal plumes (hot
spots) have been identified or postulated. Although the subaerial distributions of volcanoes
now and in the past are intermittent in time and space, the ocean basins have experienced
continuous buildup of volcanic layers since at least the Triassic (and probably much farther
back in time). Where not covered by thin sedimentary deposits, the topography of the ocean
floor is distinctly that of a basaltic volcanic terrain, with shield volcanoes, ridges, cones, and
rifts adding variety to an otherwise rather even low-relief surface.

Most landforms identified as specifically resulting from volcanic action differ in two essential
respects from some of the other landform types treated in this book. First, volcanoes and their
derivative surroundings are primarily constructional during their active or formative stages.
Second, most smaller volcanic landforms tend to develop to their full extent more rapidly
than many fluvial, tectonic, and other landforms. The net effect due to this and to the high
levels of volcanic activity in the last few million years is that large parts of a terrain
dominated by volcanism appear to be notably fresher or younger than terrain of a different
nature, including those adjacent to the volcanic field. In his textbook on geomorphology, Von
Engeln (1942) states:
"Volcanic force is endogenic and, as such, gives rise to constructional landforms. These may
be so large as to constitute geomorphic units of first importance. . . . The lesser volcanic
features may be so numerous as to give a distinct topographic aspect to wide districts
(volcanic regions)."
In terms of the traditional (but now obsolete) Davisian sequence of erosional stages from
youth through old age, many volcanic forms seem to be young as now observed. While
active, volcanoes are usually built up (repaired) faster than destructional forces can reduce
them because of replenishment of surface cover by periodic (and often spasmodic)
outpouring of materials. Between occasional eruptions, smaller volcanoes covered with ash
undergo conspicuous erosion in a matter of years. However, most volcanic forms do not
progress into maturity until the activity causing them has either ceased or been long dormant.
For some, this may happen catastrophically, as when parts of a structure collapse or are
blown asunder during caldera formation. Likewise, flows generally do not experience
significant weathering or removal until after the last flows or ejects have covered them.
Surficial forms and features generated by tephra deposits are commonly short- lived because
of their ready erodibility. Volcanic structures attain old age when much of their external
protective covering has been stripped off, leaving a core of more resistant rock.
Volcanoes develop from extrusion or expulsion of fluids, congealed fragments, and gases that
collect or distribute at or near the Earth's surface to produce a variety of forms, chief of which
are conical, often mountain-like structures, thin to thick piles of flow sequences, and sheets of
airfall deposits of tephra (fragmented particles of volcanic material). The forms are controlled
in part by the mode or types of volcanic activity. This ranges from quiet emission to explosive
ejection, depending mainly on the gas content and viscosity (related to composition) of the
initial magma and resultant lava. The various modes of eruption are identified by reference to
an individual named volcano, a regional location, or (in one case) a person (Pliny) associated
with the type of activity, as summarized in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1
Types of Volcanic Eruptions*
Type

Characteristics

Fissure eruptions, releasing free-flowing (fluidal) basaltic magma; quiet, gas1. Icelandic poor- great volumes of lava issued, flowing as sheets over large areas to build
up plateaus (Columbia).
Fissure, caldera, and pit crater eruptions; mobile lavas, with some gas; quiet to
2. Hawaiian moderately active eruptions; occasional rapid emission of gas-charged lava
produces fire fountains; only minor amounts of ash; builds up lava domes.

Stratocones (summit craters): moderate, rhythmic to nearly continuous

explosions, resulting from spasmodic gas escape; clots of lava ejected,
3.
producing bombs and scoria; periodic more intense activity with outpouring
Strombolian
of lava; light-colored clouds (mostly steam) reach upward only to moderate
heights.

4.
Vulcanian

Stratocones, (central vents); associated lavas more viscous; lavas crust over in
vent between eruptions, allowing gas buildup below surface; eruptions
increase in violence over longer periods of quiet until lava crust is broken up,
clearing vent, ejecting bombs, pumice and ash; lava flows from top of flank
after main explosive eruption; dark ash-laden clouds, convoluted, cauliflowershaped, rise to moderate heights more of less vertically, depositing tephra
along flanks of volcano. (Note: ultravulcanian eruption has similar
characteristic but results when other types (e.g.,Hawaiian) become phreatic
and produce large steam clouds, carrying fragmental matter.)

More Paroxysmal then Strombolian or Vulcanian types; extremely violent

expulsion of gas-charged magma from stratocone vent; eruption occurs after
5. Vesuvian long interval of quiescence of mild activity; vent tends to be emptied to
considerable depth; lava ejects in explosive spray (glow above vent), repeated
clouds (cauliflower) that reach great heights and deposit tephra.
6. Plinian

More violent form of Vesuvian eruption; last major phase is uprush of gas that
carries cloud rapidly upward in vertical column for miles; narrow at base but
expands outward at upper elevations; cloud generally low in tephra.

7. Pelan

Results from high-viscosity lavas; delayed explosiveness; conduit of

stratovolcano usually blocked by dome or plug; gas (some lava) escapes from
lateral (flank) opening or by destruction or uplift of plug; gas, ash, and blocks
move downslope in one or more blasts as nues ardentes or glowing
avalanches, producing directed deposits.

Variant of a Pelan eruption characterized by massive outpouring of fluidized

8. Katmaian ashflows; accompanied by widespread explosive tephra; ignimbrites are
common end products, also hot springs and fumaroles.
* Abstracted and modified from Chapter XII (pp. 305-31-) of Principles of Physical Geology
by A. Holmes, 2nd ed., Ronald Press, 1965, with additional data from Volcanoes: In History,
In theory, In Eruption, by F.M. Bullard, University of Texas Press, 1962.
Classifications of volcanic landforms are surprisingly sparse in the literature. Although
textbooks and source books (at least those in English) on volcanology (Rittman, 1962; Oilier,
1969; Macdonald, 1972; Bullard, 1976; Williams and McBirney, 1978; Simkin et al., 1981)
concentrate on mechanisms of eruption and the petrology of products, they describe most of
the large and small scale structures and surface phenomena attendant to the volcanism. More
recently, Williams et al. (1983) have developed a geomorphic classification of Icelandic
volcanoes. Bloom (1978) treats volcanic landforms in a separate chapter early in his text
book on geomorphology. He points out that volcanism can be treated naturally from two
viewpoints, either petrologically (including mechanisms of emplacement) or as a landform
builder. He notes that classifications are based on one or more defining parameters: (1)
chemical composition (and temperatures) of volcanic effluents, (2) state of the ejects
released, (3) history of the volcanic field, (4) shapes/locations of the vents/fissures, (5) nature
of the volcanic activity, and (6) characteristic landforms. Bloom erects a classification around

two parameters: (1) viscosity (quality of magma) and (2) size of the landform edifices
(quantity of magma), yielding the types shown in Table 3.2 Many of these types are
expressed pictorially in relation to their plutonic sources in Figure 3.2
Table 3-2
Classification of Volcanic Landforms*

*Adapted from Bloom (1978), as simplified from Rittmann *1962), Tables 4 and 5.
Two other books place their prime emphasis on the volcanic landforms per se. These are:
C. A. Cotton, Volcanoes as Landscape Forms, 416 pp., Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.,
Christchurch, New Zealand, 1952.
J. Green and N. M. Short, Volcanic Landforms and Surface Features; A Photographic
Atlas, 519 pp., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1971.
Cotton's book delves at length into development of volcanic landforms by both petrogenic
mechanisms and modifying geomorphic processes. Numerous worldwide examples are given,
but an inordinate number come from his home country of New Zealand. The Green and Short
volume is primarily a pictorial atlas with descriptive captions, but an introductory chapter by
Arie Poldervaart succinctly summarizes volcanic landform origin and history from the dual
standpoints of emplacement and erosion processes.

Figure 3-2.Schematic diagram showing

characteristic landforms resulting from volcanic
action at the surface and their relation to shallow
intrusive activity in the crust (in Press and Siever
(1982); adapted from R.G.Schimdt and H.R.
Shaw, U.S. Geological Survey).

In his book, Cotton proposes grouping volcanic landforms into two first-order classifications,
based on: A. Lava Types = 1. Rhyolitic, 2. Andesitic, 3. Basaltic Landforms1 B. Fundamental
Physiographic Types = 1. Mountains, 2. Plateaus, 3. Plains, as constructed by volcanic
materials. However, Cotton does not formally organize the many landforms treated in his
book into any specific classification. The author of this chapter has developed a classification
of sorts extracted from the chapter and heading sections and some textual descriptions in
Cotton's definitive work. The result violates to some extent principles of scientific taxonomy
in that these headings are of mixed character; certain ones refer to structures, others to
topographic features, and still others to phenomena or processes accompanying eruption.
Nevertheless, the classification as it appears in Table 3.3 (with several modifications from
Green and Short) is valuable as a listing of most common larger surface features attributable
to volcanism. The table also lists examples of each landform category from selected localities
and singles out those landforms (indicated by + ) known to be visible from space. (Others on
the list, some now being discriminable but not clearly identifiable, maybe added as higher
resolution stereo sensors provide improved imagery.) Some volcanic landforms exemplified
in the space images are so large that they can be easily seen, others nevertheless visible are
much smaller (best seen under magnification), and many occupy only a tiny fraction of the
scene.
Table 3.3
Volcanic Forms and Features
Types of Surface Features

Selected Examples

Domes and Cones of Basaltic Lava

Basalt Cones +
Central and Fissure Vents
Flank Outflows of Lava +
Basaltic Lava Shield (small) +
Basalt Dome (shield) Structure +
Icelandic Spatter Cones
Scoria Cones

San Francisco Volcanic Field, Arizona

Haleakala, Hawaii
Mauna Loa, Etna
Skjaldbreidur, Iceland
Mauna Loa; Mauna Kea
Brfell, Iceland
Bdaklettur, Iceland

Lava Plateaus and Plains

Ignimbrite Plateaus +
Basalt Plateaus +
Fissure Eruptions +
Phonolite Plains +

New Zealand; Yellowstone; New Mexico

Deccan, India; Columbia, NW U.S.; Drakensburg,
South Africa
Lakiggar, Iceland

Basalt Plains +

Kenya; Dunedin; New Zealand

Snake River, Idaho

Lava Fields
Lava Tongues +
Ponded Lavas
Pahoehoe: Tumulis; Squeeze-Ups;
Pressure Ridges
Block Pahoehoe
Block aa
Block and Ashflows
Fire Fountains
Scoria Mounds (cinder cones)
Adventive Cones

Galapagos, Ecuador
Keanakakoi, Hawaii
Many
McCartys Flow, New Mexico
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy
Martinique; Merapi, Java
Hawaii
Stromboli, Italy; Teahuahua, New Zealand
Mauna Kea, Hawaii

Exposed Intrusive Features

Laccoliths +
Dikes, Sills +

Henry Mountains, Utah

Spanish Peaks, Colorado; others

Maars and Tuff Rings

Maars +
Ubehebes
Basaltic Tuff rings +
Diatremes +

Eifel, France; Lago di Nemi, Italy

Death Valley, California
Diamond Head, Hawaii; Mt. Gambier, Australia;
Hverfjall, Iceland
Hopi Buttes, Arizona; Kimberlites, South Africa

Rifts
Rift Valley +
Rift Liners +

Africa
MÝvatn Area, Iceland; Tarawera, New
Zealand

Craters and Calderas

Craters +
Pit Craters
Calderas +
Glencoe
Krakatoa
Multiple
Erosion Calderas +

Mt. Ubinas, Peru

Nyirangongo, Kenya; Halemaumau, Hawaii
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; Fernandina; Aso, Japan
Krakatoa, Indonesia; Aniakchak, Alaska
Dyngjufjll, Iceland
La Palma, Canary Islands; Mauritius; Banks
Peninsula, New Zealand

Viscid Lavas, Coules, and Tholoids

Convex Lava Flows
Cumulo Domes (Tholoids)
Obsidian Domes
Plug Domes
Spines
Tephra Showers and Nues Ardentes

Ascension Island, United Kingdom; Mono Craters,

California
Mayor Island, New Zealand; Puy de Dome, France;
Tarawera, New Zealand
Mono Craters, California
Usu, Japan; Lassen Peak, California
Mt Pele, Martinique

Vulcanian Ash Phase

Nues Ardentes (First Orders) +:
Plateau-Building (Ignimbrite Sheets)
+
Nues Ardentes (Second Order)

Mt. Vesuvius, Italy1 Taupo, New Zealand; Katmai,

Alaska
Mt. Pele, Martinique; Valley of 10000 Smokes,
Alaska
Bishop Tuff, California; Yellowstone Park, WyomingMontana
Mt. Pele, Martinique; Santa Maria

Tephra-Built Stratified (with lava)

Cones
Ash Cones +
Young Cones
Composite (stratified)Cones +
Multiple Cones +
Parasol Ribbing
Lahars (mudflows) +

Fujiyama, Japan
Vulcan, Italy; Rabaul, Papua, New Guinea; Paracutn,
Mexico
Merapi, Indonesia; Mayon, Philippines; Agua,
Guatemala
Tongariro, New Zealand
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; Paracutn, Mexico
Bandaisan; Balunggung, Indonesia

Erosion Features
Ravine Cuts (Barrancos) +
Planeze Stage of Dessection +
Necks and Plugs +

Popocatepetl, Mexico
Cantal, France
Shiprock, New Mexico; Roche St. Michel, France;
Hopi buttes, Arizona
Erosion Caldera +
Huahine, Society Islands
Eroded Dome
Haleakala, Hawaii
Lava Ridges (inverted Topography) + Australia
Lava Palisades
Hudson River, New York
Some specific types mentioned in Tables 3-2 and 3-3 deserve further comment. Domical
volcanic landforms (exogenous domes) result from the comparatively high fluidity of basaltic
magmas. Smaller dome-shaped mountains, of the Icelandic type, have gentle lower slopes
that may increase to angles of 20 or more toward the top. The much larger Hawaiian type
(Plate V-10) has slopes around 1 to 3, rarely exceeding 10. Individual edifices may have
basal dimensions approaching 100 km on a side and heights of 3 to 5 km. (The island of
Hawaii is 400 km in diameter at its submarine base and reaches a total height of 10 km.)
Flood basalt plateaus and plains (Plates V-5, V-7, V-20, and V-23) cover areas exceeding
10000 km2. While generally of low relief after the final eruptive emplacement of lava onto a
thickening pile, the terrain is affected by later erosion that produces notable relief
characterized by benches and cliffs. This landscape form is sometimes referred to as
"treppen" (step-like).
Composite volcanoes or stratocones comprise one of the most distinctive of all landforms.
They occur in isolation (Mt. Etna, Plate V-16), in alignments (Kamchatka, Plate V-25), or in
clusters, often numbering more than 100 in a field (Andes, Plate V-14). Stratocones may
begin as tephra rings and grow into larger bodies (typically circular in plan view by repeated
periodic episodes of eruption of both tephra (ash, lapilli, and blocks) and lavas. These two
types of effluents complement each other in building up a stable structure. Outpourings of

lava mix with fragmental ejecta to construct a reinforced conical landform about a structural
mainframe consisting of dikes, sills, and cone sheets. The main, usually central vent, often
topped by a crater at the surface, may also contain one or more endogenous domes (Plate V8), also known as tholoids, or may extrude a transient spine of congealed lava.
Many larger stratocones eventually self-destruct by some type of explosive eruption, often
resulting from introduced sea or ground water or melted snow, that succeeds in blowing away
the peak and parts of the framework (Plate V-24). Expulsion of great volumes of ejecta and/or
withdrawal of melted rock from the proximate magma chamber commonly robs the upper
structure of support, leading to collapse and, at times, additional explosive ejection of the
fragmented materials. The large craters (>1 km in diameter, up to 10 km or more) are termed
calderas; if the rim of this great cavity remains intact, the caldera may fill with water to form
a crater lake (Plates V-6 and V-18). Ignimbrites expelled during these events may spread over
wide areas, as at the Yellowstone region in Wyoming (Figure 3.3), infilling more rugged
terrain to produce an aggradational plateau.

Figure 3.3. Mountainous and flatlands terrain developed

on ignimbrites, flows, and ash deposits produced during
Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic activity in and
around present-day Yellowstone National Park in
northwestern Wyoming (landsat 1825-17294-7; October
26, 1972).

A few added comments concerning the relevant volcanic features that can be recognized in
the space images (those taken both from satellites and by astronaut-operated equipment)
shown in this chapter closes the introductory section:
1. For the most part, the scenes are mainly a mix of volcanic and other types of
landforms. Plate V-4, for example, shows the Pinacate Field in northernmost Mexico
as an area of recently active volcanism set apart from the Basin and Range structural
landforms that dominate the scene. By contrast, the entire image of the Afar in
Ethiopia (Plate V-21) depicts a volcanic terrain exclusively.
2. The most common associations with volcanic landforms are those of
tectonic/orogenic origin. This is to be expected in as much as anorogenic volcanism is
the exception even on the continents. Volcanism is a characteristic or hallmark of
several tectonic regimes. Referring to the classification given in the introduction to
Chapter 2, Tectonic Landforms (p. 30), one can predict volcanic activity concomitant
with lithospheric plate interactions for the following classes (named and then listed by
the number-letter code used in that classification):
I.Divergent Plate Margin:
a. Intracontinental Rift (A-1)
b. Oceanic Spreading Center (A-2)
II. Convergent Plate Margin:

a. Ocean-Ocean Plate Margin (B-1)

b. Ocean-Continent Margin (B-2)
c. Continent-Continent Margin (B-3)
III.Transform Zone:
a. Trench-Trench (Dead Sea Type) (C-1)
b. Ridge-Trench (San Andreas Type) (C-2)
c. Ridge-Ridge (San Andreas Type) (C-3)
IV.Plate Interior:
a. Shields (D-1)
b. Posttectonic Magmatic Intrusions (D-4)
c. Hot Spot Track (D-7)
3. Space imagery is especially effective in placing active, recent, or older, but nearly
always Cenozoic, volcanism in context with several types of structural control. Fault
zones and rifts are the prevalent types, as exemplified in Plates V-21, V-25, and V-27.
Alignments of volcanoes are frequently obvious, but the controlling fracture sets and
lineaments are more difficult to discern in many images.
4. Recognition and better definition of many volcanic land-forms that stand above their
surroundings (cones, domes, eroded dikes, and viscous flows) are significantly
enhanced by winter imagery (see Plates V-2 and V-25), owing to both lower Sun
angles and occasional snow cover.
5. Again, the synoptic aspect of space imagery helps to call attention to the remarkable
range in sizes among such volcanic structures as stratocones (compare Plates V-14
and V-17) and calderas (Plates V-13 and V-18).
6. Some landforms that at least partially owe their existence to volcanism display only
subtle evidence of this connection in the imagery. The rounded hills and sculptured
divides seen in Figure 3-1 do not readily manifest the influence of basaltic trap flows
that cap underlying sedimentary rocks in the Siberian Platform, nor do the Karoo
dolerite sills of South Africa (Plate V-20) produce a landscape that makes evident the
role these intrusions play in the landform pattern.
7. Other volcanic landforms maybe obscured by land-use patterns or soil cover. This is
evident in the Deccan Plateau of India (Plate V-23) and the Snake River Plains of
Idaho (Plate V-6). Tephra deposits are geologically transient, as indicated in the Mt.
St. Helens subimage (Plate V-8), where only a few years of forest growth has
diminished the once sharp contrast between tephra deposits and vegetated terrain.
8. As is evident in Table 3.3, space imagery is presently not well suited to recognizing
the majority of volcanic features whose critical dimensions are less than the effective
resolution of the sensor system. This group of phenomena include pahoehoe, blocky,
and aa lavas, plug domes, tholoids. spatter cones, hornitos, pit craters, many dikes
(and dike swarms), and nearly all other small features. Some of these are even
difficult to locate and identify in aerial photos. Certain other smaller features-maars,
diatremes, necks, lahars, and welded tuff units--can frequently be spotted in space
images of adequate resolution.

9. Finally, under fortuitous circumstances, space imagery can capture a volcanic eruption

"in the act" or can often provide the first direct evidence of the consequences of that
eruption shortly thereafter. Plate V-8 offers a dramatic example in its extended
coverage of the 1980 eruptions at Mt. St. Helens, during which a NOAA satellite
actually picked up the airborne ash clouds in transit and after which Landsat provided
the first complete view of the devastated area around the volcano. A lava flow in
process of descending from one of the Galapagos volcanoes is visible in Plate V-13.
New flows from eruptions at Mt. Etna (Plate V-16) in the 1980s are readily
discernible.