Studi Kasus Sato Umi Syalalaa
Studi Kasus Sato Umi Syalalaa
Studi Kasus Sato Umi Syalalaa
Convention on
Biological Diversity
61
Acknowledgements
This document was produced with the financial support of the Prefecture of Ishikawa and the City of Kanazawa,
Japan. The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity wishes to acknowledge with appreciation the
United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies Operating Unit Ishikawa/Kanazawa (UNU-IAS OUIK)
for editing this document, and would like to thank the authors and photographers who contributed to this
report and the organisations that collaborated in its preparations. In addition, UNU-IAS OUIK expresses its
gratitude for the editing and coordination of this effort to, in alphabetical order: Joanns Berque, Jacqueline
Grekin, Atsuko Hasegawa, Jihyun Lee, Anne McDonald, Osamu Matsuda, Yoshitaka Ota and Marjo Vierros.
Contents
Foreword by the Executive Secretary of the CBD.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Foreword by the Governor of Ishikawa Prefecture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Executive summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I. Introductory articles
1. Relevance of satoumi to the CBD mandate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Mainstreaming satoumi in Japanese national policy:
Introduction to the case studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Box 2: Oyster shell nurseries using aquaculture waste for biodiversity management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Box 4: Partnership for environmental education and ecosystem restoration: The case of
eelgrass bed reestablishment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Box 5: Ecological links between terrestrial and coastal areas in the Yura river estuary and
the Tango Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Box 6: Kisetsu-sadame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
iii
Ahmed Djoghlaf
Executive Secretary, Convention on Biological Diversity
Masanori Tanimoto
Governor of Ishikawa Prefecture
vi
Executive Summary
The alarming rates of decline in coastal biodiversity are well documented, and the resulting decrease in vital
ecosystem services may have vast and adverse consequences for many countries. While protected areas are an
indispensible tool for conservation, in many areas relying solely on the exclusion of human use is problematic. In the particular case of Japan, reviving satoumi, a coastal sea with high human influence together with
high productivity and biodiversity, is one culturally appropriate way to integrate conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Satoumi has enabled the effective involvement of stakeholders from different sectors in coastal conservation.
The nuanced view of human interaction with coastal nature in satoumi accommodates a wide range of conservation and restoration practices, including some involving human labour on the ecosystem, such as reforestation
of watershed slopes, restoration of seagrass beds or maintenance of artificial habitats. Available data is encouraging on their effectiveness and their potential to mobilize communities and fishers.
Satoumi conservation has facilitated the mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns in various sectors involved
in the coastal zone. Several ministries use satoumi to enhance conservation in their policies and field activities, and fishers voluntarily led and invested labour and resources into conserving the local ecosystem. This
effective integration of conservation costs by ecosystem users appears to rest on collective, largely hereditary
ownership and empowered collective structures that can harmonise economical and technical consideration
with cultural and non-utilitarian views of life on the coast.
Uptake in wider management frameworks and processes, and multidisciplinary, international collaboration
are priorities to further the contribution of satoumi to biodiversity conservation. Satoumi is currently being
scaled up from a largely community-level practice to the national level. International collaboration and sharing
of similar experiences is progressing, beginning with Asian countries with highly human-influenced coastal seas.
Overall, although further research and practice are necessary, where it has been applied, satoumi has proven
to be an effective, culturally appropriate concept for coastal conservation. The experiences reported herein
can thus be a useful contribution to the knowledge-base for biodiversity management in human-influenced
coastal seas.
vii
Oyster farming in Nanao Bay, an enclosed sea area with a long history of mariculture.
Below the surface of coastal waters surrounding Japan's capital megacity, sea
anemones, three spot damsel fish and other marine life inhabit Tokyo Bay.
xvi
I. Introductory Articles
Introductory Article
Marjo Vierros
United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies Traditional Knowledge Initiative.
Charles Darwin University Casuarina Campus, Ellengowan Drive, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Table 1. Commonalities between the 12 principles of the ecosystem approach and satoumi.
Principle (from decision V/6)
Satoumi relevance
1. The objectives
of management of
land, water and living
resources are a matter of
societal choices.
Different government
departments and the general
public view and apply satoumi
in accordance with their own
priorities. The concept is
broad enough to encompass
priorities of diverse sectors, as
well as scientific, cultural and
spiritual values.
2. Management should
be decentralized to the
lowest appropriate level.
Satoumi-related activities
are generally implemented
on the community level,
with government support.
Conservation activities
undertaken as part of satoumi
have proven valuable in
mobilising communities to
care for and better understand
their local coastal ecosystem.
3. Ecosystem managers
should consider the
effects (actual or
potential) of their
activities on adjacent
and other ecosystems.
In satoumi, there is an
emphasis on understanding
and regulating how activities
taking place on land affect the
sea downstream. Examples
include regulation of nutrient
cycling and pollution.
Satoumi relevance
4. Recognizing potential
gains from management,
there is usually a need to
understand and manage
the ecosystem in an economic context. Any such
ecosystem-management
programme should:
(a) Reduce those
market distortions
that adversely affect
biological diversity;
(b) Align incentives to
promote biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use;
(c) Internalize costs and
benefits in the given
ecosystem to the extent
feasible.
Satoumi is grounded in an
understanding of the local
socio-cultural context and
focuses on restoring ecological
services and enhancing
livelihoods, particularly in
regards to fisheries. Active
conservation measures, where
fishers contribute time and
resources to planting trees,
kelp, Sargassum beds, etc. are
examples of satoumi-related
activities, which provide a
potentially interesting way for
users of biodiversity resources
to internalize the costs of
conservation.
5. Conservation of
ecosystem structure and
functioning, in order
to maintain ecosystem
services, should be a
priority target of the
ecosystem approach.
6. Ecosystems must
be managed within
the limits of their
functioning.
7. The ecosystem
approach should be
undertaken at the
appropriate spatial and
temporal scales.
Satoumi relevance
8. Recognizing the
varying temporal scales
and lag-effects that
characterize ecosystem
processes, objectives for
ecosystem management
should be set for the
long term.
9. Management must
recognize that change is
inevitable.
Satoumi relevance
Application of satoumi
involves a broad range of
participants, including local,
prefectural and national
governments, fishermen,
scientists, civil society and
concerned citizens.
Introductory Article
Introductory Article 2: Mainstreaming Satoumi in Japanese National Policy: Introduction to the Case Studies
A key lesson from the failure to meet the 2010 biodiversity target is that
the urgency of a change of direction must be conveyed to decision-makers
beyond the constituency so far involved in the biodiversity convention
(Global Biodiversity Outlook 3, 2010, p. 83).
Introduction
The Global Biodiversity Outlook 3, published by the
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity
in preparation for the tenth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties (COP 10) in Nagoya, October 2010,
makes clear the dire state of global biodiversity and
our failure to meet the 2010 target for reducing the rate
of biodiversity loss globally. The report highlights the
urgent need to change the direction of global policy
and make environmental conservation a top priority.
It underlines the importance of mainstreaming biodiversity protection and integrating CBD strategies into
relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes
and policies. The report sees this as the key to initiating and sustaining the level of effort needed to meet
the challenge of global action that can halt the loss
of biodiversity and bring about real changes in our
environment.
The following three discussion points concern biodiversity mainstreaming strategies that can be identified
as we review ongoing satoumi activities in national
and sectoral policy implementation:
1. Incorporating the ecosystem approach into
sectoral strategies, plans, and programmes that
promote active and effective participation by
government, including national and local governments, as well as local communities and industry.
2. Upgrading community-level initiatives to implement the ecosystem approach, and coordinate
and integrate them with national-level strategies, plans, and programmes to both empower
communities and promote the notion of biodiversity and sustainable use of natural resources
without diminishing local sense of ownership.
3. Creating a national policy that can transcend
sectoralism and bridge differences among sectoral
policies and interests, as well as integrate sectoral
approaches.
As we examine these points, we will look at different
ideas of satoumi held by the three Japanese ministries
in charge of coastal environments: the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT);
the Fisheries Agency (FA); and the Ministry of the
Environment (MOE). We will then present national
policies related to the idea of satoumi, namely, Japans
Basic Plan on Ocean Policy and its Third National
Biodiversity Strategy. We will use these policies in
discussing how and why the notion of satoumi is brought
into national policy: firstly, because of its inclusiveness,
and secondly, because of the way it reflects the Japanese
sense of placetraditional coastal landscapes and local
environmental wisdom combined with natural science.
10
Introductory Article 2: Mainstreaming Satoumi in Japanese National Policy: Introduction to the Case Studies
11
12
Introductory Article 2: Mainstreaming Satoumi in Japanese National Policy: Introduction to the Case Studies
Conclusion
This chapter has discussed the process by which the
satoumi approach has been adopted into different
sectoral and national policy initiatives. Based on this
discussion, we can focus on three points in mainstreaming CBD, namely, (1) the incorporation of an
ecosystem approach into sectoral strategies, plans and
programs; (2) scaling up community-level ecosystem
management to the level of national strategy, planning
and programmes; and (3) the integration of various
sectoral approaches into a national policy.
Regarding the first point, we have seen how different
government ministries have incorporated elements of
satoumi into their projects, such as recreating biodiversity-rich habitats (although on a small scale), or
reconfiguring local environmental knowledge and
traditional management systems, or establishing
networks of communities connected by water in areas
stretching from rivers and river basins to the coast.
Having been incorporated into the general direction
of each ministerial policy, the satoumi approach has
been a successful tool in promoting active and effective
participation in government, community, and indus-
13
local environmental knowledge, and second, the flexibility of the concept and the possibility of gearing it
to the policy and programmes of different ministries
by emphasizing certain aspects while not compromising its inclusiveness.
14
References
Matsuda, O. 2007. Overview of Ago Bay Restoration
Project based on the New Concept of Satoumi:
A Case of Environmental Restoration of Enclosed
16
17
Case Study
18
Abstract
Designated as a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site in 2005, the waters of Shiretoko, seasonally
covered with ice floes, are the northernmost ecosystem presented in this report. Communities there have
fished a wide variety of species since ancient times. Satoumi-oriented conservation implied recognition
of these fishers communities as an integral component of an ecosystem they used sustainably for centuries. This recognition, along with conservation objectives that integrated sustainable use of biodiversity
components, and a cross-sectoral management framework, helped overcome the fisheries sectors initial
apprehension towards the requirements of a natural world heritage. Shiretoko fishers became indispensible, self-driven actors in conservation. Shiretoko is an example of satoumi that successfully involved
local communities and combined their knowledge with science to conserve a priceless world heritage,
inclusive of its communities and their livelihood.
Introduction
The Shiretoko peninsula is located at the far northeast
corner of Hokkaido and is one of the worlds richest
north temperate ecosystems. The area of Shiretoko,
including the peninsula and its adjacent sea, is one
of three Natural World Heritage sites in Japan. A
coastal community with a long history and far-reaching involvement with its natural surroundings, the
area demonstrates a uniquely balanced interaction
between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The area
is unusually rich in biological diversity, which includes
several endangered species, and it has a deep-rooted
cultural heritage built up over many generations of
fishing families.
The singularity of the ecological characteristics of the
Shiretoko peninsula and its adjacent marine areas is
explained partly by the fact that it lies at the southernmost limit of the seasonal ice floes in the northern
hemisphere, and partly by its exposure to both the East
Sakhalin cold current and the Soya warm current.
These two currents, each bringing a different set of
oceanographic conditions, have helped to create the
great diversity that characterizes the Shiretoko environment. Furthermore, borne on cold water from the
Sea of Okhotsk, a stream-like marine ecosystem
where a welter of organisms live and migratealso
passes through (Ministry of Environment, Hokkaido
Prefectural Government 2007). The areas exceptional ecology is matched by its cultural significance,
in that it provided the historical landscape for Ainu
communities. These indigenous people of Hokkaido
traditionally practised sustainable use of regional
resources in compliance with an animistic system
of beliefs that affirmed a close spiritual link between
nature and humans. Shiretoko means the end of the
world in Ainu language.
19
Brown bear
Sea
eagles
Fisheries
Steller
sea
lion
Snails Seabirds
Toothed whales
Sharks
Snails
Rays
Trophic level
O
OP
BT
Yellowtail
Cods
Walleye
pollock
Squid
SC
Starsh
Crabs
Prawn
Echinoids
Sea
cucumber
Bivalves
PS
PH
SL
Mackerel
SF
A.G.
Tuna
Salmonids
Snails
Sardine
Other
shes
Sea
squirt
Polychaetes
Baleen
whales
Anchovy
Zooplankton
(copepods,
euphausiids)
Seaweed
and
seagrass
Detritus
Phytoplankton
(ice
algae)
Figure 1. Food web in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage (WNH) area (as depicted by the Shiretoko WNH
Site Scientific Council). AG: arabesque greenling; BT: bighand thornyhead; F: flatfishes; G: greenlings; O: octopus;
OP: ocean perch; PH: Pacific herring; PS: Pacific saury; R: rockfish; S: seals; SC: saffron cod; SF: sandfish; SL: sand-lance.
20
coordina/on
and
coopera/on
River
Construc/on
WG
Yezo
Deer
WG
21
Table 1. Major laws and administrative authorities for Shiretoko WNH area management.
Service
Legal basis
Administrative authority
Fisheries
management
Pollution control
Landscape
conservation and
material circulation
Species protection
the Nemuro stock of walleye pollock mainly by gillnet. Gillnet fishers have divided the fishery ground into
34 areas, based on their local knowledge and experience, and to conserve resources they declared seven
of these areas protected, including a portion of the
walleye pollock spawning ground. After Shiretokos
nomination for World Heritage listing, another six
areas were designated as protected, and the protected
areas are re-examined every year on the basis of the
previous years performance and scientific advice from
the local research station.
The Okhotsk and Kuril population of the Steller sea
lion migrate from Russia to the Shiretoko WNH
area in winter. Fortunately, its size has been gradually increasing 1.2 per cent per year since the early
1990s (Burkanov and Loughlin 2005) and in 2007, the
Fisheries Agency of Japan revised the procedure for
setting the cull limit, basing it on the potential biological removal theory (Wade 1998), which is used under
the US Marine Mammal Protection Act.
22
Conclusion
Under the Japanese fisheries co-management system,
coordination and stakeholder participation is limited
to the fisheries sector only, and no other marine
References
Burkanov, N.V., and T.R. Loughlin. 2005. Distribution
and abundance of Steller sea lions, Eumetoias jubatus,
on the Asian coast, 1720s-2005. Marine Fisheries
Review 67: 1-62.
Fisheries Research Agency of Japan. 2007. Fiscal Year
2006 Stock Assessment Report for Nemuro Stock of
Walleye Pollock. [online] Available at: <http://abchan.
job.affrc.go.jp/digests18/details/1813.pdf>
23
Case Study
24
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto, 603-8047 Japan. E-mail: [email protected]
Akita Prefectural University, 34-3 Shintouda-Takanashidai, Akita City, Akita, 010-0826 Japan. E-mail: [email protected]
Case Study 2: Satoumi to Integrate Resource Conservation and use: Sandfish Fisheries in Akita Prefecture
Abstract
Conservation efforts to protect the sargassum seaweed beds that provide spawning grounds for Japanese
sandfish (Jp. hatahata; Arctoscopus japonicus) are a good example of local fisheries management that
highlights traditional practices of the satoumi. Sandfish fisheries in Akita are active in coastal satoumi
waters as well as offshore waters in north-west Japan. After a drastic decline in catch in 1991, a threeyear moratorium was enforced between 1992 and 1995. The reason for the decline was presumed to
be complex, but three major overall factors are relevant: (1) a climate change induced regime shift, (2)
overfishing and inappropriate fisheries practices, and (3) degradation of the satoumi over the past few
decades. Since the resumption of sandfish fisheries in 1995, total allowable catch (TAC) allocations,
use of artificial hatcheries, and restoration programs for seaweed beds have been launched to support
sustainable sandfish fisheries. The focus, however, has tended to be on the governance of TAC allocations among user groups, rather than on ecosystem-oriented approaches such as restoration of sargassum
beds. The concept of satoumi provides a basis to integrate conservation of coastal biodiversity with the
sustainable use of its components in sandfish fisheries, as illustrated by the seaweed transplantation and
forestation programmes launched by coastal communities. Efforts to conserve seaweed beds to nurture
sandfish fisheries are expected to lead to an integrated coastal management framework linking forests
and offshore waters through satoumi.
25
26
Catch(tons)
Year
Case Study 2: Satoumi to Integrate Resource Conservation and use: Sandfish Fisheries in Akita Prefecture
fish less than 15cm long was reached with the neighbouring prefectures in March 1999. The treaty was
renewed and is effective to 2014.
Satoumi-oriented resource
management
Marine resources management in Japan cannot be
simply dictated from above, as is widely documented
for many cases around the world. Marine Protected
Areas (MPAs) have many times been successful in
providing benefits in coastal fisheries, but in Japan,
time-honoured territorial claims and relevant institutions in near-shore waters (Ruddle and Akimichi 1984)
further complicate the consensus and compliance of
stakeholders from various sectors for establishing
MPAs. For sandfish, various types, of restrictions,
including catch quotas, mesh size, closed seasons,
and fishing gear types have been implemented, but
the most effective measure so far has been the TAC
system. However, adequately accounting for important fluctuations in the population of sandfish is an
important challenge.
Thus, there are compelling reasons to complement these restriction-based measures with a more
distinctly satoumi, ecosystem-oriented approach
involving the protection and conservation of spawning sites in coastal waters, to ensure the long-term
resource supply not only of sandfish but also other
marine life. In Akita Prefecture, alterations of the
coastal environment during the 1960s and 1970s, with
little knowledge and consideration for the ecosystem
27
Table 1. Number of meetings held at different levels, from fishers to nationwide, as part of the
efforts to manage the sandfish resource sustainably. FCA: local fisheries cooperation association,
WG: working group of the prefectural government. The Sea District covers the coastal waters off
Aomori, Akita, Yamagata and Niigata Prefectures.
+
*"&%
")*("*
")!(*
")*("*
&*#
($&(*&("+$,%
'*-
&(*&("+$,*
+
&)*&(*&("+$,
'*+ -
structure and functions, brought about the deterioration of coastal seaweed beds. As a case in point, in
the 1970s a coastal protection levee some 600m long
was constructed in the midst of the seaweed beds at
Kitaura, which had been one of the major spawning
grounds for sandfish on the Akita coast. A decline
in the seaweed beds during this period was linked
to the spectacular increase in sandfish roe (buriko)
washed ashore during the winter season. The shore was
found covered with piles of buriko. Research on artificial sandfish spawning sites, carried out since 1998,
estimates the average number of buriko that adhered
to the base of drifting seaweed as 58.5 per unit base,
31.7 for large mesh sized net, and 5.8 for a small mesh
net. These figures suggest that seaweed beds have the
greatest potential as spawning sites, as had long been
recognized by fishers.
Between 1997 and 2008, the Akita prefectural government attempted to create seaweed beds on artificial
blocks. A total of 4.5 hectares on the Akita coastal
zones were set aside for this purpose, with the prefectural government investing the equivalent of US$ 2
million over three years.
Also, since 1996, coastal communities have started
forestation programmes, including in Kisagata where
more than 8,200 beech (Fagus crenata) and oak
(Quercus mongolica) trees were planted to enhance
the various ecological roles played by forests (MEA
2005). These forests are expected to nurture a rich
supply of nutrients which will be transported to
28
Case Study 2: Satoumi to Integrate Resource Conservation and use: Sandfish Fisheries in Akita Prefecture
grow in waters enriched with mountain forest nutrients, to maturing in deep offshore waters, calls for
such management integrating offshore, nearshore and
mountain regulations and activities.
Acknowledgements
This article presents certain results of the project on
Ecosystem Services Assessment of Satoyama, Satochi
and Satoumi to Identify New Common Ground for
a Nature-Harmonious Society (E-0902) promoted
by the Japanese governments Environment Research
and Technology Development Fund, Ministry of
Environment. The authors would like to express their
gratitude for the financial support of the Ministry
of Environment. We are indebted to Mr. Kikuji
Sasaki, former representative of the Akita Fisheries
Cooperative Association, for providing useful information during our field survey.
References
Akimichi, T. 2001. Species-oriented resource management
and dialogue on reef fish conservation: a case study
from small-scale fisheries in Yaeyama Islands,
Southwestern Japan. In Understanding the cultures of
fishing communities: a key to fisheries management and
food security, edited by J.R. McGoodwin, 109-31. FAO
Fisheries Technical Paper 401.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Marine Resources
Conservation Working Group (APEC-MRCWG), ed.
1998. Proceedings of destructive fishing practices on the
marine environment 16-18 December 1997, Agriculture
and Fisheries Department, Hong Kong.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). 2005.
Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Nakanishi, T., and H. Sugiyama. 2004. The allocation of
TAC and the decision making of the sandfish fisheries
management in Akita Prefecture. The Study of
Regional Fisheries 44 (1): 1-14.
Ruddle, K., and T. Akimichi, T., ed. 1984. Maritime
institutions in the Western Pacific. Senri Ethnological
Studies No. 17.
Sakuramoto, K., T. Kitahara, and H. Sugiyama. 1997.
Relationship between temperature and fluctuations
in sandfish catch (Arctoscopus japonicus) in the coastal
waters off Akita Prefecture. ICES Journal of Marine
Science 54: 1-12.
Sugiyama, H. 2010. Sandfish and oyster nurtured in the
waters off Mt. Chokai. In Water and life: a report from
Mt. Chokai, edited by T. Akimichi, 126-141. Tsuruoka:
Tohoku Publishing Planning (In Japanese).
29
Case Study
Ryo Tsujimoto
Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center (NPEC), 5-5 Ushijima shinmachi, Toyama City, Toyama, 930-0856 Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]
30
Abstract
For over 400 years, the waters of Toyama Bay have been fished with set nets (teichi ami), and the local
culture and cuisine has evolved in ways that made sustainable use of the harvest of this locally-invented
fishing method. In recent years, set net fishing has drawn attention as potentially more sustainable than
trawling and the other methods employed in the bay, in part because set nets let over two-thirds of the
fish escape. Although total fish catch in Toyama Bay has remained relatively stable, the ecosystem degradation has been severe, and local fishers, often the first to observe and bear the consequences, have been
spurred to preserve their resources. Results of early attempts at releasing farmed fish fry in the bay were
not satisfying, and the awareness steadily rose that the bay ecosystem, its habitats and its biodiversity had
to be conserved all together in order to preserve the fishing resource. The fishers now take part in watershed forestry to help manage runoff into the bay. To combat eutrophication and provide essential habitat
for juveniles, they cultivate and harvest makombu kelp and transplant Zostera marina seagrass. By these
contributions to ecosystem conservation, the fishers are patiently nurturing a satoumi seascape that is
respectful of their world view, at the core of which is a deep gratitude for the bounty bestowed by the sea.
31
32
Since the 1940s, most of the nets for set net fishing
have been replaced with synthetic fibre, while wood
buoys are now made of glass, plastic, or aluminium.
One exception is for firefly squid (Jp. hotaru-ika;
Watasenia scintillans) fishing, in which the leader net
of the set net continues to be made of rice straw cord.
The firefly squid has a mantle length of approximately
5cm and photophores covering its body. The primary
harvesting season is from March to June. The luminous firefly squid has become a tourist attraction for
the region, and is served sliced as sashimi (i.e. raw)
and as boiled seafood, both local delicacies. Once,
an attempt was made to replace the rice-straw nets
and straw nets with synthetic fibre nets. But the firefly
squid catch was poor that year, so the fishers returned
to the use of straw-made nets. It is believed that the
natural straw materials make it possible to direct the
firefly squid to the main part of the net without scaring
them. The nets are fixed with anchors made of sandbags filled with river gravel. Fishers go to sea even in
winter to haul in the nets. They light wood fires on
their ships to warm themselves while going to and
returning from the fishing grounds. The materials for
the straw nets, firewood and gravel traditionally used
are all found in the nearby mountains, one of many
ways in which fisheries have linked the satoyama and
satoumi since long ago.
Fisheries production
50000
45000
40000
35000
Catch
(t)
Total
catch
Catch
from
set
net
shing
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
Figure 3. Total catch and catch from set net fishing in Toyama
Bay (19532010). Source: Toyama Prefecture Bulletin of Statistics
on Forestry and Fisheries (1953-2000) and Toyama Prefecture
Fisheries Research Institute (2001 to 2010).
Management systems
33
International cooperation
Eutrophication
34
Natural threats
Set nets are also vulnerable to certain ocean conditions, particularly high waves, and kyucho tend to
cause damage. Kyucho refers to abnormally strong
currents induced after the passage of typhoons or
low pressure systems, which can break or sweep away
coastal set nets (Matsuyama 2005). Kyucho damage in
the several billions of yen is reported in Toyama and
the Noto Peninsula (Hayashi and Ino 2005; Okei et al.
2008). Although it has been recorded in this region
since ancient times, the mechanisms of kyucho remain
poorly understood. Set net fishers know from experience that they can prevent damage to their nets by
hauling them out before storms break, but this entails
significant labour. Recently-developed kyucho-resistant fishing equipment and more accurate forecasting
improved through numerical modelling are expected
to help in managing this risk.
ble catch was imposed for the deep sea red snow crab
(Jp. benizuwai-gani; Chionoecetes japonicus).
35
Seaweed cultivation
Seaweed is an important food in Japan, and its cultivation can have many benefits for the environments,
such as provision of nursery grounds for juvenile fish,
water purification and carbon dioxide sequestration.
The youth group of the fisheries cooperative cultivates
makombu kelp (Jp. makombu; Saccharina japonica)
as part of its environmental preservation activities
(Figure 6; Yano 2006; Matsuda 2010). The primary
purpose is to utilise the strong nutrient absorption
capabilities of seaweed to prevent eutrophication. Due
to the high water temperature in summer in Toyama
Bay, kelp does not survive through the summer.
36
Conclusion
Set net fishing has been practiced for over 400 years
in Toyama Bay, with the local food culture adapting
to best use the available species for each season. Over
the centuries, the fishers in the bay have constantly
adapted their activities, shifting from developing new
fishing grounds, to improving their fishing techniques;
they later practised stock enhancement and resource
management, and are now in the process of expanding
environmental conservation activities such as watershed forestry, and restoration and enhancement of the
seaweed beds. These more holistic (more ecosystembased) approaches to conserving fishery resources
naturally came forth as awareness rose that a rich
diversity of organisms is necessary for the ecosystem
to be both sustainable and productive. The satoumi
in Toyama Bay may be described as a coastal sea that
fishers have made productive and sustainable. A strong
sense of gratitude for the bounty bestowed by the sea
remains central to the worldview that has driven fishers conservation efforts to nurture this seascape.
Acknowledgements
References
Fujii, S. 1985. Toyama Bay I Geology. In Coastal
Oceanography of Japanese Islands, edited by
Coastal Oceanography Research Committee, The
Oceanographical Society of Japan, Tokyo: Tokai
University Press (In Japanese).
Hatakeyama, S. 1994. The Forest is the Sweetheart of the
Sea. Tokyo: Hokuto Shuppan (In Japanese).
Hatta, M., J. Zhang, H. Satake, J. Ishizaka, and Y.
Nakaguchi. 2005. Water mass structure and fresh
water fluxes (riverine and SGDs) into Toyama Bay.
Geochemical Journal 39: 157-164 (In Japanese).
Hayashi, S. 1996. Set Net Fishing Method in Tradition.
In Television Broadcast Lecture of the KNB Television
Prefectural Resident College entitled Living in the
Sea of Fertility: Fishery in Toyama Bay, Kita Nihon
Printing (In Japanese).
37
Case Study
* Current affiliation: Sophia University, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, 7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8445 Japan. Email: [email protected]
38
Abstract
Mainstreaming biodiversity and securing linkages among forests, the countryside, rivers and the sea
are two of the four basic strategies of the National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan 2010. To achieve this
by 2012, the national government has designed an action plan that includes 720 specific measures.
Collective efforts by national and local bodies of government, researchers and civil interest groups
will be needed to develop working solutions to meet the ambitious goals of the national biodiversity
strategy. How these stakeholders work together to complement each others strengths as one collective
whole will be key. The Nanao Bay case study explores how this may potentially be achieved. In 2008,
Nanao Bay was selected as one of four pilot sites for the Ministry of the Environments Satoumi Creation
Project to design and implement integrated community-based management of coastal marine ecosystems. Although the project was initiated by the central government, inferring a one-way top-bottom
approach to policy initiatives, local initiatives were also already in motion, providing the bottom-up
platform to combine with and facilitate the central government initiatives. Though it is yet premature
to make any conclusive assessments about final or achievable outcomes, this case study is one example
of how local community efforts, supported by locally-based scientific research activities, can link with
national efforts to mainstream biodiversity.
39
40
5,005
5000
4000
3000
1,920
2000
1000
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
0
1982
Catch (t)
an overall decrease of productivity in the bay, possibly caused by land-based anthropogenic activities such
as discharge from factories, household sewerage and
agricultural chemical run-off.
Studies have indicated sea bottom environment degradation in the west and south bay areas (Taniguchi
and Kato 2008; Ministry of the Environment 2009).
Though not conclusive, fisheries researchers in the area
also suggest environmental degradation may be the
cause of declining catches of blood clam; specifically,
despite substantial annual releases of young shells into
the bay to increase stocks, poor survival rates of the
young shells has been attributed to the deterioration
of the sea bottom environment (Ishikawa Prefecture
Fisheries Research Center 2005).
As researchers increasingly focus on the impact of
anthropogenic factors on the bays marine environment, interest in the role of land-use changes
has grown, and research exploring the cause and
effect of land-use changes on marine ecosystems has
gained momentum on the peninsula. A comparison of images observed by the Landsat satellite in
May of 1973 and 2001 shows that land-use change
and degradation in the bay area has taken two polar
paths: overexploitation and underuse, two of the
four threats to biodiversity identified in the National
Biodiversity Strategy of Japan 2010 (Figure 3). Species
and habitat degradation due to overexploitation has
mostly been caused by conversion of agricultural
lands into urban lands for residential housing and
industrial activities, land reclamation and other
construction activities in coastal areas. Juxtaposed
to degradation caused by excessive human activities
and development is the degradation of inland forests
and upland agricultural lands caused by underuse,
Water
Urban
area
Paddy
eld
Agricultural
eld
Waste
land
Golf
eld
Broad
leaved
forest
Needle
leaved
forest
Water
Urban
area
Paddy
eld
Agricultural
eld
Waste
land
Golf
eld
Broad
leaved
forest
Needle
leaved
forest
41
42
discussion between various stakeholders that previously had limited interactions with each other. The
group functions as a coordinating body of ocean users
by establishing rules for diving and dolphin watching.
As dolphin watching tour numbers increase, however,
fishers whose fishing grounds fall in the areas inhabited by the dolphins are increasingly concerned about
the potential impacts on their fishing activities. Both
interest groups have called for the need to develop a
new management structure and regulations for the
growing tourism activities.
Resource use conflict discussions, growing concern
over declining fish stocks and degradation of the bay
environment have resulted in a growing collective
awareness among community leaders of the need
for integrated approaches to explore working solutions for marine resource use, conservation and
management issues in the bay. Awareness of the issues
supported by sound scientific studies and generating
the civil will to work together to find working solutions is a step Nanao Bay community has made. The
next step of mitigating competing interests under
one overarching body did not easily take form until
MOEJ initiated the Satoumi Creation Project in 2008
(see Chapter 2).
Nanao Bay became one of four pilot sites selected by
MOEJ in 2008 as a model where integrated river basin
activities could be explored for a two-year period to
provide scientific and socio-economic data on issues
including local government policy. The project was
designed to develop satoumi activities that would go
beyond the enclosed coastal waters linking mountain and agricultural lands along waterways flowing
into the bay. Selection by the national government
as one of four pilot sites (the following year another
two pilot sites were added) provided the impetus,
as well as facilitated local efforts to bring various
stakeholders together. A steering committee was
established at the prefectural environmental division
office and members included researchers, Nanao Bay
Research Group representatives, and fisher cooperative association representatives. To respond to national
government initiatives of cross-sectoral approaches
to satoumi-based activities, government division
representation included the environment division;
fisheries section of agriculture, forestry and fisheries
division; and land, infrastructure, transport and tourism division from both local municipal government
bodies and the prefectural government (Ministry of
the Environment 2009).
43
44
In the case of Nanao Bay, central government initiatives for satoumi-based activities as part of efforts
to mainstream biodiversity came at a time when
community awareness of growing coastal marine
environmental issues was supported by sound scientific studies. The scientific backing to fisher and
other interest group observations of potential degradation and ensuing impacts was a key element, as it
provided the impetus for local initiatives. Not only
were research findings key to stakeholder mobilization,
but researcher interaction with the various interest
groups, from fishers to tourist groups to the crosssectoral local government offices, and participation
in the multi-stakeholder local dialogues has also been
instrumental in strengthening local initiatives and
providing the scientific validity needed to effectively
link local efforts to national initiatives.
National and locally intertwined initiatives facilitated
by multi-stakeholder dialogues have been successful
thus far in engaging the differing resource user interests
in the bay. Under the guidance of the Satoumi Creation
Project steering committee the differing issues have
been discussed and debated in the same forum, thus
facilitating an integrated approach to policy discussions. Research and policy needs have been identified
by the steering committee and presented to both the
local and national government offices. Implementation
of integrated policy is the next challenge. Scientific
activities once again will be key in meeting this next
challenge; specifically, marine spatial planning designed
from ecosystem based management approaches is yet
only a final aim and will require the collaborative
efforts of scientific, civil and political will to achieve.
References
Hughes, J.D. 2009. An Environmental History of the World:
Humankinds Changing Role in the Community of Life.
London: Routledge.
Ishikawa Prefecture. 2003. Ishikawa Prefecture Fishing
Ground Conservation Policy.
Ishikawa Prefecture Fisheries Research Center. 2005.
Fisheries Research Center News Letter No. 35.
Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment (JSSA)
Hokushinetsu Cluster. 2010. Satoyama and Satoumi:
Socio-ecological Production Landscapes in Japan
Experiences and Lessons from Hokushinetsu
Cluster. Tokyo: United Nations University (Japanese
publication).
Ministry of the Environment. 2009. Satoumi Creation
Supporting Project of 2008. Report on Satoumi
Creation Activities, Nanao Bay Satoumi Creation
Project.
45
Case Study
Anne McDonald
United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies Operating Unit Ishikawa/Kanazawa, 2-1-1 Hirosaka, Kanazawa, Ishikawa,
920-0962 Japan. Email: [email protected]*
* Current affiliation: Sophia University, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, 7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8445 Japan. Email: [email protected]
46
Case Study 5: The Ama-San of Hegura Island: Carrying on the Traditions of Her Ancestors
Abstract
The ama, literally sea-women, have for centuries made a livelihood of diving to collect shellfish. On
Hegura Island, long, daily immersions in the ocean since generations have over time built coastal
communities in which a uniquely intimate relationship with the sea is a key part of the cultural identity, providing a distinctive case of the interaction of a culture with its coastal ecosystem. Like many
other female divers communities, the ama of Hegura are characterised by strong, women-led hereditary
collectivism. Community-level collective structures regulate the use of the commonly owned coastal
resources, making management decisions including on the introduction of new technology. An intriguing
example is the collective decision to not introduce SCUBA diving technology, which seems impossible
to make sense of from the viewpoint of economic efficacy alone. Cultural identity and a non-utilitarian view of their ecosystem were considered in the collective deliberations, and took precedence over
short-term gains in time or financial efficacy. Yet in the long run, the indications are that such decisions
led to better outcomes socially, environmentally, and even economically, as it appears the Hegura ama
community has a lower debt ration than most other fishers communities although further research
is needed to quantify this. It should be clarified that the community is far from systematically rejecting
modernity, as illustrated in the cooperation with scientists to address new challenges such as climate
change impacts. On the contrary, this communitys particular path to conciliate tradition and modernity
is a valuable example that compels more research on its effective use of cultural identity and traditional
knowledge for sustainability in a modern context.
47
48
Case Study 5: The Ama-San of Hegura Island: Carrying on the Traditions of Her Ancestors
49
50
Case Study 5: The Ama-San of Hegura Island: Carrying on the Traditions of Her Ancestors
51
some challenges in integrating local ecological knowledge and scientific knowledge for effective resource
management.
Warming temperatures, degradation of seagrass beds,
declines not only in the target species abalone and
turban shell but other marine life, and the increased
frequency in appearance in their waters of marine life
typical of waters further south have been observed by
ama divers, particularly among those over 50 years
old (Group for Research of Natural Environment in
Hegurajima and Nanatsujima Islands 2011; McDonald
2008-2010). As observations of change increase, so
does concern about community resilience and their
ability to adapt to change. Efforts to regenerate marine
resources have thus far been negligible (McDonald
2008-2010). Ocean desertification is seen by ama
divers as a possible reason for the lack of success in
their regeneration efforts, which include releasing
seeds, enforcing no-take zones and reduced diving
times (Group for Research of Natural Environment in
Hegurajima and Nanatsujima Islands 2011). Some of
the elder ama divers interviewed commented, Has the
marine environment changed so much that it no longer
can sustain marine life? (McDonald 2008-2010).
Conclusion
Though further analysis is required, it can be argued
in the case of Hegura Island that community-based
resource management, with its roots in hereditary
fishing rights, contributes to mainstreaming biodiversity conservation. It is clear that the collective
community has a keen sense of the importance of
resource management in order to ensure sustainability and biodiversity conservation. Collective will and
an understanding that resource management is something that must first come from within the community,
combined with empowerment, self-initiative and a
strong consciousness of community responsibility ensure the ongoing viability of ones community,
based on sustainable resource management. The ama
divers of Hegura, though by no means presenting a
perfect picture, do embody the strengths of community-based resource management, driven by a strong
sense of cultural identity and inclusive egalitarian decision-making, where trade-offs are debated and final
decisions are made by the collective whole.
The science of resource use and biodiversity conservation is given much attention by policymakers and
52
yet factors driving human behavior are often overlooked. Cultural identity as a driving factor in resource
management is something to be learnt, or at least
considered, from this case study. There are many
aspects which compel further exploration regarding
the interrelation of the ama divers cultural identity
and the sustainable management of the resources.
One promising topic is their collective deliberation
of benefits and trade-offs prior to the adaption of new
technology, and how this may be used for decisionmaking in larger management frameworks.
A strong sense of cultural identity, hereditary-based
resource access and use rights as the foundations of
community-based management can potentially run
the risk of a community distancing themselves from
and being distanced by the mainstream community
in any given country. This can ultimately lead to the
weakening of that community when the answers to
sustainable resource use management cannot be found
from within. Community viability requires communities to be able to reach beyond the borders of their
communities to work with non-community members
to find working solutions to community challenges.
That the ama divers of Hegura Island have welcomed
scientists into their community is a sign of their potential strength in eventually finding answers to the
questions of how to adapt to a changing environment
and how to develop resource management practices
that their ancestors teachings do not provide them
with, including the tools to answer these modern-day
challenges. The ama divers teach us that community
resilience that potentially leads to successful biodiversity conservation, and the continuing viability of the
community itself and the resources it depends on to
survive is built on the strong foundations passed down
from ones ancestors, but strengthened by a communitys ability to reach beyond its traditions.
References
Group for Research of Natural Environment in
Hegurajima and Nanatsujima Islands, ed. 2011.
Natural Environment in Hegurajima and Nanatsujima
Islands off Noto Peninsura, Central Japan. Kanazawa:
Group for Research of Natural Enviornment in
Hegurajima and Nanatsujima Islands & The Hokkoku
Shimbun (Japanese publication).
Hokkoku Shimbun, ed.1986. People in Hegura Island,
Noto [Noto Hegura no umibito]. Kanazawa: Hokkoku
Newspaper Publications (Japanese publication).
Hokkoku Shimbun, ed. 2010. Natural Science Field
Research Findings of Nanatsu and Hegura Island
Case Study 5: The Ama-San of Hegura Island: Carrying on the Traditions of Her Ancestors
53
Case Study
Keita Furukawa
Japan National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, 3-1-1, Nagase, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 239-0826, Japan.
E-mail: [email protected]
54
Abstract
The shores of industrialised nations are often laden with human-made structures that replaced large
segments of natural habitats, and the seascapes of emerging economies are rapidly coming to resemble them. Urbanised sections have far-reaching influence on ecosystems through their fragmentation
of the remaining littoral. Managing coastal biodiversity will thus entail work within human-built environments, and its applicability in urban settings is perhaps just as relevant a test of satoumis value for
biodiversity conservation as is its use in more pristine areas.
This case study reports on the practical application of satoumi concepts in the management of the Tokyo
Bay Renaissance Action Plan. The satoumi approach proved appealing to a metropolitan coastal community, providing it with new and useful possibilities for engagement in conservation. In the Tokyo Bay
area, constructing artificial habitats can be considered an urban expression of satoumis premise that
certain human actions can enhance coastal ecosystem biodiversity. Observations showed that humanmade tide pools rapidly became host to target species and increased biodiversity in adjacent areas as
well. Basic lessons for urban biodiversity management include: (1) the need to look for benefits other
than biodiversity. In this case, authorisation to build the tide pools was obtained largely because of
their value in stabilising seawalls to minimize damage from earthquakes and/or high tide; (2) the need
to carefully adjust tide pool parameters to the requirements of target species; and (3) artificial habitat
monitoring and management constitute an opportunity for conservation action that is welcomed by
the riparian community.
This case study demonstrates the value of satoumi in urban settings for biodiversity management at the
community level. An important upcoming task now is to effectively apply lessons learned from successful efforts at the community level to implementation within larger management frameworks and at the
level of national policy.
The reclamation of mudflats and tidal flats in particular resulted in marked declines in tidal current speeds,
which in turn contributed to fine particle accretion,
and nutrient concentration caused eutrophication
and an accumulation of rich organic sediment on the
bottom.
Water circulation characteristics in the Bay were
profoundly modified by the reduction of its surface
area by some 80 per cent between 1960 and 2000 due
Tokyo
Kenzaki
20
km
Suzaki
55
a) Sampling points
b)
Benthos
March
2006
c)
Sessle
March
2006
September 2006
others
arthropod
annelida
mollusk
Plants
others
arthropod
annelida
mollusk
56
part of the bay, which should be an area of high priority in restoration plans.
promote overall bay ecosystem health. Finally, activities at the appeal points helped develop a model for
urban type satoumi implementation, as described in
more detail herein.
57
Tidal flat
for benthos
: Production side
of Ecosystem
Tide pool
58
Eel
Goby
Mullet
Prawn
July 06
504
580
28
Sep. 06
119
201
June 07*
310
50
Aug. 07
1168
213
37
Oct. 07
222
26
235
participants were taught specially-designed observation methods and objectives, and their contribution
of routine monitoring was essential in demonstrating
the high habitat hosting potential of the tide pools for
fish (gobies) and benthos (sand worms and crabs).
One of the public participation monitoring tasks is
a habitat creation project (Hayakawa et al. 2008).
This project is led by researchers with the objective
of teaching people about and raising awareness of the
workings of nature in neighbouring environments. It
involves classroom orientation, workshop activities,
and field observation (Figure 7). These activities have
greatly enhanced the participants interest in continual involvement in the project. Citizen volunteers
also participate in fisheries census of gobies, which
have been carried out once or twice a year since 2008
involve about 200 people. Participants in the census
measure the size and species of their catch over two
hours of fishing, thus providing and indicators of
abundance, age and health of gobies and other valuable data for the study of the ecosystem network.
Starting in 2009, the communitys interaction with
their environment went beyond monitoring and into
experimenting with habitat-building. To create a site
more attractive to juvenile gobies, sand was added in
one of the artificial tidal pools, elevating its bottom
and decreasing the pool depth. Ongoing monitoring
is carried out by a partnership of citizens, scientists
and local governments. The group is trying to use this
biodiversity-focused endeavour to create an attractive,
leisure-oriented piece of shoreline (Sakurai et al. 2007).
59
60
practice. In this case study, the local urban community provided valuable ecosystem monitoring and took
part in an artificial habitat creation project.
For staff involved in urban biodiversity restoration
on the ground, one important consideration reported
here is that constructing artificial tide pools that are
effective for biodiversity restoration necessitates careful tuning of key parameters, such as tide pool depth,
sediment thickness and dissolved oxygen, depending on the target species to be hosted. Observations
demonstrate that if these parameters are set correctly,
artificial tide pools will be rapidly populated by target
species, even in an enclosed bay with severe environmental degradation and very little remaining natural
habitat, such as Tokyo Bay. It is worth noting that the
argument that convinced coastal authorities to accept
the construction of the tide pools was the stabilising
role of the terrace on the adjacent seawall, as a safetyenhancing structure in case of earthquake and high
tide. As such, these types of artificial tide pools constitute a promising, cost-effective, multi-benefit approach
for coastal managers interested in biodiversity preservation. Artificial coastal habitat creation is certainly
not unique to satoumi, but it is an approach coherently fitting in a satoumi-oriented project, as satoumi
Acknowledgements
The author expresses his special thanks to the Port and
Harbour Bureau of Tokyo Metropolitan City, ShibauraKonan Regional Office of Minato Ward and NPO
Umi-Juku for their valuable contributions to the
project. Special thanks also to Dr. N. Sakurai (Kajima
Corp.), Dr Y. Ichimura (Mikuniya Corp.) and Tokyo
Kyuei Co., LTD, for their help on site observation.
References
Chapman, M.G., and D.J. Blockley. 2009. Engineering
Novel Habitats on Urban Infrastructure to Increase
Intertidal Biodiversity. Oecologia 161: 625-35.
61
Case Study
62
Abstract
Amid the stunning landscapes of Ago Bay, humans made abundant yet sustainable use of high local
biodiversity for centuries. Until the onset of severe environmental degradation from overexploitation
and land-use changes starting in the 1960s, this place represented the archetype of traditional satoumi
in both its physical and cultural environment. Satoumi became a central feature of environmental restoration activities in the bay, and eventually the idea took firm hold in local communities, today actively
engaged in conservation. Their contributions include essential routine environmental monitoring and
other critical tasks. Carefully designed artificial tidal flats demonstrated a clear increase in species diversity. Controlling nutrient fluxes and water exchange between the seaward and landward sides of a dyke
brought water and sediment parameters within the optimal range for macrobenthos biodiversity, which
rapidly rose in response. In these cases, restoring water, sediment, and biodiversity conditions closer to
pre-industrial conditions was best achieved by more, rather than less, human action on the environment
a crucial aspect in building modern satoumi. From a management perspective, satoumi carried out
at the grassroots level has proven to be effective in engaging local Ago Bay communities. At the level of
cities and larger jurisdictions, incorporation of satoumi concepts and processes into an integrated coastal
management framework is a promising avenue now being explored by decision-makers for Ago Bay.
Introduction
Ago Bay is located in Mie Prefecture, central Japan, and
is a typical enclosed coastal sea with a complex riastype coastline (Mie Fisheries Research Institute 2009;
Figure 1). The bay is central to Ise-Shima National Park
which, because of its scenic beauty, valuable natural
endowments and long cultural history, was the first
national park to be established in Japan. Historically,
the area was known as Miketsu-kuni, a name that
indicated its special status as a supplier of foods, particularly marine products in this case, to the imperial
court and to Ise shrine, one of Japans most revered
and ancient Shinto shrines. This combination in Ago
Bay of a quiet enclosed sea and a rich historic heritage has imbued the local community with an inborn
sense and ages-old image of Japans traditional satoumi
(Yanagi 2010). Such a place is symbolic; it stirs an
ancient nostalgia for seascapes of rugged, green and
hilly coastlines, where people could thrive on the rich
bounty of a diverse and healthy marine ecosystem.
Ago Bay is also known for its pearl culture, which is
extremely well suited to the mild climate and enclosed
marine environment whose rias coastline protects the
waters of the bay from sea-wave disturbance. Pearl
culture in Ago Bay goes back well over a hundred
years. The bay originally provided a healthy natural
habitat for the akoya oyster, and its development as a
centre of aquaculture began with these oysters. Later,
benefiting from techniques learned from Akoya pearl
culture, the local people launched other kinds of aquaculture-based fisheries. It was in Ago Bay, in fact, that
63
64
the first time, and since then there have been frequent
harmful algal blooms of this micro-algae that have
caused mass mortality of the pearl oyster. In the mid1990s, hypoxia (abnormally low levels of oxygen)
began occurring every year in the deeper layers of
Ago Bay water, usually from June to October, when
the concentration of dissolved oxygen plummets in the
central and inner parts of the bay (Figure 3). Seasonally
occurring hypoxia has caused severe decline in the
number of shellfish, polychaeta and other benthic
organisms which, unlike fish, are unable to move out
of hypoxic waters (Figure 4). During the summer of
2002, large-scale hypoxia covered the Ago Bay marine
ecosystem and eradicated a large part of its aquatic life,
including its pearl culture, in the inner part of the bay.
Because of hypoxia and red tide, much of the marine
biological diversity of the bay was lost, and the aero-
Reclaimed
Area
Reclaimed
areas
185ha
Density"ind./0.1m2)
!
!
!
65
66
Before
construc,on
showed that sediment was hypertrophic and anaerobic before water exchange and Chironomidae were the
dominant species at that time, because the wetland was
brackish. But both wet weight and diversity were small.
After water exchange, the macrobenthos changed from
brackish type to marine type. The diversity and wet
weight gradually increased with water exchange while
COD and AVS in sediment decreased. These results
indicated that the sediment status in wetlands was
gradually changed to aerobic conditions by promoting water exchange.
Building on these results, another artificial tidal flat
field experiment was carried out to further assess
the potential of this method to restore biodiversity.
First benthic algae came to inhabit them and then
the number of macrobenthos increased. On the other
67
Conclusion
Besides its pearl production, Ago Bay is well known
as a particularly beautiful part of Ise-shima National
Park. Mismanagement for several decades led to
ecological deterioration, especially in terms of sediment quality, hypoxia in bottom water, and frequent,
harmful algal blooms. Tidal flats and seagrass beds
that play an important role in material circulation and
as habitats were severely degraded. Dyke construction, landfill, and water pollution from industrial and
residential pressure severely reduced the resilience of
the area.
For those reasons, restoration activities focused on
controlling nutrient loading in tidal flats and wetland
sediments to the optimal range for macrobenthos
biodiversity. This has been done by enhancing water
circulation in order to reduce excess organic matter
and enriching nutrient-poor sediments with unused
dredged organic rich sediments. As a result, periodic
surveys on the bay ecology convincingly demonstrate that regulating water and material circulation
across dykes has enhanced biological productivity and
diversity in and around shallow areas, and improved
sediment quality and seagrass beds.
68
Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere thanks to Dr. Miyuki
Maegawa, Professor at Mie University and Dr. Satoshi
Chiba, Professor at Yokkaichi University for their critical review of the manuscript. They also wish to thank
Mr. Hideto Uranaka of the Shima City Office and
members of the Research Center for the Environment
of Enclosed Coastal Sea (Mie COE) for providing valuable information and data.
69
Case Study
70
Case Study 8: Mobilizing Local Wisdom and Scientific Knowledge: Re-Creating Eelgrass Beds in Okayama
Abstract
This case study presents a local fishing community that took the initiative in satoumi activities, mobilizing both local wisdom and scientific knowledge. It is noteworthy that the activities were aimed not
only at recovering the stock of a few commercial species, but to conserve the surrounding marine area
as a whole. Hinase is a small fishing town located on the Seto Inland Sea in Okayama Prefecture. It has
a long tradition of fishing due to a highly productive, enclosed marine ecosystem. In this town, the
fishing community itself initiated a project to restore the marine ecosystem by planting eelgrass (Jp.
amamo; Zostera marina), both to maintain their level of catch on a sustainable basis and to support the
ecosystem of the surrounding sea for sustainable use, not just for fisheries but for other ecosystem services. The success of their restoration project can be explained by the collaborative network of different
agents that was created on the basis of close cooperation between the local fishing community, scientists and the local government. That kind of integration is considered one of the most effective features
of satoumi activities for advancing ecosystem-based management, to conserve marine biodiversity and
support sustainable use of marine resources.
Introduction
Hinase is located on the southern coast of Honshu
island, facing Japans largest enclosed body of ocean,
the Seto Inland Sea. The town is known for its rich
marine heritage, and is still one of the most commercially successful fishing towns in the Seto Inland Sea
area. About 200 fishing families make their living by
coastal fisheries, including oyster farming, small scale
trawling, and coastal pound netting, the techniques
and lore of which, including the design of the pound
nets, were originally developed by Hinase fishermen.
All fishing activities in Hinase are coordinated by the
local Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA), which
also plays the main role in managing and coordinating satoumi activities in the area, and the effort to
recover the decline of the coastal habitat by recreating the eelgrass bed and removing marine waste has
been undertaken voluntarily by the fishing community. This chapter discusses the effort to recreate the
eelgrass beds as a satoumi activity based on both local
wisdom and scientific knowledge gathered by fisheries officials. Besides activities to recover the habitat
loss, local fishery officials, scientists and fishermen are
now constructing a new spatial management plan of
the marine environment, including setting up areas
for restricted trawling in order to promote more efficient and sustainable use of their marine environment.
71
1940s
1960s
1980s
590ha
82ha
12ha
72
Case Study 8: Mobilizing Local Wisdom and Scientific Knowledge: Re-Creating Eelgrass Beds in Okayama
migrate to other coastal areas and establish new fishing operations. Such migrants were able to succeed by
bringing with them the sophisticated techniques and
knowledge acquired in the use of Bizen (Tsubo) ami
pound net fishing. The efficiency and wide applicability of the small pound net is evident in the way the
fishing method is popular both in Japan and overseas,
including Korea and China).
Nonetheless, the main type of commercial fisheries
in Hinase shifted to oyster farming due to market
demand and the decrease in catch and changes in
fish prices that made traditional pound netting less
economical and commercially viable. Despite these
changes in fisheries, the Hinase FCA membership
system retains its initial form and the members
support community traditions and solidarity, which
the chairman believes is the key to sustaining their
fishing heritage.
In the 1960s, a new governmental project to enhance
local fish stock was begun in the Seto Inland Sea. The
project, known for its slogan From catching fish to
cultivating fish, involved releasing cultured juvenile
fish stock into the coastal enclosed sea in order to
enhance stocks of commercially valuable fish. This was
in response to the damage dealt to fish stock by the
environmental changes that took place in the region
due to postwar urban and industrial development.
Although there was relatively limited coastal development in the Hinase inlet, the combination of water
pollution and landfill at the coastline has altered the
coastal environment by destroying the natural coastal
habitats, including eelgrass beds and mud flats. It was
at that time that local fishermen, particularly those
who used small-scale pound nets to catch shrimp,
blue crab and coastal fish such as sea bream, observed
the depletion of fish stock. Juveniles of those species
were propagated and released in the area as part of the
aquaculture scheme, but the catches did not increase
and the stocks were not recovered. The culture and
release of sole and blue crab juveniles had the same
disappointing result.
After several attempts to increase fish stock by releasing juveniles and observing the results, the fishing
community in Hinase recognized that it would not
be possible to recover fish stocks simply by artificially
increasing the number of juveniles. Instead, the loss of
fish stock had been caused by environmental changes
in the coastal ecosystemsuch as destruction of the
high biodiversity marine habitatby landfill projects
73
prevent the boats propellers from becoming entangled in the eelgrass (Tanaka 1998).
Later, this local wisdom was supplemented by scientific research conducted by local fisheries officials.
Together with scientists, the officials studied the
ecological factors determining the quantitative growth
of the eelgrass, such as water salinity, seabed conditions and wave movements. Through the research,
they found that in some of the areas where the eelgrass
beds had been, recent environmental changes had
affected the water salinity and seabed conditions,
making the artificially planted eelgrass less resilient
to the movements of the current. Having understood
that the habitat could not be recovered only by replanting eelgrass, the local fishery officials then sought to
artificially adjust the seabed conditions and salinity by
raising the seabed floor and mitigating the wave movements by use of floating wave dissipating devices. As
a consequence of these local governmental supports,
together with continuous community efforts in planting eelgrass, the amamo-ba in Hinase increased from
only 12ha in 1985 to almost 100ha in 2009 (Fujii et
al. 2006).
74
Case Study 8: Mobilizing Local Wisdom and Scientific Knowledge: Re-Creating Eelgrass Beds in Okayama
References
Fujii, T., x. Pan, M. Yamashita, and M. Torii. 2006.
Physical Characteristics of Zostera marina L. and
Study of Self Regeneration in Hinase, Okayama.
Bulletin of Nara University of Education 55 (2): 19-27.
Oura, K. 2010. Case 3: Hinase-cho, Bizen City, Okayama
Prefecture Tsubo-ami (Pound Net) Fishing: Closely
Related to the Nature of the Shallow Sea. [online]
Available at: <http://www.eic.or.jp/library/bio/en/case/
c3.html>
Tanaka, T. 1998. Current status and issues on the
development of eelgrass restoration. In 11th Kansai
Suiken Kankyo Kikou: Symposium proceedings. Osaka.
Torii, M., K. Yamada, S. Saeki, J. Maeno, and W. Hirahara.
2008. The practice of eelgrass restoration for Tobiarea fishing ground recovery plan and its adoptive
approach based management. Annual Journal of Civil
Engineering in the Ocean 24: 753-58.
75
Case Study
76
Abstract
The once fertile environment of the Yamaguchi Estuary and adjacent tidal flats has been seriously degraded
over the past 50 years, and local communities once intimately attached to this ecosystem are now largely
indifferent to its plight. The efforts presented in this case study are by no means of a scale sufficient to
reverse this trend, but are reported as an example of manual efforts for the purpose of conservation of
a tidal flat ecosystem that illustrate well the opportunities and challenges for reviving satoumi.
In attempts to make the tidal flat more hospitable to short-necked clams (asari), local volunteers have
regularly manually tilled the tidal flat mud to soften it and favour aerobic conditions, covered the mud
surface with nets to protect the clams against eagle ray feeding, and participated in seagrass seed collection
and sowing projects. Data shows that these and other actions in this environment have been successful. Manually tilling the tidal flat to find asari used to be a typical enjoyment for local communities in
this satoumi. Today, tidal flat tilling and seagrass sowing are symbolic of satoumi, when human interaction with the coastal environment nurtures nature and contributes to the enhancement of biodiversity,
beyond what would be by hunter gatherers.
From the perspective of biodiversity management, the practices presented herein could become valuable
complements to restriction-based conservation measures in human-influenced coastal seas. We believe
it is important to develop policy frameworks that effectively reflect the experience of such local-scale
successes. Key considerations in applying these practices in wider policy frameworks include establishing a model less reliant on volunteer labour, and that is effectively integrated with other ecology-oriented
watershed practices in agriculture, forestry and fisheries, with particular attention to ecological networks,
and, for the longer term, with due attention to developing culturally appropriate environmental ethics.
77
78
79
80
In the sandy tidal flats of Minami-gata, local volunteers tilled the soil by hand. This activity has been
ongoing twice a year. Approximately 150 people have
participated on each occasion (Figure 5). In the past,
when short-necked clams were abundant, a popular
activity with local communities was to till the tidal
flat mud at low tide in search of short-necked clams.
This seasonal activity presumably made the mud more
hospitable for short-necked clam larvae and could
then be seen as one example of traditional satoumi
practice, where the customary use of local resources
contributed to sustaining it by making the coast more
hospitable to the species it exploited. After 50 years of
severe environmental degradation, however, the shortnecked clam is scarce, offering little incentive to till the
tidal flats. The bonds between the community and this
coastal ecosystem have also weakened; clam-gather-
300
Ridge + Net
Ridge without net
Ridge with net
Control without net
Control with net
250
200
Net only
150
100
50
Ridge only
0
Apr.
May
June
July
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
2007
81
82
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the people of
Yamaguchi Prefecture, the Committee for Tidal Flats
Restoration, EMECS, the presenters of the Research
Workshops 09 for their active cooperation, and the
Toyota Motor Corporation for its financial support
of the workshops.
Further reading
Fisheries Agency of Japan. 1987. Report on Impact
Assessment of the Reformation of Coast and Bottom in
Shallow Sea Areas.
2008 fiscal year program CSR Toyota Motor Corp. 2009.
Report on Restoration of the Tidal Flats and Biological
Resources in Yamaguchi Estuary.
Wataridori no kosaten he yokoso [Welcome to the
Migrant Birds Crossroads: Yamaguchi Prefectural
Kirarahama Nature Park], Yacho zukan, tsukibetsu
[Chart of Wild Birds (by month)]. [online] Available
at: <http://www6.ocn.ne.jp/~kirara-h/shizenjyoho/
tukibetu/tukibetu.htm> (in Japanese).
83
Box 5: Ecological links between terrestrial and coastal areas in the Yura River
estuary and the Tango Sea
Yoh Yamashita, Maizuru Fisheries Research Station, Field Science Education and Research Center, Kyoto University
A central aspect in satoumi is the coupling of coastal marine and terrestrial ecosystems in the watershed. Through these links,
humans have had a profound influence on marine coastal ecosystems and biodiversity through their on-land activities. Adequate
knowledge of land-sea interaction will be crucial to the management of biodiversity in coastal seas. The research summarised here
provides an illustration of these interactions in the case of the Yura River in Kyoto Prefecture, with field surveys of nutrients, carbon
and various other constituents that provide insight into the nature of the land-sea ecosystem tied together by rivers.
In Kyoto Prefecture, commercial landings from coastal fisheries have shown a continuous decrease after a peak in 1988 (106,000 tons) and is currently only about 12 per cent
of the peak year (12,400 tons in 2005; see Figure 1). Four possible causes have been cited
for this decline: climate change, overfishing, deterioration of the coastal environment,
and deterioration of the natural links between terrestrial areas, rivers and the coastal
environment. In coastal areas, the latter in particular is considered to play an important
role in the decline of biological resources. In addition, unusual ecological phenomena
such as the appearance of massive numbers of jellyfish are thought to be associated
with human activities.
The Ashiu Forest Research Station and the Maizuru Fisheries Research Station of Kyoto
Universitys Field Science Education and Research Center (FSER) are both located near
the Yura River, and scientists in marine and terrestrial ecology have been collaborating
there in the study of the ecological links between terrestrial areas in the Yura River watershed and the coastal waters of the Tango Sea (Figure 2). The research is basically testing
the hypothesis that the decrease of aquatic biological productivity and diversity can be
attributed to the disruption of ecological links between forests and coastal waters. The
main disruptions are thought to be: (1) sediment flux (increased flow of fine sediment
into coastal waters from poorly managed and maintained forests, paddy fields, and irrigation reservoirs); (2) fluxes and consumption of organic matter; (3) water flow; (4) nutrient
flux (disturbances in the balance of such nutrients as C, N, P, Si, Fe from terrestrial areas;
artificial control of river water discharge for human activities); and (5) animal migration
(obstruction of aquatic animal ontogenetic migrations by dams and drainage improvement programs of concreting the banks of the river etc.).
Studies have been conducted of particulate and dissolved nutrients, including dissolved
iron and humic matter, input to the river system, the primary production mechanisms
of the river and coastal waters, the influx and interaction between river discharge and
sea water, and the utilization of matter of terrestrial origin by planktonic and benthic
organisms. Figure 3 shows an example of composition of anthropogenic matter, phytoplankton and benthic algae in particulate organic carbon (POC) collected in the river
between ca. 20km and 120km from the river mouth, areas not influenced by sea water.
It is notable that phytoplankton production drastically increased in the Ono dam reservoir at midstream. In addition, organic matter produced in the forests was not clearly
detected, suggesting that it may be mainly transported during flooding.
From early summer to late autumn, sea water enters the river from the bottom layer
and forms a long brackish estuarine zone up to about 20km from the river mouth due
to low river discharge and increase of the sea surface height during this season. In the
river estuary, a high primary production layer occurs in the boundary layer between the
freshwater and the seawater areas where marine phytoplankton utilizes nutrients transported in the freshwater originally from terrestrial areas (Figure 4).
84
Miyazu
Tango
Sea
MFRS
Fukuchiyama
Ayabe
AFRS
May
500
400
300
200
( g
100
0
L-1 )
300
Nov.
200
Anthropogenic matter
Phytoplankton
Attached algae
100
0
Upstream
3 4
5
6
7
8
Stn.
9
10 11
Downstream
Figure 3. Composition of
anthropogenic matter, phytoplankton
and benthic microalgae in particulate
organic carbon (POC) collected in the
Yura River between ca. 20 and 120km
from the river mouth in 2006 (Suzuki et
al. unpublished).
In midstream and downstream areas, benthic organisms utilize terrestrial organic matter
(carbon), but from the shallow coastal to offshore areas the benthos community primarily use marine products (Figure 5). Terrestrial matter contains high amounts of refractory
compounds such as cellulose and lignin, which are difficult to digest and assimilate by
most coastal benthic animals which do not have digestive enzymes capable of breaking down the glycosidic bonds of cellulose into oligosaccharides (Antonio et al. 2010a).
Other studies suggest that the smaller consumers such as meiobenthos and bacteria in
the coastal sediment can consume terrestrial organic matter.
The straightening of rivers and the construction of concrete banks for flood prevention
have resulted in the loss of freshwater pools and sections of rapids typical of a naturally winding river, sections that are precisely the habitats where the freshwater benthic
community consumes terrestrial matter. Such constructions shorten and streamline the
rivers, meaning that terrestrial organic matter is transported much more quickly to coastal
waters and increasing the likelihood that the decomposition of accumulated terrestrial
organic matter by bacteria will take place further downstream, ultimately resulting in
oxygen depletion in coastal areas.
The collaborative structure that links research facilities studying forests, rivers and coastal
ecosystems provides exciting new research opportunities for graduate students. They
can expand the scope of their research from a limited ecological unit to encompass the
linkages between several ecological units with an interdisciplinary interest. We have developed an education program of field exercise courses on The Forest to Ocean Linkages
focusing on the Yura River and the Tango Sea. In this programme students study the
structure of forests, water quality and changes in the structure of the aquatic fauna
community from upstream to downstream/coastal waters through field observation
and sampling (Figure 6). This field-based educational program will also provide us with
many new perspectives on both education and research.
FSERC is planning from 2011 to conduct a large-scale thinning experiment of artificial
forests neglected by poor forest management in the upstream basin of the Yura River.
In addition to providing field study material for students, we expect this experiment
to yield valuable data on the effectiveness of managing under-used forests for forest,
river and coastal ecosystems conservation (Figure 7). This will form the basis of practical options for effectively managing watershed forests in the changing socio-economic
setting of Japan, which is recognized as one of the key challenges for conserving biodiversity in coastal areas.
River
discharge
Nutrients
Produc3on
Oceanic
Phytoplankton
Sea
water
References
Antonio, M. S., M. Ueno, Y. Kurikawa, K. Tsuchiya, A. Kasai, H. Toyohara, Y. Ishihi, H. Yokoyama,
and Y. Yamashita. 2010a. Consumption of terrestrial organic matter by estuarine molluscs
determined by analysis of their stable isotopes and cellulase activity. Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science 86: 401-407.
Antonio, M.S., A. Kasai, M. Ueno, N. Won, Y. Ishihi, H. Yokoyama, and Y. Yamashita. 2010b. Spatial
variation in organic matter utilization by benthic communities from Yura River-Estuary to
offshore of Tango Sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 107-117.
Kasai, A., Y. Kurikawa, M. Ueno, D. Robert, and Y. Yamashita. 2010. Hydrodynamics and primary
production in the Yura Estuary, Japan. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 408-414.
85
Case Study
10
86
Case Study 10: Okinawa: Effective Conservation Practices From Satoumi in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
Abstract
The coral reef ecosystems of Okinawa are the southernmost case study represented in this report. As
with other reef peoples, those of the local communities of Shiraho and Sekisei lagoon have, over the
centuries, developed a satoumi culture intimately linked to the reef ecosystem and adapted to an abundant but sustainable use of its resources. The biodiversity that developed in this traditional equilibrium
is threatened in ways similar to that of other human-influenced coral reefs of the worlds oceans. This
case study reports on a number of good practices that emerged in response to these threats.
While a consensus was reached among fishers on the establishment of marine protected areas, passive
measures based on curtailing human interaction with the environment were found to be insufficient.
They were then complemented by active measures involving conservation-purposed manual labour
for protection of the environment. These included controlling populations of reef-damaging crown-ofthorns starfish, constructing biodiversity-enhancing habitats of traditional stone fishing weirs (ishihimi)
and propagating mozuku seaweed. Preliminary data on the effectiveness of these actions for biodiversity is encouraging.
For management purposes, the satoumi tradition supported a discourse adequate to engage local communities in conservation efforts. The active conservation work undertaken may be of interest to managers
of ecosystems where there is considerable human interaction with the environment and a restrictiononly approach does not suffice to conserve biodiversity. In this case study, these practices stemmed
from the view that careful, conservation-purposed measures to restore and enhance the coastal environment by human hands can provide positive results for biodiversity and sustainability, the central
hypothesis of satoumi.
introduction
by local people; local rules refers herein to resourceuse regulations that are autonomously determined
The ecosystems targeted in this study were the coral by local communities. Okinawas satoumi feature ino,
reefs in the areas of Shiraho and Sekisei lagoons or shallow, calm waters located between the offshore
in the Yaeyama district of Okinawa Prefecture coral reefs, where the waves break, and the shore. Since
(Figure 1). Essential aspects of Okinawa satoumi ancient times, those who fish for a living have collected
include commons and local rules (Nakajima 2008). their catch in the outer seas, while village residents
Commons are resources that are shared and used relied on the fishery resources of the ino inside the
reefs as commons, and have led a semiagrarian-, semi-fishing-reliant lifestyle
(Tamanoi 1995). This commons-type usage
is practised even today, particularly in the
Yaeyama
outer islands. On the other hand, as many
sedentary resources are subject to common
:
MPA
fishery rights, members of Fishing
Cooperative Associations (FCAs) have the
right, in principle, to harvest or capture
Sekisei
Lagoon
them. This has greatly complicated the
Shiraho
relationship between traditional customs
regarding the ino and the fishery rights
system. Legal and management aspects
must hence be considered, in addition to
technical issues, for the enhancement of
productivity and biodiversity in the ino.
Figure 1. Composite photographs showing the areas
For this reason, the local people, who are
discussed in this case study: the Sekisei Lagoon, Shiraho, and
the most closely involved with the ino,
the Marine Protected Area in Yaeyama.
must create local rules and observe them.
87
88
Case Study 10: Okinawa: Effective Conservation Practices From Satoumi in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
40
700
Catch
600
35
CPUE/Day
Man
CPUE
500
400
30
300
200
25
100
20
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Shiraho Lagoon
culture. The increased runoff of red soil from construction sites and the influx of household effluents into the
sea have increased the burden on the environment of
human presence on the island. In environmental monitoring surveys conducted over the 10 years since the
World Wildlife Fund of Japan Coral Reef Conservation
and Research Centre was established in the village,
fixed monitoring points on Shiraho Reef have revealed
that the amount of coral has significantly decreased
(WWFJ 2010). The shadow of that decrease has been
felt on the biodiversity of the Shiraho ino, once known
as the sea that teems with fish (sakana waku umi).
Meanwhile, in 2006, a charter setting down seven basic
policies for village development was established at a
general meeting of community members held at the
Shiraho Community Centre. As one of its basic policies, the Charter advocates protecting our coral reef
environment, which is one of the best in the world, and
leading lives that are based on nature. Thus, the whole
village has started working to conserve the biodiversity and to manage the resources of the sea directly
in front of the village in a sustainable manner. This
Charter was enacted because it had become difficult to
maintain village norms and pass down culture on the
strength of oral tradition alone. In addition to passing on traditional culture to the next generation, the
Charter also represents a basic stance vis--vis local
rules. The local community in Shiraho thus positioned
itself to maintain and manage the satoumi within the
sphere of its regional autonomy, and is using these
approaches as a platform for cultural transmission
and learning experiences.
The Shiraho Coral Reef Management Council, established in 2005, plays a central role in coral reef
conservation and resource regeneration activities
conducted by the local community. The coral reefs
of Shiraho are viewed as commons. Thus, in addition
to fishers and tour guides, residents of the villages,
including agricultural and livestock farmers, participate and cooperate in actions to invigorate the region
through the conservation and sustainable use of
the reef. In 2006, the Council developed the SelfDetermined Rules for Coral Reef Tour Guides and
Dear Visitors to Shiraho (a collection of instructions on tourism etiquette) and restored the traditional
ishihimi (stone fishing weirs) (Figure 3; Kamimura
2007). In 2007, the Council launched a program for
planting shell flower (getto, a species of ginger; Alpinia
speciosa) around fields as a means of preventing red
soil from flowing into the sea.
89
60
Others
Labridae
50
Before Ishihimi
Acanthuridae
Pomacentridae
ChaetodonCdae
40
30
20
10
0
2006
2006
2007
2007
2008
2008
2009
2009
2010
spring
fall
spring
fall
spring
fall
spring
fall
spring
In 2009, the Council embarked on a stock enhancement project, restocking 7,000 giant clam (Tridacna
crocea) juveniles cultured in a hatchery. A survey
conducted one year later revealed that the average
survival rate was 43 per cent, indicating that the project
could be considered a successful first attempt. The aim
of restocking the clams is not to harvest them, but to
increase the resources of the surrounding area. The
clams will be protected and nurtured for approximately
four years, so that they will spawn. This is one example
of increasing productivity through human interaction.
90
Sekisei Lagoon
Case Study 10: Okinawa: Effective Conservation Practices From Satoumi in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
task, and this is complicated by the different preferences of fishers and divers. For example, while
fishers may be inclined to eradicate starfish in fish
spawning grounds set in no-take marine reserves,
divers would prefer to protect those locations dotted
throughout the vast Yaeyama marine area that they use
frequently. Currently, eradication programs are being
implemented by the Ministry of the Environment,
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
and local organizations. In 2009, The Yaeyama
COTS Eradication Committee was established to
link these projects together. Committee members
include national, prefectural and municipal government entities, the Yaeyama FCA and the two Diving
Associations. The committee first selects high priority marine areas, then fishers and divers join forces
to intensively and continuously eradicate the starfish.
91
Future perspectives
The World Ishihimi Summit was held in Shiraho at
the end of October 2010. Stone fishing weirs are found
outside Japan, including in Taiwan, South Korea, the
Philippines, France, Spain and Micronesia. Therefore,
this summit was intended to be a conference where
people from all over the world who are associated
with this fishing gear could share their experience
and discuss the relationship of such approaches to the
satoumi and ecosystem.
Through the Sekisei Lagoon Nature Restoration
Project, in addition to working independently to
formulate countermeasures for tackling problems such
as red soil pollution and efflux of excessive nutrients
from terrestrial areas, there is also the issue of how
to join forces with fishers to sustain fishery resource
management, which is part of the restoration of the
natural environment.
The crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak in Yaeyama
is expected to continue for several years. Thus, in
addition to securing a budget, fundraising and other
volunteer initiatives are needed to support starfish
population control operations.
92
Case Study 10: Okinawa: Effective Conservation Practices From Satoumi in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
Acknowledgments
The authors express their deepest gratitude to Yoshimi
Higa of the Onna Village Fishing Cooperative for
providing essential help in the preparation of this case
study.
References
Bellwood, D. R., T. P. Hughes, C. Folke, and M. Nystrom.
2004. Confronting the Coral Reef Crisis. Nature 429:
827-32.
Kakuma, Shinichiro. 2007. Diversity and MultiFunctions of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Coral
Reefs. Journal of the Japanese Coral Reef Society 8:
91-108.
Kakuma, Shinichiro. 2009. Engan kaiiki ni okeru
seitaikei hozen to suisan shigen kanri: Okinawaken Yaeyama no sangosho kaiiki o jirei to shite.
[Ecosystem Protection and Management of Fisheries
Resources in Coastal Regions: A Case Study of the
Coral Reef Region of Yaeyama, Okinawa Prefecture].
Chiiki gyogyo kenkyu 49 (3): 67-89.
Kamimura, Masahito. 2007. Ishigakijima Shiraho Kachi
saisei: Jumin shitai no sangosho hozen ni mukete.
[Restoration of Kachi, Traditional Fishing Installations
of the Shiraho Coral Lagoon: Community-based coral
reef conservation and resource management]. Chiiki
kenkyu 3: 175-188.
93
94
95
Overview Article
Nobuyuki Yagi
The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657 Japan. E-mail: [email protected]
96
Overview Article 1: Satoumi and Institutional Characteristics of Japanese Coastal Fishery Management
Abstract
A survey conducted by a team from the University of Tokyo identified 1,161 marine protected areas
(MPAs) in Japan. Approximately 30 per cent of them take the style of self-imposed community no-take
zones. Free-riders of the conservation activities are uncommon, because agreements are usually made
to maximize the benefit to the group of fishers, and each member of the group monitors the compliance status of other members. The government has provided territorial use right for fishers, and this
may have helped in maintaining their self-governance framework. Additional satoumi activities are
reported in Japan that are also based on voluntary habitat rehabilitation to improve ecosystem services.
Introduction
Seafood harvested in the coastal areas has played a
significant role in fulfilling peoples dietary needs and
livelihoods for many centuries. During and before
the Edo Period (1603-1868) various remote coastal
communities developed their own fishery resource
management rules. The Meiji government, established
in 1868, rigorously surveyed such traditional local
rules and attempted to incorporate them into the new
government legal system (Takahashi 2007).
Nevertheless, many local rules have been left unlisted
in the government regulations to this day, presumably
because they are too site-specific. Such local rules are
still in force today as self-imposed agreements among
local fishing communities. Various marine protected
areas (MPAs) and other area-based conservation
activities are established as bottom-up self-imposed
instruments of local communities. Such activities are
not fully reported to the government or the public,
therefore the complete picture of the MPAs in Japan
is still largely unknown.
A survey was conducted in an effort to grasp a comprehensive picture of MPAs in coastal Japan. The results
of the survey, as well as the nature and institutional
characteristics of these community-based management
approaches, are discussed in this chapter.
97
volume)
volume)
98
Overview Article 1: Satoumi and Institutional Characteristics of Japanese Coastal Fishery Management
Box 6: Kisetsu-sadame
Tetsuo Yanagi, Kyushu University
Although this report focuses on management options in a modern setting, it should be noted that many contemporary satoumi practices are rooted in traditions and local knowledge often dating back several centuries. This is
particularly true of customary co-management or community-based management practices. One example is the
resource management by the fishers union on Himeshima Island in Oita Prefecture, which is still based on kisetsu
sadame, a document written in 1904 that summarises much older traditions. Kisetsu sadame details areas and periods where fishing is prohibited, such as the harvest of sea algae, permitted only in designated areas during the
period 15 January to 5 February, or the trapping of red sea-bream, permitted only during the period 25 February
to 15 June. These traditional rules are regularly updated or complemented to follow technical developments. For
example, in 1916 the fishers decided to ban the use of red sea-bream trapping, a fishing method which led to
an abrupt decrease in catch a few years after its introduction in the area in 1909. Today there are 197 members
in the Himeshima Fishers Union. All matters related to the management of fishing resources around Himeshima
Island are decided in official meetings where 56 representatives of 7 villages on the island update kisetsu sadame,
including changes in the periods and/or areas of fishing prohibition.
99
References
Aotsuka, S. 2000. The history of legal system in Japanese
fisheries. Tokyo: Hokuto Shobo (In Japanese).
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2001. A view of marine protected areas in the
northwestern Mediterranean region: siting, usage,
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Overview Article 1: Satoumi and Institutional Characteristics of Japanese Coastal Fishery Management
101
Overview Article
* Current affiliation: Institut mauritanien de recherches ocanographiques et des pches, B. P. 22, Nouadhibou, Mauritania. E-mail: [email protected]
102
Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Abstract
The preceding case studies report on the progress of satoumi practices as field tested, culturally appropriate attempts to integrate conservation and use of biological diversity in human-influenced coastal seas.
While the enhancement of exclusionary (protected area-based) and mitigating (e.g., reducing fishing
or pollution) approaches to conservation remain a high priority, there is also a pressing need to develop
the knowledge base for managing biodiversity on the large and growing proportion of our shores where
exclusion is difficult and mitigation insufficient. Satoumis nuanced view of human interaction with
nature coherently incorporates conservation measures involving morerather than lesshuman interaction with the ecosystem. Preliminary results from the study sites suggest that in human-influenced
seas, such active measures are useful and even indispensible complements to passive conservation, when the ecosystem cannot recover by itself and human nurture is needed. There is also reported
evidence demonstrating that, under certain conditions, human nurture has enhanced marine ecosystem
services in a sustainable manner. The case studies further report on modern-day practices effectively
engaging local communities in conservation, and on the ownership of conservation measures by fishers that voluntarily internalise conservation costs in satoumi co-management. The latter appears to rest
on collective ownership, with limited access and empowered collective structures that can reflect a not
purely economic view of the ecosystem. Overall, satoumi appears to be a versatile approach that coherently incorporates a wide variety of considerations, from economic to spiritual, community-based to
scientific, traditional to modern. Encouraging results in biodiversity conservation at the community
level present a compelling argument for further research and assessment, effective uptake in wider
integrated coastal management frameworks, and catalysing of international mechanisms to share and
account for related practices effectively.
Introduction
The Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 (CBD 2010a)
confirms the alarming decline of marine biodiversity, reported earlier in the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA 2005). In response, the tenth meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (COP 10, Nagoya, Japan, 18-29
October 2010) adopted the Aichi Biodiversity Targets,
including the aim of 10 per cent of marine and coastal
areas being protected or benefiting from other areabased conservation measures by 2020 (target 11, CBD
2010b). Marine protected areas (MPAs), which have
been the cornerstone of most biodiversity conservation strategies, have proven their effectiveness in many
cases (CBD 2004a). Nonetheless, disappointing results
and hardship to local communities are documented in
other settings (Hilborn et al. 2004; Jones 2006; Charles
and Wilson 2009). There is a growing consensus that
for conservation to succeed, societies must find ways
to balance and integrate conservation and use of biodiversity, as Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) agreed in Principle 10 of the CBD
Ecosystem Approach (EA, CBD 2000): The ecosystem
approach should seek the appropriate balance between,
and integration of, conservation and use of biological
diversity. In the face of ever-increasing demand for
103
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Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Table 1. Human influence on biogeochemical cycles for ecosystem conservation or productivity. Active
conservation measures involving human action to influence biogeochemical cycles in the coastal environment as
reported in the case studies. Shaded cells in column 4 (Benefits for conservation) indicate those where one or more
of the case study report observations showing locally enhanced biodiversity as a result of the measure (refer to
case study for details). Numbers in parenthesis in the last column refer to the case study number.
Parameter to
influence
Action
Effect
Benefits for
conservation
Illustrated in
case study
Green laver
culture
Photosynthesis oxygenates,
reduced carbon removed
before oxidation in water as
seaweed is harvested
Helps mitigate
or prevent
anthropogenic
hypoxia
Adjusting
depth and other
properties of
artificial
tidal flat
Daytime photosynthesis
compensates for oxygen
consumption at night
Sufficient oxygen
to host target
species for
conservation
Tilling mud by
hand
Better habitat
for clams (and
presumably other
species)
Yamaguchi (9)
Promoting
water exchange
with open sea
Suspended
sediment in
lagoon
Planting shell
flowers around
agricultural
fields
Prevents damage
to the reef (red
soil disturbs
photosynthesis
and larvae
deposition)
Okinawa (10)
Nutrient
loading
reduction in a
wetland
Enhancing
water exchange
with the bay
Circulation of oligotrophic
coastal waters reduces
further eutrophication in the
wetland
Enhances
macrobenthos
biodiversity
Nutrient
loading
enhancement
in a tidal flat
Spreading
of dredged
wetland
sediment
Enhances
macrobenthos
biodiversity
Reduce
nutrient load
in Bay
Planting and
harvesting of
makombu kelp
Helps prevent
eutrophication
Toyama (3)
Transplanting
Zostera marina
Regulation of
fluxes, structuring
habitat for the
ecosystem, and
more
Planting trees in
river basin
Regulation of
fluxes and more.
Dissolved
oxygen in
water
Oxygen in the
sediment
Land/sea
material
cycling
105
Table 2. Reported practices for maintaining or enhancing existing habitats (2.1), restoring or expanding natural
habitats through propagation, transplant or aquaculture of macro-algae or coral (2.2), and creating artificial habitats
(2.3). Shaded cells: in column 3 (purpose) indicate that the activity was motivated by conservation, in column 4
(conservation benefit), indicates that the case study provides data suggesting the conservation benefit is achieved
locally. Numbers in the parenthesis in the last column refer to the case study number.
Table 2.1. Habitat maintenance or improvement in the case studies.
Conservation
benefit
Illustrated in
case study(ies)
Conservation of
short-neck clams,
a local species
emblematic of the
traditional satoumi
Yamaguchi (9)
Conservation of the
short-neck clam
Yamaguchi (9)
Conservation of
short-neck clam
Yamaguchi (9)
Various
See Table 1
Habitat
Activity
Purpose
Tidal flat
Tilling tidal
flat mud by
hand
Tidal flat
Crushing
oyster shells
Tidal flat
Net covering
of mud
Various
Traditionally: harvesting of
short-neck clams
Today: softened sediment more
hospitable to clam larvae, and favour
aerobic conditions in the mud
Table 2.2. Habitat restoration or expansion through cultivation in seawater in the case studies.
Conservation
benefit
Illustrated in
case study(ies)
Food production,
but provides habitat
and food for various
organisms
Enhanced local
biodiversity
Okinawa (10)
Zostera marina
beds
Ecosystem
conservation and
structuring
Sargassum
seaweed beds
Transplant, artificial
blocks as seaweed
beds
Resource
conservation and
nurture, and others
Akita (2)
Nursery ground
for juveniles.
As well, food
production, prevent
eutrophication,
carbon sequestration
Resource
conservation,
regulate Bay
nutrient loading
Toyama (3)
Coral reef
aquaculture and
regeneration
Enhance local
biodiversity, reef
conservation,
others
Okinawa (10)
Habitat
Activity
Purpose
Mozuku
aquaculture
nets (and
other edible
seaweed)
Makombu kelp
Coral reef
106
Plant sporophytes
(Dec), harvest kelp
(May)
Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Illustrated in
case study(ies)
Purpose is agriculture,
but traditionally
provided spawning
ground for various fish
Ecosystem structure
and biodiversity
Yamaguchi (9)
Traditionally: fishing
Today: habitat for a
variety of species
Enhance local
biodiversity
Okinawa (10)
Set net
Resource conservation
Toyama (3)
Suspended nets
Set net
Resource conservation
and nurture
Akita (2)
Concrete
algal reef
Resource conservation
and nurture
Akita (2)
Experimental
tidal flat
Construction, then
maintain optimal
nutrient loading
through water
exchange or use of
dredged wetland
sediment
Artificial
tidal pool
Construction,
determination of
optimal parameters,
monitoring
effectiveness
Enhance local
biodiversity, restore
part of the ecosystem
connectivity in the bay
Habitat
Activity
Purpose
Rice paddies
Stone weir
in coral
reef lagoon
(ishihimi)
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beyond sufficiently curtailed hunting-gathering activities. The results suggest that, under certain conditions,
humans can actively enhance coastal ecosystem services in a sustainable manner, and such options should
be fully explored and taken advantage of for marine
conservation.
Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Table 3. Example of fishers participation in the management and conservation of the resource in the case studies.
Conservation practices limiting human interaction with the ecosystem (first row), practices unrelated to direct
human interaction with the ecosystem (second row), and practices involving increased human interaction with the
ecosystem (third row). The latter are more distinctly satoumi-oriented practices in fisheries resource management
(see text). Numbers in parenthesis refer to the case study number.
Decreasing human
interaction with
the ecosystem
Neutral
Increasing human
interaction with
the ecosystem
Monitoring
the ecosystem
Nurturing
the resource
For fisheries to be sustainable through co-management, effective understanding and cooperation between
resource users (fishers) and conservationists is crucial.
It appears from several case studies, and in particular
Shiretoko (case study 1), that satoumi provides a backdrop that facilitates a convergence of views between
users and conservationists. The traditional satoumi
landscapes were shaped in large part by humans, with
fishers and other users a central part in the popular
imagery of satoumi. The nostalgia evoked by satoumi is
exempt of the fascination for a wilderness unspoiled by
human contact that has been a guiding vision for many
conservationists, at least since John Muir. Nostalgia
in satoumi, rather, is a longing for a society close to
the nature it nurtures. The importance of this imagery
should not be underestimated. Recent research demonstrates the importance of implicit images in fisheries
governance. In fact, it appears that the less explicit, the
more such images can influence governance outcomes,
so that their explicitation may be necessary to avoid
109
It is worth noting that as the fishers are contributing time, labour and resources, these active measures
are internalising some of the costs of maintaining the
ecosystem structure and function within an economic
activity that benefits from conservation. In exclusionary and mitigating approaches, fishers contribution to
conservation is to stay inactive during the off-season,
or to stay out of no-take areas, neither of which readily
internalises costs. As such, resource nurturing in satoumi
is an interesting implementation of Principle 4c of the
CBD ecosystem approach: Internalize costs and benefits
[of ecosystem-management] in the given ecosystem to
the extent feasible (CBD 2000), as a way to ensure that
those who benefit from conservation pay the costs associated with conservation. It is worth noting that the main
driving force of active conservation in satoumi is typically manual labour, rather than financial investment.
Consequently this type of internalisation circumvents
the difficulties posed by certain measures that necessitate
financial investment from fisher communities, such as,
for example, the complications that arose from requiring
fishers in developing countries to install turtle-excluding devices on their nets (WTO 1998).
One aspect worth considering is that through practices such as kelp cultivation or eelgrass transplanting,
the fishers reinvest the labour saved by mechanisation
(or by fishing restrictions) into the ecosystem to main-
110
The importance of hereditary collectivism for ecosystem conservation and biodiversity management in
satoumi is brought up in various ways in several case
studies; one striking illustration is given in case study
5 on Hegura Island where female diver (ama-san)
communities manage their resource. Again making
a parallel with the case of rice paddies, where community investment of labour, in the form of an irrigation
system for example, is necessary for ecosystem
productivity, collective decision-making and action
is essential in the ama-sans management of Hegura
islands marine resources. As such, sustainable use in
satoumi is achieved not through ever-increasing privatisation and individualisation of responsibilities, as
has often been advocated as the chief solution to the
tragedy of unregulated commons (Hardin 1968), but,
to the contrary, through collective property, strong
collective structures and collective responsibility for
the ecosystem.
Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Table 4. Communities engagement in satoumi activities, from those with no direct action on the environment to those
involving manual labour on the ecosystem. The expected results are described in the right-hand column. Numbers in
front of the case study indicate the case study number.
Awareness
and
participation
in decisionmaking
Monitoring
of the
environment
Control
population
of target
species for
conservation
River basin
cultivation
Habitat
improvement
Habitat
construction
Cultivating
at-sea
Type of activity
Community
engaged
Expected results
Neighbourhood
residents, school
children
Awareness and
knowledge of local marine
environment raised
Local communities
Enhanced decision-making
process
School children
Bay community
Local Community
Prevent damage to
Recreational divers the coral from starfish
predation
Local community
Local community
Local community,
volunteers,
students
Local community
Local community
Neighbourhood
residents
Local community
Local community
Restoration of habitat,
nutrient cycling, enhanced
purification capabilities of
the ecosystem and others.
111
112
Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
case studies raise a number of specific research questions for subsequent projects, including the need to
quantitatively assess the conservation effectiveness of
fisher forests (case study 3, Toyama) or other forest
management efforts (e.g. box 5, Yura River); modelling, observation and further studies of the ecological
network in Tokyo Bay (case study 6, Tokyo); assessment of environmental restoration technologies (case
study 6, Tokyo); sharing international experience in
habitat-providing stone fishing weirs (case study 10,
Okinawa); further assessment of the contribution of
the fisheries sector to ecosystem management (case
study 1, Shiretoko); and refining assessments of the
carrying capacity of semi-enclosed seas for oyster
farming (case study 3, Nanao, based on previous
research not reported in this case study).
Several of the case studies advocate the development of multidisciplinary approaches, taking into
account socio-economic components of research on
satoumi (case studies 7 and 9, respectively Ago Bay
and Yamaguchi, and less explicitly in several others).
As pointed out in the Yamaguchi case study, in other
investigations (Arrow et al. 1996; Vatn 2010) and in
the CBD ecosystem approach (CBD 2005), the current
economic system does not readily internalise the costs
of ecosystem use/depletion, and this may be one of the
greatest threats to biodiversity. This failure to internalise costs may be of particular concern for marine
ecosystems (Kullenberg 2010). This would argue for
adequate study and documentation on satoumis often
successful internalisation of conservation costs by
ecosystem users through collective ownership and
responsibility (see the section on co-management for
more details), and how centuries-old hereditary collective practices have evolved and adapted to modern
settings.
While furthering current research on the appropriate economic valuation of ecosystem services
remains of the utmost importance, at a fundamental level, non-economic and non-utilitarian analysis
may need to be better integrated into the knowledge
base in order to achieve sustainable use of biodiversity components (Kosoy and Corbera 2010). In
particular, community participation in some cases
cannot be understood if values such as altruism are
ignored (Stone et al. 2008), or if a purely economic
view of development is the unsurpassable horizon of
all conservation efforts (Jollands and Harmsworth
2007). Promoting more sustainable individual behavioura crucial step towards securing sustainable
113
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Overview Article 2: Synthesis: Emerging Satoumi Practices For Biodiversity Management in Human Influenced Coastal Ecosystems
Acknowledgements
One of the authors was supported by Ishikawa
Prefecture and the City of Kanazawa during the preparation of this article. Anne McDonald, Mitsutaku
Makino and Marjo Vierros provided essential views
and ideas for this synthesis.
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